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The scientific name for this species is somewhat misleading. Pan refers to the greek god of forests, and is not entirely inappropriate for these animals. However the term troglodytes means one who crawls into holes or caves. As demonstrated in the report above, these animals do not typically use caves.
Relationships among the subspecies are of interest to many, especially those seeking to understand human diversity by looking at diversity in our closest relatives. Research on the DNA of these subspecies indicates that P. troglodytes troglodytes and P. troglodytes schweinfurthi are most closely related. Their lineages likely separated around 440,000 years before present. In contrast, the lineage of P. t. verus separated from the other common chimpanzees around 1.58 million years before present. Because of this relatively distant relationship, some researchers believe that P. t. verus may warrant elevation to species status.
Communication in this highly social species is an area of great interest to human researchers. Chimpanzees in captivity have been involved in a number of experiments designed to show how their minds work with regard to signs, signals, and speech. In this account, communication in wild chimpanzees will be discussed first, followed by a discussion of what language studies in captivity have helped us to understand about these animals.
Visual Communication
Chimpanzees communicate with a wide variety of gestures, postures, and facial expressions. In addition, body language and physical cues are used in communication.
Gestures such as arm raising, slapping the ground, or a direct stare are threatening signals used between individuals. Male courtship signals, like branch shaking or foot stamping, may be directed at particular female with whom he wishes to mate. Some facial expressions and vocalizations may also be directed at particular individuals. Loud arm scratching while looking at another individual may be interpreted as a request for grooming.
When excited or fearful, chimps may show low closed grins, full closed grins, or open grins. Snears may also be shown in a fearful context. When the distress is less severe, communicative facial expressions include pouts and horizontal pouts. Compressed lips are often used in threatening displays, and play is generally accompanied by a “play face”, in which the chimp has an open smile with top teeth covered.
Erection of body hair (piloerection) is an important signal communicating excitement. It occurs in most chimps when a strange or frightening stimulus is encountered, during times of aggression, and in other contexts of social excitment. This bristling of the hair is an autonomic response, so it is not under the conscious control of an individual animal. It is a reliable signal of excitement in this species, just as blushing is a reliable signal of embarrassment in humans.
In times of fear induced by the behavior or presence of a dominant animal, chimpanzees never show piloerection. Instead, they have incredibly sleek hair, making them appear smaller. Also, the alpha male chimpanzee in a community, although not frightened or excited, almost always has bristled hair--making him appear even larger than he is.
The swelling of the anogenital skin of females clearly communicates their sexual state to other members of the community. Because the bright pink swelling is highly visible, even at a distance, and can be seen by all, it is considered a non-directed signal.
Auditory Communication
All chimpanzee vocalizations are closely tied to their emotions. Their vocalizations are usually spontaneous, signalling the excitment of arriving at a food source, greeting of old friends, or moments of acute fear or distress. However, producing a particular vocalizations without experiencing the underlying emotion seems to be a task that surpasses a chimpanzee's abilities. Conversely, chimps can learn through experience to suppress a particular call in contexts where the vocalizations may lead to an unwelcome result.
Chimpanzees can be quite vocal. They use a variety of grunts, barks, squeaks, whimpers, and screams. Each call is typically tied to a particular emotional context, such as fear, excitment, bewilderment, or annoyance, so that vocalizations provide information to other chimps about what is happening to other members of their community, even if they cannot see them directly. Subordinate animals direct pant-grunts at more dominant animals. During grooming, chimpanzees often lip-smack or tooth-clack. Play is often accompanied by laughter which, although very raspy-sounding to humans, is similar enough to our own laughter to be easily recognized. Some vocalizations (food grunts) attract other party members to an plentiful food source. Some louder vocalizations (food aaa calls) may attract other chimpanzees in the community from a greater distance. The famous “pant hoot” call of chimps seems to serve as a means of individual identification, and allows friends and family to locate one another even though they may not be within visual range. A detailed listing of calls made by the chimps of Gombe is available in Goodall (1986), and should be consulted by those wishing to know more about specific calls.
That chimpanzees understand the meaning of their vocalizations is clear from contexts in which they purposefully supress vocalizations. Although typically vocal--especially when traveling in groups-- male chimpanzees are almost entirely silent when they are performing a border patrol, or when raiding into the home range of a neighboring group. It is as if they understand that the success of their mission depends upon remaining covert, and that vocalizations will assuredly attract the notice of neighboring animals whom they would prefer to surprise. Similarly, during the course of a consortship, both male and female remain almost entirely silent. This silence may serve two different functions. First, it may prevent the pair from being discovered by other males in the community, disrupting the temporarily monogamous union. Second, because most consortships take place on the outskirts of the community’s range, silence helps the consorting pair to avoid attracting the attention of neighboring males, who may themselves be out patrolling their borders.
Tactile Communication
Various forms of tactile communication occur between pairs of chimps. Physical contact helps to reassure distressed individuals, to placate aggressive individuals, and to appease stress. Embracing, patting, kissing, mounting, and touching all occur in a variety of contexts, including greetings, reconciliations, and reunions. As mentioned in the section on behavior, relaxed physical contact is provided by frequent bouts of social grooming. Such friendly contact helps to cement social bonds. Playful contact, such as finger wrestling or tickling may also occur.
Although the bulk of physical contact seen in chimpanzees is friendly, there is also physical contact associated with aggression. Hitting, slapping, kicking, and biting also occur, as do pounding, dragging, and stamping. Although such aggressive physical contact usually occurs between two individuals as the result of a specific conflict, it may also sometimes be incidental, as when a chimpanzee is in the wrong place at the wrong time, and becomes incorporated into the display of a dominant or irritated individual.
Chemical Communication
Chimpanzees are very interested in smells, and seem to be using them in a variety of contexts. However, the degree to which they use smells, or the specific information they obtain from smells, is not known. Chimpanzees sniff and smell at the anogenital swellings of females. They smell the ground after a mother with a new infant has moved away, apparently trying to catch the scent of the newborn. Individual chimps may have unique odors, recognized by their fellows, but research on this point is lacking. Wild chimpanzees sometimes appear to use scent cues in tracking missing family members. Olfactory cues may be used in helping males to identifiy the approach of ovulation in females, although the specific mechanism or chemicals used for this have not been described.
Communication Studies in Captivity
Although wild chimpanzees have complex communication, they do not possess what we would call language. They do not use specific calls to identify specific objects or individuals. Indeed, they seem unable to produce vocalizations at will, instead uttering cries and calls as a result of impulsive emotions. However, in spite of having no true language, the mental function of chimpanzees is well developed and they possess many of the cognitive abilities necessary for language to develop, as studies of their acquisition of lexigrams (keyboard symbols) and sign language have shown.
Chimpanzees can be taught large numbers of signs or symbols, which they can use to respond to questions reliably and repeatably. They can identify sizes, shapes, colors, and can distinguish what attributes of objects make them different (e.g., two circles, one blue, one red, differ in color). They can use abstract concepts and generalize. For example, they can know that a wrench is a tool and a banana is a food. They are able to spontaneously mix and use symbols they know to describe novel objects. For example, one chimpanzee described a cucumber as a “banana which is green”. Further, research has demonstrated that chimpanzees can understand spoken language, responding appropriately to requests, even though they are, themselves, unable to speak.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Chimpanzee populations are jeopardized by human expansion into rainforests and mixed forest environments. Humans destroy habitats required by chimpanzees for survival and hunt them for bushmeat. They are listed as an Appendix I species by CITES, and are considered endangered by IUCN redlist. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service consideres the species endangered in the wild, and threatened in captivity outside of the natural range.
US Federal List: endangered
CITES: appendix i
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: endangered
Chimpanzees have been known to prey upon young humans when the opportunity arises, although the propensity for this behavior is closely related to the presence of waste from human beer-making facilities. Chimpanzees eat these attractive, fermented leavings and become intoxicated, making them more likely to become aggressive. When frightened or aggressive chimpanzees can be dangerous, even to adult humans. In addition, because of their biological similarity to humans, they may serve as a reservoir or host for diseases that affect humans.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings, carries human disease)
Chimpanzees, being among our closest living relatives, are of tremendous importance in medical research. They are also heavily used in studies of behavior, both in captivity and in the wild. They are the focus of valuable ecotourism enterprises and are popular in zoos. Finally, there is some illegal pet trade in chimpanzees and they are hunted for bushmeat.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food ; ecotourism ; research and education
As predators, chimpanzees may be a factor in structuring populations of their prey species. Certainly, they have a strong impact on red colobus monkeys (Colobus mitis) at Gombe, and they are likely to have effects on other species as well. As frugivores, chimps may help to disperse seeds of certain plants, either through transportation, or by processing the fruit. There are competitive interactions with other primates, and so chimpanzees may have an additional negative effect on other primate species.
Various parsites, such as intestinal helminths, trematodes, and schistosomes, have been reported in these animals.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Chimpanzees are broadly omnivorous. They rely heavily on ripe fruits and young leaves, with additional consumption of stems, buds, bark, pith, seeds, and resins. This diet is supplemented by a variety of insects, small vertebrates, and eggs. Soil is sometimes consumed, especially that associated with termite mounds, presumably for the minerals it contains. Diets vary seasonally, as different foods are available at different times of year. Diets also vary geographically. Some foods eaten by chimpanzees in one location are not eaten by chimpanzees in another location, even when the food in question is present at both locations, making it possible that geographical differences in diet are cultural.
Chimpanzees spend the bulk their time feeding or moving from one food source to another. Although foods may be eaten at any time of the day or night, there are typically two major peaks in feeding activities. The first occurs in the morning between 7 and 9 AM. The other is in the afternoon, between 3:30 and 7:30 PM.
Chimps may use a food source until the food is gone, or they may leave before having consumed all of the food. This may depend upon how many chimps are feeding at the site. Variety in the diet seems to be important, and after consuming enough of a particular food, chimps may move on in search of something else to eat.
Chimpanzees are known to hunt other large vertebrates on occasion. The largest animals hunted are bush pigs (Potamochoerus larvatus), colobus monkeys (Colobinae) and baboons (Papio). Although adults are sometimes taken, it is more common for chimps to take young animals.
The predatory behaviors of chimpanzees vary between sexes, individuals, and locations. Males typically consume more meat than females, who seem to specialize more on insect foods than do males. Chimps in the Ivory Coast are known to use more cooperative hunting techniques than the chimpanzees in Tanzania and Uganda. This may be related to differences in the habitat and the behavior of prey. In the Ivory Coast, there is a well developed canopy to the forest, and monkeys may escape chimp predators by climbing high into the trees. In this situation, only cooperative hunting tactics work well for capturing prey. However, at both Gombe and Mahale in Tanzania, the forest is not as dense, and the upper portions of the canopy are not as well developed. As a result, individuals have high success at hunting without enlisting the aid of other chimps.
Another consequence of habitat differences between western and eastern populations of chimpanzees is that in the east, the colobus monkeys preyed cannot take refuge in areas inacessible to chimpanzees. Under these conditions, colobus monkeys are more aggressive toward the chimpanzees. Coupled with the smaller size of the subspecies of chimp found in this area (P. t. schweinfurthi), a different dynamic is established between predator and prey. Chimpanzees in this area are sometimes fearful of adult male monkeys, and are most likely to attack females with young, in the hope of snatching a baby monkey to eat.
Cannibalism has been reported in chimpanzees. The circumstances under which this behavior has been observed vary, although typically chimps do not kill and eat members of their own communities. Most commonly, infants killed during intercommunity aggression may be eaten by the males of the neighboring community. However, in a famous case at Gombe, an adult female and her adolescent daughter were responsible for killing several infants of other females in their community. These infants were eaten, often in front of the mother. This behavior ended when the adult female died. The daughter has shown no inclination toward cannibalism since her mother's death.
Captive chimps commonly exhibit coprophagy and repetitive regurgitation and reingestion. These behaviors appear to be an aberration seen in captivity, as they are not found in wild chimpanzees.
Finally, sick chimpanzees are known to consume a variety of plants with potentially medicinal value. For a more comprehensive discussion of this behavior, please refer to the behavior section.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; reptiles; eggs; insects
Plant Foods: leaves; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers; sap or other plant fluids
Primary Diet: omnivore
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) inhabit the tropical forests of central Africa. They are distributed from about 10 degrees N to 8 degrees S, and from 15 degrees W to 32 degrees E. They are found from Gambia in the west to Uganda in the east, excluding the region bordered by the Congo and Lualaba rivers in central Zaire (Congo) where their sister species, bonobos (Pan paniscus), are found.
There are three recognized subspecies of common chimpanzee. Pan troglodytes verus occurs in the western portions of the range, from Gambia to the Niger river. From the Niger river to Congo, in the central portion of the range, P. troglodytes troglodytes inhabits forested regions. In the far eastern portion of the range, from the northwestern corner of Zaire into western Uganda and Tanzania, P. troglodytes schweinfurthi is found.
Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )
Chimpanzees utilize a great diversity of habitat types. Although they are typically thought of as living in tropical rainforests, they are also found in forest-savanna mosaic environments, as well as in montain forests at elevations up to 2,750 m. Some populations are known to inhabit primarily savanna habitat.
Range elevation: 0 to 2,750 m.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest
Chimpanzees can live from 40 to 60 years.
A variety of ailments trouble chimpanzees in natural habitats, and affect survivorship and longevity. Respiratory diseases, such as colds and coughs, seem prevalent during the rainy season. Gastrointestinal problems, such as diarrhea, peritonitis, and enteritis have been seen and can be lethal, especially in young or very old chimps. Skin ulcers and osteoarthritis have affected some chimpanzees. One chimpanzee at Gombe had a goiter. Abcesses of various sorts have been seen, as have rashes, fungal diseases, and parasitic infections. Even human diseases may sometimes affect wild chimpanzees. A polio epidemic in local human populatons devastated the chimpanzees at Gombe Stream National Park in 1966, killing some and leaving many chimpanzees partially paralyzed.
In addition to disease, injuries are an important source of infections and can lead to mortality in chimpanzees. Injuries may be sustained during falls, or as a result of aggressive interactions within groups or among neighboring groups.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 59 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 51.0 years.
Average lifespan
Sex: male
Status: captivity: 56.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 44.5 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 60.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 53.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 45.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 50.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 40.0 years.
Average lifespan
Sex: female
Status: captivity: 59.4 years.
Adult chimpanzees have a head and body length ranging between 635 and 925 mm. When standing erect, they are 1 to 1.7 m tall. In the wild, males weigh between 34 and 70 kg, whereas females are slightly smaller, weighing between 26 and 50 kg. In captivity individuals typically attain greater weights, with the top weight reaching 80 kg for males and 68 kg for females. Although data from individual subspecies are not available, it appears that P. t. schweinfurthi is smaller than P. t. verus, which is smaller than P. t. troglodytes. Some of the differences seen between captive chimps and wild chimps may be due to subspecific differences in size.
The arms are long, such that the spread of the arms is 1.5 times the height of an individual. Legs are shorter than are the arms, which allows these animals to walk on all fours with the anterior portion of the body higher than the posterior. Chimpanzees have very long hands and fingers, with short thumbs. This hand morphology allows chimpanzees to use their hands as “hooks” while climbing, without interference from the thumb. In trees, chimpanzees may move by swinging from their arms, in a form of brachiation. Although useful in locomotion, the shortness of the thumb relative to the fingers prevents precision grip between the index finger and thumb. Instead, fine manipulations require using the middle finger in opposition to the thumb.
The long hands of chimpanzees also function in quadrupedal locomotion. Fingertips are typically curled upward into the palm during locomotion, and the weight is borne along backs of the fingers. Much of the length of the hand thus contributes to the length of the forelimbs while walking. In combination with the short legs, this gives the back a downward slope from neck to rump, and orients the head into a forward facing position.
Chimpanzees have prominent ears, and a prominent superorbital crest. This gives the brows a somewhat rigid and bony appearance. A sagittal crest may be present on very large individuals, but is not common. There is no nuchal crest. Cranial capacity of these animals ranges from 320 to 480 cc. The face is slightly prognathic. The lips protrude and are very flexible, allowing an individual to accomplish many tasks through labial manipulation.
Dentition is typical of primates. The dental arch is square in shape, and there is a prominent diastema. Canines are large, as are molars. Molars decrease in size toward the back of the mouth, and lack the enamel wrinkling seen in orangutans.
The face of adults is typically black, or mottled with brown. Hair is black to brown, and there is no underfur present. There may be some white hairs around the face (looking a bit like a white beard in some individuals). Infant chimpanzees have a white tuft of hair on their rumps, which identifies their age quite clearly. This white tail tuft is lost as an individual ages.
Individuals of both sexes are prone to lose the hair on the head as they age, producing a bald patch behind the brow ridge. Graying of hairs in the lumbar region and on the back is common with age, also.
Range mass: 26 to 70 kg.
Range length: 635 to 925 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
Chimpanzees are hunted as food by humans in many parts of their range. There is no direct evidence of predation on chimps by other animals, although there are some sympatric predators that are likely candidates for taking an occasional chimpanzee--especially young ones. These are leopards (Panthera pardus), pythons (Phython sabae), and martial eagles (Poleamaetus bellicosus).
Known Predators:
Chimpanzee reproduction is very complex, and many misconceptions arose early in the study of these animals about the nature of their mating system. Both males and females are known to mate with multiple partners, so they can be considered polygynandrous. However, at times a male may control sexual access to a female, preventing other males from mating with her. A male may do this either through force and dominance in a group mating situation, or by taking the female on a consortship away from other males and thereby securing exclusive sexual access to her. Each of these situations will be discussed at length below.
It is important to note that copulation may serve a number of social functions in this species. Females and males mate more often than would be necessary to ensure impregnation. Copulation may help to develop bonds between males and females. It may funtion in establishing and maintaining group unity.
Females have an estrus cycle which lasts approximately 36 days. During the course of this cycle, as her hormone levels change, a female experiences changes is the size, shape, and color of her genital skin. As circulating estrogens increase during the follicular phase of the cycle, the size of the swelling increases. When the anogenital skin is fully engorged, it is typically bright pink, and can measure from 938 to 1400 cc. The state of maximal tumescence is of variable length in different individuals and at different stages of maturity, but lasts an average of 6.5 days. It is during this time that females are sexually receptive and that the bulk of copulations with mature males occur.
The anogenital swelling of females is very important in the sexual behavior of these animals. Most copulations involving mature males and females (96.2%) seen at the Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania were observed with females who were maximally tumescent. Of the few copulations observed when females were not maximally swollen, almost 75% were performed by one of two adult males, indicating that the propensity to copulate with females who are not at their peak swelling may be something of an individual idiosynchracy.
The role of the anogenital swelling is many-fold. First, it serves as a signal, visible to males from a great distance, that a female is sexually receptive. Since females tend to be relatively solitary, advertizement of their sexual state to potential mates is essential for reproduction to occur. Males are very interested in the condition of the genitals of each female they encounter. Second, the anogenital swelling may aid females in obtaining food resources including meat. Females who are maximally swollen are often able to supplant more dominant animals at a food source, and are more successful at begging food from males than are unswollen females. Finally, because the males find sexual swellings so attractive, having a maximally engorged genital region may help stranger females to interact peacefully with unfamiliar males as they disperse into new areas.
There are several possible mating scenarios that males and females may encounter. Each of these is based in part on the phase of the female’s cycle. A female may experience one or more of these scenarios during a particular cycle. The types of situations she encounters depend upon a female’s popularity as a sexual partner, how many other females are in estrus at the same time, how popular those females are, and how attractive the female is to the dominant male.
First, during early tumescence, females are mated by infants, juveniles and early adolescents. Infants and juveniles are probably gaining experience through the copulation, they are unlikely to sire offspring. Mature males do not typically copulate with females until they are maximally tumescent, although exceptions to this rule have been observed.
In the second sexual scenario, a female who has achieved maximal tumescence becomes the nucleus of a multi-male party. Other estrus females may travel in the same sexual party. These parties can include some or all of community males. During this phase of a female’s cycle, mating can be promiscuous. The males are typically not comepetitive in this situation, and different males may mate with the female in rapid succession.
The third situation a female might encounter occurs during the second half of maximal tumescence. As the timing of ovulation approaches, dominant males may become possessive and prevent subordinates from copulating with the female. This may involve outright conflicts or, because the dominance relationship between males is well established, may be as simple as the dominant male maintaining close proximity to the female, thereby communicating to his subordinates that the female is no longer up for grabs. Inhibition of the copulations of other males may also occur through threats or attacks. Interestingly, these attacks and threats are often directed at the female, should she express sexual interest in another male. Directing aggression toward the female benefits the male in several ways: 1) it prevents potentially costly fights with other large males, 2) it teaches the female not to copulate with anybody else, and 3) it prevents a third male from mating with the female while the possessive male is punishing another sexual rival. If the possesive male is the highest ranking male in a party, he can inhibit copulations between the female and all other males.
The result of this restriction of mates late in the course of maximal tumescence has the effect of reducing the number of potential sires for any offspring conceived during that estrus cycle. Since sperm remain viable in the fallopian tubes for 48 hours, only males copulating with a female during the last four days of her swelling could fertilize an egg. Even though a female may mate with many males during any particular cycle, not all of these matings have the potential of resulting in impregnation.
The fourth sexual mating situation is the consortship. During a consortship, the female may be led away from the group by a particular male. When consorting, male/female pairs often move to the periphery of the community range. Pairs can stay together up to 3 months. During consortship, both members of the pair maintain relative vocal silence, helping to avoid the attention of other community members, as well as attention from the males of neighboring communities who might behave with hostility toward the pair. Consortships inherently involve the cooperation of female.
Whether males engage in any of these sexual scenarios is highly variable among individuals. A male's preference for, or success in, group mating versus consortships may change depending upon the rise and fall of his fortunes in the constant struggle for dominance between community males. Males who are actively moving up the dominance heirarchy may not spend time away from other males frequently, as in doing so, they may sacrifice social status. Such males, who are in their prime, are more likely to be able to monopolize sexual access to a female in a group situation. High ranking males, especially the alpha male, may take females on consortships, but because of the need to maintain their social standing, these consortships tend to be short in duration.
It may benefit lower-ranking males to initiate consortships when possible, as in consortships there is no mating competition from other males. This may represent the most likely chance the male has to sire offspring. However, it is harder to entice a female to come on a consortship if she is close to ovulation because of competition/possessiveness of other males. A female may benefit from consortships by being able to choose the male with whom she mates. There may also be better access to food and reduced aggression during a consortship as compared to a group mating situation. However, these benefits must be weighed against the potential cost of encountering hostile neighboring chimpanzee groups when spending time in the periphery of the range.
Most consortships (40%) at Gombe Stream National Park were initiated when a female was maximally swollen. Only 16% of consortships were intiated when the female was at variable tumescence, and even fewer consortships began when females were flabby (12%) or pregnant (12%).
To initiate a consortship, a male may gaze toward the female he desires to consort with. This is often accompanied by piloerection (fluffed-out hair), branch shaking, arm stretching, and rocking. If the male succeeds in getting the female to follow him away from the group, he will often walk while looking over his shoulder to make sure she’s still tagging along. This sequence of behaviors may be repeated until the female follows him. If the female does not comply with the male’s wishes, he may become hostile, using aggression to force her to follow him.
During just over half of fertile cycles, females are confined to multi-male groups. About 21% of fertile cycles occur on consortships. The remaining 15% of cycles occur when young females visit males in other communities. In spite of the numbers of fertile cycles which fall under each mating situation, females are disproportionately likely to conceive during consortships. The exact mechanism of this is not understood.
Male mate choice
Because males become possesive of females only late in the course of maximal tumescence, it appears that they have some ability to discern the fertile period of females. The ability of male chimpanzees to gauge the potential fertility of a given female can unquestionably be inferred from patterns of copulations. The increase in the copulation frequency of dominant or older males as ovulation approaches demonstrates that males do not respond the same to females throughout the duration of maximal tumescence. Copulations increase as fertilization and impregnation become more likely. In addition, females who were presumed to be undergoing nonfertile cycles (such as during pregnancy and early in the postpartum period) are typically not sexually popular with mature males.
Aside from potential fertility, one characteristic involved in male mate choice is the age of the female. When presented with two receptive females, males typically show a preference for copulating with the older of the two. Personality traits of individual females may also contribute to males favoring them. A female who is relaxed in the presense of males may be prefered over a more skittish female. Novelty can also play a role in attracting males, since they seem to prefer unfamiliar females over those with whom they have longstanding relationships.
Female mate choice
Females have some ability to choose the males with whom they mate. They may choose to accept or decline a male’s invitation to consortship. This may allow a female to ensure that a particular male who is low in dominance standing, and therefore is less successful in group mating competitions, sires her offspring. The characteristics of males with whom females consort may vary. It seems that the overall “friendliness” of a female’s relationship with a male may play some role in her choice of him as a consortship partner. Whether the male has played with her, groomed her, or engaged in other friendly behaviors with her as she matured or when she is not maximally swollen, may play some role.
Although consenting to a consortship clearly demonstrates choice on the part of the female, it should not be assumed that by staying in a multi-male mating party as ovulation approaches, a female is relinquishing her mate choice. She may be choosing to mate with particular dominant individuals. Or, she may be enhancing her social status and familiarity to all the community males by remaining in the group.
That females discriminate between various males in mating situations is clear. Females avoid copulations with their mature sons and their brothers. There is also some evidence that young females avoid copulations with the older males in their communities (who may potentially have sired them). Although matings do occur between siblings, and occasionally between mothers and their mature sons, the frequency of such matings is much less than would be expected by random pairings of adults within the community.
Initiating a copulation
Copulations are typically initiated by males. The male sits in what is called the “male invite” posture, with his legs flexed and slightly splayed. This displays his erect penis to a potential mate. A male chimpanzee’s penis is bright pink, thin, and tapered to a point. It is very visible against the black hair and pale skin on the male’s lower abdomen and thighs. The value of the erect penis as a signal may be enhanced as the male “flicks” it-- causing the penis to make a rapid “tapping” movement.
In addition to displaying his penis, a courting male may show piloerection (fluffed-out hair). A male may gaze directly at a female. Such a gaze directed at a male rival is an unambiguous threat, but in a sexual context appears to serve as an invitation. He may place his raised hand on a branch overhead, and he may shake the branch. This is all a low-key invitation to the female to present her hindquarters to the male for copulation. If he fails to attract the notice of the female, he may incorporate one or more of the following behaviors into his display: arms outstretched toward the female, a bipedal swagger, a sitting hunch, side to side rocking, swaying of vegetation, or stamping with the foot or knuckes.
Copulation usually occurs in a squatting position after the female crouches and presents her rump to the male. Often, there is no contact between the participants in the mating except at their genitals, although sometimes the male may hold the female.
Ejaculation is usually achieved within 8.8 thrusts. The copulation is ended as the male scoots back or the female darts forward. Males and females have been seen to clean themselves with leaves after copulating. Females not infrequently consume the vaginal plug (congealed semen) after mating.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous) ; cooperative breeder
There is no clear seasonality in the reproduction of chimpanzees. Females cycle throughout the year, and males copulate with them when they are receptive. Females may have infertile cycles, such as are seen during the period of adolescent sterility, during pregnancy, and early in the postpartum period. Males copulate with females during infertile cycles as well as during fertile cycles. This indicates that there are social functions other than reproduction related to sexual behavior in these animals.
The female reproductive cycle lasts an average of 36 days. As hormone levels change during their cycle, so does the size of the female’s anogenital swelling. There are four main phases to the cycle, including inflation, as the size of the swelling increases, maximal tumescence. when the sexual skin is fully distended, detumescence, when the previously swollen skin looses all turgidity, and flat, when there is no sign of swelling in the anogenital area. Menstruation occurs about nine days after detumescence begins, and lasts for about three days. Ovulation typically occurs on the last day of maximal tumescence.
Females do not reproduce frequently. There is a prolonged period of juvenile dependence during which the offspring relies on the mother for milk, protection, and education. Becuse of the care required by a single offpspring, females cannot produce offspring frequently. The duration of the interbirth interval varies from population to population. Some of the variability may be due to ecological factors (highly productive habitats may allow females to wean their young sooner, or may result in higher rates of infant survival, both of which would affect interbirth intervals). Because different populations may also represent different subspecies, genetic differences in the timing of reproduction may also be involved.
Average interbirth intervals range between 3 and 6 years. Gestation lasts from 202 to 260 days, with a mean of 230 days. Typically, a single young is born, weighing about 2 kg. Twinning is rare, but may be more common than in humans. The infant is carried ventrally by the mother for about 3 to 6 months, after which infants may either ride on their mother’s ventrum or on her back. As the young chimp grows, it increasingly rides on its mother’s back during travel. Although young chimps sometimes walk on their own, they regularly ride on mom until the time of weaning at 3.5 to 4.5 years.
The age of independece is somewhat difficult to judge in this very social species. Young chimps can survive without their mother after they are weaned. However, orphaned chimps are often “adopted” by an older sibling or another close relative, who provides the young chimp with care similar to that which the mother would provide. Young typically travel all the time with their mother until they reach puberty. At puberty, females may become the focus of sexual parties, and males become very interested in establishing themselves in the dominance hierarchy. The activities of maturing chimps around the age of 10 years lead to the parting of ways between a mother and her son.
Females and males enter puberty around the age of 7 years. Females experience a period of adolescent sterility of about three years, during which they cycle, but do not ovulate. During this period, females may transfer into a neighboring chimpanzee community.
As in humans, there is a great deal of variability between different populations and between individuals within populations in the timing of first birth. Female chimpanzees in the wild give birth to their first offspring between the ages of 11 and 23 years. In Tanzania, the average age at which a female first gives birth is between 14.5 and 15 years. Captive chimpanzees reach sexual maturity at younger ages, and have been known to have babies at ages as young a 7.5 years. However, even for well-fed captive animals, the average age at which a female has her first offspring is between 10.5 and 11.15 years.
Like females, males enter puberty around the age of 7 years. Males of any age, including infants, may mate with females, but these copulations are unlikely to result in impregnation of the female. It is not until males attain social maturity that they can effectively compete for access to females who are fertile. In the wild, males are first seen to ejaculate around the age of 9 years. They do not reach adult weight and social maturity until they are about 15 years of age.
In general, chimpanzees can be classified into age categories that represent developmental stages. Until the age of 5 years, chimpanzees are infants. From 5 to 7 years of age, chimpanzees are called juveniles. From 7 to 10 years of age, females are called adolescents. Similarly aged males, from 7 to 12 years are also called adolescents. Females aged 10 to 13 years are considered subadults, as are males aged 12 to 15 years. Females are considered fully adult around the age of 13 years, whereas males reach maturity later, around 15 years.
Breeding interval: The breeding interval varies. Female cycles last about 36 days, and females mate during each cycle. However, if pregnancy ensues, a female may not begin cycling again for 2.5 to 5.5 years.
Breeding season: Chimpanzees may breed throughout the year.
Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Range gestation period: 202 to 260 days.
Average gestation period: 230 days.
Range weaning age: 30 to 54 months.
Average time to independence: 6 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 10 to 13 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 12 to 15 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
Average birth mass: 1821 g.
Average number of offspring: 1.
As is true for most mammals, females provide the bulk of parental care. They carry their offspring, groom them, nurse them, and provide them with opportunites to learn all of the complex behavioral patterns of the species. Young are completely dependent upon their mother until weaning at 3 to 4 years of age, but continue to travel with her and rely heavily upon her for support until they reach adulthood. Bonds with the mother extend throughout an individual’s life. In spite of having achieved independence, both males and females may maintain social bonds with their mother for the remainder of their lives. Although females sometimes emmigrate into a new community of chimpanzees, thereby severing ties with their mother, females may also stay in their natal community as adults. In this case, they may occasionally travel with their mother. Males often use their mother for emotional support when establishing themselves in the male dominance hierarchy. When things are not going particularly well for them, some males may seek the comfort, stability, and quiet that only their natal family can provide.
Because multiple young of different ages may be traveling with their mother at any time, bonds between siblings are also strong. These bonds may remain strong during adulthood, and brothers are frequent allies in intragroup intrigues. Older siblings frequently help to carry infants and play with infants. If the mother should die, older siblings will often assume the care of their immature, weaned siblings.
Males do not provide any direct parental care for young, although they can be quite gentle and playful with young members of their community, especially those still possessing a white tail tuft. Males may indirectly provide protection for their young. Adult males in the community engage in border patrols, which may help to protect the young from potentially dangerous stanger males.
The relationship between a mother and her offspring can have many repercussions during the life of the offspring. Although rank is not technically inherited from the mother, the rank of a female does affect her offspring. A mother who has a high rank, who is confident and relaxed in dealing with other chimpanzees, is likely to have offspring who behave in a similar fashion. Nervous mothers may produce offspring who are fearful of other chimpanzees, and who may not do well in dominance competition.
Because young males do not emmigrate at maturity, they inherit the home range of dominant males. There is no certainty of paternity in this polygynandrous species, so transmission is not directly from father to son and it is unlikely that such relatives would recognize one another as such. Females may remain in their natal community also, although they may transfer to a different chimpanzee social unit upon reaching maturity.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning; inherits maternal/paternal territory; maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young
The Niger Delta is an enormous classic distributary system located in West Africa, which stretches more than 300 kilometres wide and serves to capture most of the heavy silt load carried by the Niger River. The peak discharge at the mouth is around 21,800 cubic metres per second in mid-October. The Niger Delta coastal region is arguably the wettest place in Africa with an annual rainfall of over 4000 millimetres. Vertebrate species richness is relatively high in the Niger Delta, although vertebrate endemism is quite low. The Niger Delta swamp forests occupy the entire upper coastal delta. Historically the most important timber species of the inner delta was the Abura (Fleroya ledermannii), a Vulnerable swamp-loving West African tree, which has been reduced below populations viable for timber harvesting in the Niger Delta due to recent over-harvesting of this species as well as general habitat destruction of the delta due to the expanding human population here. Other plants prominent in the inner delta flood forest are: the Azobe tree (Lophira alata), the Okhuen tree (Ricinodendron heudelotii ), the Bitter Bark Tree (Sacoglottis gabonensis), the Rough-barked Flat-top Tree (Albizia adianthifolia), and Pycnanthus angolensis. Also present in its native range is the African Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis)
There are a number of notable mammals present in the upper (or inner) coastal delta in addition to the The Endangered Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). The near-endemic White-cheeked Guenon (Cercopithecus erythrogaster, VU) is found in the inner delta. The Critically Endangered Niger Delta Red Colubus (Procolobus pennantii ssp. epieni), which primate is endemic to the Niger Delta is also found in the inner delta. The limited range Black Duiker (Cephalophus niger) is fournd in the inner delta and is a near-endemic to the Niger River Basin. The restricted distribution Mona Monkey (Cercopithecus mona), a primate often associated with rivers, is found here in the Niger Delta. The Near Threatened Olive Colobus (Procolobus verus) is restricted to coastal forests of West Africa and is found here in the upper delta.
Some of the reptiles found in the upper coastal Niger Delta are the African Banded Snake (Chamaelycus fasciatus); the West African Dwarf Crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis, VU); the African Slender-snouted Crocodile (Mecistops cataphractus); the Benin Agama (Agama gracilimembris); the Owen's Chameleon (Chamaeleo oweni); the limited range Marsh Snake (Natriciteres fuliginoides); the rather widely distributed Black-line Green Snake (Hapsidophrys lineatus); Cross's Beaked Snake (Rhinotyphlops crossii), an endemic to the Niger Basin as a whole; Morquard's File Snake (Mehelya guirali); the Dull Purple-glossed Snake (Amblyodipsas unicolor); the Rhinoceros Viper (Bitis nasicornis). In addition several of the reptiles found in the outer delta are found within this inner delta area.
Five threatened marine turtle species are found in the mangroves of the lower coastal delta: Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coricea, EN), Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta, EN), Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea, EN), Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretomychelys imbricata, CR), and Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas, EN).
Other reptiles found in the outer NIger Delta are the Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), African Softshell Turtle (Trionyx triunguis), African Rock Python (Python sebae), Boomslang Snake (Dispholidus typus), Cabinda Lidless Skink (Panaspis cabindae), Neon Blue Tailed Tree Lizard (Holaspis guentheri), Fischer's Dwarf Gecko (Lygodactylus fischeri), Richardson's Leaf-Toed Gecko (Hemidactylus richardsonii), Spotted Night Adder (Causus maculatus), Tholloni's African Water Snake (Grayia tholloni), Smith's African Water Snake (Grayia smythii), Small-eyed File Snake (Mehelya stenophthalmus), Western Forest File Snake (Mehelya poensis), Western Crowned Snake (Meizodon coronatus), Western Green Snake (Philothamnus irregularis), Variable Green Snake (Philothamnus heterodermus), Slender Burrowing Asp (Atractaspis aterrima), Forest Cobra (Naja melanoleuca), Rough-scaled Bush Viper (Atheris squamigera), and Nile Monitor (Varanus niloticus).
There are a limited number of amphibians in the inner coastal delta including the Marble-legged Frog (Hylarana galamensis). At the extreme eastern edge of the upper delta is a part of the lower Niger and Cross River watersheds that drains the Cross-Sanaka Bioko coastal forests, where the near endemic anuran Cameroon Slippery Frog (Conraua robusta) occurs.
Die sjimpansee (Pan troglodytes) is ’n spesie van mensape. ’n Nabyverwant is die bonobo. Fossiel- en DNA-toetse wys albei spesies is sustersgroepe van die moderne menslike lyn.
Die sjimpansee is bedek met growwe, swart hare, maar het ’n haarlose gesig, vingers, tone, handpalms en voetsole. Dit is sterker gebou as die bonobo; dit weeg tussen 40 en 65 kg en is van kop tot stert sowat 1,3 tot 1,6 m lank. Sjimpansees is agt maande lank dragtig. Babas word op sowat drie jaar gespeen, maar het gewoonlik jare daarna nog ’n sterk verhouding met die ma. Hulle bereik puberteit op sowat 10 jaar en hul lewensverwagting is sowat 50 jaar.
Sjimpansees woon in groepe van 15 tot 150 lede, hoewel individue bedags in veel kleiner groepe rondbeweeg. Die spesie word deur die manlike diere oorheers en lewe volgens ’n streng hiërargie, wat beteken verskille kan gewoonlik sonder geweld opgelos word. Byna alle sjimpanseebevolkings gebruik gereedskap, aangepaste stokke, klippe, gras en blare om heuning, termiete, miere, neute en water bymekaar te maak.
Die sjimpansee is op die Internasionale Unie vir die Bewaring van die Natuur (IUBN) se lys van bedreigde spesies. Daar is na raming tussen 170 000 en 300 000 sjimpansees oor in die woude en grasvelde van Wes- en Sentraal-Afrika. Hul grootste bedreiging is die vernietiging van hul habitat, wilddiefstal en siektes.
Die spesienaam troglodytes (Grieks vir "grotbewoner") is deur Johann Friedrich Blumenbach gebruik in sy boek De generis humani varietate nativa liber, wat in 1776 gepubliseer is.[2][3] Die boek is gebaseer op sy verhandeling ’n jaar voor die publikasiedatum slegs vir interne gebruik aan die Universiteit van Göttingen,[4] en die verhandeling self het dus nie voldoen aan die voorwaardes vir gepubliseerde werke met betrekking tot dierkundige naamgewing nie.[5]
Ondanks ’n groot aantal vondste van Homo-fossiele, is sjimpanseefossiele in 2005 vir die eerste keer beskryf. Bestaande sjimpanseebevolkings in Wes- en Sentraal-Afrika oorvleuel nie met die groot fossielvondste van mense in Oos-Afrika nie. Daar is egter nou sjimpanseefossiele uit Kenia aangeteken. Dit sou beteken mense sowel as lede van die Pan-klade het tydens die Middel-Pleistoseen in die vallei van die Groot Skeurvallei voorgekom.
John Gribbin en Jeremy Cherfas meen in hul boeke The Monkey Puzzle: Reshaping the Evolutionary Tree en The First Chimpanzee: In Search of Human Origins sjimpansees en bonobo's kan van Australopithecus afstam.
Volgens DNS-bewyse het die sjimpansee en bonobo moontlik minder as ’n miljoen jaar gelede van mekaar geskei (nes Homo sapiens en die Neanderdallers).[6][7] Die sjimpanseelyn het sowat 6 miljoen jaar gelede van die laaste gemeenskaplike voorouer van die menslike lyn geskei. Omdat geen spesie behalwe Homo sapiens van die menslike lyn oorleef het nie, is die twee sjimpanseespesies die mens se naaste verwante. Die sjimpanseegenus, Pan, het sowat 7 miljoen jaar gelede van die gorillas se genus afgeskei.
Vier subspesies van die sjimpansee word erken,[8][9] met die moontlikheid van ’n vyfde:[10]
Die manlike volwasse sjimpansee weeg tussen 40 en 60 kg en die wyfie tussen 32 en 47 kg.[11] Groot, wilde mannetjies kan egter tot 70 kg weeg en mannetjies in aanhouding het al tot 91 kg gehaal.[12][13][14] Die lengte van die neus tot die agterlyf wissel van 63 tot 94 cm.[14][15] Manntjies wat staan, kan tot 1,6 m lank wees en wyfies tot 1,3 m. Hul lywe is bedek met growwe, swart hare, behalwe die gesig, vingers, tone, handpalms en voetsole. Hul spiere is "tot vyf keer digter as mense s’n. So dig dat hulle nie kan swem nie."[16]
Sjimpansees kom in bome (snags) en op die grond (bedags) voor.[17] Hulle loop of staan gewoonlik op al vier pote, maar kan vir kort entjies op twee pote loop. Hulle loop op hul kneukels, nes gorillas en bonobos,[17] teenoor die orangoetang, wat op die buitekant van sy palms loop.
Sjimpansees is hoogs aanpasbaar. Hulle woon in ’n verskeidenheid habitats, onder meer droë grasvelde, immergroen reënwoude en moeraswoude.[18][19] Hulle het ’n goeie geheue wat hul tuiste aanbetref. Hulle maak elke aand ’n slaapplek in ’n nuwe boom en slaap apart, behalwe die baba- of jong sjimpansees, wat by hul ma slaap.[20] Wanneer hulle ’n indringer gewaar, sal hulle hard skree en enige voorwerp moontlik gebruik om hulle te verdedig.
Luiperds is ’n groot bedreiging en gevalle is aangemeld waar sjimpansees luiperdwelpies doodmaak,[21] blykbaar hoofsaaklik as ’n beskermingsmetode.
Sjimpansees verkies vrugte bo enige ander kos en sal dit selfs gaan soek as dit nie volop is nie. Hulle sal ook blare eet. Sade, bloeisels, boombas en gom maak die res van hul plantdieet uit.[19][22] Hoewel hulle hoofsaaklik planteters is,[23][24] eet hulle ook heuning, grond, insekte, voëls en hul eiers en klein tot mediumgrootte soogdiere, insluitende ander primate.[19][25] Soogdiere wat hulle eet, sluit in sekere soorte ape, bobbejane, blouduikers, bosbokke en vlakvarke.[26]
Sjimpansees jag soms alleen, en soms in groepe sodat hulle hul prooi makliker kan vaskeer.[27] As hulle saam in bome jag, het elke sjimpansee ’n rol. Sommige sorg dat die prooi in ’n sekere rigting hardloop en jaag hulle sonder om hulle te probeer vang. Ander sal onder bome staan en opklim om te keer dat die prooi in ’n ander rigting hardloop. Dan is daar dié wat vinnig beweeg en die prooi probeer vang, en dié wat wegkruip en die prooi vang as hulle nader kom.[27] Hulle sal sowel volwassenes as kleintjies vang. Hulle is egter bang vir sekere soorte ape en sal die kleintjies probeer gryp sonder om die ma aan te val.[19] Die mannetjies jag meer as die wyfies. Wanneer die prooi gevang is, sal dit verdeel word onder almal wat gejag het, en selfs onder die omstanders.[27]
Sjimpansees woon in gemeenskappe van gewoonlik tussen 15 en meer as 150 lede, maar loop meestal rond in kleiner, tydelike groepe van ’n paar individue – dié kan voorkom in enige kombinasie van ouderdom en geslag.[20] Beide mans en wyfies kan ook alleen rondloop.[20] Hulle het ingewikkelde sosiale verhoudings en bestee baie tyd daaraan om mekaar te versorg (groom).[28]
Mannetjies vorm die kern van die sosiale struktuur. Hulle loop rond, beskerm groeplede en soek kos. Hulle bly in die gemeenskappe waarin hulle gebore is, maar wyfies kan na ander groepe oorloop as hulle volgroei is. Daarom is mannetjies in ’n groep meer geneig om aan mekaar verwant te wees as aan die wyfies. Onder die mannetjies is daar gewoonlik ’n dominansie-hiërargie en hulle oorheers ook die wyfies.[29] Groepe of individue wyk ook gereeld van die groter gemeenskap af en sluit dan weer later by hulle aan.[19] Dié kleiner groepe kan in ’n verskeidenheid vorme voorkom, om verskeie redes. ’n Groep mannetjies kan byvoorbeeld bymekaarkom om te jag, terwyl ’n groep wyfies saam ’n paar kleintjies kan grootmaak.[30] ’n Individuele sjimpansee sal ander gereeld raakloop, maar feitlik nooit baklei nie – hulle baklei net in groot groepe.
Omdat groepe en individue voortdurend kom en gaan, is die struktuur van die gemeenskap baie ingewikkeld. ’n Mannetjie kan byvoorbeeld ná ’n tyd terugkeer en onseker wees of daar enige "politieke skuiwe" tydens sy afwesigheid plaasgevind het; dan sal hy sy heerskappy probeer hervestig. ’n Groot mate van aggressie vind dus plaas binne die eerste vyf tot vyftien minute nadat ’n mannetjie weer by die gemeenskap aangesluit het.[31][32]
Mannetjies behou en verbeter hul sosiale rang deur koalisies te vorm. Dié is gebaseer op ’n sjimpansee se invloed in vyandige interaksies.[33] As twee sjimpansees in ’n koalisie is, kan hulle ’n derde sjimpansee oorheers wat hulle nie op hul eie sou kon nie, want sjimpansees wat hul hand goed speel, kan mag in aggressiewe interaksies uitoefen ongeag hul rang. Hoe meer bondgenote ’n sjimpansee het, hoe ’n beter kans het hy om ’n oorheersende rol te spel. Mannetjies in ’n koalisie kan egter ook teen mekaar draai as dit hulle pas.[34]
Manntjies met ’n lae rang verander dikwels van kant in geskille tussen meer dominante sjimpansees. Hulle kan voordeel trek uit ’n onstabiele hiërargie en meer seksuele geleenthede kry.[33][34] Verder konsentreer dominante mannetjies op mekaar tydens ’n konflik in plaas van op dié met ’n laer rang. Die hiërargie tusen wyfies is swakker, maar ’n klein sjimpansee kan voordeel trek uit sy ma se status.[35] Sosiale versorging blyk ook belangrik te wees in die instandhouding van koalisies,[36] veral tussen mannetjies.
Sjimpansees paar regdeur die jaar, hoewel die aantal wyfies wat bronstig is, van seisoen tot seisoen in ’n groep wissel.[37][38] Hulle is meer geneig om bronstig te wees as kos volop is. Paring tussen sjimpansees is promisku – ’n wyfie kan met verskeie mannetjies in die groep paar terwyl sy bronstig is.[19] Die patrone wissel egter. Soms beperk dominante mannetjies toegang tot wyfies. ’n Mannetjie en wyfie kan ook buite hul gemeenskap paar – soms verlaat wyfies die groep om met ’n mannetjie van ’n ander groep te paar.[19][39]
Dis gewoonlik die ma wat ’n kleintjie versorg. Die oorlewing en emosionele gesondheid van ’n kleintjie hang van moederlike sorg af.[19] Die ma gee die kleintjie kos, hitte en beskerming en leer hulle sekere vaardighede. ’n Kleintjie se toekomstige rang in die gemeenskap kan ook afhang van die ma se status.[19][37] Vir die eerste 30 dae klou ’n kleintjie aan die ma se maag vas. Wanneer hulle vyf tot ses maande oud is, ry hulle op die ma se rug. Hulle het permanente kontak vir die eerste jaar. Wanneer hulle twee jaar oud is, kan hulle self rondbeweeg en sit.[40] Teen hul derde jaar sal kleintjies begin wegbeweeg van die ma af. Hulle word gespeen op tussen vier en ses jaar.[40]
Tussen hul sesde tot negende jaar sal die jong sjimpansee naby sy ma bly, maar ook meer interaksies met ander lede van die gemeenskap hê. Jong wyfies beweeg tussen groepe en word deur die ma bygestaan in vyandige situasies. Jong mannetjies bring tyd saam met die ouer mannetjies deur en sal saam met hulle jag of die gebied patrolleer.[40]
Sjimpansees gebruik ’n verskeidenheid gesigsuitdrukkings, houdings en klanke om met mekaar te kommunikeer.[19] Hulle kan grynslag, pruil en hul lippe teen mekaar druk.[19] ’n Aggressiewe mannetjie sal op twee voete staan en sy arms swaai om hom groter te laat lyk.[19] Soms stamp sjimpansees hul hande en voete teen ’n groot boomstam.[41]
As hulle opgewonde is, sal hulle sagte "hoe"-geluide maak, wat al hoe harder word tot dit ’n skree of soms blaf word. Dié sal dan weer sagter word en eindig in nog sagte "hoe"-geluide.[41] Hulle sal uitroep as hulle ander teen gevaar waarsku of kos sien.[19] Kort blafgeluide word ook gemaak wanneer hulle jag.[41]
Die gebruik van gereedskap is al in feitlik alle sjimpanseegemeenskappe waargeneem. Hulle sal stokke, rotse, gras en blare aanpas en dit gebruik om heuning, miere, neute en water te soek. Al is die gereedskap nie ingewikkeld nie, verg dit tog vaardigheid en lyk dit of vooraf daaroor gedink is.[42] Volgens die resultate van ’n ondersoek wat in 2007 gepubliseer is, lyk dit of die gebruik van gereedskap deur sjimpansees uit minstens 4 300 jaar gelede dateer.[43]
’n Sjimpansee in Tanzanië was die eerste nie-menslike dier wat waargeneem is terwyl hy ’n stuk gereedskap maak – ’n tak wat hy aangepas het om miere uit ’n miershoop te krap.[44][45][46] Wanneer hulle heuning kry, sal sjimpansees aangepaste, kort stokke gebruik om die heuning uit die bynes te skep as die bye hulle nie steek nie. As die bye gevaarliker is, sal hulle langer, dunner stokke gebruik.[47] Hulle sal op dieselfde manier miere uit miershope grawe.[19][42]
Sommige sjimpansees sal harde neute met klippe of takke kraak.[37][42] Daar is ’n vorm van voorbedagde rade, want die klippe en takke word nie aangetref op plekke naby neute nie. Om neute te kraak is ’n vaardigheid wat aangeleer moet word.[37] Sjimpansees sal ook blare gebruik om water mee te skep.[48]
In ’n onlangse studie is die gebruik van spiese selfs waargeneem wat sjimpansees in Senegal met hul tande skerp maak. Daarmee gooi hulle klein bosape uit gate in bome.[49]
Die Britse primatoloog Jane Goodall het die eerste langtermyn-veldstudie van sjimpansees gedoen. Dit het in 1960 in die Nasionale Park Gombe Stream in Tanzanië begin en 50 jaar geduur. Die kennis oor die spesie se tipiese gedrag en sosiale strukture is in ’n groot mate danksy Goodall se navorsing.[50]
Die mens en die sjimpansee is baie eenders. In Desember 2003 het ’n voorlopige ontleding van 7 600 gene wat die twee spesies deel, gewys sekere gene wat met spraakontwikkeling verband hou, het ’n vinnige evolusie in die menslike lyn ondergaan. ’n Voorlopige weergawe van die sjimpansee-genoom is op 1 September 2005 gepubliseer in ’n artikel deur ’n groep wetenskaplikes.[51]
Daar is baie min verskille tussen die mens en sjimpansee se DNA. Die duplisering van klein dele van chromosome was die grootste bron van verskille tussen die spesies se genetiese materiaal. Sowat 2,7% van die ooreenstemmende moderne genome verteenwoordig verskille, wat ontstaan het deur die duplisering of weglating van gene in die sowat 4 miljoen tot 6 miljoen jaar sedert die mens en die sjimpansee afgeskei het van hul gemeenskaplike voorouer.
Dit het al gebeur dat sjimpansees mense aanval.[52][53] Die gevare wat onverskillige menslike optrede teenoor sjimpansees inhou, word vererger deur die feit dat baie sjimpansees mense as moontlike mededingers beskou.[54]
Omdat ’n sjimpansee soveel sterker is, is dit vir hom maklik om ’n mens dood te maak as hy kwaad is, soos blyk uit ’n paar aangetekende voorvalle.[55][56][57][58] Daar is minstens ses aangetekende gevalle van sjimpansees wat menslike babas gegryp en geëet het.[59]
Twee tipes MI-virusse word in mense aangetref: HIV-1 en HIV-2. Eersgenoemde kom die meeste voor en word die maklikste oorgedra; HIV-2 is grootliks beperk tot Wes-Afrika.[60] Albei tipes het in Wes- en Sentraal-Afrika ontstaan – oorgedra van ape na mense. HIV-1 het ontwikkel uit ’n aap-immuniteitsgebreksvirus (SIVcpz) wat in die sjimpansee-subspesie Pan troglodytes troglodytes voorkom; hulle is inheems aan Suid-Kameroen.[61][62] Kinshasa, in die Demokratiese Republiek van die Kongo, het die grootste genetiese verskeidenheid van HIV-1 wat nog ontdek is, wat daarop dui dat die virus daar langer kan bestaan as op enige ander plek. HIV-2 is van ’n ander stam van die aap-immuniteitsgebreksvirus na die mens oorgedra – dit word in die roetmangabie van Guinee-Bissau aangetref.[60]
Sjimpansees word in die meeste wêrelddele waar hulle voorkom, deur die wet beskerm en word in en buite nasionale parke aangetref.[1] Daar is vermoedelik tussen 172 700 en 299 700 van hulle in die natuur oor.[1]
Hul grootste bedreiging is die vernietiging van hul habitat, wilddiefstal en siektes.[1] Hul habitats het kleiner geword weens ontbossing in beide Wes- en Sentraal-Afrika. Die bou van paaie het hul habitat verdeel en dit toegankliker gemaak vir wilddiewe.[1]
Sjimpansees word algemeen deur wilddiewe geteiken. In die Ivoorkus maak sjimpansees 1–3% uit van wilde diere se vleis wat op plaaslike markte verkoop word.[1] Hulle word ook gevang en as troeteldiere verkoop ondanks ’n verbod daarop in die meeste lande waarin hulle voorkom.[1] Verder word hulle in sommige gebiede vir medisyne gejag.[1] Om sjimpansees te vang vir wetenskaplike navorsing is steeds wettig in sommige lande soos Guinee.[1] Mense sal ook enige sjimpansee doodmaak wat hul oeste bedreig[1] en hulle beland per ongeluk in strikke wat vir ander diere bedoel is.
Aansteeklike siektes is die hoofoorsaak van dood onder sjimpansees. Hulle kry baie siektes wat mense ook bedreig aangesien die spesies so ooreenstem.[1] Namate menslike bevolkings toeneem, vergroot die gevaar dat siektes van die mens aan die sjimpansee oorgedra kan word.[1]
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Die sjimpansee (Pan troglodytes) is ’n spesie van mensape. ’n Nabyverwant is die bonobo. Fossiel- en DNA-toetse wys albei spesies is sustersgroepe van die moderne menslike lyn.
Die sjimpansee is bedek met growwe, swart hare, maar het ’n haarlose gesig, vingers, tone, handpalms en voetsole. Dit is sterker gebou as die bonobo; dit weeg tussen 40 en 65 kg en is van kop tot stert sowat 1,3 tot 1,6 m lank. Sjimpansees is agt maande lank dragtig. Babas word op sowat drie jaar gespeen, maar het gewoonlik jare daarna nog ’n sterk verhouding met die ma. Hulle bereik puberteit op sowat 10 jaar en hul lewensverwagting is sowat 50 jaar.
Sjimpansees woon in groepe van 15 tot 150 lede, hoewel individue bedags in veel kleiner groepe rondbeweeg. Die spesie word deur die manlike diere oorheers en lewe volgens ’n streng hiërargie, wat beteken verskille kan gewoonlik sonder geweld opgelos word. Byna alle sjimpanseebevolkings gebruik gereedskap, aangepaste stokke, klippe, gras en blare om heuning, termiete, miere, neute en water bymekaar te maak.
Die sjimpansee is op die Internasionale Unie vir die Bewaring van die Natuur (IUBN) se lys van bedreigde spesies. Daar is na raming tussen 170 000 en 300 000 sjimpansees oor in die woude en grasvelde van Wes- en Sentraal-Afrika. Hul grootste bedreiging is die vernietiging van hul habitat, wilddiefstal en siektes.
Ar chimpanze boutin (Pan troglodytes), anvet ivez chimpanze hepken alies p’eo ar spesad chimpanzeed boutinañ, a zo ur "marmouz meur" rummataet e kerentiad an Hominidae. Eus ar memes genad hag ar bonobo eo, nemet ez eo brasoc'h ha postekoc'h. Bevañ a ra en Afrika. Hervez an DNA ez eo al loen tostañ d'an den. Ul loen en arvar ez eo.
Pevar isspesad a zo da vihanañ:
a vo kavet e Wikimedia Commons.
Ar chimpanze boutin (Pan troglodytes), anvet ivez chimpanze hepken alies p’eo ar spesad chimpanzeed boutinañ, a zo ur "marmouz meur" rummataet e kerentiad an Hominidae. Eus ar memes genad hag ar bonobo eo, nemet ez eo brasoc'h ha postekoc'h. Bevañ a ra en Afrika. Hervez an DNA ez eo al loen tostañ d'an den. Ul loen en arvar ez eo.
El ximpanzé comú (Pan troglodytes) és una espècie de primat de la família dels homínids pròpia de l'Àfrica tropical. Els ximpanzés —al costat dels bonobos— són els parents vius més propers a l'ésser humà; la seva branca evolutiva es va separar de la branca dels humans fa aproximadament 7 milions d'anys i comparteixen el 96% de l'ADN amb ells,[1] el que ha portat a Jared Diamond a utilitzar el terme "el tercer ximpanzé" per referir-se a la nostra pròpia espècie. Els mascles arriben a pesar uns 80 kg en captivitat i a mesurar fins a 1,7 m. Es caracteritza per la seva intel·ligència avançada sovint comparada a la dels éssers humans. Per exemple, s'ha observat que els ximpanzés joves es construeixen "ninots" i altres joguines amb pals i bastons.[2]
Actualment està en perill d'extinció a causa de la desforestació del seu hàbitat natural.
Podem trobar ximpanzés a les selves tropicals i a les sabanes humides de l'Àfrica central i occidental. Solien habitar la major part d'aquesta regió, però el seu hàbitat ha estat dràsticament reduït en els últims anys per la desforestació.
En posició erecta els adults mesuren entre 1 m i 1,7 m d'alçada. Els mascles en llibertat pesen entre 34 i 70 kg, mentre les femelles pesen entre 26 i 50 kg. En captivitat els mascles poden pesar fins a 80 kg i les femelles fins a 68 kg. Aparentment P. t. schweinfurthii pesa menys que P. t. verus, el qual és més petit que P. t. troglodytes. Els braços dels ximpanzés són molt més llargs que les seves cames. L'envergadura dels seus braços és d'aproximadament 1,5 vegades l'alçada de l'individu. Els braços llargs li permeten a aquests primats balancejar-se passant de branca en branca, aquesta modalitat de locomoció es denomina braquiació. També posseeixen dits i mans llargues, però el polze és curt. Això els permet sostenir-se de les branques sense interferir amb la mobilitat dels polzes.[3]
Els ximpanzés tenen una capacitat cranial de 320 a 480 centímetres cúbics, molt inferior a la dels humans moderns (Homo sapiens) que té de mitjana 1400 centímetres cúbics.
Tenen el cos cobert per un pelatge gruixut de color marró fosc, amb excepció del rostre, dits, palmells de la mà i plantes del peu. Tant els seus polzes com el dit gran del peu són oposables, permetent una agafada precisa. La gestació del ximpanzé dura vuit mesos. Les cries són deslletades aproximadament a l'edat de tres anys, però generalment mantenen una relació propera amb la seva mare diversos anys més. La pubertat és aconseguida a l'edat de vuit a deu anys i la seva esperança de vida és de 50 anys en captivitat.
La seva alimentació és principalment vegetariana (fruites, fulles, nous, arrels, tubercles, etc.), complementada per insectes i petites preses; existeixen instàncies de caceres organitzades. En alguns casos —com la matança de cadells de lleopard— aquesta cacera sembla ser un esforç de protecció dels ximpanzés, més que una motivació per la gana. Existeixen casos documentats de canibalisme, encara que és poc comú.
Els ximpanzés viuen en grups anomenats comunitats que oscil·len entre els 20 i més de 150 membres, consistint de diversos mascles, femelles i joves. No obstant això, la major part del temps es desplacen en petits grups d'uns pocs individus. Els ximpanzés són tant arboris com terrestres, passant la mateixa quantitat de temps sobre els arbres que sobre el terra. La seva manera de desplaçament habitual és de quatre grapes, utilitzant les plantes dels peus i les segones falanges dels dits de les mans, i poden caminar en posició bípeda únicament per distàncies curtes.
El ximpanzé comú viu en societats de fissió-fusió (en primatologia, una organització de fissió-fusió és aquella en què la composició canvia dia a dia, separant-se durant períodes de temps més o menys perllongats; per exemple, els individus dormen junts en un lloc, però busquen aliment en petits grups que es desplacen en diferents adreces durant el dia).[4] on l'aparellament és promiscu. Els ximpanzés poden tenir els següents grups: només mascles, femelles adultes i la seva descendència, grups amb membres de tots dos sexes, una femella i la seva descendència, o individus solitaris. En el centre de l'estructura social es troben els mascles, els qui patrullen i cuiden als membres del seu grup, i participen en la cerca d'aliment. Entre els mascles usualment hi ha una jerarquia de domini. No obstant això, la inusual estructura social de fissió-fusió, en la qual porcions del grup parental pot separar-se o tornar-se a unir a ell, és altament variable en termes de quins individus particulars es congreguen en un moment donat. Això es deu principalment al fet que els ximpanzés tenen un alt nivell d'autonomia dins de la fissió-fusió dels grups als quals pertanyen. També les comunitats de ximpanzés tenen grans rangs de territori que se solapen amb els dels altres grups.
Com a resultat, individus ximpanzés amb freqüència van sols en la cerca d'aliments, o en grups petits. Com s'indicava, aquests petits grups també emergeixen en una gran varietat de tipus per a una gran varietat de propòsits. Per exemple, una petita tropa de mascles pot organitzar-se per caçar i obtenir carn, mentre que un grup consistent d'un mascle madur i una femella madura poden establir-se com a grup amb el propòsit de copular. Un individu pot trobar-se amb altres individus amb certa freqüència però poden haver-hi baralles amb altres individus no freqüentats. A causa de la varietat freqüent de la forma com els ximpanzés s'associen, l'estructura de les seves societats és molt complicada.
Durant el segle XX s'han fet diversos treballs tendents a establir una taxonomia clara del ximpanzé. Va ser el zoòleg alemany Ernst Schwarz qui va descriure la majoria de les subespècies actualment acceptades, després de centenars de mesuraments d'esquelets i anàlisis de les pells portades als museus. Schwartz, qui va descriure el bonobo, el va considerar com una subespècie de Pan troglodytes i no com una espècie a part. Aquest autor va establir les subespècies de Pan troglodytes de la següent manera:
Recent evidència provinent de les anàlisis d'ADN suggereixen que el bonobo (Pan paniscus) i el ximpanzé comú se separaren fa un milió d'anys aproximadament. La línia del ximpanzé es va separar del llinatge que va desembocar en els humans aproximadament fa sis milions d'anys. Les dues espècies de ximpanzés estan igualment relacionades amb els éssers humans i atès que no han sobreviscut cap altra espècie dels gèneres Homo, Australopithecus o Paranthropus, són els seus parents vius més propers. El bonobo no fou reconegut com una espècie independent fins al 1929, i en l'idioma comú la designació "ximpanzé" sovint s'aplica a tots dos simis. Els primatòlegs prefereixen reservar el nom "ximpanzé" per a Pan troglodytes. Encara que les diferències anatòmiques entre ambdues espècies són petites, el seu comportament tant sexual com social mostren diferències marcades. Pan troglodytes posseeix un comportament de caça grupal basat en mascles beta liderats per mascles alfa relativament febles, una dieta omnívora i una cultura complexa amb forts llaços.
El ximpanzé comú (Pan troglodytes) és una espècie de primat de la família dels homínids pròpia de l'Àfrica tropical. Els ximpanzés —al costat dels bonobos— són els parents vius més propers a l'ésser humà; la seva branca evolutiva es va separar de la branca dels humans fa aproximadament 7 milions d'anys i comparteixen el 96% de l'ADN amb ells, el que ha portat a Jared Diamond a utilitzar el terme "el tercer ximpanzé" per referir-se a la nostra pròpia espècie. Els mascles arriben a pesar uns 80 kg en captivitat i a mesurar fins a 1,7 m. Es caracteritza per la seva intel·ligència avançada sovint comparada a la dels éssers humans. Per exemple, s'ha observat que els ximpanzés joves es construeixen "ninots" i altres joguines amb pals i bastons.
Actualment està en perill d'extinció a causa de la desforestació del seu hàbitat natural.
Šimpanz učenlivý (Pan troglodytes) je africký lidoop. Společně s bonobem je nejbližším žijícím příbuzným člověka a je mu ze všech primátů nejpodobnější. Nejbližším příbuzným šimpanze učenlivého je bonobo, s nímž tvoří společný rod Pan. Odhaduje se, že oba druhy se oddělily zhruba před 0,8-1,8 miliony let. Srst má tmavou, lysé části těla bývají u některých poddruhů světlé. Dorůstá obvykle délky 65 až 95 cm a hmotnosti od 32 do 70 kg. Přestože se převážně živí rostlinnou stravou, doplňuje svůj jídelníček o termity, mravence a jiný hmyz. V některých oblastech tvoří část jeho jídelníčku i maso získané lovem (malé antilopy, guerézy, kočkodani a mláďata paviánů). Samice je březí osm měsíců, rodí jediné mládě. Pohlavně dospělý je po 6–10 letech života.
Šimpanz učenlivý je intenzivně zkoumaným druhem, velmi zajímavé jsou např. kulturní odlišnosti jednotlivých tlup.
Šimpanz učenlivý je rozšířen v rovníkové Africe ve čtyřech poddruzích. Šimpanz učenlivý je nejbližším zvířecím příbuzným člověka. Obývá tropické deštné pralesy, husté stromové savany a křovinatou krajinu. Dokonce žije i v galeriových a horských lesích do výšky 3 000 metrů nad mořem.
I když jich žije ve své domovině zatím poměrně dost, jejich počet radikálně klesá a odhaduje se v divočině západní a východní Afriky již jen na 100 000 jedinců. Hlavním důvodem je, že je narušováno jejich přirozené prostředí.
Šimpanzi jsou zajímaví tím, že pokud se potkají dva – vítají se skoro lidským způsobem. A pokud se osobně znají, dokáží se dokonce políbit, poplácat po zádech či si dokonce podají i ruce. Dokáží si vyrobit i jednoduché nástroje, ale nikdy si je neuchovávají, protože si pokaždé vyrobí nové.
V zoologických zahradách se dožívají šimpanzi vysokého věku. Není výjimkou i dožití se skoro 50 let. Dlouho se tradovalo, že se bojí vody, ale dokáží si na ni časem zvyknout. Velmi rádi si vzájemně pečují o svou srst a díky tomu se zlepšuje i jejich případná nervozita.
Jejich potrava se skládá hlavně z rostlin, různých plodů, listí či pupenů, semen různého druhu. Mají rádi i termity, mravence, živý hmyz a umí se spojit dokonce i při lovu gueréz, kočkodanů, mladých paviánů a nepohrdnou dokonce i malou antilopou. Samice rodí po 225 dnech březosti jedno mládě, které zůstává s matkou až do věku 8 let. Každý šimpanz má svůj charakteristický obličej.
Takzvaný bilijský šimpanz, o němž se spekulovalo jako o novém poddruhu, či dokonce druhu šimpanze, je podle genetických analýz poddruhem šimpanze východního.
Šimpanz učenlivý je v ČR chován v ZOO Ostrava, Brno, Liberec, Dvůr Králové nad Labem, Plzeň, Hodonín a Dvorec.
Od roku 1950 do roku 1999 chovala šimpanze také pražská zoologická zahrada. Historicky byl rovněž chován v zoologických zahradách Ústí nad Labem, Děčín a Zlín.
Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu šimpanz učenlivý ve Wikimedia Commons
Tento článek potřebuje úpravy. Můžete Wikipedii pomoci tím, že ho vylepšíte. Jak by měly články vypadat, popisují stránky Vzhled a styl, Encyklopedický styl a Odkazy. Šimpanz učenlivý (Pan troglodytes) je africký lidoop. Společně s bonobem je nejbližším žijícím příbuzným člověka a je mu ze všech primátů nejpodobnější. Nejbližším příbuzným šimpanze učenlivého je bonobo, s nímž tvoří společný rod Pan. Odhaduje se, že oba druhy se oddělily zhruba před 0,8-1,8 miliony let. Srst má tmavou, lysé části těla bývají u některých poddruhů světlé. Dorůstá obvykle délky 65 až 95 cm a hmotnosti od 32 do 70 kg. Přestože se převážně živí rostlinnou stravou, doplňuje svůj jídelníček o termity, mravence a jiný hmyz. V některých oblastech tvoří část jeho jídelníčku i maso získané lovem (malé antilopy, guerézy, kočkodani a mláďata paviánů). Samice je březí osm měsíců, rodí jediné mládě. Pohlavně dospělý je po 6–10 letech života.
Šimpanz učenlivý je intenzivně zkoumaným druhem, velmi zajímavé jsou např. kulturní odlišnosti jednotlivých tlup.
Chimpansen (Pan troglodytes) er sammen med bonoboen menneskets nærmeste slægtning. Chimpanser deler næsten alle menneskets gener[1][2][3][4]. Menneskets og menneskeabernes genom er på omkring 20.000 gener, og ny dansk forskning viser at chimpansens gener er 99%, gorillaens er 98% og orangutangens er 97% de samme som menneskets gener.[5]
Den almindelige chimpanse, som denne artikel omhandler, er opdelt i flere underarter:
Chimpanser findes i tropiske skove og på våde græsstepper i Vest- og Centralafrika. Voksne chimpanser kan blive op til 130 cm (hunner) og 160 cm (hanner), og kan veje mellem 40-70 kg. Trods deres ringe højde og drøjde i forhold til mennesker er de mange gange stærkere end os. Chimpansens krop er hovedsagelig dækket af sortbrune hår, kun ansigt, fingre, håndflader, tæer og fodsåler er hårløse. Ligesom mennesket har chimpansen modsatstillede tommelfingre. Men chimpansens storetå er ligeledes modsatstillet, så dyret kan også gribe med tæerne. Graviditeten varer 8 måneder. Ungerne bliver vænnet fra, når de er ca. 3 år, men de bevarer ofte en tæt kontakt til moderen mange år herefter. Chimpansen bliver kønsmoden, når den er omkring 8-10 år. Den højeste levealder, man kender til, er 66 år.
Chimpanser lever i familiegrupper med både hunner, hanner og unger. Grupperne kan blive store med op til 150 medlemmer, men oftest holder de sammen i noget mindre grupper. Chimpanserne bevæger sig både på jorden og i træer. De går for det meste på fire ben, men kan over korte distancer bevæge sig på to ben.
Føden består hovedsagelig af grønfoder – frugter, blade, nødder og frø, men bliver suppleret af proteinkilder, f.eks. insekter og nedlagt bytte fra organiseret jagt. Chimpanser kan her jage og dræbe f.eks. leopardunger, andre aber og tilmed chimpanser fra andre familiegrupper.
Jagten har oftest til formål at beskytte gruppen og dens yngleterritorium, men der er også eksempler på jagt udelukkende for at stille sulten. I jagten på insekter demonstrerer chimpanserne en formidabel evne til at fremstille redskaber – en evne, der definitionsmæssigt længe var forbeholdt mennesket som et af de grundtræk, der adskilte dem fra dyrene. Chimpansen kan tilvirke små grene, så de virker som "fiskestænger" – perfekte til at stikke i hullerne i et termitbo og fiske termitter frem med. Herudover er der f.eks. også eksempler på chimpanser, der har bestemte nøddeknækkersten; de dygtigste chimpanser lærer de andre, hvordan man hermed knækker skallen på genstridige nødder.
Chimpansen (Pan troglodytes) er sammen med bonoboen menneskets nærmeste slægtning. Chimpanser deler næsten alle menneskets gener. Menneskets og menneskeabernes genom er på omkring 20.000 gener, og ny dansk forskning viser at chimpansens gener er 99%, gorillaens er 98% og orangutangens er 97% de samme som menneskets gener.
Den almindelige chimpanse, som denne artikel omhandler, er opdelt i flere underarter:
Pan troglodytes troglodytes Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Pan troglodytes marungensis Pan troglodytes verus Pan troglodytes vellerosusChimpanser findes i tropiske skove og på våde græsstepper i Vest- og Centralafrika. Voksne chimpanser kan blive op til 130 cm (hunner) og 160 cm (hanner), og kan veje mellem 40-70 kg. Trods deres ringe højde og drøjde i forhold til mennesker er de mange gange stærkere end os. Chimpansens krop er hovedsagelig dækket af sortbrune hår, kun ansigt, fingre, håndflader, tæer og fodsåler er hårløse. Ligesom mennesket har chimpansen modsatstillede tommelfingre. Men chimpansens storetå er ligeledes modsatstillet, så dyret kan også gribe med tæerne. Graviditeten varer 8 måneder. Ungerne bliver vænnet fra, når de er ca. 3 år, men de bevarer ofte en tæt kontakt til moderen mange år herefter. Chimpansen bliver kønsmoden, når den er omkring 8-10 år. Den højeste levealder, man kender til, er 66 år.
Chimpanser lever i familiegrupper med både hunner, hanner og unger. Grupperne kan blive store med op til 150 medlemmer, men oftest holder de sammen i noget mindre grupper. Chimpanserne bevæger sig både på jorden og i træer. De går for det meste på fire ben, men kan over korte distancer bevæge sig på to ben.
Føden består hovedsagelig af grønfoder – frugter, blade, nødder og frø, men bliver suppleret af proteinkilder, f.eks. insekter og nedlagt bytte fra organiseret jagt. Chimpanser kan her jage og dræbe f.eks. leopardunger, andre aber og tilmed chimpanser fra andre familiegrupper.
Jagten har oftest til formål at beskytte gruppen og dens yngleterritorium, men der er også eksempler på jagt udelukkende for at stille sulten. I jagten på insekter demonstrerer chimpanserne en formidabel evne til at fremstille redskaber – en evne, der definitionsmæssigt længe var forbeholdt mennesket som et af de grundtræk, der adskilte dem fra dyrene. Chimpansen kan tilvirke små grene, så de virker som "fiskestænger" – perfekte til at stikke i hullerne i et termitbo og fiske termitter frem med. Herudover er der f.eks. også eksempler på chimpanser, der har bestemte nøddeknækkersten; de dygtigste chimpanser lærer de andre, hvordan man hermed knækker skallen på genstridige nødder.
Der Gemeine Schimpanse, auch Gewöhnlicher Schimpanse oder einfach nur Schimpanse genannt (Pan troglodytes), ist eine Primatenart aus der Familie der Menschenaffen (Hominidae). Zusammen mit dem Bonobo (Zwergschimpansen) bildet er die Gattung der Schimpansen (Pan). Beide Spezies sind die biologisch engsten Verwandten des Menschen. Der Schimpanse ist robuster gebaut als der Bonobo und hat ein größeres Verbreitungsgebiet, das sich über weite Teile des mittleren Afrika erstreckt.
Gemeine Schimpansen erreichen eine Kopfrumpflänge von 64 bis 94 Zentimetern, wie alle Menschenaffen sind sie schwanzlos. Stehend werden sie zwischen 1 und 1,7 Metern hoch. Männchen erreichen ein Gewicht von 34 bis 70 Kilogramm und sind damit deutlich schwerer als Weibchen, die zwischen 26 und 50 Kilogramm erreichen. Tiere in Gefangenschaft können schwerer werden und 80 Kilogramm wiegen. Das Fell ist schwarz oder dunkelbraun gefärbt.
Die Arme sind deutlich länger als die Beine, die Spannweite zwischen den ausgestreckten Armen ist um die Hälfte größer als die Höhe des Tiers. Die Hände sind durch die langen Finger und die vergleichsweise kurzen Daumen charakterisiert, bei den Füßen ist die erste Zehe wie bei den meisten Primaten opponierbar.
Das Gesicht ist unbehaart. Es ist generell heller als das des Bonobos, auch haben Jungtiere ein helleres Gesicht als Erwachsene, es gibt jedoch zusätzlich regionale Unterschiede. Der Kopf der Schimpansen ist durch die hervorragenden, runden Ohren, die Überaugenwülste und die hervorstehende Schnauze charakterisiert. Die Größe der Eckzähne ist stark geschlechtsdimorph (bei Männchen sind sie deutlich größer).
Die genetische Information des Gemeinen Schimpansen ist innerhalb des Zellkerns in 24 Paaren von Chromosomen organisiert, zwei davon Geschlechtschromosomen. Das vollständige Genom wurde erstmals 2005 analysiert; es besteht aus 3.349.642.171 Basenpaaren. Die genaue Anzahl der Gene ist noch unbekannt.[1][2] Bonobos und Schimpansen haben sich im Verlauf ihrer Entwicklung mehrfach miteinander vermischt wie Studien am Genom beider Spezies zeigen.[3]
Das Verbreitungsgebiet der Gemeinen Schimpansen erstreckt sich in einem breiten Gürtel durch das mittlere Afrika. Es reicht in Westafrika vom Senegal über die südöstlich angrenzenden Länder bis in den westlichen Teil Ghanas, über Nigeria, Kamerun, Gabun, die Republik Kongo, den Südosten der Zentralafrikanischen Republik, die südwestlichen Grenzregionen Südsudans und den Norden und Osten der Demokratischen Republik Kongo bis in die westlichen Regionen Ugandas und Tansanias. In der Demokratischen Republik Kongo bildet der kaum überquerbare Kongo-Fluss die Südgrenze ihres Verbreitungsgebietes, südlich davon leben die Bonobos. Die menschliche Besiedlung hat den Lebensraum dieser Tiere verkleinert und in eine Vielzahl kleinerer Flecken zerteilt.
Diese Tiere sind flexibler in Bezug auf ihren Lebensraum als andere Menschenaffen. Sie kommen sowohl in tropischen Regenwäldern, in trockenen Savannen sowie im Bergland bis zu 3000 Metern Höhe vor.
Gemeine Schimpansen können sowohl am Boden als auch auf den Bäumen nach Nahrung suchen, meist geschieht dies jedoch auf Bäumen. Am Boden bewegen sie sich wie alle afrikanischen Menschenaffen in einem vierfüßigen Knöchelgang fort, das heißt, dass sie sich auf den zweiten und dritten Fingergliedern aufstützen. Im Geäst klettern sie entweder mit allen vier Gliedmaßen oder bewegen sich an den Armen hängend (suspensorisch) fort. In der Regel sind Schimpansen tagaktiv. Zur Nachtruhe fertigen sie ein Nest aus Zweigen und Laub an. Dieses Nest liegt meist auf Bäumen in 9 bis 12 Meter Höhe und wird üblicherweise nur einmal verwendet. Insbesondere in der Regenzeit ruhen sie auch manchmal tagsüber, wofür sie ebenfalls Nester errichten.
Die Sozialstruktur der Schimpansen wird als „Fission-Fusion-Organisation“ („Trennen und Zusammengehen“) beschrieben. Das heißt, sie leben in Großgruppen, die sich aus 20 bis 80 Tieren zusammensetzen, die sich oft in Untergruppen aufspalten – etwa zur Nahrungssuche – und dann wieder zusammenkommen, insbesondere zur Nachtruhe. Erwachsene Tiere gehen beispielsweise oft allein auf Futtersuche oder schließen sich mit anderen zu einer kurzlebigen, vorübergehenden Untergruppe zusammen. Diese Untergruppen sind sehr flexibel und umfassen meist vier bis acht Tiere, also deutlich weniger als beim Bonobo. Die Zusammensetzung und Größe der Untergruppen ist sehr variabel und unterscheidet sich auch von Population zu Population.
Starke und ältere Männchen führen und verteidigen die ganze Großgruppe. Die Männchen entwickeln eine ausgeprägte Rangstruktur. Dazu dienen verschiedene Rituale wie laute Schreie, Trommeln auf Baumstämmen, Kraftdemonstrationen – sie schütteln Äste oder werfen Steine – und demonstrativ schnelles Laufen oder Springen. Sie investieren viel Zeit und Energie, um ihren Rang innerhalb der Gruppe zu verbessern. Sie bilden dazu unter anderem Koalitionen, dies kann aber auch ein Täuschungsmanöver, eine Scheinallianz sein. Die Jagd auf kleine Säugetiere und die Bewachung der Reviergrenzen, die beide von Männchen durchgeführt werden, dienen ebenfalls diesem Zweck. Auch die gegenseitige Fellpflege (Komfortverhalten) ist bei den Männchen stark ausgeprägt und unterstützt die soziale Kommunikation.
Im Gegensatz dazu sind Weibchen oft einzelgängerischer und entwickeln eine weniger auffällige Hierarchie. Eine Rangordnung ist aber trotzdem vorhanden, das zeigt sich darin, dass höhergestellte Weibchen etwa häufiger Nachwuchs haben. Generell haben Weibchen außer mit ihren Töchtern wenig Interaktion mit anderen Weibchen. Das liegt auch daran, dass die Weibchen ihre Geburtsgruppe bei Erreichen der Geschlechtsreife verlassen, während die Männchen die meiste Zeit ihres Lebens bei ihrer Gruppe bleiben.
Die Interaktionen zwischen Männchen und Weibchen sind variabel und näher im Abschnitt Paarungsverhalten beschrieben.
Eine Großgruppe hat in der Regel ein bestimmtes Streifgebiet. Dieses ist in Wäldern 5 bis 40 Quadratkilometer groß, in Savannen mit 120 bis 560 Quadratkilometern hingegen deutlich größer. Kleine Männchengruppen patrouillieren oft an den Grenzen des Territoriums. Tiere, die nicht der eigenen Großgruppe angehören, werden meist sehr aggressiv behandelt. Die Verfolgung einzelner fremder Tiere wird manchmal dermaßen brutal geführt, dass dafür das Wort „Krieg“ verwendet wurde.[4] (siehe auch → Schimpansenkrieg von Gombe). Auch nicht-fruchtbare Weibchen werden dabei nicht verschont. Diese kriegsartigen Übergriffe, bei denen Gemeine Schimpansen manchmal auch unprovoziert in fremdes Territorium eindringen und die dortigen Tiere verfolgen und töten, ist außer bei ihnen und beim Menschen unter Primaten unbekannt.[5]
Gemeine Schimpansen wurden wiederholt beim Gebrauch von Werkzeugen beobachtet. So verwenden sie zerkaute Blätter als Schwämme, um Wasser aus Baumlöchern zu schöpfen, Grashalme und Stöcke werden bearbeitet und in Termitenhügel eingeführt, um die Insekten verzehren zu können. Steine oder Äste dienen als Hammer und Amboss, um Nüsse zu knacken, und Äste werden als Haken benutzt, um fruchttragende Äste heranziehen zu können. Stöcke und Steine dienen als Wurfgeschosse bei der Jagd und zur Verteidigung. In jüngster Zeit wurde auch beobachtet, dass sie bearbeitete und zugespitzte Holzstöcke als Spieße verwenden, um damit Galagos zu jagen.[6] Es gibt zwar keine Hinweise, dass sie Steine bearbeiten, jedoch bewahren sie besonders geeignete Steine auf oder lagern sie an einer sicheren Stelle, wo sie diese im Bedarfsfall wiederfinden können.[7]
Die einzelnen Populationen unterscheiden sich deutlich in Art und Häufigkeit des Werkzeuggebrauchs, und keine einzelne Verwendung kommt bei allen Populationen vor. So ist das Nussknacken mittels Steinen bislang nur bei der westlichen Unterart beobachtet worden, bei den Tieren im Osten des Verbreitungsgebietes ist diese Praxis unbekannt. Funde aus dem Nationalpark Taï in der Elfenbeinküste belegen, dass diese Praxis seit zumindest 4300 Jahren angewandt wird.[8] In einer im Februar 2019 veröffentlichten Studie wird eine im Norden der Demokratischen Republik Kongo lebende Population des Ostafrikanischen Schimpansen (P. t. schweinfurthii) beschrieben, die Stöcke verschiedener Art (kurze, lange, dicke oder dünne) benutzt um verschiedene Ameisenarten oder den Honig von Stachellosen Bienen zu erbeuten. Nüsse und andere harte Früchte, sowie die Nester von Baumtermiten und die Gehäuse von Afrikanischen Riesenschnecken (Achatina) und Gelenkschildkröten (Kinixys) werden geöffnet, indem diese an Baumstämme oder Steine geschlagen werden. Bemerkenswert ist auch, dass diese Schimpansen bevorzugt nicht auf Bäumen, sondern auf dem Erdboden schlafen.[9]
Der Werkzeuggebrauch ist ebenso wie der allabendliche Nestbau keine instinktive Tätigkeit, sondern wird von den jüngeren Tieren durch Beobachten von erfahrenen Tieren erlernt.
Wie von dem Menschenaffen erforschenden Biologen Richard Wrangham 1972 in einem Nationalpark Tansanias beobachtet wurde, haben Schimpansen verschiedene Methoden entwickelt, sich von Parasiten zu befreien. Hierfür werden raue, scharfkantige Blätter bestimmter Pflanzen abgerissen, sorgfältig zusammengefaltet und unzerkaut geschluckt. Infrage kommen die Blätter von etwa 30 Baumarten. Kot-Untersuchungen ergaben, dass die Blätter unverdaut wieder ausgeschieden werden, zusammen mit zahlreichen großen Darmparasiten. Es wird angenommen, dass die raue Blattstruktur die Würmer von den Darmwänden abschabt. Hinzu kommt die abführende Wirkung der in verschiedenen Blättern enthaltenen Gerbstoffe. Ebenso zur Parasitenabwehr dient die abführende Wirkung der in dem sehr bitteren Mark des Strauches Vernonia amygdalina enthaltenen Gerbstoffe, der im Westen von Tansania wächst und von Schimpansen bei Bedarf gefressen wird.
Selbstmedikation ist ebenfalls keine angeborene, sondern eine erworbene beziehungsweise gelernte Verhaltensweise, die nur von einigen Populationen tradiert wird. Einer solchen Horde neu hinzuwandernde Schimpansenweibchen, die dieses Verhalten nicht kennen, lernen es von den Mitgliedern der Horde durch Nachahmung.[10][11][12]
Gemeine Schimpansen kommunizieren untereinander mit einer Reihe von Lauten und Körperhaltungen. Der häufigste Laut ist der „Pant-hoot“ genannte Ruf, der der Kontaktaufnahme mit entfernten Gruppenmitgliedern dient. Daneben verwenden sie auch einen Nahrungsruf, ein bellendes Keuchen, um andere Tiere auf eine Nahrungsquelle aufmerksam zu machen, Gekreische oder grölendes Brüllen bei der Jagd oder einen klagenden „Wraaa-Ruf“, der als Alarmsignal dient. Ein hechelndes Ein- und Ausatmen stellt ein Äquivalent zum menschlichen Lachen dar.
Auch Gesichtsausdrücke und Körperhaltungen dienen der Interaktion. So wird Unterwerfung durch Ducken oder Präsentieren des Hinterteils signalisiert. Zornige oder aufgeregte Tiere stellen sich auf zwei Beine, sträuben das Fell und pressen die Lippen zusammen. Breites Grinsen ist oft ein Zeichen für Nervosität oder Furcht. Zum spektakulären Imponierverhalten dieser Tiere zählen lautes Gebrüll, schnelles Umherlaufen, Schleudern von Steinen oder Ziehen von großen Ästen.
Gemeine Schimpansen sind Allesfresser, den Schwerpunkt ihrer Nahrung machen allerdings Pflanzen aus. Wichtigster Nahrungsbestandteil sind Früchte und Nüsse (45 bis 76 %) sowie Blätter (12 bis 45 %).[13] Ergänzt wird die Nahrung durch Blüten, Samen und tierische Beute, so werden regelmäßig Insekten verzehrt. Gelegentlich machen sie auch Jagd auf Säugetiere wie kleine Paarhufer und kleinere Primaten wie Rote Stummelaffen, Galagos und sogar Paviane. Die Jagd wird meist von erwachsenen Männchen durchgeführt und hat eine sehr starke soziale Komponente. Männchen teilen das Fleisch mit anderen Gruppenmitgliedern und versuchen so, ihre Position in der Gruppenhierarchie zu verbessern oder beizubehalten.
Die Paarung kann das ganze Jahr über erfolgen, die Länge des Sexualzyklus beträgt rund 36 Tage. Der Östrus dauert rund 6 bis 7 Tage, während dieser Zeit weisen die Weibchen eine deutliche Regelschwellung vor. Neben Bonobos sind sie die einzigen Menschenaffen, die dieses Merkmal haben; es tritt aber beispielsweise auch bei Pavianen auf.
Das Paarungsverhalten ist variabel und kann verschiedene Formen annehmen. Einerseits kann es zu einem promiskuitiven Verhalten innerhalb der Großgruppe kommen, sodass sich mehrere Männchen und mehrere Weibchen untereinander fortpflanzen. Daneben kann auch beobachtet werden, dass ein Männchen sich mit einem fruchtbaren Weibchen paart und es anschließend bewacht und keine anderen Paarungspartner zulässt. Schließlich kommt es auch vor, dass ein Männchen und ein Weibchen eine kurzfristige Paarbildung eingehen und sich während ihrer fruchtbaren Periode mehrere Tage zu zweit von der Großgruppe absondern. Der Paarungserfolg einzelner Männchen kann sich durch Futtergabe an ausgewählte Weibchen nahezu verdoppeln und stützt damit die „Fleisch-gegen-Sex-Hypothese“.[14][15]
Nach einer Tragezeit von durchschnittlich 230 Tagen bringt das Weibchen in der Regel ein einzelnes Jungtier zur Welt, Zwillingsgeburten sind selten. Das Geburtsgewicht der Neugeborenen beträgt rund 1,9 Kilogramm. In den ersten sechs Lebensmonaten klammert sich das Jungtier am Fell der Mutter fest, später reitet es auf ihrem Rücken. Die Entwöhnung erfolgt erst nach 3,5 bis 4,5 Jahren, doch bleibt das Jungtier meist noch eine längere Zeit (bis zu zehn Jahre) bei der Mutter.
Ein Weibchen kann alle fünf bis sechs Jahre Nachwuchs zur Welt bringen, es sei denn, das Jungtier stirbt früher. Die Geschlechtsreife tritt im Alter von rund sieben Jahren ein, aufgrund der Gruppenhierarchie erfolgt die erste Fortpflanzung meist einige Jahre später: bei Weibchen mit 13 bis 14 Jahren und bei Männchen mit 15 bis 16 Jahren. Im Gegensatz zu Menschen oder Gorillas tritt bei Schimpansen keine Menopause ein. Zwar bekommen Weibchen ab dem 40. Lebensjahr seltener Junge, dies ist allerdings allein auf gesundheitliche Gründe zurückzuführen.[16]
Die Lebenserwartung Gemeiner Schimpansen beträgt in der Natur 30 bis 40 Jahre; in Zoos werden sie manchmal über 50 Jahre alt.[17]
Seit wann die westliche Welt vom Schimpansen weiß, ist nicht bekannt. Der karthagische Seefahrer Hanno († 440 v. Chr.) brachte von seiner Afrikareise die Felle von drei „wilden Frauen“ mit, vermutlich Schimpansen oder Gorillas. 1641 kam erstmals ein lebendiger Schimpanse in die Niederlande. Er wurde vom niederländischen Arzt Nicolaes Tulpius (1593–1674), der durch Rembrandts Gemälde „Die Anatomie des Dr. Tulp“ bekannt wurde, untersucht; die Befunde wurden unter dem Titel „Indischer Satyr“ veröffentlicht. Der englische Arzt und Zoologe Edward Tyson (1650–1708) untersuchte 1699 einen Schimpansen und stellte eine Reihe von Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen diesem und dem Menschen fest. Spätestens seit Darwins und Huxleys Werken zur Evolutionstheorie rückten Schimpansen als nahe Verwandte des Menschen ins Licht der Öffentlichkeit.
1915 gelang Rosalía Abreu auf Kuba die erste Nachzucht eines Schimpansen in Gefangenschaft. Wolfgang Köhler studierte von 1914 bis 1920 auf Teneriffa das Lernverhalten und den Werkzeuggebrauch von Schimpansen. In der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts rückte die Lebensweise und das Verhalten der Schimpansen in den Mittelpunkt des Interesses. Bahnbrechend wurde die Forschungstätigkeit Jane Goodalls an freilebenden Tieren im Gombe Stream National Park in Tansania. Mitte der 1960er-Jahre begann 150 Kilometer südlich des Gombe Stream National Parks ein japanisches Forscherteam unter der Leitung von Professor Nishida mit der Habituierung zweier Schimpansengruppen im Mahale Mountains National Park. Seit Mitte der 1980er-Jahre erforscht hier Dr. Michael Huffmann von der Kyoto-Universität den Medizinalpflanzengebrauch bei Schimpansen.
Die Kommunikationsfähigkeit dieser Tiere steht bis heute im Mittelpunkt der Forschung. In den 1960er- und 1970er-Jahren gelang es dem Psychologen Roger Fouts, mehreren Schimpansen Begriffe der amerikanischen Gebärdensprache (American Sign Language, ASL) beizubringen. Die Schimpansin Washoe gilt heute als erstes nichtmenschliches Wesen, das eine menschliche Sprache erlernt hat.
David Premack betrieb ähnliche Forschungen, allerdings benutzte er Symbolkärtchen. Daneben werden weiterhin auch der Werkzeuggebrauch, die Intelligenz und die Lernfähigkeit untersucht. Gemeine Schimpansen schaffen es, knifflige Probleme zu lösen (beispielsweise eine Frucht aus einem verschlossenen Behälter herauszuholen) und bestehen den Spiegeltest – das heißt, sie erkennen sich selbst im Spiegel. Um spezifische Vergleiche zwischen Menschen und diesen Tieren ziehen zu können, wurde ein Genom-Projekt für Schimpansen initiiert.
In Leipzig wurde im Jahr 1997 das Max-Planck-Institut für evolutionäre Anthropologie neu gegründet. In der von Christophe Boesch geleiteten Abteilung Primatologie werden Sozialverhalten, sprachliche Lernfähigkeit und Strategien der Fortpflanzung von Menschenaffen im Vergleich zum Menschen untersucht.
Diese nahe Verwandtschaft der Schimpansen zu den Menschen bestimmt das Verhältnis zu diesen Tieren deutlich mit. Eine ausdrucksstarke Mimik und oft verblüffend menschenähnliche Verhaltensweisen machen den Gemeinen Schimpansen zur beliebtesten und bekanntesten aller Menschenaffenarten. Im Tiergarten, Zirkus, auf Postern oder in Fernsehsendungen (z. B. Daktari, Unser Charly) sind diese Tiere vielfach zu sehen. Manchmal werden Gemeine Schimpansen auch als Heimtiere gehalten, am bekanntesten war „Bubbles“, der Affe Michael Jacksons.
In Forschung und Wissenschaft spielen diese Tiere eine wichtige Rolle. So gibt es Erkrankungen, die sich außer am Menschen nur bei Schimpansen untersuchen lassen. Beispielsweise können Schimpansen mit HI- oder Hepatitis-Viren infiziert werden, erkranken jedoch nicht an Hepatitis oder AIDS. Da mittlerweile einige symptomatische Therapieoptionen für diese Erkrankungen zur Verfügung stehen, geht die Anzahl der für biomedizinische Forschungsaufgaben gebrauchten Schimpansen ständig zurück. In einigen Staaten (darunter auch Österreich) existieren mittlerweile Gesetze, die die Verwendung großer Menschenaffen für die biomedizinische Forschung verbieten. Da sich durch die lange Lebenserwartung und die Praxis, ausgediente Laborschimpansen nicht einzuschläfern, gemischt mit den Zuchtbestrebungen der letzten Jahrzehnte eine Überzahl an Schimpansen aus europäischen und amerikanischen Labors ergeben hat, gibt es mittlerweile auch Auffangstationen für ehemalige Laborschimpansen (Stichting Aap in den Niederlanden;[18] Monkey World in Großbritannien;[19] HOPE in Österreich[20] und Chimp Haven in den USA[21]).
Auch in der Raumfahrt wurden Schimpansen eingesetzt. Am 31. Januar 1961 wurde der Schimpanse Ham im Rahmen des Mercury-Programms der NASA mit der Mercury-Redstone 2 (MR-2) in den Weltraum geschossen. Er überlebte den 16-minütigen Flug. In einem weiteren Experiment flog am 29. November 1961 der Schimpanse Enos mit der Mercury-Atlas 5 drei Stunden und 20 Minuten durch das All.
In freier Natur gelten Gemeine Schimpansen als bedroht. Der Hauptgrund dafür ist die Zerstörung ihres Lebensraums durch Waldrodungen, die dazu geführt hat, dass ihr Verbreitungsgebiet immer stärker eingeschränkt und stark zersplittert wird. Insbesondere die Populationen in Westafrika sind davon betroffen. Doch werden sie auch wegen ihres Fleisches („Bushmeat“) gejagt oder weil sie manchmal Plantagen verwüsten. Während früher lebende Tiere oft gefangen wurden, um sie für Tierversuche einzusetzen oder zu Haustieren zu machen, ist der Lebendfang heute zurückgegangen. Das Washingtoner Artenschutz-Übereinkommen (CITES) verbietet den Handel mit Schimpansen komplett.
Die IUCN listet die Art als stark bedroht (endangered) und fürchtet einen weiteren Rückgang der Populationen. Die beiden westlicheren Unterarten sind demnach stärker bedroht als die Tiere im Osten des Verbreitungsgebietes.
Schätzungen über die Populationsgröße sind schwer durchzuführen. Möglicherweise lebten Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts noch mehrere Millionen Gemeine Schimpansen; diese Anzahl ist drastisch gesunken. Eine Schätzung aus dem Jahr 1999 beziffert die Gesamtpopulation auf 150.000 bis 235.000,[22] andere Quellen gehen von weniger als 100.000 Tieren aus.[23] Der WWF veröffentlichte 2009 folgende Zahlen: 21.000 bis 56.000 westafrikanische Schimpansen, 70.000 bis 117.000 zentralafrikanische, 76.000 bis 120.000 ostafrikanische und nur noch 5.000 bis 8.000 Nigeriaschimpansen, somit insgesamt zwischen 172.000 und 301.000 Individuen.[24][25] 2019 ergab eine Schätzung für die westafrikanischen Schimpansen einen Bestand von rund 53.000 Individuen, bei einem Konfidenzintervall (95 %) von 17.577 bis 96.564 Individuen.[26]
Die folgenden Zahlen, basierend auf unterschiedlichen Studien, stammen aus den Jahren 1998 bis 2010.[27]
Der Gemeine Schimpanse (Pan troglodytes) bildet zusammen mit dem Bonobo oder Zwergschimpansen die Gattung der Schimpansen (Pan). Schätzungen zufolge trennten sich die beiden Arten vor zwischen 1,8 und 0,8 Millionen Jahren.[29] Die Gattung der Schimpansen stellt innerhalb der Familie der Menschenaffen (Hominidae) das Schwestertaxon des Menschen dar.
Innerhalb der Gemeinen Schimpansen werden vier Unterarten unterschieden:[30]
Verbreitungsgebiet des Westlichen Schimpansen
(P. t. verus)
Verbreitungsgebiet des Nigeria-Schimpansen
(P. t. ellioti)
Verbreitungsgebiet des Zentralafrikanischen Schimpansen
(P. t. troglodytes)
Verbreitungsgebiet des Östlichen Schimpansen
(P. t. schweinfurthii)
Der manchmal als eigene Art oder Unterart postulierte „Riesenschimpanse“ oder „Bili-Schimpanse“ hat sich nach DNA-Untersuchungen als Vertreter der östlichen Unterart (P. t. schweinfurthii) herausgestellt.[32]
Der Gemeine Schimpanse, auch Gewöhnlicher Schimpanse oder einfach nur Schimpanse genannt (Pan troglodytes), ist eine Primatenart aus der Familie der Menschenaffen (Hominidae). Zusammen mit dem Bonobo (Zwergschimpansen) bildet er die Gattung der Schimpansen (Pan). Beide Spezies sind die biologisch engsten Verwandten des Menschen. Der Schimpanse ist robuster gebaut als der Bonobo und hat ein größeres Verbreitungsgebiet, das sich über weite Teile des mittleren Afrika erstreckt.
De chimpansee (Pan troglodytes) is n Afrikaanse meansaap. Zien naauwste verwant is de dwargchimpansee of bonobo (Pan paniscus). Beide chimpansees wöd beschouwd as t nauwst nog leevnde verwant van de meanse. Sommige wetenskappers beschouwt de relasie tussn meanse en chimpansee op basis van DNA-onderzuuk as nauw genog um de chimpansee en de bonobo net as de meanse in t geslacht Homo te plaasn.
Vanweeng eure evolutionair nauwe verwantschap met meansn wödt zi'j vake gebruukt veur mediese en gedragsproewm, hoewel dit de leste tied stieds minder gebeurt en verbeudn is in verscheidne laandn, waoronder Nederlaand. De maote waorin chimpansees en meansn geneties an mekare geliek bint is onderwarp van geschil. Opgaawm van t persentage identiek DNA löp uut mekare van 94,6% tot 99,4%. De verwantschap tussn n chimpansee en n meanse is groter as de verwantschap tussn n chimpansee en n gorilla. Sunds t genoom van de chimpansee, net as dat van n meanse, in kaarte is ebrach is hier veul meer oover te zegn. n Meniere um t uut te drökkn is dat de genetiese verschilln tussn n meanse en n chimpansee oangveer tien maol zoo groot bint as die tussn twee niet-verwante meansn. Grootn deeln van t DNA bint haost t zölfde. Chimpansees hebt n chromosoom meer, umdat zi'j t chromosoom dat bi'j n meanse nummer 2 is in twee apatte deeln hebt.
Ok t gedrag van n chimpansee lek völle op dat van n meanse. Chimpansees bint sociale diern, die völle mut leern en dus ok n lange opgreuitied hebt. Daornaos vörmpt chimpansees koalities en vriendn. Chimpansees in t wild laot ok kultuurn zien, waor t gedrag van n iene gruup verschilt van n aander. Ok hebt onderzuukn bewezzn dat chimpansees empathie bezit en zich töt op zekere heugte kunt inleewn in n aander. Ze adopteert ok söms verweesde jonks van niet-verwante gruupsleedn, wat wes op altruïstisch gedrag. Dit gedrag is zowel bi'j mannechies as vrouwchies observeerd. Zi'j kent zi'j ok verdriet bi'j t starvn van verwantn.
Binn gruupn chimpansees speult zich komplexe gedragspatroonn of saomnhangnd met de veurtduurnde stried um dominantie, en daormet weer saomnhangnd t recht um zich veurt te plaantn en de verdeeling van ettn. Primatoloogn as Jane Goodall en Frans de Waal hebt op dit gebied deur langdurige observaties verbaazingwekknde waornemmings op-edaone. De verdienste van disse onderzuukers is ewest dat zi'j hebt an-eteund dat zeer veul chimpanseegedragings heel good te beschrievn en te duudn bint met tarms en mechanismn die ok uut de meenslijke psychologie bekend bint. Familiebaandn en coalities speult in t spel um de macht n groote rol in de chimpanseesaomnleeving.
Tussn chimpansees en bonobo's bestiet oovrigens groote gedragsverschilln. Bi'j bonobo's wörd veul meugelike konflictn op-elös deur seksueel gedrag, bi'j chimpansees veul vaker deur agressie.
De chimpansee (Pan troglodytes) is n Afrikaanse meansaap. Zien naauwste verwant is de dwargchimpansee of bonobo (Pan paniscus). Beide chimpansees wöd beschouwd as t nauwst nog leevnde verwant van de meanse. Sommige wetenskappers beschouwt de relasie tussn meanse en chimpansee op basis van DNA-onderzuuk as nauw genog um de chimpansee en de bonobo net as de meanse in t geslacht Homo te plaasn.
Ang karaniwang chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) na karaniwang tinatawag lang na chimpanzee o chimp at tinatawag ring robust chimpanzee ay isang espesye ng Hominidae. Ito ay kabilang sa henus na pan. Ang ebidensiya sa mga fossil at pagsesekwensiyang DNA ay nagpapakitang ang parehong mga espesye ng Pan ang mga kapatid na takson ng modernong lipi ng tao.
Ang ebidensiyang DNA ay nagmumungkahing ang bonobo at karaniwang chimpanzee ay naghiwalay mula sa bawat isa ng mababa sa isang milyong taon ang nakalilipas(katulad ng relasyon sa pagitan ng mga Homo sapiens at Neandertal).[3][4] Ang linyang chimpanzee ay naghiwalay mula sa huling karaniwang ninuno ng linyang tao ng tinatayang anim na milyong taon ang nakalilipas. Dahil walang espesye maliban sa Homo sapiens ang nakapagpatuloy mula sa linyang tao sa pagsasangang ito, ang parehong mga espesye ng Pan ang pinaka-malapit na mga nabubuhay na kamag-anak ng mga tao. Ang henus na Pan ay nag-diberhente mula sa henus ng gorilya mga pitong milyong taon ang nakalilipas. Ang ilang mga subespesye ng karaniwang chimpanzee ang: [5]
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|month= ignored (tulong) |month= ignored (tulong)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Ang karaniwang chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) na karaniwang tinatawag lang na chimpanzee o chimp at tinatawag ring robust chimpanzee ay isang espesye ng Hominidae. Ito ay kabilang sa henus na pan. Ang ebidensiya sa mga fossil at pagsesekwensiyang DNA ay nagpapakitang ang parehong mga espesye ng Pan ang mga kapatid na takson ng modernong lipi ng tao.
The common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), kent as the robust chimpanzee an aw, is a species o great ape. Colloquially, the common chimpanzee is aften cried the chimpanzee (or "chimp"), tho this term can be uised tae refer tae baith species in the genus Pan: the common chimpanzee an the closely relatit bonobo, umwhile cried the pygmy chimpanzee. Evidence frae fossils an DNA sequencing shaws baith species o chimpanzees are the sister group tae the modren human lineage.
The common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), kent as the robust chimpanzee an aw, is a species o great ape. Colloquially, the common chimpanzee is aften cried the chimpanzee (or "chimp"), tho this term can be uised tae refer tae baith species in the genus Pan: the common chimpanzee an the closely relatit bonobo, umwhile cried the pygmy chimpanzee. Evidence frae fossils an DNA sequencing shaws baith species o chimpanzees are the sister group tae the modren human lineage.
De Gewoene sjimpansee (Pan troglodytes) is 'ne hoegoontwikkelden aap oet de femilie Minsape, dee in Middel-Afrika veurkump, en dèks zoonder mie sjimpansee geneump weurt; in dees encyclopedie weurt mèt deen term evels nao alle bieste vaan 't geslach Pan verweze, dus ouch nao de bonobo. Zien leefumgeving zien oerwoude en nate savannes; door oontbossing en bejaoging is hun leefgebeed de aofgeloupe decennia sterk trökgeloupe.
De gewoene sjimpansee waog gemeinlik tösse de 40 en 70 kg; de mennekes weure zwoerder en veural langer es de vruiwkes: ze hole 160 cm tegeneuver 130 cm bij de vruiwkes. Ze zien väöl sterker es lui, en höbbe, zjus wie al aander Ape boete de mins, geliekweerdege han en veu, zoetot ze mèt veer ledemate al kinne pakke. Ze höbbe 'nen draagtied vaan 8 maond en weure mèt naoventrint tien jaor volwasse; hun levesverwachting is oongeveer 50 jaor, tien jaor minder es me eins veur gezoonde lui rekende. Allewel tot de bieste veural fruit en blajer ete zien ze neet gaans vegetarisch: ouch insekte (wie termiete) en klein gewèrvelde bieste stoon op 't menu. Soms goon ze same op jach.
De gene vaan 'ne gewoene sjimpansee koume veur e hiel groet deil euverein mèt die vaan de mins (ongeveer 96% geliek); zoeväöl tot sommege biologe gemeind höbbe tot de sjimpansee in 't zelfde geslach es de mins eingedeild mós weure ("Homo troglodytes" en "Homo paniscus" zouw me daan kriege). 't Veurnaomste versjèl is tot de mins ei paar chromosome mis wat de ander minsape wel höbbe (23 bij de mins tegeneuver 24 bij de sjimpansees dus); veur de rès zien de versjèlle erg klein. Gemiddeld versjèlt 'ne gewoene sjimpansee genetisch tien kier zoeväöl vaan 'ne mins es twie willekäörige lui oonderein.
Gewoene sjampansees zien georganiseerd in gemeinsjappe vaan inkel tientalle bieste, meh bringe väöl tied mètein door in kleiner gróppe. Ze kinne zoewel in buim es euver de groond good veurtbewege en zien op bei plaotse oongeveer eveväöl te vinde. Mennekes en vruiwkes kinne eder hun eige organisatie, meh in principe zien de diere patriarchaal (aanders es bij de bonobo's). Sjimpansees make gein langdurege relaties wie de mins dat deit.
De Gewoene sjimpansee (Pan troglodytes) is 'ne hoegoontwikkelden aap oet de femilie Minsape, dee in Middel-Afrika veurkump, en dèks zoonder mie sjimpansee geneump weurt; in dees encyclopedie weurt mèt deen term evels nao alle bieste vaan 't geslach Pan verweze, dus ouch nao de bonobo. Zien leefumgeving zien oerwoude en nate savannes; door oontbossing en bejaoging is hun leefgebeed de aofgeloupe decennia sterk trökgeloupe.
Hatun chimpansi (Pan troglodytes) nisqaqa huk hatun k'usillum, aswan hatun chimpansi rikch'aqmi, Afrikapi kawsaq.
Commons nisqaqa multimidya kapuyninkunayuqmi kay hawa: Hatun chimpansi.Hatun chimpansi (Pan troglodytes) nisqaqa huk hatun k'usillum, aswan hatun chimpansi rikch'aqmi, Afrikapi kawsaq.
Pan troglodytes es un taxon.
Sjimpansur halda fyri tað mesta til í trøum. Sjimpansur halda til í afrikonskum frumskógum, í skógum og graslendum. Tær kunnu flyta seg skjótt gjøgnum frumskógin við at sveiggja frá grein til grein. Sjimpansur eta mest plantur og frukt, men teimum dámar eisini væl kjøt, egg og skordjór. Um náttina sova tær uppi í trætoppunum í bólum, sum tær gera úr bløðum og greinum. Sjimpansur kunnu verða 1,7 metrar høgar og viga upp í 60 kilo. Hóast tær vanliga ganga á øllum fýra, eisini nevnt knúgva-gongd, so duga tær eisini at standa og ganga upprættar. Sjimpansur eru súgdjór og hoyra til mannapurnar, eins og vit menniskju.
Sjimpansur eru eitt av fáum djórum, sum duga at brúka amboð. Tær brúka til dømis ein pinn fyri at fáa fatur á skordjórum, sum halda til í rivum í viðarbulum, og brúka steinar at bróta nøtir við.
Sokwe Mtu wa Kawaida (Pan troglodytes) ni jina la nyani wakubwa wa familia Hominidae wanaofanana sana na binadamu. Sokwe Mtu wa Kawaida wanaishi katika maeneo ya tropiki ya Afrika.
Sokwe mtu mashariki
Sokwe mtu wa kati
Sokwe mtu magharibi
Sokwe Mtu wa Kawaida (Pan troglodytes) ni jina la nyani wakubwa wa familia Hominidae wanaofanana sana na binadamu. Sokwe Mtu wa Kawaida wanaishi katika maeneo ya tropiki ya Afrika.
Ο Χιμπαντζής ο κοινός (Pan troglodytes - Παν ο τρωγλοδύτης) είναι πρωτεύον της οικογένειας των Ανθρωποειδών. Αν και συχνά αποκαλείται απλά χιμπαντζής, τεχνικά αυτός ο όρος χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει κάθε είδος του γένους Παν (Pan), δηλαδή τον κοινό χιμπαντζή και τον Μπονόμπο ή Πυγμαίο Χιμπαντζή (Pan paniscus - Παν ο πανίσκος).
Πρόσφατες έρευνες στο DNA του Μπονόμπο και του κοινού Χιμπαντζή υποστηρίζουν πως η εξελικτική πορεία των δύο ειδών διαχωρίστηκε περίπου ένα εκατομμύριο χρόνια πριν. Ο τελευταίος κοινός πρόγονος όλων των χιμπαντζήδων με τον άνθρωπο έζησε περίπου έξι εκατομμύρια χρόνια πριν.[1][2] Επειδή κανένα άλλο είδος εκτός του ανθρώπου δεν επέζησε κατά την ανθρώπινη εξέλιξη στο γένος Homo, τα δύο είδη των χιμπαντζήδων αποτελούν τους πιο στενούς εξελικτικούς συγγενείς του ανθρώπου. Το γένος των χιμπαντζήδων, Παν, διαχωρίστηκε από το γένος των Γορίλων επτά εκατομμύρια χρόνια πριν.
Υπάρχουν πολλά διαφορετικά υποείδη κοινού Χιμπαντζή:
Οι ενήλικες στη φύση έχουν βάρος μεταξύ 40 και 65 κιλών. Τα αρσενικά έχουν ύψος 1,6 μέτρα και τα θηλυκά 1,3 μέτρα. Το τρίχωμα τους είναι μαύρο και το πρόσωπο, οι παλάμες, οι πατούσες και τα δάχτυλα είναι άτριχα. Οι αντίχειρες τους είναι αντιτάξιμοι, γεγονός που τους επιτρέπει να κάνουν κινήσεις των άνω άκρων με ακρίβεια.
Ο Χιμπαντζής ο κοινός (Pan troglodytes - Παν ο τρωγλοδύτης) είναι πρωτεύον της οικογένειας των Ανθρωποειδών. Αν και συχνά αποκαλείται απλά χιμπαντζής, τεχνικά αυτός ο όρος χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει κάθε είδος του γένους Παν (Pan), δηλαδή τον κοινό χιμπαντζή και τον Μπονόμπο ή Πυγμαίο Χιμπαντζή (Pan paniscus - Παν ο πανίσκος).
Шимпанзе (латин кылын Pan troglodytes) – Hominidae семьяысь Африкалэн бадӟым маймыл.
Мукет вид бонобо яке пичи шимпанзе (Pan paniscus).
Шимпанзе (лат. Pan troglodytes ) – Африкын Hominidae йамагатын Hominini йыжыҥын гыч кугу маймыл.
Бонобо але изи шимпанзе (Pan paniscus).
Шимпанзе (латин кылын Pan troglodytes) – Hominidae семьяысь Африкалэн бадӟым маймыл.
Мукет вид бонобо яке пичи шимпанзе (Pan paniscus).
சிம்பன்சி என்பது வாலில்லா ஒரு மனிதக் குரங்கு இனம். பல மரபியல் ஆய்வு முடிவுகள் சிம்பன்சியே மனிதனுக்கு மிக நெருங்கிய இனம் எனக் கூறுகின்றன. வெவ்வேறு ஆய்வு முடிவுகளிடையே சிறிய வேறுபாடுகள் இருப்பினும், மனிதரிலுள்ள 95-99% டி.என்.ஏ சிம்பன்சிகளில் டி.என்.ஏ யை ஒத்திருப்பதாக அறியப்படுகின்றது. இவை மனிதனை ஒத்திருந்தாலும், உருவில் சற்று சிறியதாக இருக்கும். உயரத்தில் சுமார் 1 மீ (3-4 அடி) இருக்கும். மனிதனோடு இவையும் முதனி என்னும் உயிரின உட்பிரிவில் சேரும் என உயிரின வகையாளர்கள் கருதுகிறார்கள். இவை ஆப்பிரிக்காவில் மேற்குப் பகுதிகளிலும், நடுப் பகுதிகளிலும் வாழ்கின்றன.
இதனை பொதுவாக சாதாரண சிம்பன்சி என்று அழைப்பர். இந்த சாதாரண சிம்பன்சிக்கு நெருங்கிய இனமான போனபோ என்னும் இன்னுமொரு வாலில்லாக் குரங்கினத்தையும் சேர்த்தே சிம்பன்சி என பெயரிடுவர்[3]. இவ்விரு இனங்களும் காங்கோ ஆற்றுக்குக் கிழக்காக வாழ்கின்றன.
சிம்பன்சிகள் மாமிசங்களை சிறிய கற்கருவிகளால் வெட்டி உண்ணத்தொடங்கியதால், அதன் பற்கள் கடித்து மெல்ல குறைவான அழுத்தமே தேவைப்பட்டது. அதன் பின் சந்ததியினர் இதனாலேயே அதன் வாய் பரிணாமம் அடைந்து பேசுவதற்கு ஏற்ற உடலமைப்பாக மாறியது என காட்டுவேர்டு பல்கலைக்கழகத்தின் பரிணாம ஆய்வாளர் டேனியல் லைபர்மேன் தனது ஆய்வு அறிக்கையில் தெரிவித்துள்ளார்.[4]
சிம்பன்சி என்பது வாலில்லா ஒரு மனிதக் குரங்கு இனம். பல மரபியல் ஆய்வு முடிவுகள் சிம்பன்சியே மனிதனுக்கு மிக நெருங்கிய இனம் எனக் கூறுகின்றன. வெவ்வேறு ஆய்வு முடிவுகளிடையே சிறிய வேறுபாடுகள் இருப்பினும், மனிதரிலுள்ள 95-99% டி.என்.ஏ சிம்பன்சிகளில் டி.என்.ஏ யை ஒத்திருப்பதாக அறியப்படுகின்றது. இவை மனிதனை ஒத்திருந்தாலும், உருவில் சற்று சிறியதாக இருக்கும். உயரத்தில் சுமார் 1 மீ (3-4 அடி) இருக்கும். மனிதனோடு இவையும் முதனி என்னும் உயிரின உட்பிரிவில் சேரும் என உயிரின வகையாளர்கள் கருதுகிறார்கள். இவை ஆப்பிரிக்காவில் மேற்குப் பகுதிகளிலும், நடுப் பகுதிகளிலும் வாழ்கின்றன.
இதனை பொதுவாக சாதாரண சிம்பன்சி என்று அழைப்பர். இந்த சாதாரண சிம்பன்சிக்கு நெருங்கிய இனமான போனபோ என்னும் இன்னுமொரு வாலில்லாக் குரங்கினத்தையும் சேர்த்தே சிம்பன்சி என பெயரிடுவர். இவ்விரு இனங்களும் காங்கோ ஆற்றுக்குக் கிழக்காக வாழ்கின்றன.
சிம்பன்சிகள் மாமிசங்களை சிறிய கற்கருவிகளால் வெட்டி உண்ணத்தொடங்கியதால், அதன் பற்கள் கடித்து மெல்ல குறைவான அழுத்தமே தேவைப்பட்டது. அதன் பின் சந்ததியினர் இதனாலேயே அதன் வாய் பரிணாமம் அடைந்து பேசுவதற்கு ஏற்ற உடலமைப்பாக மாறியது என காட்டுவேர்டு பல்கலைக்கழகத்தின் பரிணாம ஆய்வாளர் டேனியல் லைபர்மேன் தனது ஆய்வு அறிக்கையில் தெரிவித்துள்ளார்.
Mokómbósó[1] (Pan troglodytes)
The chimpanzee (/tʃɪmpænˈzi/; Pan troglodytes), also known as simply the chimp, is a species of great ape native to the forest and savannah of tropical Africa. It has four confirmed subspecies and a fifth proposed one. When its close relative the bonobo was more commonly known as the pygmy chimpanzee, this species was often called the common chimpanzee or the robust chimpanzee. The chimpanzee and the bonobo are the only species in the genus Pan. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing shows that Pan is a sister taxon to the human lineage and is humans' closest living relative. The chimpanzee is covered in coarse black hair, but has a bare face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. It is larger and more robust than the bonobo, weighing 40–70 kg (88–154 lb) for males and 27–50 kg (60–110 lb) for females and standing 150 cm (4 ft 11 in).
The chimpanzee lives in groups that range in size from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a strict male-dominated hierarchy, where disputes are generally settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass and leaves and using them for hunting and acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear small mammals. Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several years more.
The chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range. The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat loss, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzees appear in Western popular culture as stereotyped clown-figures and have featured in entertainments such as chimpanzees' tea parties, circus acts and stage shows. Although many chimpanzees have been kept as pets, their strength, aggressiveness, and unpredictability makes them dangerous in this role. Some hundreds have been kept in laboratories for research, especially in the United States. Many attempts have been made to teach languages such as American Sign Language to chimpanzees, with limited success.
The English word chimpanzee is first recorded in 1738.[5] It is derived from Vili ci-mpenze[6] or Tshiluba language chimpenze, with a meaning of "ape".[7] The colloquialism "chimp" was most likely coined some time in the late 1870s.[8] The genus name Pan derives from the Greek god, while the specific name troglodytes was taken from the Troglodytae, a mythical race of cave-dwellers.[9][10]
The first great ape known to Western science in the 17th century was the "orang-outang" (genus Pongo), the local Malay name being recorded in Java by the Dutch physician Jacobus Bontius. In 1641, the Dutch anatomist Nicolaes Tulp applied the name to a chimpanzee or bonobo brought to the Netherlands from Angola.[11] Another Dutch anatomist, Peter Camper, dissected specimens from Central Africa and Southeast Asia in the 1770s, noting the differences between the African and Asian apes. The German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach classified the chimpanzee as Simia troglodytes by 1775. Another German naturalist, Lorenz Oken, coined the genus Pan in 1816. The bonobo was recognised as distinct from the chimpanzee by 1933.[9][10][12]
Despite a large number of Homo fossil finds, Pan fossils were not described until 2005. Existing chimpanzee populations in West and Central Africa do not overlap with the major human fossil sites in East Africa, but chimpanzee fossils have now been reported from Kenya. This indicates that both humans and members of the Pan clade were present in the East African Rift Valley during the Middle Pleistocene.[15]
According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at George Washington University, bonobos, along with chimpanzees, split from the human line about 8 million years ago; moreover, bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago.[16][17] Another 2017 genetic study suggests ancient gene flow (introgression) between 200 and 550 thousand years ago from the bonobo into the ancestors of central and eastern chimpanzees.[18]
Four subspecies of the chimpanzee have been recognised,[19][20] with the possibility of a fifth:[18][21]
A draft version of the chimpanzee genome was published in 2005 and encodes 18,759 proteins,[28][29] (compared to 20,383 in the human proteome).[30] The DNA sequences of humans and chimpanzees are very similar and the difference in protein number mostly arises from incomplete sequences in the chimp genome. Both species differ by about 35 million single-nucleotide changes, five million insertion/deletion events and various chromosomal rearrangements.[31] Typical human and chimpanzee protein homologs differ in an average of only two amino acids. About 30% of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee protein. Duplications of small parts of chromosomes have been the major source of differences between human and chimpanzee genetic material; about 2.7% of the corresponding modern genomes represent differences, produced by gene duplications or deletions, since humans and chimpanzees diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor.[28][31]
Adult chimpanzees have an average standing height of 150 cm (4 ft 11 in).[32] Wild adult males weigh between 40 and 70 kg (88 and 154 lb)[33][34][35] with females weighing between 27 and 50 kg (60 and 110 lb).[36] In exceptional cases, certain individuals may considerably exceed these measurements, standing over 168 cm (5 ft 6 in) on two legs and weighing up to 136 kg (300 lb) in captivity.[a]
The chimpanzee is more robustly built than the bonobo but less than the gorilla. The arms of a chimpanzee are longer than its legs and can reach below the knees. The hands have long fingers with short thumbs and flat fingernails. The feet are adapted for grasping, and the big toe is opposable. The pelvis is long with an extended ilium. A chimpanzee's head is rounded with a prominent and prognathous face and a pronounced brow ridge. It has forward-facing eyes, a small nose, rounded non-lobed ears and a long mobile upper lip. Additionally, adult males have sharp canine teeth. Chimpanzees lack the prominent sagittal crest and associated head and neck musculature of gorillas.[39][12]
Chimpanzee bodies are covered by coarse hair, except for the face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. Chimpanzees lose more hair as they age and develop bald spots. The hair of a chimpanzee is typically black but can be brown or ginger. As they get older, white or grey patches may appear, particularly on the chin and lower region. The skin may range from pale to dark, though females develop swelling pink skin when in oestrus.[39][12]
Chimpanzees are adapted for both arboreal and terrestrial locomotion. Arboreal locomotion consists of vertical climbing and brachiation.[40][41] On the ground, chimpanzees move both quadrupedally and bipedally. These movements appear to have similar energy costs.[42] As with bonobos and gorillas, chimpanzees move quadrupedally by knuckle-walking, which probably evolved independently in Pan and Gorilla.[43] Their physical strength is around 1.5 times greater than humans due to higher content of fast twitch muscle fibres, one of the chimpanzee's adaptations for climbing and swinging.[44] According to Japan's Asahiyama Zoo, the grip strength of an adult chimpanzee is estimated to be 200 kg (440 lb),[45] while other sources claim figures of up to 330 kg (730 lb).[b]
The chimpanzee is a highly adaptable species. It lives in a variety of habitats, including dry savanna, evergreen rainforest, montane forest, swamp forest, and dry woodland-savanna mosaic.[48][49] In Gombe, the chimpanzee mostly uses semideciduous and evergreen forest as well as open woodland.[50] At Bossou, the chimpanzee inhabits multistage secondary deciduous forest, which has grown after shifting cultivation, as well as primary forest and grassland.[51] At Taï, it is found in the last remaining tropical rain forest in Ivory Coast.[52] The chimpanzee has an advanced cognitive map of its home range and can repeatedly find food.[53] The chimpanzee builds a sleeping nest in a tree in a different location each night, never using the same nest more than once. Chimpanzees sleep alone in separate nests except for infants or juvenile chimpanzees, which sleep with their mothers.[54]
The chimpanzee is an omnivorous frugivore. It prefers fruit above all other food items but also eats leaves, leaf buds, seeds, blossoms, stems, pith, bark, and resin.[55][56] A study in Budongo Forest, Uganda found that 64.5% of their feeding time concentrated on fruits (84.6% of which being ripe), particularly those from two species of Ficus, Maesopsis eminii, and Celtis gomphophylla. In addition, 19% of feeding time was spent on arboreal leaves, mostly Broussonetia papyrifera and Celtis mildbraedii.[57] While the chimpanzee is mostly herbivorous, it does eat honey, soil, insects, birds and their eggs, and small to medium-sized mammals, including other primates.[55][58] Insect species consumed include the weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda, Macrotermes termites, and honey bees.[59][60] The red colobus ranks at the top of preferred mammal prey. Other mammalian prey include red-tailed monkeys, infant and juvenile yellow baboons, bush babies, blue duikers, bushbucks, and common warthogs.[61]
Despite the fact that chimpanzees are known to hunt and to collect both insects and other invertebrates, such food actually makes up a very small portion of their diet, from as little as 2% yearly to as much as 65 grams of animal flesh per day for each adult chimpanzee in peak hunting seasons. This also varies from troop to troop and year to year. However, in all cases, the majority of their diet consists of fruits, leaves, roots, and other plant matter.[56][62] Female chimpanzees appear to consume much less animal flesh than males, according to several studies.[63] Jane Goodall documented many occasions within Gombe Stream National Park of chimpanzees and western red colobus monkeys ignoring each other despite close proximity.[64][54]
Chimpanzees do not appear to directly compete with gorillas in areas where they overlap. When fruit is abundant, gorilla and chimpanzee diets converge, but when fruit is scarce gorillas resort to vegetation.[65] The two apes may also feed on different species, whether fruit or insects.[66][59][60] Interactions between them can range from friendly and even stable social bonding,[67] to avoidance,[65][68] to aggression and predation on part of chimpanzees.[69]
The average lifespan of a chimpanzee in the wild is relatively short, usually less than 15 years, although individuals that reach 12 years may live an additional 15 years. On rare occasions, wild chimpanzees may live nearly 60 years. Captive chimpanzees tend to live longer than most wild ones, with median lifespans of 31.7 years for males and 38.7 years for females.[70] The oldest known male captive chimpanzee to have been documented lived to 66 years,[71] and the oldest female, Little Mama, was over 70 years old.[72]
Leopards prey on chimpanzees in some areas.[73][74] It is possible that much of the mortality caused by leopards can be attributed to individuals that have specialised in chimp-killing.[73] Chimpanzees may react to a leopard's presence with loud vocalising, branch shaking, and throwing objects.[75][73] There is at least one record of chimpanzees killing a leopard cub after mobbing it and its mother in their den.[76] Four chimpanzees could have fallen prey to lions at Mahale Mountains National Park. Although no other instances of lion predation on chimpanzees have been recorded, lions likely do kill chimpanzees occasionally, and the larger group sizes of savanna chimpanzees may have developed as a response to threats from these big cats. Chimpanzees may react to lions by fleeing up trees, vocalising, or hiding in silence.[77]
Chimpanzees and humans share only 50% of their parasite and microbe species. This is due to the differences in environmental and dietary adaptations; human internal parasite species overlap more with omnivorous, savanna-dwelling baboons. The chimpanzee is host to the louse species Pediculus schaeffi, a close relative of P. humanus, which infests human head and body hair. By contrast, the human pubic louse Pthirus pubis is closely related to Pthirus gorillae, which infests gorillas.[78]A 2017 study of gastrointestinal parasites of wild chimpanzees in degraded forest in Uganda found nine species of protozoa, five nematodes, one cestode, and one trematode. The most prevalent species was the protozoan Troglodytella abrassarti.[79]
Recent studies have suggested that human observers influence chimpanzee behaviour. One suggestion is that drones, camera traps, and remote microphones should be used to record and monitor chimpanzees rather than direct human observation.[80]
Chimpanzees live in communities that typically range from around 20 to more than 150 members but spend most of their time traveling in small, temporary groups consisting of a few individuals. These groups may consist of any combination of age and sexes. Both males and females sometimes travel alone.[54] This fission-fusion society may include groups of four types: all-male, adult females and offspring, adults of both sexes, or one female and her offspring. These smaller groups emerge in a variety of types, for a variety of purposes. For example, an all-male troop may be organised to hunt for meat, while a group consisting of lactating females serves to act as a "nursery group" for the young.[81]
At the core of social structures are males, which patrol the territory, protect group members, and search for food. Males remain in their natal communities, while females generally emigrate at adolescence. Males in a community are more likely to be related to one another than females are to each other. Among males, there is generally a dominance hierarchy, and males are dominant over females.[82] However, this unusual fission-fusion social structure, "in which portions of the parent group may on a regular basis separate from and then rejoin the rest,"[83] is highly variable in terms of which particular individual chimpanzees congregate at a given time. This is caused mainly by the large measure of individual autonomy that individuals have within their fission-fusion social groups.[39] As a result, individual chimpanzees often forage for food alone, or in smaller groups, as opposed to the much larger "parent" group, which encompasses all the chimpanzees which regularly come into contact with each other and congregate into parties in a particular area.[81]
Male chimpanzees exist in a linear dominance hierarchy. Top-ranking males tend to be aggressive even during dominance stability.[84] This is probably due to the chimpanzee's fission-fusion society, with male chimpanzees leaving groups and returning after extended periods of time. With this, a dominant male is unsure if any "political maneuvering" has occurred in his absence and must re-establish his dominance. Thus, a large amount of aggression occurs within five to fifteen minutes after a reunion. During these encounters, displays of aggression are generally preferred over physical attacks.[84][85]
Males maintain and improve their social ranks by forming coalitions, which have been characterised as "exploitative" and based on an individual's influence in agonistic interactions.[86] Being in a coalition allows males to dominate a third individual when they could not by themselves, as politically apt chimpanzees can exert power over aggressive interactions regardless of their rank. Coalitions can also give an individual male the confidence to challenge a dominant or larger male. The more allies a male has, the better his chance of becoming dominant. However, most changes in hierarchical rank are caused by dyadic interactions.[84][87] Chimpanzee alliances can be very fickle, and one member may suddenly turn on another if it is to his advantage.[88]
Low-ranking males frequently switch sides in disputes between more dominant individuals. Low-ranking males benefit from an unstable hierarchy and often find increased sexual opportunities if a dispute or conflict occurs.[86][88] In addition, conflicts between dominant males cause them to focus on each other rather than the lower-ranking males. Social hierarchies among adult females tend to be weaker. Nevertheless, the status of an adult female may be important for her offspring.[89] Females in Taï have also been recorded to form alliances.[90] While chimpanzee social structure is often referred to as patriarchal, it is not entirely unheard of for females to forge coalitions against males.[91] There is also at least one recorded case of females securing a dominant position over males in their respective troop, albeit in a captive environment.[92] Social grooming appears to be important in the formation and maintenance of coalitions. It is more common among adult males than either between adult females or between males and females.[87]
Chimpanzees have been described as highly territorial and will frequently kill other chimpanzees,[93] although Margaret Power wrote in her 1991 book The Egalitarians that the field studies from which the aggressive data came, Gombe and Mahale, used artificial feeding systems that increased aggression in the chimpanzee populations studied. Thus, the behaviour may not reflect innate characteristics of the species as a whole.[94] In the years following her artificial feeding conditions at Gombe, Jane Goodall described groups of male chimpanzees patrolling the borders of their territory, brutally attacking chimpanzees that had split off from the Gombe group. A study published in 2010 found that the chimpanzees wage wars over territory, not mates.[95] Patrols from smaller groups are more likely to avoid contact with their neighbours. Patrols from large groups even take over a smaller group's territory, gaining access to more resources, food, and females.[96][88] While it was traditionally accepted that only female chimpanzees immigrate and males remain in their natal troop for life, there are confirmed cases of adult males safely integrating themselves into new communities among West African chimpanzees, suggesting they are less territorial than other subspecies.[97]
Chimpanzees mate throughout the year, although the number of females in oestrus varies seasonally in a group.[98] Female chimpanzees are more likely to come into oestrus when food is readily available. Oestrous females exhibit sexual swellings. Chimpanzees are promiscuous: during oestrus, females mate with several males in their community, while males have large testicles for sperm competition. Other forms of mating also exist. A community's dominant males sometimes restrict reproductive access to females. A male and female can form a consortship and mate outside their community. In addition, females sometimes leave their community and mate with males from neighboring communities.[99][100]
These alternative mating strategies give females more mating opportunities without losing the support of the males in their community.[100] Infanticide has been recorded in chimpanzee communities in some areas, and the victims are often consumed. Male chimpanzees practice infanticide on unrelated young to shorten the interbirth intervals in the females.[101][102] Females sometimes practice infanticide. This may be related to the dominance hierarchy in females or may simply be pathological.[89]
Copulation is brief, lasting approximately seven seconds.[103] The gestation period is eight months.[39] Care for the young is provided mostly by their mothers. The survival and emotional health of the young is dependent on maternal care. Mothers provide their young with food, warmth, and protection, and teach them certain skills. In addition, a chimpanzee's future rank may be dependent on its mother's status.[104][105] Male chimpanzees continue to associate with the females they impregnated and interact with and support their offsping.[106] Newborn chimpanzees are helpless. For example, their grasping reflex is not strong enough to support them for more than a few seconds. For their first 30 days, infants cling to their mother's bellies. Infants are unable to support their own weight for their first two months and need their mothers' support.[107]
When they reach five to six months, infants ride on their mothers' backs. They remain in continual contact for the rest of their first year. When they reach two years of age, they are able to move and sit independently and start moving beyond the arms' reach of their mothers. By four to six years, chimpanzees are weaned and infancy ends. The juvenile period for chimpanzees lasts from their sixth to ninth years. Juveniles remain close to their mothers, but interact an increasing amount with other members of their community. Adolescent females move between groups and are supported by their mothers in agonistic encounters. Adolescent males spend time with adult males in social activities like hunting and boundary patrolling.[107] A captive study suggests males can safely immigrate to a new group if accompanied by immigrant females who have an existing relationship with this male. This gives the resident males reproductive advantages with these females, as they are more inclined to remain in the group if their male friend is also accepted.[108]
Chimpanzees use facial expressions, postures, and sounds to communicate with each other. Chimpanzees have expressive faces that are important in close-up communications. When frightened, a "full closed grin" causes nearby individuals to be fearful, as well. Playful chimpanzees display an open-mouthed grin. Chimpanzees may also express themselves with the "pout", which is made in distress, the "sneer", which is made when threatening or fearful, and "compressed-lips face", which is a type of display. When submitting to a dominant individual, a chimpanzee crunches, bobs, and extends a hand. When in an aggressive mode, a chimpanzee swaggers bipedally, hunched over and arms waving, in an attempt to exaggerate its size.[110] While travelling, chimpanzees keep in contact by beating their hands and feet against the trunks of large trees, an act that is known as "drumming". They also do this when encountering individuals from other communities.[111]
Vocalisations are also important in chimpanzee communication. The most common call in adults is the "pant-hoot", which may signal social rank and bond along with keeping groups together. Pant-hoots are made of four parts, starting with soft "hoos", the introduction; that gets louder and louder, the build-up; and climax into screams and sometimes barks; these die down back to soft "hoos" during the letdown phase as the call ends.[111][109] Grunting is made in situations like feeding and greeting.[111] Submissive individuals make "pant-grunts" towards their superiors.[112][89] Whimpering is made by young chimpanzees as a form of begging or when lost from the group.[111] Chimpanzees use distance calls to draw attention to danger, food sources, or other community members.[113] "Barks" may be made as "short barks" when hunting and "tonal barks" when sighting large snakes.[111]
When hunting small monkeys such as the red colobus, chimpanzees hunt where the forest canopy is interrupted or irregular. This allows them to easily corner the monkeys when chasing them in the appropriate direction. Chimpanzees may also hunt as a coordinated team, so that they can corner their prey even in a continuous canopy. During an arboreal hunt, each chimpanzee in the hunting groups has a role. "Drivers" serve to keep the prey running in a certain direction and follow them without attempting to make a catch. "Blockers" are stationed at the bottom of the trees and climb up to block prey that takes off in a different direction. "Chasers" move quickly and try to make a catch. Finally, "ambushers" hide and rush out when a monkey nears.[114] While both adults and infants are taken, adult male colobus monkeys will attack the hunting chimps.[115] Male chimpanzees hunt more than females. When caught and killed, the meal is distributed to all hunting party members and even bystanders.[114]
Chimpanzees display numerous signs of intelligence, from the ability to remember symbols[116] to cooperation,[117] tool use,[118] and perhaps language.[119] They are among species that have passed the mirror test, suggesting self-awareness.[120] In one study, two young chimpanzees showed retention of mirror self-recognition after one year without access to mirrors.[121] Chimpanzees have been observed to use insects to treat their own wounds and those of others. They catch them and apply them directly to the injury.[122] Chimpanzees also display signs of culture among groups, with the learning and transmission of variations in grooming, tool use and foraging techniques leading to localized traditions.[123]
A 30-year study at Kyoto University's Primate Research Institute has shown that chimpanzees are able to learn to recognise the numbers 1 to 9 and their values. The chimpanzees further show an aptitude for eidetic memory, demonstrated in experiments in which the jumbled digits are flashed onto a computer screen for less than a quarter of a second. One chimpanzee, Ayumu, was able to correctly and quickly point to the positions where they appeared in ascending order. Ayumu performed better than human adults who were given the same test.[116]
In controlled experiments on cooperation, chimpanzees show a basic understanding of cooperation, and recruit the best collaborators.[117] In a group setting with a device that delivered food rewards only to cooperating chimpanzees, cooperation first increased, then, due to competitive behaviour, decreased, before finally increasing to the highest level through punishment and other arbitrage behaviours.[124]
Great apes show laughter-like vocalisations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling. This is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees. Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognisable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. Instances in which nonhuman primates have expressed joy have been reported. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body, such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age.[125]
Chimpanzees have displayed different behaviours in response to a dying or dead group member. When witnessing a sudden death, the other group members act in frenzy, with vocalisations, aggressive displays, and touching of the corpse. In one case chimpanzees cared for a dying elder, then attended and cleaned the corpse. Afterward, they avoided the spot where the elder died and behaved in a more subdued manner.[126] Mothers have been reported to carry around and groom their dead infants for several days.[127]
Experimenters now and then witness behaviour that cannot be readily reconciled with chimpanzee intelligence or theory of mind. Wolfgang Köhler, for instance, reported insightful behaviour in chimpanzees, but he likewise often observed that they experienced "special difficulty" in solving simple problems.[128] Researchers also reported that, when faced with a choice between two persons, chimpanzees were just as likely to beg food from a person who could see the begging gesture as from a person who could not, thereby raising the possibility that chimpanzees lack theory of mind.[129]
Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools. They modify sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them when foraging for termites and ants,[130] nuts,[131][132][130][133] honey,[134] algae[135] or water. Despite the lack of complexity, forethought and skill are apparent in making these tools.[118] Chimpanzees have used stone tools since at least 4,300 years ago.[136]
A chimpanzee from the Kasakela chimpanzee community was the first nonhuman animal reported making a tool, by modifying a twig to use as an instrument for extracting termites from their mound.[137][138] At Taï, chimpanzees simply use their hands to extract termites.[118] When foraging for honey, chimpanzees use modified short sticks to scoop the honey out of the hive if the bees are stingless. For hives of the dangerous African honeybees, chimpanzees use longer and thinner sticks to extract the honey.[139]
Chimpanzees also fish for ants using the same tactic.[140] Ant dipping is difficult and some chimpanzees never master it. West African chimpanzees crack open hard nuts with stones or branches.[140][118] Some forethought in this activity is apparent, as these tools are not found together or where the nuts are collected. Nut cracking is also difficult and must be learned.[140] Chimpanzees also use leaves as sponges or spoons to drink water.[141]
West African chimpanzees in Senegal were found to sharpen sticks with their teeth, which were then used to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees.[142] An eastern chimpanzee has been observed using a modified branch as a tool to capture a squirrel.[143]
Whilst experimental studies on captive chimpanzees have found that many of their species-typical tool-use behaviours can be individually learnt by each chimpanzees,[144] a 2021 study on their abilities to make and use stone flakes, in a similar way as hypothesised for early hominins, did not find this behaviour across two populations of chimpanzees - suggesting that this behaviour is outside the chimpanzee species-typical range.[145]
Scientists have attempted to teach human language to several species of great ape. One early attempt by Allen and Beatrix Gardner in the 1960s involved spending 51 months teaching American Sign Language to a chimpanzee named Washoe. The Gardners reported that Washoe learned 151 signs, and had spontaneously taught them to other chimpanzees, including her adopted son, Loulis.[146] Over a longer period of time, Washoe was reported to have learned over 350 signs.[147]
Debate is ongoing among scientists such as David Premack about chimpanzees' ability to learn language. Since the early reports on Washoe, numerous other studies have been conducted, with varying levels of success.[119] One involved a chimpanzee jokingly named Nim Chimpsky (in allusion to the theorist of language Noam Chomsky), trained by Herbert Terrace of Columbia University. Although his initial reports were quite positive, in November 1979, Terrace and his team, including psycholinguist Thomas Bever, re-evaluated the videotapes of Nim with his trainers, analyzing them frame by frame for signs, as well as for exact context (what was happening both before and after Nim's signs). In the reanalysis, Terrace and Bever concluded that Nim's utterances could be explained merely as prompting on the part of the experimenters, as well as mistakes in reporting the data. "Much of the apes' behaviour is pure drill", he said. "Language still stands as an important definition of the human species." In this reversal, Terrace now argued Nim's use of ASL was not like human language acquisition. Nim never initiated conversations himself, rarely introduced new words, and mostly imitated what the humans did. More importantly, Nim's word strings varied in their ordering, suggesting that he was incapable of syntax. Nim's sentences also did not grow in length, unlike human children whose vocabulary and sentence length show a strong positive correlation.[148]
Chimpanzees are rarely represented in African culture, as people find their resemblance to humans discomforting. The Gio people of Liberia and the Hemba people of the Congo have created masks of the animals. Gio masks are crude and blocky, and worn when teaching young people how not to behave. The Hemba masks have a smile that suggests drunken anger, insanity or horror and are worn during rituals at funerals, representing the "awful reality of death". The masks may also serve to guard households and protect both human and plant fertility. Stories have been told of chimpanzees kidnapping and raping women.[149]
In Western popular culture, chimpanzees have occasionally been stereotyped as childlike companions, sidekicks or clowns. They are especially suited for the latter role on account of their prominent facial features, long limbs and fast movements, which humans often find amusing. Accordingly, entertainment acts featuring chimpanzees dressed up as humans with lip-synchronised human voices have been traditional staples of circuses, stage shows and TV shows like Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp (1970-1972) and The Chimp Channel (1999).[150] From 1926 until 1972, London Zoo, followed by several other zoos around the world, held a chimpanzees' tea party daily, inspiring a long-running series of advertisements for PG Tips tea featuring such a party.[151][152] Animal rights groups have urged a stop to such acts, considering them abusive.[153]
Chimpanzees in media include Judy on the television series Daktari in the 1960s and Darwin on The Wild Thornberrys in the 1990s. In contrast to the fictional depictions of other animals, such as dogs (as in Lassie), dolphins (Flipper), horses (The Black Stallion) or even other great apes (King Kong), chimpanzee characters and actions are rarely relevant to the plot. Depictions of chimpanzees as individuals rather than stock characters, and as central rather than incidental to the plot can be found in science fiction. Robert A. Heinlein's 1947 short story "Jerry Was a Man" concerns a genetically enhanced chimpanzee suing for better treatment. The 1972 film Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, the third sequel of the 1968 film Planet of the Apes, portrays a futuristic revolt of enslaved apes led by the only talking chimpanzee, Caesar, against their human masters.[150]
Chimpanzees have traditionally been kept as pets in a few African villages, especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Virunga National Park in the east of the country, the park authorities regularly confiscate chimpanzees from people keeping them as pets.[154] Outside their range, chimpanzees are popular as exotic pets despite their strength and aggression. Even where keeping non-human primates as pets is illegal, the exotic pet trade continues to prosper, leading to injuries from attacks.[155]
Hundreds of chimpanzees have been kept in laboratories for research. Most such laboratories either conduct or make the animals available for invasive research,[156] defined as "inoculation with an infectious agent, surgery or biopsy conducted for the sake of research and not for the sake of the chimpanzee, and/or drug testing".[157] Research chimpanzees tend to be used repeatedly over decades for up to 40 years, unlike the pattern of use of most laboratory animals.[158] Two federally funded American laboratories use chimpanzees: the Yerkes National Primate Research Center at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, and the Southwest National Primate Center in San Antonio, Texas.[159] Five hundred chimpanzees have been retired from laboratory use in the U.S. and live in animal sanctuaries in the U.S. or Canada.[156]
A five-year moratorium was imposed by the US National Institutes of Health in 1996, because too many chimpanzees had been bred for HIV research, and it has been extended annually since 2001.[159] With the publication of the chimpanzee genome, plans to increase the use of chimpanzees in America were reportedly increasing in 2006, some scientists arguing that the federal moratorium on breeding chimpanzees for research should be lifted.[159][160] However, in 2007, the NIH made the moratorium permanent.[161]
Other researchers argue that chimpanzees either should not be used in research, or should be treated differently, for instance with legal status as persons.[162] Pascal Gagneux, an evolutionary biologist and primate expert at the University of California, San Diego, argues, given chimpanzees' sense of self, tool use, and genetic similarity to human beings, studies using chimpanzees should follow the ethical guidelines used for human subjects unable to give consent.[159] A recent study suggests chimpanzees which are retired from labs exhibit a form of post-traumatic stress disorder.[163] Stuart Zola, director of the Yerkes laboratory, disagrees. He told National Geographic: "I don't think we should make a distinction between our obligation to treat humanely any species, whether it's a rat or a monkey or a chimpanzee. No matter how much we may wish it, chimps are not human."[159]
Only one European laboratory, the Biomedical Primate Research Centre in Rijswijk, the Netherlands, used chimpanzees in research. It formerly held 108 chimpanzees among 1,300 non-human primates. The Dutch ministry of science decided to phase out research at the centre from 2001.[164] Trials already under way were however allowed to run their course.[165] Chimpanzees including the female Ai have been studied at the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University, Japan, formerly directed by Tetsuro Matsuzawa, since 1978. Some 12 chimpanzees are currently held at the facility.[166]
Two chimpanzees have been sent into outer space as NASA research subjects. Ham, the first great ape in space, was launched in the Mercury-Redstone 2 capsule on 31 January 1961, and survived the suborbital flight. Enos, the third primate to orbit Earth after Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov, flew on Mercury-Atlas 5 on 29 November of the same year.[167][168]
Jane Goodall undertook the first long-term field study of the chimpanzee, begun in Tanzania at Gombe Stream National Park in 1960.[169] Other long-term studies begun in the 1960s include A. Kortlandt's in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Toshisada Nishida's in Mahale Mountains National Park in Tanzania.[170][171] Current understanding of the species' typical behaviours and social organisation has been formed largely from Goodall's ongoing 60-year Gombe research study.[172][173][94]
Chimpanzees have attacked humans.[174][175] In Uganda, several attacks on children have happened, some of them fatal. Some of these attacks may have been due to the chimpanzees being intoxicated (from alcohol obtained from rural brewing operations) and becoming aggressive towards humans.[176] Human interactions with chimpanzees may be especially dangerous if the chimpanzees perceive humans as potential rivals.[177] At least six cases of chimpanzees snatching and eating human babies are documented.[178]
A chimpanzee's strength and sharp teeth mean that attacks, even on adult humans, can cause severe injuries. This was evident after the attack and near death of former NASCAR driver St. James Davis, who was mauled by two escaped chimpanzees (in the St. James Davis Chimpanzee Attack) while he and his wife were celebrating the birthday of their former pet chimpanzee.[179][180] Another example of chimpanzees being aggressive toward humans occurred in 2009 in Stamford, Connecticut, when a 90-kilogram (200 lb), 13-year-old pet chimpanzee named Travis attacked his owner's friend, who lost her hands, eyes, nose, and part of her maxilla from the attack.[181][182]
Two primary classes of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 is largely confined to west Africa.[183] Both types originated in west and central Africa, jumping from other primates to humans. HIV-1 has evolved from a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpz) found in the subspecies P. t. troglodytes of southern Cameroon.[184][185] Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has the greatest genetic diversity of HIV-1 so far discovered, suggesting the virus has been there longer than anywhere else. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of HIV, found in the sooty mangabey monkeys in Guinea-Bissau.[183]
The chimpanzee is on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Chimpanzees are legally protected in most of their range and are found both in and outside national parks. Between 172,700 and 299,700 individuals are thought to be living in the wild,[3] a decrease from about a million chimpanzees in the early 1900s.[186] Chimpanzees are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited and all other international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permitting system.[4]
The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzee habitats have been limited by deforestation in both West and Central Africa. Road building has caused habitat degradation and fragmentation of chimpanzee populations and may allow poachers more access to areas that had not been seriously affected by humans. Although deforestation rates are low in western Central Africa, selective logging may take place outside national parks.[3]
Chimpanzees are a common target for poachers. In Ivory Coast, chimpanzees make up 1–3% of bushmeat sold in urban markets. They are also taken, often illegally, for the pet trade and are hunted for medicinal purposes in some areas. Farmers sometimes kill chimpanzees that threaten their crops; others are unintentionally maimed or killed by snares meant for other animals.[3]
Infectious diseases are a main cause of death for chimpanzees. They succumb to many diseases that afflict humans because the two species are so similar. As human populations grow, so does the risk of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees.[3]
The chimpanzee (/tʃɪmpænˈzi/; Pan troglodytes), also known as simply the chimp, is a species of great ape native to the forest and savannah of tropical Africa. It has four confirmed subspecies and a fifth proposed one. When its close relative the bonobo was more commonly known as the pygmy chimpanzee, this species was often called the common chimpanzee or the robust chimpanzee. The chimpanzee and the bonobo are the only species in the genus Pan. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing shows that Pan is a sister taxon to the human lineage and is humans' closest living relative. The chimpanzee is covered in coarse black hair, but has a bare face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. It is larger and more robust than the bonobo, weighing 40–70 kg (88–154 lb) for males and 27–50 kg (60–110 lb) for females and standing 150 cm (4 ft 11 in).
The chimpanzee lives in groups that range in size from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a strict male-dominated hierarchy, where disputes are generally settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass and leaves and using them for hunting and acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear small mammals. Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several years more.
The chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range. The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat loss, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzees appear in Western popular culture as stereotyped clown-figures and have featured in entertainments such as chimpanzees' tea parties, circus acts and stage shows. Although many chimpanzees have been kept as pets, their strength, aggressiveness, and unpredictability makes them dangerous in this role. Some hundreds have been kept in laboratories for research, especially in the United States. Many attempts have been made to teach languages such as American Sign Language to chimpanzees, with limited success.
La ĉimpanzo (science: Pan troglodytes)[2] estas primato kiu estas membro de la familio homedoj. Ĉimpanzoj kaj bonoboj estas la du specioj de la ĉimpanza genro, kiun oni konsideras la plej proksima kuzo al homo inter la bestoj (vidu la artikolon pri homedoj). La konga formado povus esti kondukinta al alopatria speciiĝo de la bonobo kaj de la ĉimpanzo el ties Plej ĵusa komuna praulo.[3]
Linnaeus nomis ilin Homo troglodytes - "homo de la kaverno". La unua parto de la nomo estis korektita, sed ne la dua, kvankam ĉimpanzoj ne loĝas en kavernoj.
En la 1960-aj kaj poste, Jane Goodall loĝis en la ĝangalo por studi la ĉimpanzojn. Ŝi trovis, inter alie, ke ili estas pli agresemaj ol ni supozis kaj povas inventi simplajn ilojn.
Kvankam al afrotropisa specio oni ne povas instrui paroli, pro la formiĝo de la laringo, kiun posedas nur la homoj, oni ekde 1966 (projekto Washoe, fare de Allen kaj Beatrix Gardner) sukcsesis lernigi al ili certagrade gestolingvon de la surduloj (Ameslan). En tiuj eksperimentoj, pluigitaj de Roger Fouts, montriĝis, ke ili kapablas kombini spontane signojn, simile al tio, kion faras homoj (ekzemple "frukto-trinkaĵo" por akvomelono aŭ "frukto-dolorigi-plori" por akra rafano), kaj derivi figurajn sencojn el konkretaj (ekzemple ili spontane kreis insultojn per konkreta vorto: "malpura") Aliaj eksperimentoj evidentigis la samajn lingvokapablojn per uzo de komputiloj (Ĉimpazino Lana) aŭ de simbolaj pecoj el plasto (vidu Yerkish). Unu jaron post la komenco de tiuj eksperimentoj nederlanda esploristo montris, ke ankaŭ en la naturo ili komunikas per gestoj, kaj ke tiuj malsamas laŭ la komunumoj, kiel iaj "dialektoj". Por pli da detaloj vidu artikolon: Lingvokapabloj de simioj.
La ĉimpanzo (science: Pan troglodytes) estas primato kiu estas membro de la familio homedoj. Ĉimpanzoj kaj bonoboj estas la du specioj de la ĉimpanza genro, kiun oni konsideras la plej proksima kuzo al homo inter la bestoj (vidu la artikolon pri homedoj). La konga formado povus esti kondukinta al alopatria speciiĝo de la bonobo kaj de la ĉimpanzo el ties Plej ĵusa komuna praulo.
El chimpancé común (Pan troglodytes) o simplemente chimpancé es una especie de primate homínido propia de África tropical. Los chimpancés —junto a los bonobos— son los parientes vivos más cercanos al ser humano; su rama evolutiva se separó de la rama de los humanos hace aproximadamente siete millones de años y comparten el 98 % del ADN con ellos,[2] lo que ha llevado a Jared Diamond a utilizar el término "el tercer chimpancé" para referirse a nuestra propia especie. Los machos llegan a pesar unos 80 kg en cautiverio y a medir hasta 1,7 m. Se caracteriza por su inteligencia avanzada, a menudo comparada con la de los seres humanos. Por ejemplo, se ha observado que los chimpancés jóvenes se construyen "muñecos" y otros juguetes con palos y bastones.[3]
Actualmente está en peligro de extinción debido a la deforestación de su hábitat natural.
Podemos encontrar chimpancés en las selvas tropicales y sabanas húmedas de África central y occidental. Solían habitar la mayor parte de esta región, pero su hábitat ha sido drásticamente reducido en los últimos años por la deforestación.
En posición erecta los adultos miden entre 1 m y 1,7 m de estatura. Los machos en libertad pesan entre 34 y 70 kg, mientras las hembras tienen entre 26 y 50 kg. En cautiverio los machos pueden pesar hasta 80 kg y las hembras 68 kg. Aparentemente P. t. schweinfurthii pesa menos que P. t. verus, el cual es más pequeño que P. t. troglodytes. Los brazos de los chimpancés son mucho más largos que sus piernas. La envergadura de sus brazos es de aproximadamente 1,5 veces la estatura del individuo. Los brazos largos les permiten a estos primates balancearse pasando de rama en rama; esta modalidad de locomoción se denomina braquiación. También poseen dedos y manos largos, pero el pulgar es corto. Esto les permite sostenerse de las ramas sin interferir con la movilidad de los pulgares.[4]
Los chimpancés tienen una capacidad craneal de 320 a 480 centímetros cúbicos, muy inferior a la de los humanos modernos (Homo sapiens), que tienen en promedio 1400 centímetros cúbicos.[4]
Sus cuerpos están cubiertos por un pelaje grueso de color marrón oscuro, con excepción del rostro, dedos, palmas de las manos y plantas de los pies. Tanto sus pulgares como el dedo grande del pie son oponibles, permitiendo un agarre preciso. La gestación del chimpancé dura ocho meses. Las crías son destetadas aproximadamente a la edad de tres años, pero generalmente mantienen una relación cercana con su madre por varios años más. La pubertad es alcanzada a la edad de ocho a diez años y su esperanza de vida es de 50 años en cautiverio.
Su dieta es principalmente vegetariana (frutas, hojas, nueces, raíces, tubérculos, etc.), complementada por insectos y pequeñas presas; existen instancias de cacerías organizadas. En algunos casos —como la matanza de cachorros de leopardo— esta cacería parece ser un esfuerzo de protección por los chimpancés, más que una motivación por el hambre. Existen casos documentados de canibalismo, aunque es poco común.[cita requerida]
Los chimpancés adultos poseen pocos depredadores naturales. El más frecuente es el leopardo, que igualmente prefiere otro tipo de presas debido al peligro que suponen los chimpancés en grupos. En un segundo lugar está el cocodrilo del Nilo, que puede cazarlos cuando se acercan a beber agua o cruzar ríos o arroyos donde habite el predador, pero esto sucede de manera poco frecuente debido a que los chimpancés conocen el peligro que suponen los cursos de agua y tratan de evitarlos. Y el otro depredador se trata de la pitón de roca africana, que también prefiere otro tipo de presas debido a que los chimpancés suelen estar en grupo y ello representa un riesgo.
Los chimpancés viven en grupos llamados comunidades que oscilan entre los 20 y más de 150 miembros, consistiendo de varios machos, hembras y jóvenes. Sin embargo, la mayor parte del tiempo se desplazan en pequeños grupos de unos pocos individuos. Los chimpancés son tanto arbóreos como terrestres, pasando la misma cantidad de tiempo sobre los árboles que sobre el suelo. Su modo de desplazamiento habitual es a cuatro patas, utilizando las plantas de los pies y las segundas falanges de los dedos de las manos, y pueden caminar en posición bípeda únicamente por distancias cortas.
El chimpancé común vive en sociedades de fisión-fusión,[N 1] donde el apareamiento es promiscuo. Los chimpancés pueden tener los siguientes grupos: Solo machos, hembras adultas y su descendencia, grupos con miembros de ambos sexos, una hembra y su descendencia, o individuos solitarios. En el centro de la estructura social se encuentran los machos, quienes patrullan y cuidan a los miembros de su grupo, y participan en la búsqueda de alimento. Entre los machos usualmente hay una jerarquía de dominancia. Sin embargo, la inusual estructura social de fisión-fusión, en la cual porciones del grupo parental puede separarse o volverse a unir a él, es altamente variable en términos de que individuos particulares se congregan en un momento dado. Esto se debe principalmente a que los chimpancés tienen un alto nivel de autonomía dentro de la fisión-fusión de los grupos a los que pertenecen. También las comunidades de chimpancés tienen grandes rangos de territorio que se solapan con los de otros grupos.
Como resultado, individuos chimpancés con frecuencia van solos en la búsqueda de alimentos, o en grupos pequeños. Como se indicaba, estos pequeños grupos también emergen en una gran variedad de tipos para una gran variedad de propósitos. Por ejemplo, una pequeña tropa de machos puede organizarse para cazar y obtener carne, mientras que un grupo consistente de un macho maduro y una hembra madura pueden establecerse como grupo con el propósito de copular. Un individuo puede encontrarse con otros individuos con cierta frecuencia pero puede haber peleas con otros individuos no frecuentados. Debido a la varianza frecuente de la forma como los chimpancés se asocian, la estructura de sus sociedades es muy complicada.
Durante el siglo XX se han hecho varios trabajos tendientes a establecer una taxonomía clara del chimpancé. Fue el zoólogo alemán Ernst Schwarz quien describió la mayoría de las subespecies actualmente aceptadas, después de cientos de mediciones de esqueletos y análisis de las pieles llevadas a los museos. Schwartz, quien describió al bonobo lo consideró como una subespecie de Pan troglodytes y no como una especie aparte. Este autor estableció las subespecies de Pan troglodytes de la siguiente manera:
Reciente evidencia proveniente de los análisis de ADN sugieren que el bonobo (Pan paniscus) y el chimpancé común se separaron hace un millón de años aproximadamente. La línea del chimpancé se separó del linaje que desembocó en los humanos aproximadamente hace seis millones de años. Las dos especies de chimpancés están igualmente relacionadas con los seres humanos y dado que no han sobrevivido ninguna otra especie de los géneros Homo, Australopithecus o Paranthropus, son sus parientes vivos más próximos. El bonobo no fue reconocido como una especie independiente hasta 1929, y en el idioma común la designación "chimpancé" a menudo se aplica a ambos simios. Los primatólogos prefieren reservar el nombre "chimpancé" para Pan troglodytes. Aunque las diferencias anatómicas entre ambas especies son pequeñas, su comportamiento tanto sexual como social muestran diferencias marcadas. Pan troglodytes posee un comportamiento de caza grupal basado en machos beta liderados por machos alfa relativamente débiles, una dieta omnívora y una cultura compleja con fuertes lazos.
Existen dos tipos de virus de inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) que infectan a los humanos: el VIH-1 y el VIH-2. El VIH-1 es más virulento y el más fácilmente transmitido, y es la causa de la mayor fuente de infecciones a través del mundo; El VIH-2 está principalmente confinado en África occidental. Ambos tipos de virus se originaron en África central y occidental pasando de los primates no humanos a las personas. El VIH-1 evolucionó a partir del virus de inmunodeficiencia simiesca VIS (SIVcpz, en inglés) hallado en el 35 % de los chimpancés salvajes en Camerún. Básicamente, los virus encontrados en los chimpancés (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) del sudeste de Camerún eran muy similares al VIH que se ha propagado en todo el mundo. Los investigadores notaron que el VIS no causa una sintomatología tan grave en los chimpancés como si lo hace el VIH en los seres humanos, lo que ha motivado una serie de investigaciones. El VIH-1 ha mostrado una gran diversidad genética en el sudeste de Camerún lo que sugiere que el virus ha estado allí más tiempo que en cualquier otro lugar. El VIH-2 pasó de diferentes especies con diferentes cadenas de VIS, encontradas en el mangabey gris (Cercocebus atys) en Guinea-Bisáu. Los chimpancés adquirieron el VIS de otros monos a los cuales dan caza. Dicho virus entró a sus cuerpos por medio de heridas o magulladuras.
Está en peligro de extinción debido a la pérdida de su ambiente natural, la caza y el comercio ilegal, entre otros.
El chimpancé común (Pan troglodytes) o simplemente chimpancé es una especie de primate homínido propia de África tropical. Los chimpancés —junto a los bonobos— son los parientes vivos más cercanos al ser humano; su rama evolutiva se separó de la rama de los humanos hace aproximadamente siete millones de años y comparten el 98 % del ADN con ellos, lo que ha llevado a Jared Diamond a utilizar el término "el tercer chimpancé" para referirse a nuestra propia especie. Los machos llegan a pesar unos 80 kg en cautiverio y a medir hasta 1,7 m. Se caracteriza por su inteligencia avanzada, a menudo comparada con la de los seres humanos. Por ejemplo, se ha observado que los chimpancés jóvenes se construyen "muñecos" y otros juguetes con palos y bastones.
Actualmente está en peligro de extinción debido a la deforestación de su hábitat natural.
See artikkel räägib liigist; perekonna kohta vaata artiklit Šimpans (perekond) Šimpans ehk tavašimpans[viide?] (Pan troglodytes) on inimlaste sugukonda šimpansi perekonda kuuluv ahv.
Šimpansid elavad looduslikult Kesk- ja Lääne-Aafrika aladel. Geograafilise levila järgi on eristatud mitmeid alamliike:
Elupiirkonda kaitsevad šimpansid raevukalt. Nende haistmismeel on väga terav ja lõhnataju mängib karjas suurt rolli.[1]
Šimpans ehk tavašimpans[viide?] (Pan troglodytes) on inimlaste sugukonda šimpansi perekonda kuuluv ahv.
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Šimpansid elavad looduslikult Kesk- ja Lääne-Aafrika aladel. Geograafilise levila järgi on eristatud mitmeid alamliike:
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Giglioli, 1872 - schweinfurthi šimpans Pan troglodytes troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 - tšegošimpans Pan troglodytes verus Schwarz, 1934 - tavašimpans Pan troglodytes vellerosus.Elupiirkonda kaitsevad šimpansid raevukalt. Nende haistmismeel on väga terav ja lõhnataju mängib karjas suurt rolli.
Txinpantze arrunta (Pan troglodytes) primate oso adimenduna da.[1] Afrika tropikalean bakarrik bizi dira, eta desagertzeko arriskuan daude.
Euren DNAren %97,3a gizakienaren berdin-berdina da. Gizaki itxurako tximino handia da, ile-iluna duena.[2]
Txinpantze arrunta (Pan troglodytes) primate oso adimenduna da. Afrika tropikalean bakarrik bizi dira, eta desagertzeko arriskuan daude.
Euren DNAren %97,3a gizakienaren berdin-berdina da. Gizaki itxurako tximino handia da, ile-iluna duena.
Simpanssi (Pan troglodytes) on Keski-Afrikassa esiintyvä ihmisapinoihin kuuluva laji. Se kuuluu simpanssien sukuun, johon kuuluva toinen laji on bonobo eli kääpiösimpanssi. Ihmisen ja simpanssin genomit ovat hyvin samanlaiset. Simpansseja arvioidaan elävän luonnossa 150 000 – 250 000 yksilöä.[2] Ravinnokseen simpanssi käyttää enimmäkseen hedelmiä, mutta se myös metsästää esimerkiksi pienempiä apinoita.[3]
Simpanssit käyttävät taitavasti työkaluja, osaavat tunnistaa esineitä kuvista ja pystyvät oppimaan jopa viittomakieltä. Simpanssit myös läpäisevät peilitestin nopeasti eli tiedostavat itse olevansa peilikuvassa. Simpansseja ja kääpiösimpansseja pidetään usein älykkäimpinä eläinlajeina ihmisten jälkeen.[4][5][6]
Simpanssit painavat 30–60 kilogrammaa, ja urokset ovat 160 senttimetriä pitkiä ja naarat 130 senttimetriä. Simpanssien ravinto koostuu pääosin hedelmistä, lehdistä, pähkinöistä ja siemenistä. Lisäksi ne täydentävät ruokavaliotaan hyönteisillä sekä toisinaan pikkuapinoiden, antilooppien ja villisikojen lihalla. 5–10 prosenttia simpanssin ravinnosta koostuu lihasta, linnunmunista ja hyönteisistä.
2010-luvulla Ugandassa havaittiin simpanssien metsästäneen häntäapinoita eräällä alueella niin paljon, että häntäapinoiden populaatio oli pienentynyt lähes 90 prosenttia. Kun saaliiden määrä väheni, simpanssit alkoivat metsästää enemmän muita lajeja.[3]
Simpanssit asuvat luonnossa Länsi- ja Keski-Afrikan trooppisissa metsissä sekä savanneilla. Aiemmin simpansseja tavattiin koko tällä alueella, mutta nykyään elinalue on kutistunut selvästi pienemmäksi.
Täysikasvuinen urossimpanssi pystyy nostamaan suunnilleen saman taakan kuin täysikasvuinen mies; koska simpanssi on pienikokoisempi, on se kokoon suhteutettuna käsivoimiltaan ihmistä selvästi voimakkaampi.[7] Simpanssin voimakkuudesta on tehty paljon tutkimuksia, ja niiden on väitetty olevan paljon ihmistä voimakkaampia. Niiden lihakset ovat kuitenkin ehkä vain noin 1,5 kertaa voimakkaampia kuin ihmisen.[8][9]
Simpanssien kehoa peittää tumma karva. Karvaa ei kuitenkaan ole kasvoissa, sormissa, varpaissa, kämmenissä eikä jalkapohjissa. Sekä peukalot että isovarpaat ovat simpansseilla asettuneet vastoin muita sormia ja varpaita, mikä mahdollistaa vankan puristusotteen. Raskaus kestää simpansseilla kahdeksan kuukautta. Poikaset vieroitetaan emostaan kolmen vuoden iässä, mutta ne säilyttävät läheisen suhteen äitiinsä vielä useita vuosia. Murrosikä saavutetaan 8–10 vuoden iässä. Vankeudessa elinikä on noin viisikymmentä vuotta.
Simpanssit elävät yhteisöissä, joissa on yleensä 20–150 jäsentä, mutta suurimman osan ajasta ne kulkevat pienissä muutaman hengen ryhmissä. Simpanssit elävät suunnilleen yhtä suuren osan elämästään puussa ja maassa. Simpanssien tyypillinen eteneminen tapahtuu nelin kontin, käyttämällä jalkapohjia kävelyyn ja rystysiä levossa. Simpanssit voivat kuitenkin myös kävellä pystysuorassa lyhyitä matkoja. Simpansseja pidetään rystyskävelijöinä gorillojen tapaan. Sen sijaan orangit ja kääpiösimpanssit kävelevät kämmeniensä ulkopinnan tukemana.
Simpanssiyhteisöt muodostuvat pienemmistä osaryhmistä. Ryhmät yhteisöjen sisällä vaihtelevat paljon jäsentensä sukupuolen ja iän puolesta. Yhteisöt ovat hyvin väljiä ja vaihtuvia, ja niiden osaryhmät ja yksilöt voivat erota yhteisöstä ja liittyä niihin myöhemmin uudestaan. Yksilöllä on paljon liikkumavaraa yhteisön sisällä ja yhteisöt eivät ole tiukasti suljettuja kokonaisuuksia, vaan samoja simpanssiryhmiä voi kuulua useampiin yhteisöihin. Urosten kesken vallitsee usein valtahierarkia. Vakinaisia ”aviopareja” ei yleensä muodosteta, vaan simpanssien parittelukumppanit voivat vaihtua usein. Parittelukumppanit saattavat lähteä vaeltamaan yhdessä jättäen yhteisönsä tilapäisesti.
Ruokaa etsitään usein pienissä ryhmissä tai yksin. Simpanssien yhteiskunnassa keskeisessä asemassa ovat urokset, jotka kiertelevät ympäriinsä suojellen ryhmänsä jäseniä ja etsien ruokaa. Metsästystä varten saatetaan muodostaa pelkistä uroksista koostuvia ryhmiä. Jotkut tutkijat, kuten simpanssitutkimuksen pioneereihin kuuluva Jane Goodall, ovat kirjoittaneet eri simpanssiyhteisöjen välisistä "sodista", joissa taistellaan ja tulee kuolonuhreja.
Länsi-Afrikan simpanssit ovat ihmisen lisäksi ainoa eläin, jonka on havaittu rutiininomaisesti tekevän ja käyttävän erikoistuneita työkaluja metsästykseen. Senegalissa asuvien simpanssien on esimerkiksi nähty katkaisevan keihäitä puunoksista ja teroittavan niitä hampaillaan. Keihäillä on metsästetty galagoja (puoliapinoita), ja tarkoitukseen muokatuilla kepeillä oravia. Vanhimmat löydetyt todisteet simpanssien käyttämistä kivityökaluista ajoittuvat 4 300 vuoden päähän.
Simpansseilla on urosten johtama lauma, jossa ylintä valtaa käyttää aggressiivinen alfauros. Simpanssiurokset tappelevat hierarkkisen lauman johtajuudesta ja alfauros on jatkuvien hyökkäysten kohteena säilyttääkseen aseman lauman johtajana. Muut simpanssiurokset voivat syrjäyttää alfauroksen tappamalla ja joissain tapauksissa syövät sen.[10] Simpanssi on luonnollisesti väkivaltainen tappaja ja harjoittaa jengiväkivaltaa ja koordinoituja hyökkäyksiä.[11]
Simpanssit tappavat ihmisiä Kongossa[12]. Jotkut ihmiset pitävät simpanssinpoikasia lemmikkeinä, mutta ne kasvavat nopeasti ja niin vaarallisiksi että lemmikistä on luovuttava. Jo viisivuotiaana simpanssi on vahvempi kuin ihminen. Lukuisat ihmiset ovat saaneet vakavia vammoja lemmikkisimpanssin hyökkäyksestä siksi että lemmikistä luopumista lykätään. Lemmikkisimpanssi kasvaa aina aggressiiviseksi villieläimeksi: siitä tulee tuhoisa, se vastustaa kurinpitoa ja puree naamaan.[13]
Eläintarhassa simpanssit heittelevät yleisöön ulosteitaan ja kiviä.[14][15]
Tutkimusten mukaan simpanssit pystyvät oppimaan parista sadasta viittomasta koostuvan viittomakielen, muodostamaan uusia lauseita ja opettamaan viittomakieltä jälkeläisilleen. Nämä tutkimustulokset ovat herättäneet kiistoja, eivätkä kaikki ole pitäneet simpanssien viittomakieltä ihmisten kielen kaltaisena. Simpanssien kielentutkimuksen tärkeä pioneerihenkilö on ollut esimerkiksi Washoe-nimisen simpanssin parissa työskennellyt Roger Fouts.
Afrikassa simpanssien määrä on huvennut rajusti ihmisten toimien takia. Simpansseja varten on perustettu suojeltuja alueita, joissa ne voivat rauhassa asua. Simpansseja käytetään laajalti koe-eläiminä sekä jonkin verran sirkus- ja viihdeteollisuudessa. Käyttö koe-eläiminä liittyy geneettiseen läheisyyteen ihmisten kanssa. Jotkut tutkijat ovat vastustaneet simpanssien käyttöä koe-eläiminä sekä viihteessä vedoten niiden hyvinvointiin. He ovat perustaneet muutamia asuinpaikkoja ihmisten pariin joutuneille ja sittemmin hylätyille simpansseille.
Ihmisten yhteiskunnassa pitkään eläneen simpanssin onnistunut luontoon palauttaminen on lähes mahdotonta, koska niiden pitäisi oppia niin paljon uutta sekä omaksua uusi asenne elämiseen. Simpansseja on joskus pidetty lemmikkeinä, mutta tavallisessa ihmiskodissa ne eivät voi vilkkautensa ja voimakkuutensa vuoksi asua.Alalajit Eri puolilla Afrikkaa simpanssi on jakautunut alalajeiksi:[16] Guineansimpanssi (Pan troglodytes verus) on kriittisen uhanalainen. Ihmisten nopea lisääntyminen ja elinalueiden kaventuminen ovat syynä tähän, lisäksi alueella 2002 käyty sisällissota on verottanut kantaa merkittävästi. Vuonna 1960 simpansseja oli Norsunluurannikolla 100 000 ja vuonna 1980 koko maan kattavassa laskennassa 10 000. Puolet lajin lukumäärästä on Norsunluurannikon alueella. Nykyisin niitä on jäljellä enää 500 ja lisäksi yksi toimiva simpanssiyhteisö Tain kansallispuistossa.[17] Ihmisen ja simpanssin kromosomit muistuttavat melkoisesti toisiaan. Kun vuonna 2005 julkistettiin tuhansien geenien vertailu ihmisen ja simpanssin välillä, genomit todettiin 96-prosenttisesti samanlaisiksi[18]. Vaikka erot olivat suurempia kuin tähän mennessä arveltiin, samanlaisuus genomeissa on silmiinpistävä. Uudet geenit syntyvät useimmin vanhojen geenien monistuessa ja muuntuessa. Ei-monistuneet ihmisen ja simpanssin geenien osat ovat melkein 99 prosenttisesti samoja. Monistuneistakin geeneistä noin 36 prosenttia on samoja.[19]
Uhanalaisuus
Geenien samankaltaisuus ihmiseen verrattuna
Tunnettuja simpansseja
Lähteet
Aiheesta muualla
Simpanssi (Pan troglodytes) on Keski-Afrikassa esiintyvä ihmisapinoihin kuuluva laji. Se kuuluu simpanssien sukuun, johon kuuluva toinen laji on bonobo eli kääpiösimpanssi. Ihmisen ja simpanssin genomit ovat hyvin samanlaiset. Simpansseja arvioidaan elävän luonnossa 150 000 – 250 000 yksilöä. Ravinnokseen simpanssi käyttää enimmäkseen hedelmiä, mutta se myös metsästää esimerkiksi pienempiä apinoita.
Simpanssit käyttävät taitavasti työkaluja, osaavat tunnistaa esineitä kuvista ja pystyvät oppimaan jopa viittomakieltä. Simpanssit myös läpäisevät peilitestin nopeasti eli tiedostavat itse olevansa peilikuvassa. Simpansseja ja kääpiösimpansseja pidetään usein älykkäimpinä eläinlajeina ihmisten jälkeen.
Chimpanzé commun, Chimpanzé
Le Chimpanzé commun (Pan troglodytes) est une espèce de singes appartenant à la famille des hominidés. Avec le Bonobo, il forme le genre Pan, ou Chimpanzé. Le chimpanzé commun est menacé d'extinction du fait de l'activité humaine : destruction de son habitat et braconnage.
Cette espèce a été décrite pour la première fois en 1776 par l'anthropologue et zoologiste allemand Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840) :
Les pieds de ce quadrumane sont mieux adaptés à la marche que ceux des orangs-outans : la plante des pieds est plus large et les orteils plus courts. Ses longs bras ont une envergure égale à une fois et demie la hauteur du corps. Comme l'Homme, chaque individu possède ses propres empreintes digitales. Le pelage est sombre et la face, la paume des mains et la plante des pieds sont nues. Sa peau est rosée, noire ou tachetée, selon les populations, avec une grande variabilité. Les oreilles, les lèvres et les arcades sourcilières sont saillantes. Le cerveau du chimpanzé, d'un volume de 380 cm3[6],[7] est entre trois et quatre fois moins volumineux que celui de l'homme.
Les chimpanzés forment des communautés organisées de deux à quatre-vingts individus sur des territoires assez vastes. Ils vivent et voyagent en petits sous-groupes et évoluent tant à terre que dans les arbres. Les adultes construisent chaque soir un nouveau nid dans un arbre pour y dormir. À l'intérieur d'une communauté, de plus petits sous-groupes peuvent se former, se défaire et se reformer (division-fusion) ; les femelles ont tendance à migrer vers une autre communauté à l'adolescence mais les mâles ne migrent jamais.
Des interactions sociales complexes existent entre eux, comme des liens maternels solides, qui se prolongent jusque dans la vie adulte.
Les femelles en rut s'accouplent souvent avec tous les mâles d'une communauté. Certains mâles tentent de monopoliser une femelle ou de former un couple provisoire.
Les membres d'une bande coopèrent, notamment pour chasser et partager leur nourriture. La rivalité entre les femelles pour les bonnes aires de nourrissage peut conduire au meurtre de bébés par d'autres femelles.
Les mâles des sous-groupes frappent les troncs pour communiquer à longue distance (tambourinages). Ces bruits sourds s'entendent à un kilomètre et demi au plus.
Il existe une interaction constante entre les adultes, et tous les membres du groupe se toilettent mutuellement. C'est un comportement culturel : par exemple, les Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii de certaines communautés d'Ouganda et de Tanzanie pratiquent le grooming hand claps et s'épouillent en se tenant les mains au-dessus de la tête[9].
Jane Goodall est la première à avoir observé et rapporté que les chimpanzés ont de nombreuses similitudes comportementales avec l'Homme, et notamment qu'ils utilisent des outils pour s'alimenter. Ses travaux ont profondément transformé la vision des chimpanzés par l'homme.
Pour communiquer entre eux, ils ululent, grognent, rugissent ou crient selon leur humeur. Ils semblent éprouver beaucoup de plaisir à entendre les sons qu'ils émettent. Les chimpanzés communiquent aussi par les expressions de la face, la posture, le toucher et les mouvements. Un jeune chimpanzé peut émettre au moins trente-deux sons différents et ses mimiques peuvent exprimer toute une gamme d'émotions.
Les chimpanzés peuvent apprendre jusqu'à un certain point à utiliser un langage si des hommes le leur enseignent en laboratoire. Par exemple, ils sont capables de combiner de courtes suites de symboles arbitraires en les pointant sur un tableau pour exprimer des idées relativement simples. Ils peuvent être entrainés à utiliser certains gestes-mots de la langue des signes avec une forme de syntaxe rudimentaire, comme ce fut le cas avec la femelle chimpanzé Washoe, célèbre pour avoir ainsi appris à maitriser environ 250 mots qu'elle a en partie transmis à son enfant Loulis. Néanmoins, dans leur milieu naturel, les chimpanzés semblent ne pas utiliser de véritable langage pour communiquer[10].
Ces animaux font preuve d'une réelle intelligence dans la résolution de problèmes et l'utilisation d'outils simples, tels que de petites branches qui leur servent à extraire les termites de leur nid (technique dite de pêche aux termites) ou pour en faire une sonde leur servant à traverser un cours d'eau, comportement également observé chez les gorilles. Les jeunes apprennent en observant les autres. Les études récentes en primatologie ont mis en évidence des transmissions différentes de savoirs entre groupes de chimpanzés, au point qu'on peut désormais parler de culture animale[11].
Les chimpanzés seraient aussi les premiers animaux à avoir été observés fabriquant des armes. En effet, en 2007, le primatologue Jill Pruetz, de l'Université de l'Iowa, a décrit 22 observations de chimpanzés femelles du Sénégal qui élaboraient des lances en bois qu'elles utiliseraient pour poignarder des galagos qui se réfugient dans les troncs d'arbres vides[12].
Une équipe d'archéologues dirigés par l'Espagnol Julio Mercader, de l'université de Calgary, au Canada, a annoncé avoir trouvé en Côte d'Ivoire des pierres que les chimpanzés utilisaient il y a 4 300 ans pour ouvrir des fruits secs. Il est courant de nos jours d'observer des chimpanzés utilisant une pierre en guise de marteau[13].
Une équipe de l'université de Kyoto au Japon aurait démontré qu'ils ont une meilleure mémoire eidétique que l'être humain. Le primatologue Tetsurō Matsuzawa avance que « Les chimpanzés sont supérieurs à l'homme dans ce domaine ». Pour lui, les premiers hommes ont « perdu la mémoire immédiate et, en échange, ont appris la symbolisation, et le langage ». C'est l'hypothèse du compromis cognitif : « si vous avez une faculté particulière, par exemple, une meilleure mémoire immédiate, alors vous devez en perdre une autre. »[13]
Les chimpanzés sont omnivores. Ils se nourrissent principalement de fruits (60 % de leur alimentation[14]), mais également de feuilles (21 %[14]) ou de bourgeons, de fleurs, de graines, de miel, etc. Ils consomment aussi des protéines d'origine animale[15] : insectes, œufs d'oiseaux et à l'occasion de petits mammifères.
On a longtemps pensé que les chimpanzés étaient exclusivement herbivores. En septembre 1960, Jane Goodall constate que les chimpanzés sont aussi carnivores, notamment insectivores, et non pas uniquement frugivores[16]. Ils peuvent même à l'occasion chasser en groupe des singes comme les colobes[17],[18]. Dans le parc national de Gombe en Tanzanie, par exemple, ils ne passent que 3 % de leur temps à manger de la viande, mais durant la saison sèche un adulte peut avaler jusqu'à 65 g de viande par jour[19].
Parmi les environ 300 aliments qu'ils consomment, ils pratiquent l'automédication en mangeant : de l'écorce et de la résine d'Albizia grandibracteata à l'activité vermicide, antiparasitaire et anticancéreuse[20] ; des baies de Phytolacca docecandra aux propriétés antiparasitaires ; des feuilles de Trichilia rubescens aux molécules antipaludiques[21] ; des feuilles d'Aneilema aequinoctiale hérissées de poils qu'ils veillent à ne pas mâcher pour débarrasser leurs intestins des vers ; des feuilles de Diospyros abissinica aux molécules actives anticancéreuses mais aussi anti-inflammatoires ; de la rubia cordifolia, un excellent antiparasitaire ; de l'écorce de Markhamia playcalyx efficace contre les maux de gorge[22], etc. Les chimpanzés choisissent donc 1 % de plantes pharmacologiques pour leur alimentation (cette médication est parfois copiée par les tradipraticiens pour les populations forestières et le bétail) comme l'a révélé le primatologue Richard Wrangham (en) dès 1977[23].
Les chimpanzés consomment plusieurs espèces de plantes à fruit et avalent et dispersent les graines de ces végétaux. Ils ont alors un rôle important de disperseurs de graines de nombreuses plantes zoochoriques. Plusieurs de ces plantes dépendent des grands singes pour leur reproduction[24].
La femelle a un cycle menstruel de 36 jours. Elle est fécondable pendant six jours et demi lors de chaque cycle et peut s'accoupler à tout moment de l'année[25].
La gestation dure plus de sept mois et produit un seul petit (rarement des jumeaux).
Tout de suite après la naissance, le petit sans défense s'accroche au pelage de sa mère et s'installe sur son dos quand elle se déplace.
Le jeune chimpanzé est sevré vers quatre ans, mais peut continuer à se déplacer avec sa mère jusqu'à l'âge de dix ans.
Il arrive que la descendance reste en contact avec la mère pendant toute sa vie, qui peut atteindre soixante ans dans la nature.
La répartition géographique du chimpanzé commun s'étend de la Guinée, à l'ouest, aux lacs Tanganyika et Victoria, à l'est. Il est limité au sud par le fleuve Congo, au-delà duquel vit son cousin le Bonobo.
Phylogénie des espèces actuelles d'hominidés, d'après Shoshani et al. (1996)[26] et Springer et al. (2012)[27][réf. nécessaire] :
Hominidae Ponginae → PongoPongo abelii – Orang-outan de Sumatra
Pongo pygmaeus – Orang-outan de Bornéo
Pongo tapanuliensis – Orang-outan de Tapanuli
Gorilla beringei – Gorille de l'Est
Gorilla gorilla – Gorille de l'Ouest
Pan paniscus – Chimpanzé pygmée ou Bonobo
Pan troglodytes – Chimpanzé commun
Homo sapiens – Homme moderne
Pan troglodytes compte quatre sous-espèces actuelles[28] :
Selon Paleobiology Database (13 mai 2014)[29] :
Le premier chimpanzé arrivé en Europe est celui de la ménagerie du duc d'Orange. Il mourut en 1641 et fut disséqué.
Au cours des siècles suivants, de nombreux animaux sont capturés pour être rapportés en Occident. Doué d'une mimique extrêmement expressive, le chimpanzé est en effet une source de distraction dans les cirques et les jardins zoologiques. Les spectacles les plus appréciés font alors apparaître des animaux dressés et accoutrés dans des vêtements humains jouant des scènes quotidiennes. L'intelligence du chimpanzé le rend en effet capable de maîtriser des tours complexes. Par la suite, on verra plusieurs individus chimpanzés au cinéma, le plus célèbre étant sans doute Cheeta, un chimpanzé qu'on a pu voir régulièrement à l'affiche des films de Tarzan.
Les chimpanzés ont aussi contribué à l'aventure scientifique et technologique du XXe siècle. En 1961, envoyé à bord d'une capsule spatiale américaine en orbite autour de la Terre, le chimpanzé Ham précède de quelques mois le cosmonaute soviétique Youri Gagarine dans l'espace. De par sa proximité génétique avec l'humain, le chimpanzé a aussi souvent été utilisé comme modèle animal dans les domaines médicaux et scientifiques. La prise de conscience publique et l'évolution des pratiques en laboratoires ont toutefois largement réduit son utilisation à des fins d'expérimentation animale. Au XXIe siècle, le chimpanzé reste un animal de prédilection pour la psychologie comparée car en étudiant ses capacités cognitives en lien avec celles des êtres humains, on peut mieux comprendre la spécificité et l'évolution de l'esprit humain[11].
Dans les années 1960 et les suivantes, Jane Goodall a vécu dans la jungle pour étudier les chimpanzés. Elle a découvert, entre autres, qu'ils sont plus agressifs qu'on ne le supposait et qu'ils peuvent inventer des outils simples. Les chimpanzés peuvent apprendre à utiliser un langage élémentaire si des hommes le leur enseignent (voir ci-dessus). Elle fut aussi la première personnalité à s'engager pour la protection des chimpanzés en fondant l'Institut Jane Goodall.
Aujourd'hui classés comme des espèces en danger par la CITES, le chimpanzé commun et, surtout, le chimpanzé nain vivant en milieu naturel sont sous le coup de diverses menaces dont les principales sont la destruction de leur écosystème et le braconnage pour la viande de brousse et la capture (qui passe souvent par la mise à mort des adultes pour récupérer les petits destinés à être revendus comme animaux de compagnie).
Le chimpanzé commun est classé « en danger d'extinction » sur la liste rouge de l'Union internationale pour la conservation de la nature (UICN). Ses quatre sous-espèces font face à des menaces diverses et sont inégalement protégées.
Comme les autres genres de primates, les chimpanzés sont menacés par le développement des activités humaines (déforestation, trafic, consommation), et par des maladies comme la maladie à virus Ebola.
Partout en Afrique les populations sont en régression. La population totale initiale de chimpanzés se montait à plusieurs millions d'individus. Elle est passée de 2 millions au début du XXe siècle à 1 million en 1960 pour tomber à 300 000 dans les années 1980, et moins de 150 000 dans les années 2000. 90 % de la population des chimpanzés a disparu au cours des 50 dernières années[32].
Les estimations actuelles seraient les suivantes :
Depuis 2001, les chimpanzés font l'objet d'un programme de protection (Grasp) dans le cadre du PNUE (Programme des Nations unies pour l'environnement).
Chimpanzé commun, Chimpanzé
Le Chimpanzé commun (Pan troglodytes) est une espèce de singes appartenant à la famille des hominidés. Avec le Bonobo, il forme le genre Pan, ou Chimpanzé. Le chimpanzé commun est menacé d'extinction du fait de l'activité humaine : destruction de son habitat et braconnage.
O chimpancé común (Pan troglodytes) é unha das dúas especies do xénero Pan. Habita os bosques tropicais e as sabanas da África central e occidental. Os adultos, no seu estado natural, teñen un peso medio de 43 kg para os machos e 33 kg para as femias. a súa altura media é respectivamente de 160 cm e 130 cm. Corren perigo de extinción pola degradación e destrución do seu hábitat natural. Estimábase no ano 2003 que o seu número oscilaba entre os 170.000 e os 300.000 individuos.
O chimpancé común (Pan troglodytes) é unha das dúas especies do xénero Pan. Habita os bosques tropicais e as sabanas da África central e occidental. Os adultos, no seu estado natural, teñen un peso medio de 43 kg para os machos e 33 kg para as femias. a súa altura media é respectivamente de 160 cm e 130 cm. Corren perigo de extinción pola degradación e destrución do seu hábitat natural. Estimábase no ano 2003 que o seu número oscilaba entre os 170.000 e os 300.000 individuos.
Lo scimpanzé comune (Pan troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775) è un primate della famiglia degli ominidi.[2]
Lo scimpanzé comune e il bonobo sono le uniche specie viventi del genere Pan[2]. Secondo alcuni scienziati dovrebbero essere riclassificati, in virtù della parentela collaterale con l'Homo sapiens[3], di cui costituiscono le specie viventi evolutivamente più affini, come membri del genere Homo[4]; secondo altri è il termine Homo sapiens ad essere inadeguato e l'umanità andrebbe riclassificata sotto il genere Pan[5], come già fece Linneo nella prima edizione del suo Systema naturæ.[6][7]
Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Pan paniscus § Filogenesi ed evoluzione. Insieme al bonobo, appartiene a un ramo evolutivo collaterale alla specie umana, condividendo con essa un antenato comune circa 5 milioni di anni addietro ed essendone la specie vivente filogeneticamente e geneticamente più vicina. Il DNA dello scimpanzé infatti corrisponde a quello dell'uomo in una percentuale oscillante intorno al 98%[8] e si articola in n=24 coppie di cromosomi. I cromosomi 12 e 13, come anche nel gorilla, si sono fusi nel cromosoma 2 dell'uomo, che pertanto ha n=23. Il National Human Genome Research Institute ha inoltre confermato che il genoma dello scimpanzé è di circa lo 0,4% divergente dal genoma del bonobo, la specie vivente a lui più affine, separatosi intorno al milione di anni fa nell'area del bacino del fiume Congo, probabilmente per speciazione allopatrica.
La differenza di sequenza del DNA tra gli esseri umani e gli scimpanzé è di circa 35 milioni di cambiamenti di singolo nucleotide, cinque milioni di eventi di inserzione/delezione e vari riarrangiamenti cromosomici. Omologhi proteici umani e di scimpanzé differiscono tipicamente solo in media di due aminoacidi. Circa il 30% di tutte le proteine umane sono identiche in sequenza per la proteina corrispondente dello scimpanzé. Duplicazioni di piccole parti di cromosomi sono stati la principale fonte di differenze in materiale genetico tra umani e scimpanzé; circa il 2,7% dei genomi corrispondenti moderni rappresentano le differenze, prodotti da duplicazioni geniche o cancellazioni, durante i circa 4-6 000 000 anni da quando gli esseri umani e gli scimpanzé si discostarono dal loro antenato comune evolutivo. I risultati delle analisi del genoma umano e di scimpanzé, attualmente in corso da parte di genetisti tra cui David Reich, dell'Harvard Medical School, che ipotizza una lunga e articolata serie di reincroci all'origine della divergenza evolutiva tra umani e antropomorfi attuali, dovrebbero aiutare a comprendere le basi genetiche di alcune malattie umane.
Gli scimpanzé sono mediamente alti dagli 80 ai 130 cm sulle quattro zampe e pesano 35–45 kg le femmine e 45–65 kg i maschi. I maschi sono più grossi delle femmine, e quando si alzano sulle zampe posteriori raggiungono anche i 160 cm di altezza, mentre le seconde in genere non superano i 130. La colorazione del pelo è di solito molto scura e tendente al nero, anche se si sono registrati casi eccezionali di scimpanzé albini.
Vivono in branchi più o meno numerosi, composti di maschi, femmine e cuccioli. A guidarli sono di solito i maschi. Una delle attività più curiose del branco è quella dello "spulciamento" reciproco (il "grooming"), che è un importante fattore di aggregazione sociale. Gli scimpanzé sono prevalentemente arboricoli e usano costruirsi un nido fra i rami per la notte, ma passano anche molto tempo a terra. Il loro principale nemico naturale è il leopardo, che tende loro agguati di notte e li uccide azzannandoli alla gola.[9]
Lo scimpanzé come l'uomo è onnivoro, anche se prevalentemente vegetariano[10]. Oltre che di frutta, si ciba anche di semi, fiori, gemme, steli, midollo (vegetale), corteccia e resina. Lo scimpanzé completa la sua alimentazione con miele, insetti, lumache, ragni e scorpioni,uccelli e loro uova, talora piccoli mammiferi compresi i primati stessi. Si stima che la carne consista nel 3% del totale della sua alimentazione. Il colobo rosso è in cima alle sue preferenze tra le prede mammifere. Altre prede sono i cercopitechi nasobianco del Congo, i babbuini gialli e i facoceri.
Quando preda scimmie di piccole dimensioni come il colobo rosso, lo scimpanzé caccia in zone cui la copertura forestale è interrotta o irregolare. Questo gli permette di monopolizzare facilmente le scimmie quando le insegue nella direzione appropriata.
Gli scimpanzé possono anche cacciare come una squadra coordinata, in modo da potersi accaparrare la preda con una copertura continua. Durante una caccia arborea ogni scimpanzé, nei gruppi di caccia, ha un ruolo specifico.
I drivers servono a mantenere la preda in fuga in una certa direzione e seguirla senza tentare una cattura. I bloccanti sono di stanza alla base degli alberi e salgono fino a bloccare la preda che ripartirà in una direzione diversa. I cacciatori sanno muoversi rapidamente per tentare una cattura. Infine, gli attaccanti si nascondono e si posizionano in aree non ancora raggiunte dalla preda e scattano quando si avvicina la scimmia predata. Sia adulti che cuccioli sono predati; tuttavia i maschi adulti di colobo nero-bianco attaccheranno preventivamente gli scimpanzé in caccia. A Gombe, lo scimpanzé teme in genere i colobi adulti. Preferisce strappare cuccioli dal ventre della madre, senza danneggiare le madri[11]. Gli scimpanzé maschi cacciano più delle femmine. Quando hanno catturato e ucciso, il pasto è distribuito a tutti i membri del gruppo di caccia e agli altri astanti.
Da uno studio nel Parco Nazionale Kibale in Uganda, è stato osservato che gli scimpanzé raramente mostrano interesse per le carcasse di grandi animali uccisi da leopardi o altri predatori. Questo potrebbe verificarsi perché gli scimpanzé non riconoscono tali animali come loro prede o per evitare di ammalarsi mangiando carne morta.[12]
È opinione diffusa che lo scimpanzé sia l'animale più intelligente dopo l'uomo; alcuni esemplari particolarmente dotati, in cattività hanno avuto un quoziente d'intelligenza - solitamente intorno ai 40 - valutato tra 80 e 90, cioè come un essere umano di intelligenza al di sotto della media (100); questa intelligenza animale superiore è condivisa con i delfini e alcune specie di pappagalli.[13]
In natura sono in grado di usare utensili, ad esempio un rametto da inserire in un termitaio per catturare gli insetti, oppure pietre da tirare addosso ad un eventuale predatore. Allevati in cattività, gli scimpanzé dimostrano di poter apprendere la lingua dei segni e di poter esprimere numerosi concetti e imparare ad usare diversi strumenti, quali computer e telefoni, o eseguire rapidi e semplici calcoli matematici, grazie anche alla propria velocità di memoria visiva. Alcuni scimpanzé in cattività guardano la televisione per divertimento, bevono bibite gassate dopo aver aperto le lattine e qualcuno ha persino sviluppato il vizio del fumo.[14]
La capacità di utilizzare utensili rese famoso nel 1964 un esemplare dello zoo svedese; all'animale furono fatti dipingere da un giornalista, con la complicità di un guardiano, alcuni quadri. Le opere, firmate dall'uomo con lo pseudonimo di Pierre Brassau,[15] furono esposte in una galleria d'arte e spacciate come il lavoro di un giovane artista d'avanguardia. La burla riuscì tanto che alcuni critici apprezzarono pubblicamente i dipinti.[16]
Gli studi di Jane Goodall hanno dimostrato l'esistenza di una vera e propria cultura nelle comunità di scimpanzé della Tanzania, analoga a quella dei primi appartenenti al genere Homo e Australopithecus. Questi studi hanno consentito di chiarire le differenze fra scimpanzé e bonobo e di identificare entrambe le specie come ominidi (insieme ai gorilla), a differenza dell'orango (primate appartenente ai pongidi); la Goodall è stata fra gli ideatori del Progetto Grandi Scimmie Antropomorfe che mira a ottenere, per i grandi primati, un certo numero di diritti fondamentali riconosciuti a livello internazionale all'uomo, quali il diritto alla vita, alla protezione della libertà individuale e alla protezione dalla tortura. Ha inoltre evidenziato la scoperta dell'uso di utensili da parte degli scimpanzé: la studiosa, infatti, ha scoperto che questi animali sono soliti utilizzare, ad esempio, degli stecchini per "pescare" le termiti all'interno dei loro nidi, le larve e i galagoni dalle cavità dei tronchi d'albero o il miele dagli alveari, o ancora l'utilizzo di pietre per rompere i gusci dei semi più duri.
Studi recenti hanno dimostrato che gli scimpanzé hanno la consapevolezza della morte degli altri individui, non solamente come accade in altri animali molto intelligenti, che spesso appaiono depressi o provano vero dispiacere per la morte di un compagno, di un cucciolo o di un umano (se addomesticati), ma come vera capacità di astrazione e autocoscienza, dimostrata anche dai comportamenti ritualistici documentati. Essi hanno inoltre una morale di gruppo, talvolta comportamenti negativi - come "fare la guerra", organizzati in piccoli "eserciti" o "bande", composti dal clan famigliare o dal branco che divengono così una tribù; talvolta indulgere al cannibalismo di membri estranei al gruppo appena uccisi, se particolarmente affamati - del tutto analoghi a quelli umani e ben distinti da quelli di altri animali gregari.[17][18][19]
Come in molte altre scimmie, le braccia sono più lunghe e robuste delle gambe, e lo rendono molto più forte di quanto sembri. Da esperimenti effettuati si evince che uno scimpanzé è da 4 a 7 volte più forte di un uomo adulto. In un test del 1924, un uomo di 75 kg con una mano ha spostato 90 kg, uno scimpanzé maschio di 75 kg ne ha spostati 390 e una femmina di 61 kg ha mosso 550 kg. Questo si ritiene sia dovuto al fatto che lo scimpanzé è parzialmente un quadrupede, quindi usa le braccia per la locomozione e per questa ragione avrebbe gli arti superiori molto più sviluppati rispetto all'uomo.[20]
Allo stato naturale gli scimpanzé vivono solo in Africa centro-occidentale, nella zona equatoriale, e il loro habitat tipico è la foresta tropicale. Sono state descritte quattro[21] diverse sottospecie di scimpanzé:
Una popolazione di scimpanzé occidentali si è separata dalle altre sottospecie circa 500 000 anni fa.[22]
Studi genetici riconoscono l'esistenza di tre popolazioni di due cladi distinti[23] sottolineando che la popolazione del Golfo di Guinea è significativamente diversa dalle altre[24].
La specie, in base ai criteri della Lista rossa IUCN è considerata in pericolo di estinzione.
È inserita nella Appendice I della CITES (divieto assoluto di commercio tranne che per documentate esigenze di ricerca scientifica).
Molti scimpanzé addestrati sono diventati famosi come star del cinema: basti pensare all'esemplare che ha interpretato i film di Tarzan nella parte di Cheeta. In realtà per il ruolo di Cheeta sono stati usati negli anni diversi scimpanzé, talora anche più di un esemplare nello stesso film, ma non esiste una documentazione affidabile e dettagliata in merito.[25]
Uno scimpanzé di nome Jiggs, che oggi si trova al C.H.E.E.T.A. Primate Sanctuary[26], è stato per diverso tempo indicato come lo scimpanzé più longevo di cui si avesse notizia (cosa che gli valse anche la menzione nel Guinness dei Primati), in quanto si sosteneva che fosse nato negli anni trenta e che avesse interpretato Cheeta in molti film di Johnny Weissmuller e di Lex Barker. Questa affermazione fu contestata nel 2008 dal giornalista R. D. Rosen, che dimostrò che il Jiggs del C.H.E.E.T.A. era nato negli anni sessanta e non era mai comparso nei film di Tarzan.[25]
In televisione, gli scimpanzé sono comparsi nelle serie Monk, Io e la scimmia, Lancillotto 008 e, più di recente, in Il nostro amico Charly.
Due esemplari di nome Phil e Mason appaiono nei film d'animazione Madagascar, Madagascar 2 e Madagascar 3 - Ricercati in Europa e nella serie spin-off I pinguini di Madagascar.
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url (aiuto). URL consultato il 10 febbraio 2022. Lo scimpanzé comune (Pan troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775) è un primate della famiglia degli ominidi.
Lo scimpanzé comune e il bonobo sono le uniche specie viventi del genere Pan. Secondo alcuni scienziati dovrebbero essere riclassificati, in virtù della parentela collaterale con l'Homo sapiens, di cui costituiscono le specie viventi evolutivamente più affini, come membri del genere Homo; secondo altri è il termine Homo sapiens ad essere inadeguato e l'umanità andrebbe riclassificata sotto il genere Pan, come già fece Linneo nella prima edizione del suo Systema naturæ.
Pan troglodўtes (gen. panos troglodўtae) est species generis panos, cuius generis altera species est Pan paniscus. Ambae una cum homine et pongone in familia hominidarum comprehenduntur.
Animalia huius speciei plantis ad morbos praesertim parasiticos medendos uti censentur, foliis videlicet specierum Aneilema aequinoctiale, Aspilia mossambicensis, Aspilia pluriseta, Commelina diffusa, Ficus exasperata, Ficus mucuso, Hibiscus aponeurus, Lippia plicata, Manniophyton fulvum, Melastomastrum capitatum, Polycephalium capitatum, Rubia cordifolia, Trema orientalis, Vernonia amygdalina, Vernonia colorata.[2]
Vide "Pan troglodytes" apud Vicispecies. 
Situs scientifici: • ITIS • NCBI • Biodiversity • Encyclopedia of Life • IUCN Red List • Fossilworks Pan troglodўtes (gen. panos troglodўtae) est species generis panos, cuius generis altera species est Pan paniscus. Ambae una cum homine et pongone in familia hominidarum comprehenduntur.
Animalia huius speciei plantis ad morbos praesertim parasiticos medendos uti censentur, foliis videlicet specierum Aneilema aequinoctiale, Aspilia mossambicensis, Aspilia pluriseta, Commelina diffusa, Ficus exasperata, Ficus mucuso, Hibiscus aponeurus, Lippia plicata, Manniophyton fulvum, Melastomastrum capitatum, Polycephalium capitatum, Rubia cordifolia, Trema orientalis, Vernonia amygdalina, Vernonia colorata.
Paprastoji šimpanzė (lot. Pan troglodytes, angl. Common Chimpanzee, vok. Gemeiner Schimpanse) – hominidų (Hominidae) šeimos primatas, priklausantis šimpanzių (Pan) genčiai.
Parastā šimpanze (Pan troglodytes) ir līdz 1,7 m garš, melns cilvēkpērtiķu dzimtas šimpanžu ģints dzīvnieks, visaugstāk attīstītā cilvēkveidīgo pērtiķu suga; dzīvo ekvatoriālās Āfrikas tropos.[1]
Parastā šimpanze (Pan troglodytes) ir līdz 1,7 m garš, melns cilvēkpērtiķu dzimtas šimpanžu ģints dzīvnieks, visaugstāk attīstītā cilvēkveidīgo pērtiķu suga; dzīvo ekvatoriālās Āfrikas tropos.
De chimpansee (Pan troglodytes) is een Afrikaanse mensaap. Zijn nauwste verwant is de dwergchimpansee of bonobo (Pan paniscus). Beide chimpansees worden beschouwd als de nauwste nog levende verwanten van de mens. Sommige wetenschappers beschouwen de relatie tussen mens en chimpansee op basis van DNA-onderzoek als nauw genoeg om de chimpansee en de bonobo net als de mens in het geslacht Homo te plaatsen.[2]
De chimpansee is een grote, sterke mensaap met een gedrongen lichaamsbouw. Een volwassen chimpansee heeft een kop-romplengte van 75 tot 100 cm[3], een schouderhoogte van 100 tot 179 cm en een lichaamsgewicht van ongeveer 35 tot 65 kg. Vrouwtjes wegen gemiddeld 45 kg, mannetjes 55 kg. Het gewicht van chimpansees in gevangenschap ligt over het algemeen hoger. Een chimpansee heeft lange armen die samen tot 2,7 m kunnen worden uitgespreid. Ze zijn meestal rechtshandig.[4] De schouders en armen van een chimpansee zijn zeer gespierd, veel sterker dan die van de mens. De benen zijn daarentegen vrij kort. Het gezicht heeft een smalle neus, diepgelegen ogen, opvallende wenkbrauwbogen, grote, ronde oren, een brede bovenkaak en smalle lippen.
De chimpansee is bedekt met lang, zwart haar over het grootste deel van het lichaam en heeft een nagenoeg naakt gezicht met een kleur die varieert van bijna roze (vooral jonge dieren) tot bijna zwart (vooral volwassen dieren). Ook dieren met bijna witte gezichten komen voor. Ook het achterste is kaal. Bij volwassen vrouwtjes is de huid van het achterste gezwollen en roze van kleur. De grootte van de zwellingen is afhankelijk van de fase van de menstruatiecyclus waar zij zich in bevindt. Deze menstruatiecyclus duurt ongeveer vierentwintig dagen.
De chimpansee komt voor in equatoriale bossen in Centraal- en West-Afrika, van Senegal via Congo-Kinshasa, ten noorden van de Kongostroom, oostwaarts tot westelijk Tanzania en westelijk Oeganda. Hij leeft voornamelijk in open wouden en regenwouden, maar is ook te vinden in bergbossen en bossavannes.
De schattingen over het aantal nog in het wild levende chimpansees lopen uiteen. Volgens sommige deskundigen zouden er nog zo'n 150.000 tot 200.000 levende individuen over zijn, volgens anderen nauwelijks 100.000. Een eeuw geleden waren het er misschien nog 2 miljoen.
De chimpansee is een dagdier. Hij is voornamelijk vroeg in de ochtend en in de namiddag actief, op het heetst van de dag rust hij. Hij brengt veel tijd op de grond door, maar klimt ook regelmatig in bomen om voedsel te zoeken en te slapen. In de boom slaapt hij in een zelfgemaakt slaapnest van bladeren en takken, dat hij aan het einde van de avond bouwt. Het nest is gelegen op een hoogte van 6 tot 25 m. Hij loopt meestal op handen en voeten, en gebruikt de voetzolen en de knokkels van de handen om zich voort te bewegen. Hij kan ook op de achterpoten lopen, maar doet dit enkel over korte afstanden. Lopen op twee poten gebeurt meestal als de voorpoten al ergens anders voor worden gebruikt, bijvoorbeeld het dragen van voedsel of voorwerpen. Met zijn krachtige armen kan hij in een boom van tak naar tak slingeren.
Ze eten vooral fruit, aangevuld met bladeren, noten, schors en stengels, maar ook dierlijk materiaal als insecten en vogeleieren. Volwassen mannetjes jagen zelfs soms in groepen op kleine dieren, waaronder kleinere apen (voornamelijk rode franjeapen en jonge bavianen), jonge antilopen, zwijnen en vogels. Ook kannibalisme komt voor.[5] De chimpansee gebruikt en maakt primitieve gereedschappen als stokjes en twijgjes om insectenlarven, mieren en termieten te vangen uit holen en termietennesten en stenen om noten open te breken, of gekauwde blaadjes die als spons gebruikt worden om water op te zuigen.[6] Recent onderzoek heeft ook laten zien dat chimpansees gereedschap maken, zoals speren om kleine aapjes mee te doden. Gebruik van gereedschap verschilt per gemeenschap.
Chimpansees leven in het bos in kleine, losse groepen met een variërende samenstelling, gewoonlijk bestaande uit zes tot tien apen, maar variërend van twee tot wel honderdtwintig dieren. De groep heeft een groot territorium, dat door beide geslachten wordt verdedigd. Vooral mannetjes zijn zeer agressief tegenover vreemden en doden soms (systematisch) chimpansees uit naburige groepen. Vreemde wijfjes in oestrus worden wel getolereerd. In dicht regenwoud is het territorium kleiner dan in meer open gebied. De mannetjes vechten vaak onderling machtskwesties uit, hetgeen gepaard gaat met veel gegil en machogedrag. Vanwege deze machtskwesties worden vaak coalities gevormd tussen bepaalde mannetjes, waardoor de desbetreffende mannetjes sterker staan in de strijd om de macht binnen de groep.
Chimpanseemannetjes vermoorden soms ook leden van naburige groepen om hun eigen territorium uit te breiden. Daarbij vermoorden ze vaak jonge dieren omdat die een gemakkelijker doelwit zijn.[7]
De wijfjes paren met het dominante mannetje tijdens hun vruchtbare periode, hoewel 'vreemdgaan' voorkomt. Met de zwellingen van de huid rond de anus en de genitaliën trekt het wijfje de aandacht van de mannetjes. Een vrouwtje krijgt om de drie tot acht jaar één enkel jong, na een draagtijd van acht maanden. Bij de geboorte zijn de ogen al geopend en klampt het jong zich stevig vast aan de moeder. Een jonge chimpansee zit op de rug van zijn moeder. Na zes maanden zijn ze al onafhankelijk. Een chimpanseejong is rond de 12 jaar volledig volwassen en onafhankelijk van zijn of haar moeder. De band tussen moeder en kind is echter vaak levenslang. Wijfjes zijn geslachtsrijp als ze elf à twaalf jaar oud zijn, mannetjes als ze ongeveer vijftien jaar oud zijn. Ze hebben echter meestal op jongere leeftijd geslachtsgemeenschap, mannetjes al als ze vijf jaar oud zijn. In gevangenschap kunnen chimpansees ongeveer 50 jaar oud worden, hoewel er ook enkele chimpansees zijn die ouder dan 60 jaar zijn. In het wild leven chimpansees zelden langer dan 50 jaar.
Wegens hun evolutionair nauwe verwantschap met mensen worden zij vaak gebruikt voor medische en gedragsproeven, hoewel dit de laatste tijd steeds minder gebeurt en verboden is in verscheidene landen, waaronder Nederland. De mate waarin chimpansees en mensen genetisch aan elkaar gelijk zijn is een onderwerp van geschil. Opgaven van het percentage identiek DNA lopen uiteen van 94,6% tot 99,4%. De verwantschap tussen een chimpansee en een mens, is echter wel groter dan de verwantschap tussen een chimpansee en een gorilla. Sinds het genoom van de chimpansee, net als dat van de mens, in kaart is gebracht is hier echter veel meer over te zeggen (genoom mens en chimpansee). Een manier om het uit te drukken is dat de genetische verschillen tussen een mens en een chimpansee ongeveer tien keer zo groot zijn als die tussen twee niet-verwante mensen. Grote delen van het DNA zijn nagenoeg identiek. Chimpansees hebben een chromosoom meer, omdat zij het chromosoom dat bij de mens nummer 2 is in twee aparte delen hebben.
Ook het gedrag van een chimpansee lijkt zeer op dat van een mens. Chimpansees zijn zeer sociale dieren, die veel moeten leren en dus ook een lange opgroeiperiode hebben. Daarnaast vormen chimpansees coalities en vrienden. Chimpansees in het wild tonen ook culturen, waar het gedrag van de ene groep verschilt van een ander. Bovendien hebben onderzoeken bewezen dat chimpansees ook empathie bezitten en zich tot op een zekere hoogte kunnen inleven in een ander. Ze adopteren ook soms verweesde jongen van niet-verwante groepsleden, wat wijst op altruïstisch gedrag. Dit gedrag is zowel bij mannetjes als vrouwtjes geobserveerd.[8] Waarschijnlijk kennen ze ook verdriet bij het sterven van verwanten.[9]
Binnen groepen chimpansees spelen zich zeer complexe gedragspatronen af samenhangend met de voortdurende strijd om dominantie, en daarmee weer samenhangend het recht om zich voort te planten en de verdeling van eten. Primatologen als Jane Goodall en Frans de Waal hebben op dit gebied door langdurige observaties verbazingwekkende waarnemingen gedaan. De verdienste van deze onderzoekers is geweest dat zij hebben aangetoond dat zeer veel chimpanseegedragingen heel goed te beschrijven en te duiden zijn met termen en mechanismen die ook uit de menselijke psychologie bekend zijn. Familiebanden en coalities spelen in het spel om de macht een grote rol in de chimpanseesamenleving.
Tussen chimpansees en bonobo's bestaan overigens grote gedragsverschillen. Bij bonobo's worden veel potentiële conflicten opgelost door seksueel gedrag, bij gewone chimpansees veel vaker door agressie.
Uit veldonderzoek van wilde chimpansees in Afrika is gebleken dat groepen chimpansees die op verschillende locaties leven ook eigen gedragsrepertoires vertonen. Zij vertonen bijvoorbeeld verschillen in het verzorgen van zichzelf en hun kinderen, de onderlinge omgang, gebruik van bepaalde voorwerpen of gereedschappen. Deze gedragsverschillen kunnen verklaard worden als een gevolg van cultuur, dat wil zeggen van sociaal gevormd gedrag dat van de ene generatie aan de volgende generatie wordt doorgegeven[10]. Een tweede mogelijk is dat deze gedragsverschillen voortkomen uit verschillen in genetische kenmerken. Een recente studie waarbij bij groepen wilde chimpansees ook het DNA is gemeten[11], heeft kunnen vaststellen dat deze groepen ook verschillen in genetische kenmerken. Het laatste woord over de vraag in hoeverre gedragsverschillen tussen chimpanseekolonies nu een gevolg zijn van 'cultuur' (aangeleerd gedrag) of 'natuur' (aangeboren gedrag) lijkt dus nog niet gesproken te zijn.
Chimpansees zijn niet in staat te praten. Wel hebben ze een groot aantal geluiden tot hun beschikking met duidelijk te onderscheiden betekenis. Het gebruikte 'vocabularium' is afhankelijk van de sociale status van de toehoorder.[12] Ook zijn ze in staat te communiceren door middel van visuele in plaats van mondelinge symbolen, en blijkt uit experimenten dat ze gebarentaal kunnen leren en grammaticaal in principe correct kunnen toepassen.
Hoewel geen enkel dier beschikt over dezelfde taalkundige vermogens als de mens, blijkt dat chimpansees, mits getraind, in staat zijn taalachtige symbolen te begrijpen. Dit is aangetoond door Amerikaanse onderzoekers als Beatrix T. Gardner en Allen Gardner, David Premack en Sue Savage-Rumbaugh. De Gardners leerden bijvoorbeeld de bij hun thuis opgevoede chimpansee Washoe handgebaren die ook door slechthorenden en doven worden gebruikt (het zogeheten American Sign Language) te begrijpen en zelf ook toe te passen, ook aan soortgenoten te leren. Toch lijken chimpansees essentiële vaardigheden te missen om van echt taalgebruik te kunnen spreken.[13] Alles lijkt te moeten worden aangeleerd. Er is geen verdere afleiding van betekenissen.
In 1758 publiceerde Carl Linnaeus de naam Homo troglodytes,[14] waarbij hij de inheemse namen "Orang Outang" (genoemd door Jacob de Bondt[15]) en "Kakurlacko" (genoemd door Nils Matsson Kiöping en Olof von Dalin) vermeldde. De eerste heeft betrekking op een mensaap, de tweede op een mens met een Europees uiterlijk maar enig Aziatisch bloed, in Nederlands-Indië in die tijd in slang "kakkerlak" genoemd.[16] In 1775 hergebruikte Johann Friedrich Blumenbach de naam in Simia troglodytes.[17] Dat hij niet Linnaeus' naam naar het geslacht Simia verplaatste blijkt onder meer uit zijn opmerking in 1779 dat Linnaeus' naam een mengeling betreft van gemankeerde mensen en de orang-oetan.[18] Blumenbach gaf bovendien de orang-oetan de naam Simia satyrus, en vermeldde bij Simia troglodytes de inheemse naam "Chimpansi" ("Chimpansée" waar hij Scotin[19] citeert).
skelet
De chimpansee (Pan troglodytes) is een Afrikaanse mensaap. Zijn nauwste verwant is de dwergchimpansee of bonobo (Pan paniscus). Beide chimpansees worden beschouwd als de nauwste nog levende verwanten van de mens. Sommige wetenschappers beschouwen de relatie tussen mens en chimpansee op basis van DNA-onderzoek als nauw genoeg om de chimpansee en de bonobo net als de mens in het geslacht Homo te plaatsen.
Sjimpansen (Pan troglodytes) er ein menneskeape som lever i skogar i Afrika. Han høyrer til mellom dei dyra som står mennesket nærast evolusjonsmessig; mellom 0,5% og 5 % av gena skil oss.Dette kan illustrerast ved at menneska og sjimpansane har identiske cytokrom c-protein, og det i ein variant ingen andre dyreartar er kjent å ha.
Sjimpansar er ein menneskeape som på same måte som oss har motsette tomlar og manglar hale. Dei er dekt med mørk brun til svart pels, er mellom 130 og 170 cm høge når dei står på bakbeina, og veg mellom 30 og 40 kg i naturen. Individ i fangenskap kan derimot vega opp mot 100 kg.
Sjimpansar lever vilt i regnskog og tresavannar i vest- og sentral-Afrika.
Sjimpansar er sosiale, dagaktive dyr som lever vekselvis på bakken og i tre. Dei lever i flokkar på mellom 15 og 150 dyr leidd av ein dominerande hann. Den sosiale rangordninga kjem fram gjennom eit avansert kroppsspråk, som hovudsakleg baserer seg på andletsuttrykk.
Sjimpansen står mennesket nærare enn noko anna dyr. Dette har ført til at han er mykje brukt både i forsking og underhaldning, noko som har vorte eit trugsmål for bestanden. Kanskje er trugsmålet gjensidig; nokre forskarar meiner t.d. at HIV-viruset oppstod i sjimpanseflokkar før det spreidde seg til menneske.
Sjimpansen (Pan troglodytes) er ein menneskeape som lever i skogar i Afrika. Han høyrer til mellom dei dyra som står mennesket nærast evolusjonsmessig; mellom 0,5% og 5 % av gena skil oss.Dette kan illustrerast ved at menneska og sjimpansane har identiske cytokrom c-protein, og det i ein variant ingen andre dyreartar er kjent å ha.
Sjimpanse (Pan troglodytes) tilhører slekten sjimpanser (Pan) og er store aper (Hominidae). Arten er endemisk for Afrika sør for Sahel og nord for Kongofloden. Fire underarter aksepteres.
Sjimpansen kan bli opptil 30–50 kg tung, men betydelig mer i fangenskap. Hannen kan bli opptil 160 cm høy, mens hunnen blir opptil 130 cm. Ansiktshuden kan være lys eller mørk. Armlengden tilsvarer omkring halvparten av kroppslengden.
Sjimpansene trives i tett skog og lever i Vest- og Sentral-Afrika. Arten har relativt stor spredning og er utbredt i fire større populasjoner, nord for Kongofloden.
Sjimpansene lever sammen i flokker fra 2 til 80 individer. Flokkens revir er i skogsområder på mellom 10 og 50 km², mens det i mer åpent terreng er på mellom 200 og 400 km².[1]
Sjimpansens svangerskap varer i sju måneder, og ungen blir brystfødd av moren i fire år. En unge kan bli hos moren i opptil ti år, men moren parer seg når den yngste ungen er omtrent tre år gammel[1].
Sjimpansers levealder er opptil 40-45 år.
Sjimpanser spiser både andre dyr, planter og frukter.
Sjimpanser ble tidligere ofte brukt som forsøksdyr, men dette har av etiske årsaker blitt mindre vanlig med årene. Sjimpansen Ham ble i så måte første menneskelignende skapning i verdensrommet, da han den 31. januar 1961 ble skutt opp i en Mercury-kapsel fra Cape Canaveral i Florida, USA. Sjimpanser er også svært vanlige å holde i fangenskap, spesielt i dyrehager. Det finnes blant annet flere i Norge.
Den mest kjente sjimpansen i Norge er trolig Julius, en sjimpanse som ble født i Kristiansand Dyrepark den 26. desember i 1979. Han ble avvist av moren og måtte hentes ut fra sjimpanseflokken og ales opp blant folk. NRK lagde en tv-serie på tre episoder om Julius, som gikk som barne-TV i 1981. Etter dette ble Julius landskjent, og var i mange år dyreparkens største attraksjon. Julius ble tilbakeført til flokken da han ble for stor og voldsom å holde privat. Som voksen ble han leder for hele sjimpanseflokken i parken.
Sjimpanse (Pan troglodytes) tilhører slekten sjimpanser (Pan) og er store aper (Hominidae). Arten er endemisk for Afrika sør for Sahel og nord for Kongofloden. Fire underarter aksepteres.
Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Szympans zwyczajny[3] (Pan troglodytes) – gatunek wąskonosej małpy z rodziny człowiekowatych (Hominidae), jeden z dwóch gatunków szympansów, hominidów najbliżej spokrewnionych z rodzajem Homo. Do niedawna nazywany szympansem. Dopiero po odkryciu drugiego, blisko z nim spokrewnionego i nieco mniejszego bonobo, czyli szympansa karłowatego przyznano mu epitet[4] zwyczajny dla odróżnienia od nazwy rodzajowej szympans (Pan).
Zachodnia i środkowa Afryka równikowa. Wykazuje duże zdolności przystosowawcze do warunków panujących w różnych habitatach. Żyje w dżunglach, na suchych sawannach, bagnach oraz w górskich lasach. Najliczniej obecnie występujący przedstawiciel szympansów.
Gatunek po raz pierwszy naukowo opisał w 1775 roku niemiecki antropolog Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, nadając mu nazwę Simia troglodytes[5]. Jako miejsce typowe Blumenbach wskazał Mayoumba w Gabonie[5].
Wyróżniono kilka podgatunków P. troglodytes[6][2][3]:
Szympans zwyczajny prowadzi nadrzewny i naziemny tryb życia. Na ziemi spędza od 20-50% swojego czasu.[7]. Potrafi poruszać się w postawie dwunożnej, choć woli podpierać się zgiętymi palcami ręki, podobnie jak to robią goryle. Aktywny w ciągu dnia, noce spędza w koronie drzew w specjalnie do tego celu budowanych gniazdach-posłaniach. Posłania są jednorazowe, każdego wieczoru szympans buduje nowe. Połowę dnia spędza na jedzeniu, pozostałą część zajmują mu wędrówki w poszukiwaniu kolejnego źródła pokarmu oraz dzienna drzemka.
W warunkach naturalnych długość życia szympansów zwyczajnych mieści się w granicach 40-45 lat. W niewoli notowano przypadki starszych osobników.
Szympansy uważane są za zwierzęta wysoce uspołecznione. Wielopokoleniowe stada szympansów liczą od 25-80 osobników zajmujących dość stabilny areał o powierzchni od 5-20 km2. Stada sąsiadujące ze sobą stykają się ze sobą, wspólnie wędrują, a nawet jednocześnie korzystają z tego samego źródła pożywienia bez okazywania wzajemnej agresji. Grupa, która znajduje pożywienie oznajmia ten fakt pozostałym osobnikom poprzez głośne nawoływanie i uderzanie kijami w pnie drzew. W odróżnieniu od większości innych zwierząt migracje pomiędzy stadami dotyczą samic, a nie samców.
W kontaktach interpersonalnych duże znaczenie mają gesty, dotyk i rytuały wzajemnej pielęgnacji. Władzę w grupie sprawuje dominujący samiec, zwany niekiedy samcem alfa, który obejmuje panowanie po serii walk stoczonych z konkurencyjnymi samcami. Panuje on na ogół przez kilka lat, do chwili, gdy ulegnie następnemu samcowi pretendującemu do tej roli. Wszystkie samce mają ściśle określony status, rangę, która dokładnie plasuje ich w hierarchii i wyznacza kolejność, w jakiej mogą korzystać z wszelkich przywilejów w obrębie grupy, a zwłaszcza z dostępu do samic[8].
Okres rui sygnalizowany jest u samic charakterystycznym pokaźnym obrzmieniem i zaróżowieniem okolicy sromowej. Występuje niekiedy zwyczaj zawierania czegoś w rodzaju czasowego "małżeństwa", które polega na tym, że samiec uprowadza aktywną seksualnie samicę na kilka dni w odosobnione miejsce i cieszy się w tym czasie wyłącznością kopulacji. Także samice obejmuje ścisła hierarchia, która wyraża stopień atrakcyjności seksualnej, a tym samym kolejność, w jakiej będą one pozostawały w sferze zainteresowania najwyższych kolejno rangą samców. Atrakcyjność seksualna zależy od statusu ich matek oraz liczby odchowanego potomstwa[9].
Szympansy wspólnie polują na inne zwierzęta. Zwykle zajmują się tym samce, ale zaobserwowano również przypadki udziału samic w polowaniu.[10] Przyjmują przy tym różne techniki polowań. W trakcie pościgu zachowują się bardzo cicho.
Po ciąży trwającej 220-245 dni samica rodzi jedno, rzadko dwoje młodych. Młode pozostają przy matce do ok. 4-5 roku życia. Dojrzewają ok. 9 roku życia. Więzi pomiędzy samicą a jej potomstwem są podtrzymywane jeszcze długo po odstawieniu młodych od matki.
Jest zwierzęciem wszystkożernym. Zjada głównie rośliny, od czasu do czasu owady (termity, mrówki) lub mięso. Zabija i zjada małe i średniej wielkości ssaki, w tym młode pawiany, a czasem inne małpy.
Społeczności szympansów wypracowały bogaty system komunikowania się (van Lewick-Goodall, 1968, 1974). Porozumiewają się za pomocą złożonych sygnałów zbudowanych z gestów, dźwięków, postawy i ruchów ciała oraz bogatej mimiki.
Potrafią posługiwać się narzędziami. Zachodnioafrykański Pan troglodytes verus wytwarza rodzaj prymitywnej dzidy, poprzez zaostrzenie zębami gałęzi, którą następnie wykorzystuje do zabijania drobnych zwierząt ukrywających się w dziuplach. Narzędzie tego rodzaju jest jednorazowe, po użyciu jest wyrzucane[11]
Wszystkie podgatunki szympansa zwyczajnego narażone są na wyginięcie. Populacje zachodnioafrykańskie są rozproszone i stosunkowo małe, przez co podatne na zagrożenia. Podgatunki występujące w środkowym i wschodnim obszarze występowania całego gatunku są często celem polowań. Jedynie w kilku dużych parkach narodowych (m. in. w Tanzanii) objęte są zadowalającą ochroną, ale nawet w największych parkach lokalne populacje nie przekraczają tysiąca osobników.
Badaniem szympansów zajmowali się m.in.: Jane Goodall, K. Izawa i Kenji Kawanaka.
Poczta Polska wyemitowała 21 sierpnia 1972 r. znaczek pocztowy przedstawiający głowę szympansa zwyczajnego o nominale 1,35 zł, w serii Zwierzęta ZOO. Druk w technice offsetowej na papierze kredowym. Autorem projektu znaczka był Janusz Grabiański. Znaczek pozostawał w obiegu do 31 grudnia 1994 r.[12].
Szympans zwyczajny (Pan troglodytes) – gatunek wąskonosej małpy z rodziny człowiekowatych (Hominidae), jeden z dwóch gatunków szympansów, hominidów najbliżej spokrewnionych z rodzajem Homo. Do niedawna nazywany szympansem. Dopiero po odkryciu drugiego, blisko z nim spokrewnionego i nieco mniejszego bonobo, czyli szympansa karłowatego przyznano mu epitet zwyczajny dla odróżnienia od nazwy rodzajowej szympans (Pan).
O chimpanzé-comum (nome científico: Pan troglodytes), também conhecido como chimpanzé-robusto,[2] é uma das duas espécies de chimpanzés que vivem no continente africano, juntamente com o chimpanzé-pigmeu (bonobo). Evidências de fósseis e sequenciamento de DNA mostram que essas duas espécies são os parentes vivos mais próximos dos humanos.[3] O chimpanzé-comum possui quatro subespécies confirmadas e uma quinta subespécie proposta.
O chimpanzé-comum é coberto por pêlos grossos e pretos, mas tem o rosto, dedos, palmas das mãos e solas dos pés desprovidos de pêlos. É maior e mais robusto que o bonobo, com machos pesando 40-70 kg e fêmeas pesando 27-50 kg, medindo de 100 a 150 cm. Seu período de gestação é de oito meses, muito semelhante à dos humanos que é de 9 meses. O bebê é desmamado por volta dos três anos de idade, mas geralmente mantém um relacionamento próximo com sua mãe por mais alguns anos, atingindo a puberdade entre os 8 e 10 anos.
Os chimpanzés-comuns vivem em grupos que variam de entre 15 a 150 indivíduos, embora viajam em grupos menores durante o dia. A espécie vive em uma hierarquia patriarcal e rigorosa, o que significa que as disputas geralmente podem ser resolvidas sem a necessidade de violência. Quase todas as populações de chimpanzés foram registadas utilizando ferramentas, modificando gravetos, pedras, relva, folhas e usando-os para adquirir mel, cupins, formigas, nozes e água.[4] A espécie também foi encontrada utilizando gravetos afiados como uma lança para caçar pequenos mamíferos.[5]
O chimpanzé-comum está listado na lista vermelha da IUCN como uma das espécies ameaçadas de extinção.[2] A população estimada de chimpanzés-comuns em vida selvagem é de cerca de 170.000 a 300.000 indivíduos, na África Ocidental e Central.[2] As maiores ameaças para o chimpanzé-comum são a destruição do habitat, a caça furtiva e doenças infecciosas transmitidas majoritariamente por seres humanos.
A palavra chimpanzé é derivada do dialeto Banto, o Tshiluba, onde era kivili-chimpenze[6], com o significado de "macaco" ou semelhante ao homem. O nome científico Pan troglodytes reflete a grande confusão que prevalecia no status taxonômico da espécie no início de suas pesquisas científicas, bem como a influência de mitos e lendas. O nome do gênero Pan, definido em 1816 pelo naturalista alemão Lorenz Oken (1851-1779),[7] deriva do deus grego Pã. O nome da espécie troglodita em grego significa "morador das cavernas", um nome inapropriado, uma vez que o chimpanzé comum não habita cavernas. Este nome foi originalmente cunhado no século XVII pelo naturalista sueco Carlos Lineu como o nome da suposta espécie Homo troglodytes (que significa "o homem mora em cavernas") para denotar uma tribo humana lendária que supostamente existiu na África.[8]
O primeiro grande macaco conhecido pela ciência ocidental no século XVII foi o orangotango (gênero Pongo), o nome malaio local sendo registrado em Java pelo médico holandês Jacob de Bondt. Em 1641, o anatomista holandês Nicolaes Tulp atribuiu o nome incorretamente a um chimpanzé ou bonobo da Angola levado para a Holanda por comerciantes holandeses.[9] O naturalista alemão Johann Friedrich Blumenbach classificou o chimpanzé como Simia troglodytes em 1775. Outro naturalista alemão, Lorenz Oken, cunhou o gênero Pan em 1816. O bonobo foi reconhecido como uma espécie distinta do chimpanzé em 1933.[8][10]
Até à data, foram definidas quatro subespécies do chimpanzé-comum,[11][12] que diferem umas das outras principalmente na sua área de distribuição ao longo do Continente Africano:
As diferenças externas entre essas subespécies não são significativas, exceto pela tendência de tamanhos menores do corpo nas subespécies da África Ocidental. Estudos genéticos mostram que as subespécies da África Ocidental e as subespécies da Nigéria-Camarões estiveram, de fato, relativamente isoladas umas das outras e umas das outras por centenas de milhares de anos, mas não há diferenças genéticas significativas entre as subespécies da África Central e da África Oriental.[13]
Uma quinta subespécie foi proposta, o chimpanzé do sudeste (P. troglodytes marungensis), sendo encontrada em Burundi, Ruanda, Tanzânia e Uganda.[14]
Apesar de um grande número de descobertas de fósseis de Homo, os fósseis de Pan não foram descritos até 2005. As populações de chimpanzés existentes na África Ocidental e Central não se sobrepõem aos principais sítios de fósseis humanos na África Oriental, mas fósseis de chimpanzés já foram relatados no Quênia, o que indica que tanto humanos quanto membros do clado Pan estavam presentes no Vale do Rift da África Oriental durante o Pleistoceno Médio.[15]
Evidências de DNA sugerem que as espécies de bonobos e chimpanzés se separaram há menos de um milhão de anos (semelhante em relação ao Homo sapiens e Homo neanderthalensis).[16][17] Um estudo genético de 2017 sugere um fluxo gênico antigo (introgressão) do bonobo para os ancestrais dos chimpanzés entre 200 e 550 mil anos atrás.[18]
A linhagem do chimpanzé se separou do último ancestral comum da linhagem humana há cerca de seis milhões de anos. Já que nenhuma outra espécie além do Homo sapiens sobreviveu da linhagem humana dessa ramificação, ambas as espécies de chimpanzés são os parentes vivos mais próximos dos humanos; a linhagem de humanos e chimpanzés divergiu dos gorilas (gênero Gorilla) há cerca de sete milhões de anos.
Os chimpanzés adultos têm uma altura média de 150 cm.[19] Os machos adultos selvagens pesam entre 40–70 kg, com as fêmeas pesando entre 27–50 kg.[20]
O chimpanzé é mais robusto que o bonobo, mas menos que o gorila. Os braços de um chimpanzé são mais longos que as pernas e podem chegar abaixo dos joelhos. As mãos têm dedos longos com polegares curtos e unhas planas. Os pés são adaptados para agarrar, sendo o dedão do pé oponível. A pelve é longa com um ílio estendido. A cabeça do chimpanzé é arredondada, com um rosto proeminente e prognóstico e uma sobrancelha pronunciada. Possui olhos voltados para a frente, nariz pequeno, orelhas arredondadas não lobuladas, lábio superior longo e móvel e, nos machos adultos, caninos afiados. Os chimpanzés não têm a crista sagital proeminente e a musculatura associada da cabeça e pescoço dos gorilas.[10][21]
Os corpos dos chimpanzés são cobertos por pêlos grossos, exceto o rosto, dedos das mãos e dos pés, palmas das mãos e solas dos pés. Os chimpanzés perdem mais cabelo à medida que envelhecem e desenvolvem manchas calvas. O cabelo de um chimpanzé é geralmente preto, mas pode ser castanho ou ruivo. À medida que envelhecem, podem aparecer manchas brancas ou cinzentas, principalmente no queixo e na região inferior. A pele pode variar de pálida a escura, as fêmeas desenvolvem uma pele inchada e rosada durante o estro.[10][21]
Os chimpanzés são adaptados para locomoção arbórea e terrestre. A locomoção arbórea consiste em escalada vertical e braquiação.[22][23] No solo, os chimpanzés movem-se tanto quadrúpede quanto bípede, que parecem ter custos de energia semelhantes. Tal como acontece com os bonobos e gorilas, os chimpanzés são quadrúpedes e andam pelos nós dos dedos, o que possivelmente evoluiu de forma independente em cada gênero.[24] A força física dos chimpanzés é cerca de 1,5 vezes maior do que a dos humanos, devido ao maior conteúdo de fibras musculares de contração rápida, uma das adaptações do chimpanzé para escalar e balançar.[25]
O chimpanzé é uma espécie altamente adaptável e vive em uma variedade de habitats, incluindo savana seca, floresta tropical perene, floresta montana, floresta pantanosa e em áreas mistas de floresta e savana.[26][27]
Os chimpanzés-comuns são frugívoros onívoros e sua dieta é altamente variável de acordo com as suas populações individuais e estações do ano. As frutas compreendem cerca de metade da dieta, mas as folhas, cascas e talos também são importantes. Os pequenos mamíferos compreendem um pequeno componente, mas significativo na dieta de muitas populações.[2]
Um estudo na floresta de Budongo, Uganda, descobriu que 64,5% do tempo de alimentação dos chimpanzés concentrava-se em frutas (84,6% das quais maduras), particularmente aquelas de duas espécies de Ficus, Maesopsis eminii e Celtis durandii. Além disso, 19% do tempo de alimentação foi gasto em folhas arbóreas, principalmente Broussonetia papyrifera e Celtis gentlebraedii.[28] Embora o chimpanzé seja principalmente herbívoro, ele também come mel, insetos, pássaros e seus ovos, e mamíferos de pequeno a médio porte, incluindo outros primatas.[29] As espécies de insetos consumidas incluem a formiga tecelã Oecophylla longinoda, os Macrotermes, os cupins e as abelhas.[30][31] A espécie Piliocolobus badius está no topo das presas preferidas dos mamíferos, juntamente ao macaco de cauda vermelha, babuínos amarelos, jagra, cabrito-azul e javalis.[32]
O chimpanzé-comum (nome científico: Pan troglodytes), também conhecido como chimpanzé-robusto, é uma das duas espécies de chimpanzés que vivem no continente africano, juntamente com o chimpanzé-pigmeu (bonobo). Evidências de fósseis e sequenciamento de DNA mostram que essas duas espécies são os parentes vivos mais próximos dos humanos. O chimpanzé-comum possui quatro subespécies confirmadas e uma quinta subespécie proposta.
O chimpanzé-comum é coberto por pêlos grossos e pretos, mas tem o rosto, dedos, palmas das mãos e solas dos pés desprovidos de pêlos. É maior e mais robusto que o bonobo, com machos pesando 40-70 kg e fêmeas pesando 27-50 kg, medindo de 100 a 150 cm. Seu período de gestação é de oito meses, muito semelhante à dos humanos que é de 9 meses. O bebê é desmamado por volta dos três anos de idade, mas geralmente mantém um relacionamento próximo com sua mãe por mais alguns anos, atingindo a puberdade entre os 8 e 10 anos.
Os chimpanzés-comuns vivem em grupos que variam de entre 15 a 150 indivíduos, embora viajam em grupos menores durante o dia. A espécie vive em uma hierarquia patriarcal e rigorosa, o que significa que as disputas geralmente podem ser resolvidas sem a necessidade de violência. Quase todas as populações de chimpanzés foram registadas utilizando ferramentas, modificando gravetos, pedras, relva, folhas e usando-os para adquirir mel, cupins, formigas, nozes e água. A espécie também foi encontrada utilizando gravetos afiados como uma lança para caçar pequenos mamíferos.
O chimpanzé-comum está listado na lista vermelha da IUCN como uma das espécies ameaçadas de extinção. A população estimada de chimpanzés-comuns em vida selvagem é de cerca de 170.000 a 300.000 indivíduos, na África Ocidental e Central. As maiores ameaças para o chimpanzé-comum são a destruição do habitat, a caça furtiva e doenças infecciosas transmitidas majoritariamente por seres humanos.
Pan troglodytes este o specie de primate hominide, nativă din Africa tropicală.
Pan troglodytes este o specie de primate hominide, nativă din Africa tropicală.
Šimpanz učenlivý [1][2] alebo šimpanz [3][4](lat. Pan troglodytes alebo zriedkavo Homo troglodytes) je druh z rodu šimpanz.
V minulosti tento druh niekedy zahŕňal aj dnes samostatný druh šimpanz bonobo.
Vyskytuje sa v štyroch poddruhoch:
Bolo zaznamenaných viacero prípadov použitia nástrojov. Upravujú palice, kamene, trávu a listy, ktoré používajú na získanie medu, termitov, mravcov, orechov a vody.[5]
Jeho populácia sa odhaduje od 172 do 299 tisíc jedincov a klesá. Dôvodom je strata habitatu, pytliactvo a choroby.[6]
Commons ponúka multimediálne súbory na tému Šimpanz učenlivý
Wikidruhy ponúkajú informácie na tému Šimpanz učenlivý
Tento článok týkajúci sa živočíchov je zatiaľ „výhonok“. Pomôž Wikipédii tým, že ho doplníš a rozšíriš. Šimpanz učenlivý alebo šimpanz (lat. Pan troglodytes alebo zriedkavo Homo troglodytes) je druh z rodu šimpanz.
V minulosti tento druh niekedy zahŕňal aj dnes samostatný druh šimpanz bonobo.
Navadni šimpanz (znanstveno ime Pan troglodytes) je vrsta opic iz rodu šimpanzov.
Šimpanz je izjemen tako po tem da se lahko uči kakor tudi po svoji podobnosti človeku. Šimpanz je tudi zelo pameten; kadar telo odpove uporablja orodja, rešuje probleme in celo pozna govorico znakov s katerimi se šimpanzi sporazumevajo. So zelo radovedni in radi raziskujejo. Znanstveniki so naredili poizkus: 9-letnemu šimpanzu so dali kos rumenega lepo tkanega blaga: šimpanz je najprej seveda poizkusil če je užitno, potem ga je začel vleči, da je videl, da je trpežno, nato pa je preizkušal, kako bi ga oblekel najprej kot klobuk potem kot ogrinjalo. Ta poizkus je dokazal da šimpanzi posnemajo ljudi. Šimpanzi so zelo glasne živali, po navadi se oglašajo s tridesetimi različnimi glasovi. Njihov jezik in glasilke sta okornejša od človekovih zato ne morejo oblikovati besed in govoriti. Zato se sporazumevajo z nekakšnim lajanjem,tuljenjem in sopihanjem. Kadar so šimpanzi jezni, preplašeni in razburjeni divje vreščijo, če pa so zadovoljni, pa to slišimo po globokih vzdihljajih in po tihem zavijanju.
Šimpanzi so videti kot majhne gorile, le da je njihov obraz po navadi bolj bled. Njihov obraz je rožnat včasih pa ima kateri šimpanz skoraj črn obraz. Njihovo telo je pokrito z dolgo črno ali rjavo dlako. Šimpanzi nimajo repa. Imajo štiri roke, prednje so daljše, vse roke imajo dolge prste, da se lahko hitro oprimejo za veje, kar jim pomaga pri plezanju. Šimpanzi imajo velika raztegljiva usta za prenašanje sadja in drugih stvari. Šimpanzi kot vse druge opice dobro vidijo, nad očmi imajo močan nadočesni obok. Njihovi veliki uhlji lovijo glasove drugih živali.
Samec doseže do 170 cm in 60 kg, samica 130 cm in 47 kg. V živalskih vrtovih dočaka 60 let, v divjini pa 40-50 let.
Navadnega šimpanza najdemo v Afriki, od Gvineje do zahodne Ugande in v Tanzaniji. Živijo v gozdovih in območjih savane. Najbližji sorodnik navadnega je pritlikavi šimpanz ali bonobo (Pan paniscus), ki živi južno od reke Kongo.
Šimpanzi se med seboj sporazumevajo z vrsto izrazov obraza – obrazno mimiko. Ugotovili so da šimpanzi poznajo veliko izrazov s katerimi izražajo svoja čustva in oddajajo različna sporočila prav tako kot ljudje.
Najbolj znani izrazi:
Šimpanzi so zelo družabni, živijo v skupinah, ki včasih štejejo več kot sto članov, vendar po gozdu hodijo v skupinah, v katerih je do osem članov. Vodi jih vodilni samec. Njihov teritorij v gozdu ob sega od 18 do 21 kvadratnih kilometrov, na travnikih pa karod 100 do 200 kvadratnih kilometrov. Včasih se teritoriji dveh skupin prekrivajo. Dan preživi aktivno. Šimpanzi si naredijo gnezda na drevesih, da so med spanjem varni pred vsiljivci. Šimpanz vzdržuje svoje gnezdo in skrbi za čistočo, saj skrbi da iztrebki padejo ven iz gnezda. Če se skupina ne preseli, v gnezdu ostane več časa. Razen ponoči, ko spi na drevesu, je šimpanz večino časa na tleh. Šimpanzi ki spadajo v isti trop, se radi stiskajo in drug drugemu brskajo s prsti po kožuhu. Iz kože mu tako odstranjujejo umazanijo, prhljaj in majhne zajedavce. Z rednim praskanjem in negovanjem skrbijo za lepo in zdravo kožo in pa tudi dlako. S tem pa se hkrati sproščajo in utrjujejo zaupljivost in prijateljstvo med člani tropa.
Šimpanza boste največkrat videli jesti sadje. Šimpanzi jedo vse vrste sadja, sadje predstavlja njihovo glavno vrsto hrane. Jejo tudi smolo, jajca, oreščke in semena. Zgodaj zjutraj po obroku se šimpanzove aktivnosti zmanjšajo, postane bolj len, poležava, si privošči kakšen prigrizek kot na primer: zrela jagoda, slastni listi, drevesno lubje in cvetove in skratka zapravlja čas. Njegov drugi obrok je po navadi obilnejši in je pozno popoldne. Večino tekočine šimpanz dobi s sadjem, s katerim se hrani, včasih pa pije deževnico, ki jo najde v vdolbinah v drevesih. Vemo tudi da šimpanz je med in različne insekte pa tudi termite. Ker do termitov in mravelj težko pride pa šimpanz uporabi svoje možgane: oslini palico in jo položi tja, kjer jih je veliko. Da šimpanz je termite, mravlje in insekte, je bilo že dolgo znano, nismo pa vedeli da šimpanz je tudi meso, na lov za različne sesalce, po navadi druge primate, se poda cela skupina. Te živali skoraj vedno ubije odrasel samec, ki se najprej sam naje potem pa šele deli s skupino.
Na svetu živi 4000 vrst sesalcev od vseh teh je šimpanz najbolj podoben človeku. Ta opica ima kar 97 % enakih genov kot ljudje. Grajen je neverjetno podobno kot človek. Ima veliko človeških lastnosti. Šimpanza lahko vidite v živalskih vrtovih, po navadi je zelo popularen saj mladiči uganjajo različne vragolije, vendar kljub temu in njegovi podobnosti človeku ga vseeno najbolj ogroža človek. Že na začetku razvoja sta obe vrsti tekmovali med seboj za vire hrane. Vendar je že kmalu po tem človek pregnal šimpanze iz območij kjer je bil gosto naseljen. Dandanes šimpanz ni neposredno ogrožen razen na nekaterih manjših območjih. Na nekaterih delih Afrike lovijo šimpanze za živalske vrtove in za poizkuse na živalih, zaradi podobnosti človeku lahko znanstveniki sklepajo kaj bi se zgodilo človeku, če bi vzel zdravilo ali se namazal s kremo. Ljudje so zelo kritični do tega, vendar se to še naprej dogaja. Bolj ogrožen je njegov sorodnik pritlikavi šimpanz.
Samci spolno dozorijo pri 7-8 letih samice pa pri 6-10 letih. Šimpanzi nimajo nobenega posebnega časa parjenja, vrši se preko celega leta, samice se po navadi parijo, ko je prejšnji mladič star približno 3 leta in ko postanejo plodne. Ko postane plodna, se včasih brez kakršne tekmovalnosti pari z njo več samcev. Tako kot ženske imajo tudi šimpanzje samičke menstruacijo približno na 36 dni.
Pri šimpanzih brejost traja od 202 do 261 dni, potem pa se skotita 1-2 mladiča. Če ima mati vodilno vlogo v tropu, se bodo druge opice vedle spoštljivo do nje in njenega mladiča. V prvih petih mesecih svojega življenja se mladič trdno drži matere za kožuh, mati pa ga prenaša povsod s seboj. Prve korake naredi s šestimi meseci. Šimpanz po enem letu tehta približno 9 kg, od mame pa je odvisen vsaj tri leta. Ko je šimpanz star 4 leta se največ časa druži s svojimi vrstniki. Mati ga do šestega leta nauči življenjske spretnosti kot so: obnašanje do drugih članov in tropa, gibanja po gozdu in katera hrana je užitna. Od takrat se mora naučiti kako biti odrasel član družbe, pri 10 letih se mora vesti že kot odrasel šimpanz, znati se mora izogniti nevarnostim in znati mora loviti.
Šimpanz je podoben človeku skoraj v vsem:
Navadni šimpanz (znanstveno ime Pan troglodytes) je vrsta opic iz rodu šimpanzov.
Šimpanz je izjemen tako po tem da se lahko uči kakor tudi po svoji podobnosti človeku. Šimpanz je tudi zelo pameten; kadar telo odpove uporablja orodja, rešuje probleme in celo pozna govorico znakov s katerimi se šimpanzi sporazumevajo. So zelo radovedni in radi raziskujejo. Znanstveniki so naredili poizkus: 9-letnemu šimpanzu so dali kos rumenega lepo tkanega blaga: šimpanz je najprej seveda poizkusil če je užitno, potem ga je začel vleči, da je videl, da je trpežno, nato pa je preizkušal, kako bi ga oblekel najprej kot klobuk potem kot ogrinjalo. Ta poizkus je dokazal da šimpanzi posnemajo ljudi. Šimpanzi so zelo glasne živali, po navadi se oglašajo s tridesetimi različnimi glasovi. Njihov jezik in glasilke sta okornejša od človekovih zato ne morejo oblikovati besed in govoriti. Zato se sporazumevajo z nekakšnim lajanjem,tuljenjem in sopihanjem. Kadar so šimpanzi jezni, preplašeni in razburjeni divje vreščijo, če pa so zadovoljni, pa to slišimo po globokih vzdihljajih in po tihem zavijanju.
Schimpansen (Pan troglodytes) är tillsammans med bonobon den människoapa som är närmast släkt med människan, den delar omkring 99 % av sitt DNA med den moderna människan.[2] Schimpansens närmaste släkting är dock bonobon.
Artepitet i det vetenskapliga namnet är bildat av ett grekiskt ord som beskriver en individ som uppsöker hålor eller som vilar i en grotta. Ursprunget till namnet schimpans är djurets trivialnamn i ett bantuspråk som talas i norra Angola och angränsande delar av Kongo-Kinshasa.[3]
I vilt tillstånd väger en vuxen schimpanshona i genomsnitt 40,6 kg och hannar har en genomsnittlig vikt av 48,9 kg. Hannar når allmänt en kroppslängd (huvud och bål) av 77 till 92,5 cm, och honor blir vanligen 70 till 85 cm långa.[3] Huvudsakligen täcks kroppen av grovt, svart hår, med undantag för ansikte, fingrar, tår, handflator och fotsulor. Vuxna exemplar har dessutom vita hår vid hakan och ibland gråa hår över höfterna på baksidan. Ungdjur kännetecknas av en tofs med vita hår på stjärten. Huden i ansiktet kan ha ljusa eller mörka pigment och bär bara några glest fördelade hår.[3] Schimpansens tummar är motställbara, precis som på människan, men även stortårna fungerar på samma sätt och medger precisionsgrepp.
Artens tandformel är I 2/2 C 1/1 P 2/2 M 3/3, alltså 32 tänder. Framtänderna är breda och bredast är de första framtänder i varje sida av överkäken. Dessutom har schimpansen stora hörntänder, särskild hannar. Arterna i släktet Pan har molarer som är mest lika människans kindtänder.[3] Denna primat saknar svans och har främre extremiteter som är längre än bakbenen. Huvudet kännetecknas av en rund form med ganska små avrundade öron. Tillsammans med bonobon har schimpansen det smalaste bröstbenet av alla hominider.[3]
De tre första underarterna är genetiskt belagda som separerade grupper med ingen eller ytterst liten kontakt sinsemellan, medan den sista (P t vellerosus) inte har kunnat styrkas.[4]
Denna primat lever i olika slags ursprungliga och återskapade skogar som oftast ligger i låglandet men den hittas även i bergsskogar. Arten vistas i träskmarker med träd, i galleriskogar, i mindre skogsdungar i savannen, på jordbruksmark med glest fördelade träd samt i trädodlingar (främst oljepalm).[1]
Schimpanser lever i grupper om 15-120 individer och bildar patriarkaliska samhällen. De äter mest vegetarisk föda, men kan även äta animalisk föda och kan då samarbeta för att jaga och döda bytesdjur som mindre apor, fåglar och antiloper. Revirstrider utförs främst av vuxna hanar som kan angripa och även döda schimpanser från andra grupper.[5] Arten äter även insekter.[3]
När schimpansen klättrar uppför trädstammar använder den armarna som stöd och pressar sig uppåt med hjälp av bakbenen. I träd går arten ofta på fyra extremiteter över grenar och ibland hänger den bara på armarna och svänger sig framåt (brachiation). Det kan även hända att en individ hoppar från en gren till en annan gren på lägre höjd. På marken går schimpansen likaså på fyra fötter eller den vandrar en kortare sträcka på bakbenen. I flera fall står arten på bakbenen för att få bättre översikt eller på grund av att händerna är sysselsatta med föremål.[3]
Under ensamma eller gemensamma vandringar når arten en hastighet upp till 16 km/h. Schimpansen äter vanligen två timmar på morgonen. Under dagens mitt kan den vandra, vila eller likaså äta och under senare delen av dagen är den åter upptagen med födointag. Sedan byggs nästet för natten.[3]
Boet ligger vanligen 4 till 50 meter över marken och i sällsynta fall på marken. Oftast byggs ett nytt näste per natt men ibland används gamla bon.[3]
Gruppens sammansättning skiftar ideligen (fission-fusion society), vilket beror på att djuren vandrar mellan små grupper inom ett visst område. Inom varje grupp finns en viss rangordning, beroende på kön, fysisk styrka, ålder och personlighet. Högst i rang står en vuxen hane. I övrigt är inte rangordningen speciellt strikt, men man kan notera att en brunstig hona stiger i rang. Samma sak när honan blir mor.
Det sociala livet är komplext, med bland annat maktspel och skiftande allianser, vilket kan leda till blodiga uppgörelser, ibland med dödlig utgång.[6] Det finns också många tendenser till altruism,[7][8] bl.a. förekommer det att föräldralösa ungar "adopteras", och därmed drastiskt ökar chansen till överlevnad, av individer som de inte ens är släkt med.[9]. De sociala banden är starka och håller i åratal, men det finns inga långa parförhållanden mellan hane och hona i samband med reproduktion.
En schimpans blir cirka 40–45 år gammal;[10] i djurparker kan de bli över 50 år. De blir könsmogna i 7–13-årsåldern och dräktighetstiden är cirka 7,5 månad (i medeltal 228 dagar, dock minst drygt 200 för livsduglighet[11]). En nyfödd schimpansunge väger cirka 2 kilo och kan gå själv när den är ett år precis som människan.
Med undantag för människan är schimpansen det djur som i störst utsträckning använder sig av redskap, troligen på grund av att dess miljö erbjuder möjligheter till användning av redskap i större utsträckning än miljön som de andra stora människoaporna lever i. Förutsättningar för tillverkning och användning av redskap är schimpansens upprätta sittställning och dess motsättliga tummar. En studie nyligen (2010) tyder på att det främst är honorna som bidrar till att föra kulturen vidare, då antalet kulturella drag tydligt hängde ihop med antalet honor i flera studerade grupper.[12] Det har också visats i specialdesignade experiment att schimpanser tenderar att i första hand lära sig nya beteenden av högre rankade individer.[13] Att helt nya rörelsemönster kan läras och spridas har kunnat studeras i en vild population, där ett antal unga individer kopierat en delvis rörelsehindrad äldre individs sätt att klia kroppen med hjälp av en lian.[14]
Schimpansen är en hotad art och har utrotats i flera länder. Man skjuter vuxna djur och äter köttet, ungarna säljs. Eller så får de leva fastkedjade på serveringar för att locka kunder. Det är också vanligt att de blir försöksdjur. En del sjukdomar kan spridas från människa till schimpans bland annat ebolavirus.
I några äldre avhandlingar förekommer auktorsnamnet Gmelin (1788) men enligt Collin Groves (1993 och senare) beskrevs schimpansen först av Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 1775.[3]
Wikimedia Commons har media som rör Schimpans.
Schimpansen (Pan troglodytes) är tillsammans med bonobon den människoapa som är närmast släkt med människan, den delar omkring 99 % av sitt DNA med den moderna människan. Schimpansens närmaste släkting är dock bonobon.
Artepitet i det vetenskapliga namnet är bildat av ett grekiskt ord som beskriver en individ som uppsöker hålor eller som vilar i en grotta. Ursprunget till namnet schimpans är djurets trivialnamn i ett bantuspråk som talas i norra Angola och angränsande delar av Kongo-Kinshasa.
Bilimsel sınıflandırma Üst âlem: Eukaryota Âlem: Animalia Şube: Chordata Sınıf: Mammalia Takım: Primates Familya: Hominidae
Pan troglodytes (adi şempanze) alt türlerinin dağılım haritası: 1. P. t. verus ; 2. P. t. vellerosus ; 3. P. t. troglodytes ; 4. P. t. schweinfurthii. Bayağı şempanze (Pan troglodytes), Primates (primatlar) takımının Hominidae (büyük insansı maymunlar) familyasına dahil Pan (şempanze) cinsini oluşturan iki türün daha iri yapılı olanıdır. "Şempanze" adı daha çok bu türü ifade etmek için kullanılsa da bu durum teknik açıdan hatalıdır. Yakın geçmişe dek daha çok "pigme şempanze" ya da "cüce şempanze" adları ile anılmış olan Pan paniscus (bonobo), Pan cinsinin diğer türüdür.
Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti'nin ormanlarıyla sınırlı bir dağılım alanı olan bonobonun aksine, bayağı şempanzenin Batı ve Orta Afrika'da daha geniş bir dağılım alanı vardır ve bu dağılım alanları içinde ayrı bölgelerde izlenen dört alt türü bulunur. Bu alt türler şöyle sıralanabilir:
Primat ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini geliştirerek Vikipedi'ye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz. Bayağı şempanze (Pan troglodytes), Primates (primatlar) takımının Hominidae (büyük insansı maymunlar) familyasına dahil Pan (şempanze) cinsini oluşturan iki türün daha iri yapılı olanıdır. "Şempanze" adı daha çok bu türü ifade etmek için kullanılsa da bu durum teknik açıdan hatalıdır. Yakın geçmişe dek daha çok "pigme şempanze" ya da "cüce şempanze" adları ile anılmış olan Pan paniscus (bonobo), Pan cinsinin diğer türüdür.
Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti'nin ormanlarıyla sınırlı bir dağılım alanı olan bonobonun aksine, bayağı şempanzenin Batı ve Orta Afrika'da daha geniş bir dağılım alanı vardır ve bu dağılım alanları içinde ayrı bölgelerde izlenen dört alt türü bulunur. Bu alt türler şöyle sıralanabilir:
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii (Doğu şempanzesi) Pan troglodytes troglodytes (Merkezî şempanze) Pan troglodytes vellerosus (Nijerya şempanzesi) Pan troglodytes verus (Batı Afrika şempanzesi)Це велика мавпа із загальною довжиною тіла до 160 см, з яких на довжину голови і тулуба доводиться 75-95 см, маса тіла 45-50 кг і навіть до 80 кг. Спостерігається статевий диморфізм: самці більші за самиць. У шимпанзе він менш виражений, ніж в орангутанів — наприклад, маса тіла у самиць лише на 10 % менша, ніж у самців. Руки значно довше ніг. Кисті з довгими пальцями, але перший палець малий. На стопах перший палець великий, між останніми пальцями є шкірні перетинки. Вушні раковини великі, схожі на людські, верхня губа висока, ніс маленький. Шкіра обличчя, а також тильних поверхонь кистей і стоп зморшкувата.
Шерсть чорна, у обох статей на підборідді росте біле волосся. Шкіра тіла світла, але на обличчі у різних видів її забарвлення варіює. Середня температура тіла 37,2°.
Полюбляє лісисті місцини та савани. Зустрічається на висоті до 3000 м над рівнем моря. Веде напівназемний, напівдеревний спосіб життя, на землі проводить близько 30% денних годин. Тут зазвичай пересувається на чотирьох кінцівках, спираючись на всю підошву і на тильні поверхні середніх фаланг зігнутих пальців кистей. У такій позі може швидко бігати, зрідка ходить на двох ногах. По деревах пересувається швидко по способу брахіації, підвішуючись на руках, м'язи яких володіють великою підйомною силою. Але в пересуванні по гілках часто використовуються руки і ноги одночасно. Володіє хапальною кистю, а їх великий палець, незважаючи на малі розміри, може протиставлятися іншим. Під час локомоції на деревах кисть слугує «схоплюючим крюком». Кисть звичайного шимпанзе здатна до активної маніпуляції, яка включає процес обшукування, будівництво гнізда, «використання знарядь», сюди ж слід віднести і «малювання» в неволі.
Тримаються шимпанзе групами, чисельність яких не є стабільною. Кожна група включає від 2 до 25 і більше індивідів, іноді зустрічаються змішані групи навіть із 40—45 особин. Склад групи також нестабільний. Група може складатися з пари — самець і самка, трапляються тільки групи, які складаються тільки з самців; групи — мати з дитинчатами різних поколінь; змішані групи. Зустрічаються також самці-одинаки. У стадних взаєминах між індивідами особливої ієрархії не відзначається. Між дорослими особинами поширене взаємне залицяння. Спілкуючись один з одним, шимпанзе видають близько 30 різних звуків, велику роль також відіграють жести рук і пози тіла. Особливе місце займає вираз обличчя. Добре розвинена мімічна мускулатура особи, а звідси і різноманітність міміки. Спить шимпанзе в гніздах, лежачи на боці із зігнутими колінами, а іноді на спині з витягнутими або притиснутими до живота ногами. Стадне життя шимпанзе полягає в пошуках їжі і в різних взаєминах.
Гнізда будує подібно до орангутанів у середній частині дерева. Для денного відпочинку гніздо будується на землі або на деревах. У неволі гнізда влаштовує із ганчірок і паперу. Статевої зрілості самиці досягають у 6—10 років, самці — у 7—8 років. Розмножуються цілий рік. Вагітність триває 225 днів. Як правило, народжується одне дитинча. Відомі випадки народження двійні. Дитинча народжується майже голе, безпомічне. Багато місяців воно тісно пов'язане з матір'ю. Дитинчата й підлітки 3—8-річного віку багато часу проводять в іграх, з віком гри поступово змінюються ритуальним обшукуванням у дорослих.
Тривалість життя до 60 років.
Шимпанзе всеїдний, але головним чином його дієта рослинна (але їсть м'ясо всякий раз, коли воно доступне), складається з фруктів, листя, горіхів, насіння, бульб, та іншої рослинності, а також грибів, комах, меду, пташиних яєць та дрібних хребетних. Для видобування термітів та розколювання горіхів створють примітивні інструменти. Є також випадки організованого полювання; в деяких випадках, такі як вбивство дитинчат плямистої пантери[1], це насамперед є захисною дією, оскільки плямиста пантера — його головний природний ворог. Однак, м'ясо — необхідне джерело живильних речовин, і звичайні шимпанзе іноді об'єднуються в групи та полюють на здобич, таку як західні червоні колобуси та мавпи.
Західноафриканський шимпанзе (Pan troglodytes verus) є єдиними відомими з тварин крім людей та деяких птахів, які можуть створювати та використовувати спеціалізовані інструменти для полювання. Спостерігали, що шимпанзе в савані на південному сході Сенегалу створили списа, обриваючи гілки з дерева та знімаючи з них кору, потім загострюючи один кінець своїми зубами. Вони використовували їх як зброю, убивши тварину.[2] Там, де немає червоних колобусів, самки та дитинчата полюють на сплячих сенегальських галаго (Galago senegalensis), на пробу тикаючи в дупла саморобні списи[3].
Мешкає в Африці від Сенегалу й Малі до Центральноафриканської Республіки та Демократичної Республіки Конго. Також зустрічається у Південному Судані, Уганді, Бурунді, Танзанії та Замбії.
Шимпанзе чорномордий, або шимпанзе «чого» (P. troglodytes troglodytes) з Центральний Африки (басейни рік Нігер і Конго) відрізняється веснянкуватим обличчям на білому фоні, яке з віком стає бруднуватим, з більш великими плямами.
У швейнфуртовського шимпанзе (P. t. Schweinfurthii) із Центральної та Східної Африки (басейни річок Луабала і Убангі) в районах озер Вікторія і Танганьїка обличчя світле, з віком переходить у темно-бруднуватий, шерсть довша.
Західний шимпанзе (P. t. verus) із Західної Африки (Сьєрра-Леоне, Гвінея на схід до річки Нігер) має чорну пігментацію обличчя, яка за формою нагадує метеликоподібну маску (надбрів'я і нижня частина обличчя світліші).
Нігерійсько-камерунський шимпанзе (P. t. vellerosus), що мешкає на кордоні Нігерії та Камеруну, доволі рідкісний. Найменше відомо про їх екологію, поведінку. Найбільш уразливий підвид.
Tinh tinh thông thường hay còn gọi là hắc tinh tinh (danh pháp hai phần: Pan troglodytes) là một loài tinh tinh trong họ Hominidae, bộ Linh trưởng, được Blumenbach mô tả năm 1775.[3]. Nguyên loài này thường được gọi là tinh tinh nhưng tên gọi này chỉ cả chi Tinh tinh (Pan).
Tinh tinh thường sinh sống ở Tây và Trung Phi. Họ hàng gần nhất với nó là tinh tinh lùn (Pan paniscus), được tìm thấy tại các cánh rừng của Cộng hòa dân chủ Congo. Ranh giới địa lý giữa hai loài này là sông Congo.
Tinh tinh trưởng thành có thể cân nặng 40 và 65 kg (88 và 143 lb) và cao 1,6 đến 1,3 m (5 ft 3 in đến 4 ft 3 in)[Chuyển đổi: Số không hợp lệ] khi đứng thẳng. Thời gian mang thai kéo dài 8 tháng. Con tinh tinh sơ sinh là cai sữa khoảng ba năm tuổi, nhưng thường duy trì một mối quan hệ gần gũi với mẹ của nó trong vài năm nữa, nó đạt đến tuổi dậy thì ở độ tuổi lên 8 hoặcn 10, và tuổi thọ của nó trong điều kiện nuôi nhốt là khoảng 50 năm.
Tinh tinh sống phổ biến ở các nhóm có từ 15 đến 150 thành viên, mặc dù các cá thể đi và kiếm thức ăn thành nhóm nhỏ hơn nhiều trong ngày. Cuộc sống các loài trong một hệ thống cấp bậc nghiêm ngặt, con đực thống trị, có nghĩa là tranh chấp có thể được giải quyết mà không cần bạo lực. Gần như tất cả các quần thể tinh tinh đã được ghi nhận có thể sử dụng các công cụ, dậy được sửa đổi, đá, cỏ, và lá và sử dụng chúng để lấy mật ong, mối, kiến, các loại hạt, và nước. Loài này cũng đã được tìm thấy tạo gậy mài nhọn để đâm Galago senegalensis ra khỏi lỗ nhỏ trên cây.
Tinh tinh thông thường được liệt kê trên Sách đỏ IUCN và loài nguy cấp. Từ 170.000 và 300.000 cá thể được ước tính trên phạm vi của nó trong rừng và hoang mạc của Tây và Trung Phi. Các mối đe dọa lớn nhất đối với tinh tinh thông thường là tình trạng phá hủy môi trường sống, săn bắn và bệnh tật. Tinh tinh hiếm khi thọ quá 40 năm trong điều kiện sống hoang dã, nhưng có thể sống tới 60 năm trong điều kiện giam giữ và con tinh tinh có tên gọi là Cheetah trong phim Tarzan sống đến 80 tuổi.
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Tinh tinh thông thường hay còn gọi là hắc tinh tinh (danh pháp hai phần: Pan troglodytes) là một loài tinh tinh trong họ Hominidae, bộ Linh trưởng, được Blumenbach mô tả năm 1775.. Nguyên loài này thường được gọi là tinh tinh nhưng tên gọi này chỉ cả chi Tinh tinh (Pan).
Обыкновенные шимпанзе живут в сообществах, которые типично колеблются от 20 до более чем 150 особей. Они живут и на деревьях и на земле равное время. Их обычная походка является четвероногой, используя подошвы ног и опоры на суставы рук, но они могут идти и вертикально на короткие расстояния. Ночь проводят в гнёздах на деревьях, гнёзда каждый вечер строят заново (выросшие в неволе особи строить гнёзда, как правило, не умеют). Спят, лёжа на боку с согнутыми коленями или на спине с прижатыми к животу ногами[5].
Общаются между собой, используя около 30 различных звуков, большую роль играют жесты, позы, мимика. Они умеют плакать (в отличие от человека — без слёз), смеяться. Чтобы подозвать сородича, обезьяна ухает, подкрепляя звуки специфическим «зовущим» выражением лица. Поджатые губы и пронзительный взгляд — угрожающая демонстрация (с таким лицом бросается в драку). Губы раздвинуты, дёсны обнажены, рот приоткрыт — покорность или испуг. Сходная мимика, но зубы сжаты — это «подобострастная улыбка» в присутствии доминантной особи. Улыбаясь, не показывая зубов, детёныши показывают, что агрессия не всерьёз. Ноющие звуки при вытянутых в трубку губах — знак дискомфорта, когда обезьяне требуется корм, груминг или что-то ещё. Топая, доминантная особь отгоняет подчинённую.[9]
При всём желании шимпанзе могут усвоить всего несколько слов из человеческих языков, поскольку их речевой аппарат устроен иначе, чем у человека. Успешными оказались опыты по обучению шимпанзе Уошо, а затем и других её соплеменников, жестовому языку.
Исследования ДНК, опубликованные в 2004—2005 годах показали различия между карликовым и обыкновенным шимпанзе, эти виды разделились меньше миллиона лет назад (примерно в то же время, что человек и неандерталец)[10][11]. Разделение линии шимпанзе от последнего общего предка человеческой линии произошло приблизительно 6 миллионов лет назад. Поскольку никакой другой вид гоминидов, кроме человека разумного, не сохранился, то обе разновидности шимпанзе являются самыми близкими живущими родственниками современных людей. Род шимпанзе отклонился от рода гориллы около 7 миллионов лет назад.
Более 150 лет численность шимпанзе сокращается главным образом из-за антропогенных факторов: уничтожения мест обитания (вырубки лесов), браконьерства, большей частью, ради мяса (англ.) (которое и раньше входило в меню различных народов континента)[12]. Вид находится под угрозой вымирания.
Представители этого вида по имени Хэм и Энос летали в космос на созданных человеком кораблях в рамках программы «Меркурий».
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|month= (справка) |month= (справка) |month= (справка) Обыкновенные шимпанзе живут в сообществах, которые типично колеблются от 20 до более чем 150 особей. Они живут и на деревьях и на земле равное время. Их обычная походка является четвероногой, используя подошвы ног и опоры на суставы рук, но они могут идти и вертикально на короткие расстояния. Ночь проводят в гнёздах на деревьях, гнёзда каждый вечер строят заново (выросшие в неволе особи строить гнёзда, как правило, не умеют). Спят, лёжа на боку с согнутыми коленями или на спине с прижатыми к животу ногами.
ЯзыкОбщаются между собой, используя около 30 различных звуков, большую роль играют жесты, позы, мимика. Они умеют плакать (в отличие от человека — без слёз), смеяться. Чтобы подозвать сородича, обезьяна ухает, подкрепляя звуки специфическим «зовущим» выражением лица. Поджатые губы и пронзительный взгляд — угрожающая демонстрация (с таким лицом бросается в драку). Губы раздвинуты, дёсны обнажены, рот приоткрыт — покорность или испуг. Сходная мимика, но зубы сжаты — это «подобострастная улыбка» в присутствии доминантной особи. Улыбаясь, не показывая зубов, детёныши показывают, что агрессия не всерьёз. Ноющие звуки при вытянутых в трубку губах — знак дискомфорта, когда обезьяне требуется корм, груминг или что-то ещё. Топая, доминантная особь отгоняет подчинённую.
При всём желании шимпанзе могут усвоить всего несколько слов из человеческих языков, поскольку их речевой аппарат устроен иначе, чем у человека. Успешными оказались опыты по обучению шимпанзе Уошо, а затем и других её соплеменников, жестовому языку.
黑猩猩（学名：Pan troglodytes）是黑猩猩属下的两个物种之一，另一种是倭黑猩猩（Bonobo (Pan paniscus)）。根据黑猩猩基因组计划的研究结果，黑猩猩和倭黑猩猩与人类具有较高的基因相似度，与人类有最近的共同祖先，從演化的角度看是現存生物中與人类最近的姊妹種，黑猩猩跟人類基因組的相似度高達98.8%[2]，大約在600萬年前「分家」。
黑猩猩的生活范围在非洲西部及中部，屬於哺乳綱靈長目，平日成群地生活，每個群體就像一個部落。
英文名Chimpanzee首次使用於1738年，載於《The London Magazine》，義為「mockman」[3]
黑猩猩體多毛，四肢修長且皆可握物，他們能以半直立的方式行走。黑猩猩經常會和大猩猩搞混，但他們兩是不同的，黑猩猩的體型比大猩猩小；而且在遺傳上，黑猩猩與人類較為接近，與大猩猩較為不相似。
黑猩猩的ABO血型以A为主，有少量O型，但没有B型。M血型和N血型也有发现。黑猩猩有48條染色體（24對）。黑猩猩细胞色素c上的氨基酸顺序与人类的相同。母猩猩懷孕期達兩百三十天，一胎生下一子。
母黑猩猩懷孕期為八個月。幼嬰會在大約三歲時斷乳，但仍會與母親親密生活數年。青春期為八到十歲，由人類圈養的黑猩猩，壽命可長達五十歲。
黑猩猩的智商較高，已知他們能使用一些簡單的工具來進行一些工作，如捉白蟻。生物学家多次观察到雌黑猩猩可以制作工具来捕猎丛猴。黑猩猩群落間會爆发战争[來源請求]。死去的敌方黑猩猩可能被吃掉[來源請求]。牠們跟人類一樣有心情，也有享樂、失望、恐懼、沮喪[來源請求]。
珍·古德在她的研究報告對於野外黑猩猩的生活習性多有描述。
有一段長時間，人們都以為黑猩猩是素食動物，其實黑猩猩是雜食性，牠們會利用不同的方法來取不同的食物，黑猩猩會利用舔滿口水的細枝來粘螞蟻，並利用兩塊石器放置、敲開果實。黑猩猩有時會捕食一些猴類（如紅疣猴、黑白疣猴）黑猩猩在捕食猴類時會策劃戰術，由於黑猩猩無法在樹上捕捉靈敏的疣猴，因此有一隻黑猩猩會先從陸地上超過樹上的疣猴群，而其它黑猩猩則會從樹上將牠們聚集並驅趕到埋伏地點，當陸上的黑猩猩到達埋伏地點時會在樹下等候，此時其它的黑猩猩會堵住疣猴群的路只留下一條有埋伏的通道，當疣猴進入這條路時，埋伏的黑猩猩會把牠趕到地上獵殺。
美國佐治亞州立大學教授霍普金斯（William Hopkins）等人2014年7月在《當代生物學》期刊發表報告，稱他們對年齡介於9歲到54歲之間的99隻黑猩猩進行了測試。每隻黑猩猩都要參與13項認知測試，包括使用工具和空間記憶等。結果顯示，這些黑猩猩當中，有超過一半的認知能力受遺傳基因顯著影響。[4]
人類演化並不只是研究人屬生物，有時還研究早期的人科生物，甚至會研究人類和黑猩猩的共同祖先是誰，並且會研究何時分道揚鑣。
科學家普遍認為人類和黑猩猩大約在600-700萬年前，分道揚鏣的時間為中新世。而分子鐘計算出是在500萬年前分裂兩族，但普遍科學家並不認同，他們認同是上者。亦有些研究指是400萬年前才分家。
最近有些研究顯示黑猩猩能用肢體語言，然而這點仍存有很大的爭議，目前科學界普遍的看法是他們雖然沒有語言能力，但能發出眾多不同的聲音、臉部表情與肢體動作，作為表達情緒或彼此溝通的信號。
黑猩猩（学名：Pan troglodytes）是黑猩猩属下的两个物种之一，另一种是倭黑猩猩（Bonobo (Pan paniscus)）。根据黑猩猩基因组计划的研究结果，黑猩猩和倭黑猩猩与人类具有较高的基因相似度，与人类有最近的共同祖先，從演化的角度看是現存生物中與人类最近的姊妹種，黑猩猩跟人類基因組的相似度高達98.8%，大約在600萬年前「分家」。
黑猩猩的生活范围在非洲西部及中部，屬於哺乳綱靈長目，平日成群地生活，每個群體就像一個部落。
英文名Chimpanzee首次使用於1738年，載於《The London Magazine》，義為「mockman」
ワシントン条約附属書I 分類 界 : 動物界 Animalia 門 : 脊索動物門 Chordata 亜門 : 脊椎動物亜門 Vertebrata 綱 : 哺乳綱 Mammalia 目 : 霊長目 Primates 亜目 : 直鼻亜目 Haplorhini 科 : ヒト科 Hominidae 属 : チンパンジー属 Pan 種 : チンパンジー P. troglodytes 学名 Pan troglodytes
チンパンジー（Pan troglodytes）は、霊長目ヒト科チンパンジー属に分類される類人猿。
セネガルからコンゴ民主共和国、ウガンダ、ルワンダ、タンザニア[4]
体長オス85センチメートル、メス77.5センチメートル[4]。体重オス40 - 60キログラム、メス32 - 47キログラム[4]。全身の毛衣は黒く、顎の毛衣は白い[4]。脳容積は397 mL前後である[5]。
顔は黒や肌色[4]。成長に伴い額がはげ上がり（オスで顕著）、顔が黒ずむ[3]。
種小名troglodytesはギリシャ語の「穴居人」に由来し、転じて「原人」の意[3]。
ミトコンドリアDNAの全塩基配列の解析では487万年前±23万年[6]にチンパンジー亜族とヒト亜族が分岐したとされる。
国際チンパンジー22番染色体解読コンソーシアム（The International Chimpanzee Chromosome 22 Consortium, 理化学研究所なども参加）によってチンパンジーの第22番染色体がほぼ完全に解読され、これに対応するヒトの第21番染色体の比較が報告されている[7]。その報告によると、DNAレベルの比較では、ヒトとチンパンジーの間で1.44%の一塩基置換（点突然変異）とそれに加えて68,000箇所の配列の挿入または欠失が生じていた。翻訳される231種類のタンパク質について比較したところ、83%でアミノ酸レベルの変化が生じていた。
また、別の研究では2005年にチンパンジーの全ゲノムのドラフト配列が解読され、ヒトとの比較が報告されている。[8]その報告では、DNAレベルではおよそ3500万(1.23％)の一塩基置換と500万箇所の配列の挿入または欠失が生じていた。タンパク質について比較したところ、ヒトとチンパンジーの典型的な相同タンパク質は極めて類似しており、平均でわずか2アミノ酸しか違いがなく、比較した相同タンパク質のおよそ30％は同一だった。なお、上述の22番染色体の研究の書き方に合わせるならば、およそ70％でアミノ酸レベルの変化が生じていることになる。
チンパンジーとヒトのDNAの違いは1-4%程度との報告がある[9][10][11]。上記の報告でもDNAについてはその範囲に収まる。それと比べて、「7-8割のタンパクに違いがある」と聞くとタンパクレベルでは相違が大きいような印象を受けるが、全ゲノムのドラフト配列の結果で言及されているように、それぞれのタンパクの違いは小さいことがありうるため、一概にタンパクレベルで相違が大きいとは言えないことに注意が必要である。
4亜種がこれまで認められている[2][12][13][14]。亜種マスクチンパンジー（ニシチンパンジー）は160万年前に他亜種と分化したと考えられ、遺伝的距離が大きいとされる[4]。
コリン・グローヴズは、ブルンジ、ルワンダ、タンザニア、ウガンダの個体群がケナガチンパンジー（ヒガシチンパンジー）と異なる亜種Pan troglodytes marungensisであると主張している[19]。
樹上棲だが、地表では前肢の指関節外側を接地して四足歩行（ナックルウォーク）する[4]。昼行性[4]。夜間になると樹上に日ごとに新しく寝床を作って休むが、同じ寝床を再利用したり地表に寝床を作ることもある[4]。10 - 20平方キロメートルの行動圏内で生活するが、乾燥した地域では行動圏が数百平方キロメートルに達することもある[4]。
蟻塚に棒を差込みシロアリを捕食する、石や倒木を使って堅い果実の殻を割る、木の葉を使って樹洞に溜まった水を飲む、木の葉を噛みちぎる音を使って求愛するなど様々な用途で道具を使う[4]。これらの道具および行動には地域変異があり、文化的行動と考えられている[4]。たとえば、ウガンダの森に棲むものは、日常的に木の枝を使ってサスライアリなどを捕食することが報告されている[20]。道具を使って哺乳類を狩猟した報告もある[15]。
西アフリカや中央アフリカなど大型肉食獣による捕食の脅威がある地域では、捕食者に対抗するため、協力行動が発展し社会構造にも影響するとの説がある[21]。2013年には東アフリカでもヒョウによるチンパンジーの捕食が初めて確認された[21]。
食性は雑食で、主に果実を食べるが種子、花、葉、樹皮、蜂蜜、昆虫、イノシシ類・サル・ダイカー類・ハイラックス類・リス類などの小型から中型哺乳類なども食べる[4]。サルを集団で協力して狩猟することもある[3]。母子間では食物分配がよく見られる。肉食の際には大人同士でも分配されることが多い[4]。
繁殖形態は胎生。生後8 - 11年で性成熟し、生後14 - 15年で初産を迎える[4]。生後10年以下で産むこともあるが、メスが別の群れに移籍することから通常は性成熟から初産までに間隔がある[22]。寿命は50年と考えられ、飼育下では57年の飼育記録がある[4]。
ブッシュバックの死体を持ち運ぶ個体
果物を食べている個体
群れの仲間で毛づくろいをしている様子
複数頭の異性が含まれる20-100頭ほどの群れ（単位集団、コミュニティ）を形成して生活するが、普段は、主に母子関係やオス間の同盟を元に構成される小さい集団（パーティ）に分かれて遊動する（頻繁に「離散集合」を繰り返す）。特定のオスメス関係にもとづいた繁殖はせず、雌雄ともに複数の異性と交尾をする。そのため、産まれてくる子の父親は明らかでない。オスは産まれた群れに留まる傾向が強いが、性成熟したメスは産まれた群れを離れて別の群れに移籍することが多い[4]。メスが出自群をでることによって近親交配の回避をしていると考えられている（第一子を出自群で生む例や、子供を連れた群間の移籍例など、例外も知られている）。群れ内の個体間には順位差があり、とくにオス間には順位を巡った争いがあることが知られる。野生下・飼育下共にオス間での連合の形成が見られる。
チンパンジーの特筆すべき習性として「子殺し」がある[4]。オス達が他の集団の赤ん坊を襲う、オスが同じ集団の赤ん坊を殺す、さらに、メスが同じ集団の赤ん坊を殺す、など様々なパターンが観察されている。オスの幼獣が殺されることが多く、殺された幼獣は同じ群れのメンバーによって食べられてしまう[4]。子殺しによって、他のオスの血統を減らし、自らの遺伝子をより多く残す繁殖戦略であるという説もあるが、ライオンなどの子殺しと違ってどの子が自分の血を引いていないか明確でなく、この習性がチンパンジーの社会でどのような役割を果しているのかはよく分かっていない。
群れ間の関係は敵対的で、血縁関係のあるオスが協力して他の群れの行動圏にのりこみ殺し合いになることもある[4]。集団から離れて一頭でいるところを数頭で狙うことが多い。単位集団内のオス、メスの比が出生時は1：1であるのに対し成獣では1：2に偏っているのは、ここに一因があると考えられる。同属別種のボノボのオス、メス比が1：1であるのと比べると特筆されるべきことである。
チンパンジーには笑いがある。くすぐったり、追いかけ合ったりして笑い声を出す。ただし、テレビ番組でチンパンジーが芸などを披露する[注 3]際、歯を見せて笑っているように見えることがあるが、これは英語で「グリマス」 (grimace) と称される表情であり、チンパンジーが恐がっている時の顔である。
チンパンジーは乱婚で、優位のオスに交尾の機会が多いが、野生では下位のチンパンジーが「かけおち」することが観察されている。草陰に隠れていた気の弱いオスのところに、いつのまにか一頭の発情中のメスが寄り添っている。そして、一日、長い時は一週間以上も群れの中心から離れて遊動範囲の周縁へと「かけおち」する。時には、オスに手荒に叩かれたりしながらしぶしぶ「かけおち」するペアもいる。ニホンザルのDNA解析から、ボスよりも下位のオスの子孫の方が多かったという研究結果があることから、チンパンジーも同じようなことが予想されるが、まだ報告はされていない。
チンパンジーは道具使用や挨拶行動を含め、さまざまな文化的行動が報告されてきたが、1999年のホワイテンらの論文[23]以降2000年代急増している[24]。ホワイテンらが取り扱った文化的行動は物の操作に関するものが多い。
ここで使われている「文化」の定義は、ある行動レパートリーが集団の多くのメンバーによって共有され、世代から世代へと社会的に情報が伝達される現象ということである。行動レパートリーのうち、社会的学習によって伝播または伝承され、なおかつ地域間の行動上の差異が単に生態的要因の差異によるものではないものを指している。
チンパンジーは知能が高く、訓練によって簡単な言語を習得できる。習得する言語には一般に図形文字が用いられ、「抽象的な記号と単語を理解して、その上で短い文章を作り、相手に伝えることができる」[25]。じゃんけんも理解することができ人間の４歳児程度の知能を有するとされる[26][27]。また、人間の代わりにチンパンジーは宇宙にも行った。1961年の米国のロケットに乗った「ハム」や「エノス」の活躍が知られている。彼らは重力実験や簡単なボタン操作の訓練を受けた後に宇宙へと送り出され、生物が宇宙空間でも行動可能なことを実証した[28]。知能の高さゆえの脱走事故も多く、1989年には京都大学霊長類研究所のアイとアキラが檻の鍵を開けて脱走する事故があった。それまで鍵を使用したことは無かったが、人間が使用するのを見て使い方を理解していた。その際にオランウータンも逃がしてやったが、これは義侠心などではなく愉快犯的な思考であったという[25]。2014年には米国の動物園で、樹木の枝を折って壁に立てかけ、梯子代わりに使って壁を乗り越えた事故も発生した[29]。
名前はコンゴの方言、基亜種の名前チェゴは生息地での本種の呼称に由来する[3]。
森林伐採や開発による生息地の破壊、食用やペットにするための密猟、内戦による混乱などにより生息数は減少している[4][30]。エボラ出血熱、急性灰白髄炎や呼吸器系の疾患などによっても生息数が減少している[31]。一方、生息地でのチンパンジーの保護も行われ、人為的な保護区（保護施設）が作られている[30]。
日本では1927年に大阪市天王寺動物園で初めて飼育された[32]。日本では1962年に福岡市動植物園が初めて飼育下繁殖、1982年に京都大学霊長類研究所が人工授精（動物園では1985年に恩賜上野動物園）、1998年に広島市安佐動物公園が死亡したオスの冷凍精子を用いた人工授精に成功した[32]。
チンパンジーは人間に近いため、動物実験によく用いられた。ポリオや、A型肝炎、B型肝炎のワクチン開発などに役立った[33]。もっとも多くのチンパンジーを飼育したのは米国である。しかし20世紀の終わりごろから動物実験に廃止する立場から批判・攻撃をうけ[34]、21世紀になると、動物実験用のチンパンジーの飼育頭数が徐々に減っていき、米国でさえ、C型肝炎のワクチン開発と、がん性腫瘍の治療法開発に限って実験を行う方向に大きく舵を切った[35]。動物実験から引退したチンパンジーは、野生復帰は難しいため、人為的な保護区で余生を送っている[要出典]。
アメリカの弁護士であり「非人間権利プロジェクト（Nonhuman Rights Project）」の代表も務めるスティーヴ・ワイズが「もし自分の好きなように人生を送ることができるだけの認知能力があるなら、そうする権利をもつべきです。どのような種に属しているかはまったく重要ではないはずです」という主張から彼が世話しているアメリカ在住の4匹のチンパンジーに「人」として法的人格が認められる権利を求めてアメリカの3つの裁判所で3つの訴訟を起こしたという事例も存在し、現在上告することを発表している[36]。ワイズは自身の主張を裏付けるために9人の専門家の協力を得て「チンパンジーの認知能力について今日知ることのできるすべての知識をまとめた200ページの文書」を用意し、その9人の専門家も法廷で証人を務める予定である[37]。
成獣のオスは、他の群れのチンパンジーを襲って殺すことがあるほど獰猛で攻撃的な一面を持っているため、猛獣と認識されている。腕力が強く、車のフロントガラスを素手で叩き割ることができると言われる。一説に成獣は300kgもの握力があると推定されている[38]。
飼育下において人間が襲われる事例も報告されており、2009年にはアメリカで、CM出演などの経歴を持った「トラビス」（14歳のオス）が飼い主の知人女性を襲い、警官に射殺される事件がおこった[39]。襲われた女性は鼻、唇、まぶたや手の指を失い重体となった[40]。同年ドイツのベルリン動物園でも、餌を与えていた館長が「ペドロ」（28歳のオス、群れのボス）に右手人差し指を噛み切られる事故が発生[41][42]。日本でも2012年に、テレビ番組への出演で人気となった「パンくん」（10歳のオス）が、飼育研修生を襲い2週間の怪我を負わせるという事故があった[43]。
動物園で檻や柵があっても石や糞を投げてくることがあるため、一般の来園者にも危険性はある。2010年台湾・高雄市の寿山動物園で、チンパンジーの群れに向かってターザンの真似をして大声で叫んで騒ぎたてた高校生の一団に対して、ボスの「莉忠」が激怒して石を投げ付け、間を隔てていた強化ガラスを割ったケースがある[44]。しかしながら、身体構造上、投擲能力においては人間より劣り、チンパンジーはせいぜい初速30(㎞/h)でしか物を投げることができず[45]、到達距離はせいぜい5～6ｍに過ぎない[46]。
歌手のマイケル・ジャクソンは「バブルス」と名付けたチンパンジーをペットとして愛玩していた。しかしバブルスの成長に伴って個人宅での飼育は危険と助言され、マイケルはバブルスを手放し専用の飼育施設で余生を送らせた[47]。
日本ではチンパンジー属単位で特定動物に指定されている[48]。
침팬지(영어: chimpanzee, 문화어: 침판지, 학명 : Pan troglodytes)는 사람과 침팬지 속에 속하는 유인원이다. 한때는 초식동물로 여겨졌으나, 영국의 동물학자이자 평화운동가인 제인 구달에 의해 무리 지어서 원숭이나 천산갑을 사냥하는 모습이 밝혀지면서 잡식동물로 재해석되었다. 유전적으로 사람과 가장 유사한 동물이라고 알려져 있다.
침팬지의 몸은 전체적으로 거친 검은 털로 뒤덮여 있지만 얼굴, 손가락, 손바닥, 발가락, 발바닥에는 털이 없다. 일반적으로 몸무게는 40-65kg이며 몸길이는 63-94cm이다. 임신 기간은 약 8개월이다. 새끼 침팬지는 3살이 되면 젖을 떼지만 그 이후로도 몇년간 어미 침팬지와 가까운 관계를 유지한다. 침팬지는 8-10살이 되면 사춘기를 맞이한다. 야생 침팬지의 수명은 대략 36년이며[1] 사육되는 침팬지의 경우 50년이다.
침팬지는 삼림 속에서 살며 땅이나 나무 위에서 활동한다. 20-150마리의 무리를 지어 살지만, 낮에 돌아다니거나 먹이를 찾으러 다닐 땐 적은 마릿수의 무리를 지어 다닌다. 수컷 중심으로 무리가 돌아가며 엄격한 위계질서가 존재한다, 따라서 무리 속 분쟁이 일어날 경우 위계질서에 따라 해결하므로 비폭력적인 해결이 가능하다. 대부분의 경우, 침팬지는 도구를 사용할 줄 아는 것으로 기록되어 있다. 막대, 돌, 풀, 나뭇잎 등을 꿀, 흰개미 혹은 개미, 견과류, 물을 얻는데 사용하였다. 또한, 막대 끝을 날카롭게 만들어 나무에 작은 구멍에 서식하는 세네갈갈라고를 사냥하는 모습이 발견되었다. 이동할 때는 주로 일어서서 걸으며 나무 오르기나 점프를 하고 밤에는 나무 위에 나뭇가지를 꺾어 만든 잠자리에서 잔다. 먹이는 주로 과일이지만 잎·줄기·나무껍질·꽃 등과 영양 새끼·다람쥐 등의 포유동물도 잡아먹는다. 또한 새의 새끼나, 알, 혹은 개미 등의 곤충도 잡아먹는다. 먹이 때문에 서식장소를 변경하는 습성이 있으며 때로는 원주민들의 과수원을 습격하여 과일을 약탈하기도 한다. 항상 큰 목소리를 내며 먹이를 잡을 때 도구를 사용한다. 도구를 사용하는 행동은 지역에 따라 차이가 있는데 이는 각 지역집단에서 전승되어 온 문화적 행동인 것으로 추정된다. 우간다에서는 나뭇잎이 달린 나뭇가지를 부채처럼 흔들며 벌레를 쫓는 광경이 포착되었다.[2] 분포 지역은 아프리카 중부이며 서식 지역은 저지대의 열대다우림·산지림·건조림 등이고 적응력이 좋다. 보통 20-80마리가 안정된 사회적 단위를 유지하면서 생활한다. 단위집단 내에는 가족과 같은 하위 단위는 없고 통일성이 없는 이합집산을 되풀이한다. 단위집단 내에서의 성관계는 자유롭다. 암컷은 성적 성숙기에 이르면 원래의 집단을 떠나고 인접 집단에 들어가 새끼를 낳고 키운다. 침팬지 사회는 집단 사이에 암컷을 교환하는 부계사회이다. 생태 특성상 공격성이 매우 강하다. 대중매체에서는 치타가 타잔에서 나오는 침팬지로 등장하며, 타잔의 친구이다.
침팬지는 IUCN 적색 목록에 등록된 멸종 위기 등급의 동물이다. 대략 170,000-300,000마리의 침팬지가 아프리카 서부와 중부의 숲과 사바나에 서식하는 것으로 추정된다. 침팬지에게 있어 가장 큰 위협은 서식지 감소, 밀렵, 질병이다.
수컷 성체의 몸무게는 40-60kg, 암컷의 경우 32-47kg이다.[3] 큰 야생 침팬지의 경우 70kg까지 자라날 수 있으며 트래비스와 같은 사육 침팬지들은 무게가 91kg에 육박하는 것으로 알려져 있다.[4][5][6]네다리로 서 있을 때 코부터 엉덩이까지의 몸길이는 대략 63-94cm 사이며, 두 다리로 서 있을 때는 수컷은 160cm, 암컷은 130cm까지로 측정된다. 몸은 전체적으로 거친 검은 털로 뒤덮여 있지만 얼굴, 손가락, 손바닥, 발가락, 발바닥에는 털이 없다. 꼬리가 없는 게 특징이며 앞다리가 뒷다리보다 길고 귀가 크다. 다른 손가락과 마주 볼 수 있는 엄지손가락을 가졌고, 마찬가지로 엄지발가락 또한 다른 발가락과 마주 볼 수 있다. 이를 통해 더욱 정밀한 손,발 사용이 가능하고 나무에 기어오를 때 발가락으로 나뭇가지를 붙잡을 수 있다. 앞머리에는 긴 털이 있고 입술 부근에는 거친 흰 털이 있다. 코는 편평하여 피부의 주름과 같이 보이고 몸과 다리는 통통하고 짧다. 이빨 수는 사람과 같은 32개이고 염색체 수는 사람보다 한 쌍이 많다. 침팬지의 시력은 약 1.5 정도이다. 성적으로 성숙하기까지는 암컷이 약 7년, 수컷이 약 8년이 걸린다. 암컷은 약 11살이 되면 첫 새끼를 낳는데, 임신 기간은 약 8개월이고, 3-4년마다 한 마리의 새끼를 낳는다. 새끼는 암컷이 키우는데, 약 5개월이 될 때까지 안고 다니고 새끼 침팬지가 3살이 되면 젖을 뗀다. 그 이후로도 몇년간 어미 침팬지와 가까운 관계를 유지하다 약 6년이 지나면 떠나보낸다. 침팬지는 서로 '털 고르기'를 통해서 오물이나 벌레 등을 떼어 준다. 투덜대거나 비명을 질러 감정을 표현하고, 상대방을 껴안거나 몸을 만지며 의사 표현을 한다. 짧은 거리의 경우 이족보행이 가능하지만, 일반적으로 사족보행을 하는 동물이다. 걸을 때 뒷다리는 발바닥 전체를 사용하고 앞다리는 손등을 땅에 디디며 걷는다. 이는 손바닥을 사용하여 걷는 오랑우탄과는 대비되는 특성이며, 침팬지와 같은 손등 걷기를 사용하는 동물은 고릴라와 보노보가 있다.
침팬지는 적응력이 좋은 동물이며 서식지가 다양하게 분포되어 있는 것이 특징이다. 서식지는 열대다우림, 산지림, 건조림이다. 침팬지는 행동 범위를 기억하고 먹이를 꾸준하게 찾아낼 수 있을 만큼 인지지도가 뛰어난 동물이다.[7] 어미의 보살핌이 필요한 어린 침팬지를 제외하고 모든 침팬지들은 각기 다른 나무에서 둥지를 트고 매일 다른 곳에서 밤을 지낸다[8]. 코트디부아르와 가봉에서는 표범이 침팬지의 생태계에 위협을 가하는 포식자이다[9][10]. 이들을 경계하기 위해 침팬지들은 집단으로 모여 표범을 공격하거나 새끼를 죽이기도 한다. 탄자니아의 국립공원에서는 사자가 4마리의 침팬지를 잡아먹은 것으로 추정되나[11] 이후 더 이상 포착된 바는 없다. 사바나의 침팬지들이 더 큰 무리를 지어 고양잇과의 포식자들을 견제한 것으로 추정된다.[11]
잡식성이지만 과일을 가장 선호한다. 나뭇잎, 잎눈, 씨앗, 꽃, 줄기, 중과피, 나무껍질, 나뭇진 또한 먹는다. 곤충과 고기도 먹지만 비율로 계산하면 2%로 추정된다.[7][12]침팬지는 대부분 초식 생활을 하지만 꿀, 흙, 곤충, 새, 달걀, 작은 포유류 동물, 다른 종의 영장류 등을 먹기도 한다.[7][13] 침팬지가 가장 선호하는 포유류 동물은 서부붉은콜로부스이며, 그 외에는 동부콜로부스, 검댕망가베이, 다이애나원숭이, 브라자원숭이, 붉은꼬리원숭이, 노랑개코원숭이, 파란다이커, 천산갑, 임바발라, 혹멧돼지가 있다.[14]
곤충과 무척추동물 등을 사냥하고 잡아 먹는 것으로 널리 알려진 사실과는 달리 침팬지의 섭식 비율을 계산하면 사냥하여 먹는 동물의 비율은 2%밖에 차지 하지않으며 사냥철에는 하루에 65g의 고기를 먹는다. 이 측정치는 무리에 따라 다르고 또 매년 다르다. 그러나 대부분의 경우 과일, 잎, 뿌리, 등 식물을 주로 섭취한다.[12][15]연구 결과에 따르면 암컷 침팬지는 수컷보다 적은 양의 고기를 먹는다.[16]
사람이 침팬지를 관찰할 경우 행동에 영향을 끼칠 수 있기 때문에 드론, 카메라, 마이크 등을 사용하여 관찰하는 것이 더욱 정확하다.[17]
20-150마리의 무리를 지어 살지만, 낮에 돌아다니거나 먹이를 찾으러 다닐 땐 적은 마릿수의 무리를 지어 다니며 이때의 무리는 나이와 성별에 관계없이 구성되어 있다. 암컷과 수컷 모두 때때로 홀로 이동할 때가 있다.[8] 환경과 때에 따라 무리를 변경한다. 침팬지 무리의 종류를 살펴보자면 '수컷 무리', '암컷과 새끼 무리', '암컷과 수컷 무리', '어미 침팬지와 새끼 무리'가 있다. 침팬지는 조직 내에서 복잡한 상호 관계망을 이루고 있으며 많은 시간을 서로에게 '털 고르기'를 해주는데 할애한다.[18]
조직 사회의 핵심적 역할은 수컷이 맡고 있다. 자신의 무리를 보호하고 먹이를 찾아다니려 주위를 돌아다닌다. 수컷은 자신이 태어난 무리에 머무르지만 암컷은 청년기에 원래의 무리를 떠나 다른 무리로 이동한다. 수컷들 사이에선 지배 계급에 따라 위계질서가 이루어져 있고 암컷은 수컷의 지배하에 생활한다.[19]
다양한 표정, 몸짓, 소리를 통해 다른 개체와 소통한다.[7] 가까이 있는 개체와 소통할 때 얼굴 표정이 중요한 역할을 한다. 무서울 땐 ‘이빨을 내보이며 웃는 표정’을 지으며 이를 통해 근처에 있는 다른 침팬지들에게도 알린다. 다른 얼굴 표정으로는 ‘입술을 젖히는 표정’, ‘입을 뿌루퉁하게 내미는 표정’, ‘입을 굳게 다문 표정’이 있다.[7]
발성 또한 중요한 의사소통 방법이다. “팬트 후트”는 성체 침팬지들끼리 서로를 부를 때 쓰는 가장 대표적인 인사법이며 흥분했을 때 사용된다.[7] 팬트 후트는 ‘우우우우’라고 외치는 인사법이며 네 파트로 나뉘어 있다. 처음의 ‘우’는 부드럽게 시작하여 점차 커지고 나중엔 크게 소리 지르는 듯이 들리며 이후엔 다시 부드럽게 ‘우’를 외치고 끝난다.[20] 서열이 낮은 침팬지는 높은 침팬지에게 “팬트 그런트”라는 인사법을 사용한다.[7][21]
대부분의 경우, 도구를 사용할 줄 아는 것으로 기록되어 있다. 막대, 돌, 풀, 잎을 조작하여 꿀, 개미, 흰개미, 견과류, 물을 얻는데 사용한다. 어렵고 복잡한 차원은 아니지만 행동 전에 사전 숙고를 하고 기술을 사용하는 것이 포착되었다.[22] 1960년 제인 구달의 연구를 통해 현대의 침팬지들이 도구 사용을 시작한 것으로 알려져 있다. 하지만 2007년 발표된 연구결과에 따르면 침팬지는 최소 4,300년 전부터 돌을 가지고 도구 사용을 해왔다.[23]
처음으로 침팬지에 대한 장기 현장 연구를 실행한 사람이 제인 구달이다. 1960년 탄자니아의 곰비 국립공원에서 연구를 시작하였다. 오늘날 알려진 침팬지의 행동 양식과 조직 문화에 대한 지식은 상당 부분 50년째 진행되고 있는 제인 구달의 곰비 현장 연구에서 기초하였다. 그 외의 다른 현장 연구로는 1960년 아드리안 코르틀란트의 콩고 민주 공화국 연구와 주니치로 이타니의 탄자니아의 마할레 마운틴 국립공원 연구가 있다.[24][25]
침팬지는 사람을 공격하는 것으로 알려져 있다.[26][27] 우간다에서 침팬지가 어린아이들을 공격한 일이 여러 번 있었으며 그중 목숨까지 위험했던 경우도 있다. 공격의 원인으로는 근처 맥주 양조장에서 술을 마시고 취한 침팬지가 공격했을 가능성과 어린아이를 자신들이 즐겨 먹는 서부붉은콜로부스[28]로 오인하여 공격했을 가능성이 있다.[29] 침팬지가 인간을 잠재적 경쟁자로 생각할 경우 이들과 교감하려는 시도는 위험할 수 있다.[30] 인간 아기를 낚아채 먹었다는 6개의 기록이 있다.
침팬지의 힘과 날카로운 이빨은 성인에게도 치명적일 수 있다. 침팬지의 공격으로 다친 사례가 있다. 종합 스톡 자동차 경주 선수 출신 제임스 데이비스는 침팬지 두 마리가 덤벼들어 살이 찢기는 상처를 입었고 침팬지는 도살되었다.[31][32] 또 다른 사건으로는 2009년에 미국 스탬퍼드 도시에서 애완 침팬지 트래비스가 주인의 친구를 공격한 경우가 있다. 트래비스의 경우 91kg에 육박하는 13살 침팬지였으며 피해자는 손, 눈꺼풀, 코, 상악골 일부를 잃었다.[33][34]
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서아프리카의 시에라리온·가이아나 부근을 경계로 하여 적도를 비스듬히 가로질러 남쪽으로 탕가니카호(湖)까지 분포한다. 아종의 종류와 분포 지역은 다음과 같다.
침팬지(영어: chimpanzee, 문화어: 침판지, 학명 : Pan troglodytes)는 사람과 침팬지 속에 속하는 유인원이다. 한때는 초식동물로 여겨졌으나, 영국의 동물학자이자 평화운동가인 제인 구달에 의해 무리 지어서 원숭이나 천산갑을 사냥하는 모습이 밝혀지면서 잡식동물로 재해석되었다. 유전적으로 사람과 가장 유사한 동물이라고 알려져 있다.
침팬지의 몸은 전체적으로 거친 검은 털로 뒤덮여 있지만 얼굴, 손가락, 손바닥, 발가락, 발바닥에는 털이 없다. 일반적으로 몸무게는 40-65kg이며 몸길이는 63-94cm이다. 임신 기간은 약 8개월이다. 새끼 침팬지는 3살이 되면 젖을 떼지만 그 이후로도 몇년간 어미 침팬지와 가까운 관계를 유지한다. 침팬지는 8-10살이 되면 사춘기를 맞이한다. 야생 침팬지의 수명은 대략 36년이며 사육되는 침팬지의 경우 50년이다.
침팬지는 삼림 속에서 살며 땅이나 나무 위에서 활동한다. 20-150마리의 무리를 지어 살지만, 낮에 돌아다니거나 먹이를 찾으러 다닐 땐 적은 마릿수의 무리를 지어 다닌다. 수컷 중심으로 무리가 돌아가며 엄격한 위계질서가 존재한다, 따라서 무리 속 분쟁이 일어날 경우 위계질서에 따라 해결하므로 비폭력적인 해결이 가능하다. 대부분의 경우, 침팬지는 도구를 사용할 줄 아는 것으로 기록되어 있다. 막대, 돌, 풀, 나뭇잎 등을 꿀, 흰개미 혹은 개미, 견과류, 물을 얻는데 사용하였다. 또한, 막대 끝을 날카롭게 만들어 나무에 작은 구멍에 서식하는 세네갈갈라고를 사냥하는 모습이 발견되었다. 이동할 때는 주로 일어서서 걸으며 나무 오르기나 점프를 하고 밤에는 나무 위에 나뭇가지를 꺾어 만든 잠자리에서 잔다. 먹이는 주로 과일이지만 잎·줄기·나무껍질·꽃 등과 영양 새끼·다람쥐 등의 포유동물도 잡아먹는다. 또한 새의 새끼나, 알, 혹은 개미 등의 곤충도 잡아먹는다. 먹이 때문에 서식장소를 변경하는 습성이 있으며 때로는 원주민들의 과수원을 습격하여 과일을 약탈하기도 한다. 항상 큰 목소리를 내며 먹이를 잡을 때 도구를 사용한다. 도구를 사용하는 행동은 지역에 따라 차이가 있는데 이는 각 지역집단에서 전승되어 온 문화적 행동인 것으로 추정된다. 우간다에서는 나뭇잎이 달린 나뭇가지를 부채처럼 흔들며 벌레를 쫓는 광경이 포착되었다. 분포 지역은 아프리카 중부이며 서식 지역은 저지대의 열대다우림·산지림·건조림 등이고 적응력이 좋다. 보통 20-80마리가 안정된 사회적 단위를 유지하면서 생활한다. 단위집단 내에는 가족과 같은 하위 단위는 없고 통일성이 없는 이합집산을 되풀이한다. 단위집단 내에서의 성관계는 자유롭다. 암컷은 성적 성숙기에 이르면 원래의 집단을 떠나고 인접 집단에 들어가 새끼를 낳고 키운다. 침팬지 사회는 집단 사이에 암컷을 교환하는 부계사회이다. 생태 특성상 공격성이 매우 강하다. 대중매체에서는 치타가 타잔에서 나오는 침팬지로 등장하며, 타잔의 친구이다.
침팬지는 IUCN 적색 목록에 등록된 멸종 위기 등급의 동물이다. 대략 170,000-300,000마리의 침팬지가 아프리카 서부와 중부의 숲과 사바나에 서식하는 것으로 추정된다. 침팬지에게 있어 가장 큰 위협은 서식지 감소, 밀렵, 질병이다.
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