There are around 29,000 described species in the phylum Platyhelminthes (Zhang 2011). Platyhelminths, or flatworms, include both free-living and parasitic species. The phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into two monophyletic clades, the Catenulida (with just around 100 known species; Larsson and Jondelius 2008) and the Rhabditophora, which includes nearly all known platyhelminths (Timothy et al. 2004; Willems et al. 2006; Larsson and Jondelius 2008).
The majority of flatworms are obligately parasitic, either flukes (members of the classes Trematoda and Monogenea, such as the Schistosoma trematodes that cause schistosomiasis) or tapeworms (members of the class Cestoda, such as the Beef Tapeworm) (Brusca and Brusca 2003). These obligately parasitic groups together form a monophyletic clade known as Neodermata. Many of these parasitic flatworms have complex life cycles involving multiple hosts. The non-parasitic flatworms, which until recently were usually placed together in a group known as Turbellaria, include mainly free-living forms in marine and freshwater benthic (bottom) habitats; a few are terrestrial and some are symbiotic in or on other invertebrates (Brusca and Brusca 2003). Until relatively recently, Turbellaria was considered to include the Acoela ("acoel flatworms") and Nemertodermatida, which together comprise a group known as Acoelomorpha. Based on molecular phylogenetic studies, however, the acoelomorphs are no longer thought to fall within the Platyhelminthes at all, but rather to be the sister group to all non-acoelomorph bilaterians (a group that includes most animal phyla) (Larsson and Jondelius 2008 and references therein). Even with the acoelomorphs removed, however, Turbellaria is no longer generally recognized as a valid grouping since Neodermata is nested within it, making it paraphyletic.
Most flatworms are conspicuously flattened dorsoventrally (i.e., from "back" to "belly"). The free-living tapeworms range from less than 1 mm to around 30 cm long, but some tapeworms may reach several meters in length (Brusca and Brusca 2003).
Flatworms:The First Hunter Video and Lesson Plans
More Resources About Flatworms
About Shape of Life
Shape of Life is a series of FREE classroom videos based on an original PBS Series. Explore the beautiful evolution of the animal kingdom on planet earth. The series is NGSS aligned with exquisite focus on diversity, biodiversity, adaptability, body structure, design, behaviors, and the innovative scientists who explore these creatures.
Platwurms vorm in die diereryk die filum Platyhelminth (van die Griekse πλατύ platy, "plat", en ἕλμινς helminth-, "wurm").[1] Dit is ’n groep relatief eenvoudige, ongesegmenteerde ongewerweldes van die klade Bilateria. Anders as ander lede van Bilateria het hulle geen seloom (buikholte) en geen gespesialiseerde asemhalings- en hartvatstelsel nie. Hulle het gevolglik plat vorms wat suurstof en voedingstowwe deur hul liggaam laat beweeg deur middel van diffusie. Die spysverteringstelsel het net een opening wat as mond en anus dien, en daarom kan die kos nie aaneenlopend geprosesseer word nie.
Platwurms wat vry voorkom, is meestal roofdiere en kom voor in water of skaduryke, humiede aardomgewings. Lint-, suig- en slakwurms het komplekse lewensiklusse, met volwasse stadiums wat as parasiete in die spysverteringstelsel van visse of gewerweldes voorkom, en intermediêre stadiums wat sekondêre gashere besmet. Die eiers van suigwurms word deur hul hoofgashere uitgeskei, terwyl lintwurms groot hoeveelhede hermafroditiese segmente genereer wat verdeel wanneer hulle volwasse is, uitgeskei word en eiers vrystel.
Meer as die helfte van alle bekende platwurms is parasiete, en sommige rig enorme skade aan mense en vee aan. Bilharzia, wat deur die genus Schistosoma haematobia veroorsaak word, is naas malaria die mees verwoestende siekte by die mens wat deur parasiete veroorsaak word. Varkmasels word veroorsaak deur lintwurmlarwes wat vleis oneetbaar maak.
Die bedreiging deur platwurms in ontwikkelde lande is aan die toeneem weens die gewildheid van rou of halfgaar vleis, asook die invoer van kos van hoërisikogebiede. In ontwikkelende lande het mense dikwels nie die geld om kos goed gaar te maak nie, en swak beplande watertoevoer en besproeiingsprojekte verhoog die gevare wat veroorsaak word deur swak sanitasie en onhigiëniese boerderypraktyke.
Tot die trilhaarwurms (klas Turbellaria) behoort die primitiefste platwurms. Uit hulle het waarskynlik in die loop van die evolusie suig- en lintwurms ontwikkel. Die trilhaarwurms is oor die algemeen nooit langer as 5 mm nie en die liggaam is heeltemal, of net aan die onderkant. met trilhare bedek.
Die meeste soorte lewe in die see. Saam met hierdie vrye lewensvorm beskik die trilhaarwurms oor ʼn groot aantal sintuie. Tassintuie kom langs die liggaamsrand voor en smaaksintuie is in die kop en langs die mondrand geleë. Bale van die soorte besit ook oë, maar hulle kan daarmee slegs tussen lig en donker onderskei. As die oë ontbreek, is daar egter altyd liggevoelige selle in die vel aanwesig.
Die primitiefste verteenwoordigers van die trilhaarwurms, die Acoela, besit geen derm nie. Die voedsel word verteer deur 'n groep selle wat rondom die slukderm geleë is. Hierdie selle neem die voedseldeeltjies aktief op en verteer hulle op 'n soortgelyke wyse as wat by die amoeba gebeur.
Die hoër ontwikkelde trilhaarwurms besit wel 'n derm. Die vorm van die derm speel 'n rol by die klassifisering van die diere in verskillende groepe. By die Planaria-spesies (suborde Tricladida), wat sowel op land as in sout- en varswater voorkom, bestaan die derm uit 3 takke.
Ook suigwurms (klas Trematoda) is net enkele millimeters groot en alle spesies lewe parasities. Om hom daartoe in staat te stel om hom op (ektoparasiet) of in (endoparasiet) die liggaam van die gasheer vas te heg, is die diertjies toegerus met 'n suigapparaat en ʼn haak aan die agterkant van die liggaam.
Die Monogenea lewe meestal op die kieue van visse of op die vel van paddas en ander diere wat naby water lewe. Die larwes wat uit die eiers kom, swem 'n tyd lank vry rond, waarna hulle hulle vir die res van hul lewe aan 'n gasheer vasheg. Polystoma integerrimum is een van die min Monogenea wat as endoparasiet in die galblaas van paddas lewe. Die larwe heg hom in die eerste plek as 'n ektoparasiet aan die kieue van paddavissies vas, maar wanneer die kieue tydens die metamorfose van die paddavis tot padda verdwyn, verhuis die parasiet via die dermkanaal na die galblaas.
Daar groei die larwe stadig verder, totdat dit na 3 jaar op presies dieselfde tydstip as die padda geslagsryp is. Wanneer hy voortplant, gaan die padda na die water en sodoende beland die eiers van die Polystoma weer in die water. Die hormoonvlak in die bloed van die padda beïnvloed waarskynlik ook indirek die geslagsrypheid van die wurm.
Digenea is 'n endoparasiet waarby daar tydens die ontwikkeling van die larwe tot volwasse dier sowel gasheer- as generasiewisseling plaasvind. Die trilhaarbedekte mirasidiumlarwe kom uit die dier in die water vry. Die larwe dring 'n tussengasheer binne (meestal 'n waterslak) en ontwikkel daar tot 'n sporosist. Die sporosist bring ongeslagtelike (dit wil sê sonder bevrugting), staafvormige redia voort, wat op hul beurt dogterredia vorm. Die sporosiste en redia bly voortleef binne die slak, maar op 'n bepaalde tydstip ontstaan daar ook ander larwes, die serkaria, uit die redia.
Die serkaria verlaat die slak, swem 'n tyd vry rond en vorm uiteindelik metaserkaria ('n russtadium omsluit deur 'n kapsel). Laasgenoemde vind in 'n tweede tussengasheer of in die water plaas. In laasgenoemde geval heg die serkaria hulle dikwels aan waterplante vas. As die tussengasheer of waterplant deur 'n eindgasheer opgeëet word, groei die metaserkaria uit tot volwasse wurms. Baie werweldiere, ook die mens, kan as eindgasheer optree. Die lewerbotte (familie Fasciolidae) is as groep baie bekend. Verteenwoordigers van die familie Schistosomidae veroorsaak skistosomiase (bilharzia) - ʼn berugte tropiese siekte.
Hierdie wurms is die enigste suigwurms waarvan die geslagte geskei is. Hulle lewe egter in pare saam: die lang, maer wyfie lê permanent in ʼn groef aan die buikkant van die mannetjie. Die serkaria vorm nie ʼn kapsel nie, maar boor die liggaam van die eindgasheer binne, waarna hulle via die bloedstroom in die lewer beland. Wanneer hulle geslagsryp is, verhuis hulle na die dermwand, waar hulle die res van hul lewe in die bloedvate deurbring. Dit is veral die bale eiers wat ontsteking en weefselafwykings veroorsaak.
Die lintwurm (klas Cestoda) is goed aangepas vir ʼn parasitiese leefwyse: 'n mond en dermkanaal ontbreek en die wurm neem voedsel wat reeds deur die gasheer verteer is, direk deur sy liggaamswand uit die dermkanaal van die gasheer op. Aan die kop van die wurm kom hake of suiers voor waarmee hy hom aan die wand van die dermkanaal vasheg. Generasiewisseling kom maar selde by hierdie wurms voor; daar is wel meer as een tussengasheer nodig vir die ontwikkeling van die larwe (blaaswurms of sistiserkus) tot die volwasse dier.
Dit kan ʼn gewerwelde of ‘n ongewerwelde dier wees; die eindgasheer is egter altyd 'n gewerwelde dier. Agter die kop (skoleks) word vanuit die "nek" (kollum) altyd nuwe segmente (proglottides) gevorm. Hierin kom sowel testes as ovaria voor maar laasgenoemde word op ʼn latere tydstip eers ryp. Deurdat die liggaam in 'n lus gaan Iê, kom die ouer en jonger proglottes met mekaar in aanraking en kan hulle mekaar bevrug. Die bevrugte eiers word in 'n vertakte, sakvormige orgaan, die "uterus", opgegaar en vul die hele ryp segment.
Elke keer wanneer ontlasting plaasvind, verlaat 'n aantal ryp segmente die liggaam. Hulle val na 'n tyd uitmekaar en sodoende kom die eiers vry. Een van die bekendste spesies waarvoor die mens as eindgasheer optree, is die beeslintwurm (Taeniarhynchus saginatus), wat ook as die ongewapende lintwurm bekend staan omdat dit slegs oor suiers beskik. Die seshakige larwe (onkosfeer) kom in 'n eier voor en ontwikkel in 'n bees of ander herkouer tot 'n blaaswurm.
Deur die bees se vleis nie goed gaar te maak voordat dit geëet word nie, kry die mens die blaaswurm in. Ook die varklintwurm (Taenia solium), of wat ook bekend staan as die gewapende lintwurm van wee die krans van hakke op sy kop, parasiteer op die mens. Verder kan die mens ook as tussengasheer optree. Die blaaswurm kan in so ʼn geval 'n veel groter gevaar inhou as die volwasse wurm, aangesien dit veral die oë en senuweeweefsel binnedring.
Die katlintwurm (Hydatigena taeniaeformis), waarvoor die huismuis (Mus musculus) as tussengasheer optree, kom bale gereelder voor as enige van bogenoemde twee soorte lintwurms. Dipylidium caninum kom by veral honde en katte voor, maar ook kinders word hierdeur besmet. Die blaaswurm is sterk gereduseer en staan bekend as sistiserki. Die sistiserkus ontwikkel in vlooilarwes en besmetting vind plaas wanneer ʼn lewende of dooie vlooi heel ingesluk word. Die breëlintwurm (Dibothrio cephalus latus) word deur die eet van varswatervis na verskillende soogdiere en na die mens oorgedra.
Platwurms vorm in die diereryk die filum Platyhelminth (van die Griekse πλατύ platy, "plat", en ἕλμινς helminth-, "wurm"). Dit is ’n groep relatief eenvoudige, ongesegmenteerde ongewerweldes van die klade Bilateria. Anders as ander lede van Bilateria het hulle geen seloom (buikholte) en geen gespesialiseerde asemhalings- en hartvatstelsel nie. Hulle het gevolglik plat vorms wat suurstof en voedingstowwe deur hul liggaam laat beweeg deur middel van diffusie. Die spysverteringstelsel het net een opening wat as mond en anus dien, en daarom kan die kos nie aaneenlopend geprosesseer word nie.
Yastı qurdlar (lat. Platyhelminthes İkitərəflisimmetriyalılar bölməsindən heyvan tipi.(Xəzər Novruz Bu yastı qurdlara aid məqalədir)
Yastı qurdlar ikitərəfli simmetriyaya malik heyvanlardır. Bədən bel-qarın istiqamətində yastilaşıb. Qan dövranı və tənəffüs sistemi yoxdur. Bu heyvanlarda ilk dəfə olaraq sadə quruluşlu ifrazat sistemi əmələ gəlmişdir. Sinir sistemi bir cüt sinir düyünü və onlardan bədən boyu uzanan sinir sütunlarından ibarətdir, hermafrodit heyvanlardır. Əksəriyyəti heyvanlarda və insanda parazitlik edir, lakin sərbəst yaşayan növləri də çoxdur.
Yastı qurdlar tipi 25 000-dən artıq növü əhatə edir[1]
Bədəni bel qarın istiqamətində yastılaşmışdır və entoderma,ektoderma,mezoderma adlanan hüceyrə qatlarından ibarətdir.Bədən örtükləri həlqəvi və uzununa yerləşmiş əzələlərlə birlikdə dəri-əzələ kisəsini əmələ gətirir.Daxili orqanları arasındakı boşluq birləşdirici toxumadan ibarət parenxima ilə doludur.Bağırsaqboşluqlardan fərqli olaraq, yastı qurdlarla yaxşı inkişaf etmiş orqanlar və orqanlar sistemi yaranmışdır.Yastı qurdlara kirpikli,sorucu,lentşəkilli və.s siniflər daxildir.Bunlardan qaraciyər sorucusu vardır.
Bu qaraciyər sorucusu olan qaraciyərdə yaşayır.Lentşıkillilərə öküz soliteri aiddir.Öküz soliterinin 4 başçıqdan ibarət olur.O 4-10 metrə qədər olur.O nazik bağırsaqda yaşayır.Sormaclar vasitəsi ilə qidasını qəbul edir.Bəziləri elə düşünürlərki öküz soliteri soruculara aid etmək olar.Xeyr çünki,okuz soliterinin bədən quruluşu lentşəkillidir.Buğumlu olduğundan onu lentşəkillirə aid edirlər.Öküz soliterinin 1 buğumunda 175.000 yumurta olur.Qaraciyər sorucusu qaraciyərdə olan qanla və hüceyrələrlə qidalanır.
Yastı qurdlar (lat. Platyhelminthes İkitərəflisimmetriyalılar bölməsindən heyvan tipi.(Xəzər Novruz Bu yastı qurdlara aid məqalədir)
Yastı qurdlar ikitərəfli simmetriyaya malik heyvanlardır. Bədən bel-qarın istiqamətində yastilaşıb. Qan dövranı və tənəffüs sistemi yoxdur. Bu heyvanlarda ilk dəfə olaraq sadə quruluşlu ifrazat sistemi əmələ gəlmişdir. Sinir sistemi bir cüt sinir düyünü və onlardan bədən boyu uzanan sinir sütunlarından ibarətdir, hermafrodit heyvanlardır. Əksəriyyəti heyvanlarda və insanda parazitlik edir, lakin sərbəst yaşayan növləri də çoxdur.
Yastı qurdlar tipi 25 000-dən artıq növü əhatə edir
Bədəni bel qarın istiqamətində yastılaşmışdır və entoderma,ektoderma,mezoderma adlanan hüceyrə qatlarından ibarətdir.Bədən örtükləri həlqəvi və uzununa yerləşmiş əzələlərlə birlikdə dəri-əzələ kisəsini əmələ gətirir.Daxili orqanları arasındakı boşluq birləşdirici toxumadan ibarət parenxima ilə doludur.Bağırsaqboşluqlardan fərqli olaraq, yastı qurdlarla yaxşı inkişaf etmiş orqanlar və orqanlar sistemi yaranmışdır.Yastı qurdlara kirpikli,sorucu,lentşəkilli və.s siniflər daxildir.Bunlardan qaraciyər sorucusu vardır.
Bu qaraciyər sorucusu olan qaraciyərdə yaşayır.Lentşıkillilərə öküz soliteri aiddir.Öküz soliterinin 4 başçıqdan ibarət olur.O 4-10 metrə qədər olur.O nazik bağırsaqda yaşayır.Sormaclar vasitəsi ilə qidasını qəbul edir.Bəziləri elə düşünürlərki öküz soliteri soruculara aid etmək olar.Xeyr çünki,okuz soliterinin bədən quruluşu lentşəkillidir.Buğumlu olduğundan onu lentşəkillirə aid edirlər.Öküz soliterinin 1 buğumunda 175.000 yumurta olur.Qaraciyər sorucusu qaraciyərdə olan qanla və hüceyrələrlə qidalanır.
Els platihelmints (Platyhelminthes, del grec πλατύ, plat, que significa "pla" i ἕλμινς (arrel: ἑλμινθ-), helmint, que significa "cuc")[2] constitueixen un fílum d'animals invertebrats bilateris, no segmentats[3], i protòstoms de cos tou i relativament simples. A diferència d'altres bilateris, no tenen cavitat corporal, ni òrgans circulatoris ni respiratoris especialitzats, fet que els limita a formes aplanades que permeten el pas d'oxigen i nutrients a través dels seus cossos per difusió.
En els textos tradicionals de zoologia els platihelmints es divideixen en turbel·laris, que en la seva majoria no són paràsits com els triclàdides, i tres grups únicament parasítics: cestodes, trematodes i monogenis. La majoria de turbel·laris són depredadors, i viuen a l'aigua o a entorns ombrívols i humits com la fullaraca. Els cestodes i trematodes tenen cicles vitals complexos, amb estadis madurs que viuen com a paràsits en els sistemes digestius de peixos o vertebrats terrestres, i estadis intermedis que infecten hostes secundaris. Els ous dels trematodes són excretats des dels hostes principals, mentre els cestodes adults generen enormes quantitats de proglòtids com segments hermafrodites que es desenganxen quan maduren, i s'excreten i aleshores alliberen els ous. A diferència d'altres grups parasítics, els monogenis són paràsits externs que infecten animals aquàtics, i les seves larves fan la metamorfosi a la forma adulta després d'haver-se adherit a un hoste adequat.
Com que no tenen cavitats corporals internes, durant més d'un segle, els platihelmints es van considerar com a un estadi primitiu en l'evolució dels bilateris (animals que tenen simetria bilateral i per tant amb terminacions frontals i posteriors distintives). Tanmateix, les anàlisis des de la meitat de la dècada de 1980 han separat un subgrup, els acelomorfs, com a bilateri basal, en altres paraules més proper als bilateris originals que a cap altre grup modern. Els altres plathielmints formen un grup monofilètic, en altres paraules un que conté tots i només els descendents d'un ancestre comú que ell mateix és membre d'aquest grup. Els platihelmints redefinits formen part dels lofotrocozous, un dels tres grups principals dels bilateris més complexos. Aquestes anàlisis també han conclòs que els plathielmints redefinits, excloent els acelomorfs, consisteixen en dos subgrups monofilètics, els catenúlids i els rabditòfors, i que els cestodes, trematodes i monogenis formen un subgrup monofilètic dinsuna branca dels rabditòfors. Per tant, el subgrup de plathielmints tradicional "Turbellaria" es considera parafilètic en tant que exclou tots els grups parasítics encara que aquests siguin descendents d'un grup de "turbel·laris".
Sobre la meitat de totes les espècies de platihelmints conegudes són paràsites, i algunes perjudiquen greument els humans i bestiar. La esquistosomosi, ocasionada per un gènere de trematode, és la segona malaltia humana causada per paràsits més devastadora, només superada per la malària. La neurocisticercosi, que sorgeix quan la larva de la tènia del porc Taenia solium penetra el sistema nerviós central, és la causa principal d'epilèpsia adquirida del món. L'amenaça dels paràsits platihelmints pels humans en els països desenvolupats està augmentat per l'agricultura ecològica, la populatirat del menjar cru o poc cuinat, i la importació de menjar de zones d'elevat risc. En països menys desenvolupats, la gent sovint no pot costejar la bezina necessària per a cuinar bé els aliments, i els projectes d'abastament d'aigua i irrigació pobrament dissenyats incrementen els perills presentats per l'agricultura amb antihigiènica i de sanejament deficient.
Dues espècies de planàries s'han utilitzat amb èxit a les Filipines, Indonèsia, Hawaii, Nova Guinea i Guam per a controlar les poblacions introduïdes del cargol gegant africà Achatina fulica, que ha desplaçat als cargols autòctons. Tanmateix, ara hi ha la preocupació que aquestes planàries esdevinguin elles mateixes un perill pels cargols natius. Al nord-oest d'Europa hi ha preocupació sobre la propagació de la planària de Nova Zelanda Arthurdendyus triangulatus, que depreda cucs de terra.
Es coneixen unes 25.000 espècies. La majoria són hermafrodites que habiten ambients marins, fluvials i terrestres humits; moltes de les espècies més difoses són paràsits que necessiten diversos hostes, uns per a l'estat larvari i altres per a l'estat adult.
Els platihelmints són animals bilateris, en altres paraules els seus costats dret i esquerra són imatges especulars una de l'altra; això també implica que tenen superfícies superior i inferior, i un cap i cua diferenciats. Com els altres bilateris tenen tres capes cel·lulars,[4] mentre els cnidaris i ctenòfors, de simetria radial, només tenen dues capes cel·lulars.[5] Deixant de banda això, els platihelmints es "defineixen més pel que no tenen que per cap seguit d'especialitzacions particulars."[6] A diferència d'altres bilateris, els platihelmints no tenen cavitat corporal interna i per tant es descriuen com a acelomats. Tampoc tenen òrgans circulatoris o digestius especialitzats.[4][7] Els seus cossos són tous i sense segmentar.[8]
Cnidaris i Ctenòfors[5] Platihelmints[4][7] Bilateris més "avançats"[9] Simetria bilateral No Sí Nombre de capes cel·lulars principals Dues, amb una capa gelatinosa entre elles Tres Cervell diferenciat No Sí Sistema digestiu especialitzat No Sí Sistema excretor especialitzat No Sí Cavitat corporal amb òrgans interns No Sí Òrgans del sistema circulatori i respiratori especialitzats No SíEls platihelmints són els animals triblàstics més simples i probablement els més primitius. Estan aplanats dorso-ventralment com una cinta i presenten simetria bilateral. Els turbel·laris, com les planàries, presenten cefalització amb ganglis concentrats en un cervell en un dels extrems del cos; els grups paràsits no tenen cap.
L'espai entre l'ectoderma i l'endoderma és ple d'un teixit mesodèrmic denominat mesènquima en el qual estan incrustats els òrgans interns. A diferència de la majoria de bilateris no tenen, doncs, cavitat general i l'estructura del cos és de tipus massís (acelomat).
El tub digestiu no té anus, actuant com a cavitat gastrovascular; pot presentar nombroses ramificacions, en especial en les espècies de major mida (fins a 60 cm en algunes planàries terrestres). Moltes formes paràsites no tenen aparell digestiu. Tampoc no tenen aparell circulatori ni respiratori; l'oxigen que necessiten per al seu metabolisme es difon a través dels prims teguments de l'animal.
Tampoc no tenen apèndixs locomotors; es desplacen mitjançant les vibracions del seu epiteli ciliat. Tenen un senzill sistema nerviós bilateral que recorre el cos. Un sistema excretor rudimentari està constituït pels protonefridis, que comencen cecs en el mesénquima.
Moltes espècies paràsites tenen ventoses i ganxos de fixació.
En contraposició amb aquesta organització simple, els òrgans reproductors són dels més complicats del regne animal. La majoria són hermafrodites, presenten sempre fecundació interna i, per tant òrgans copuladors. En les femelles, els òvuls fan cap a l'ootip, on nombroses glàndules aboquen el seu contingut; els vitelaris també vessen les seves cèl·lules vitelínes a l'ootipo. Els òvuls són empaquetats junt amb nombroses cèl·lules vitelines, que arriben a l'úter, on el penis del mascle ha introduït els espermatozoides. En algunes espècies, el seu sistema muscular els permet partir-se en segments que escampen els ous que porta cada segment. Cada segment també pot tenir testicles i ovaris, a més de reproduir un animal complet a partir cada segment.
També es reprodueixen asexualment i per regeneració.
Els platihelmints paràsits tenen complexos cicles vitals, parasitant diversos hostes vertebrats i invertebrats.
S'ha demostrat la persistència de la seua memòria apresa fins i tot en la part regenerada a partir de la part sense cap. Així, diversos experiments que feien aprendre als platihelmints quelcom, els tallaven separant el cap de la resta del cos i quan la part separada del cap es regenerava la sotmetien a una condició ambiental a la qual havien fet aprendre, es trobava que reaccionava segons com havia aprés.[10]
Uns experiments inicialment van fer creure que els platihelmints aprenen mitjançant condicionament clàssic,[11] però una recerca posterior, feta mitjançant grups de control, determinà que la conducta ocorre per inhibició.[12] Una investigació del 2013 trobà que l'espècie Dugesia tigrina sí mostrava un aprenentatge mitjançant el mecanisme pavlovià simple.[13]
L'espècimen més antic conegut de platihelmint és un fòssil del període Eocè preservat en ambre bàltic i classificat en l'espècie monotípica Micropalaeosoma balticus,[14] mentre els espècimens subfòssils més antics són ous d'esquistosoma trobat a mòmies de l'antic Egipte.[8] Els plathielmints presenten molt poques sinapomorfies, característiques distintives que tots els plathielmints presenten i cap altre animal té. Això dificulta investigar tant les relacions internes dins el grup com les dels plathielmints respecte a la resta d'animals.[15] El fòssil més antic conegut de cestode s'ha datat en 270 milions d'anys. Va ser trobat en copròlits (defecacions fossilitzades) d'un elasmobranqui.[1]
Relacions filogenètiques entre els diversos grups de platihelmints segons el treball de Laumer i col·laboradors publicat l'any 2015:[16]
PlatyhelminthesEls platihelmints (Platyhelminthes, del grec πλατύ, plat, que significa "pla" i ἕλμινς (arrel: ἑλμινθ-), helmint, que significa "cuc") constitueixen un fílum d'animals invertebrats bilateris, no segmentats, i protòstoms de cos tou i relativament simples. A diferència d'altres bilateris, no tenen cavitat corporal, ni òrgans circulatoris ni respiratoris especialitzats, fet que els limita a formes aplanades que permeten el pas d'oxigen i nutrients a través dels seus cossos per difusió.
En els textos tradicionals de zoologia els platihelmints es divideixen en turbel·laris, que en la seva majoria no són paràsits com els triclàdides, i tres grups únicament parasítics: cestodes, trematodes i monogenis. La majoria de turbel·laris són depredadors, i viuen a l'aigua o a entorns ombrívols i humits com la fullaraca. Els cestodes i trematodes tenen cicles vitals complexos, amb estadis madurs que viuen com a paràsits en els sistemes digestius de peixos o vertebrats terrestres, i estadis intermedis que infecten hostes secundaris. Els ous dels trematodes són excretats des dels hostes principals, mentre els cestodes adults generen enormes quantitats de proglòtids com segments hermafrodites que es desenganxen quan maduren, i s'excreten i aleshores alliberen els ous. A diferència d'altres grups parasítics, els monogenis són paràsits externs que infecten animals aquàtics, i les seves larves fan la metamorfosi a la forma adulta després d'haver-se adherit a un hoste adequat.
Com que no tenen cavitats corporals internes, durant més d'un segle, els platihelmints es van considerar com a un estadi primitiu en l'evolució dels bilateris (animals que tenen simetria bilateral i per tant amb terminacions frontals i posteriors distintives). Tanmateix, les anàlisis des de la meitat de la dècada de 1980 han separat un subgrup, els acelomorfs, com a bilateri basal, en altres paraules més proper als bilateris originals que a cap altre grup modern. Els altres plathielmints formen un grup monofilètic, en altres paraules un que conté tots i només els descendents d'un ancestre comú que ell mateix és membre d'aquest grup. Els platihelmints redefinits formen part dels lofotrocozous, un dels tres grups principals dels bilateris més complexos. Aquestes anàlisis també han conclòs que els plathielmints redefinits, excloent els acelomorfs, consisteixen en dos subgrups monofilètics, els catenúlids i els rabditòfors, i que els cestodes, trematodes i monogenis formen un subgrup monofilètic dinsuna branca dels rabditòfors. Per tant, el subgrup de plathielmints tradicional "Turbellaria" es considera parafilètic en tant que exclou tots els grups parasítics encara que aquests siguin descendents d'un grup de "turbel·laris".
Sobre la meitat de totes les espècies de platihelmints conegudes són paràsites, i algunes perjudiquen greument els humans i bestiar. La esquistosomosi, ocasionada per un gènere de trematode, és la segona malaltia humana causada per paràsits més devastadora, només superada per la malària. La neurocisticercosi, que sorgeix quan la larva de la tènia del porc Taenia solium penetra el sistema nerviós central, és la causa principal d'epilèpsia adquirida del món. L'amenaça dels paràsits platihelmints pels humans en els països desenvolupats està augmentat per l'agricultura ecològica, la populatirat del menjar cru o poc cuinat, i la importació de menjar de zones d'elevat risc. En països menys desenvolupats, la gent sovint no pot costejar la bezina necessària per a cuinar bé els aliments, i els projectes d'abastament d'aigua i irrigació pobrament dissenyats incrementen els perills presentats per l'agricultura amb antihigiènica i de sanejament deficient.
Dues espècies de planàries s'han utilitzat amb èxit a les Filipines, Indonèsia, Hawaii, Nova Guinea i Guam per a controlar les poblacions introduïdes del cargol gegant africà Achatina fulica, que ha desplaçat als cargols autòctons. Tanmateix, ara hi ha la preocupació que aquestes planàries esdevinguin elles mateixes un perill pels cargols natius. Al nord-oest d'Europa hi ha preocupació sobre la propagació de la planària de Nova Zelanda Arthurdendyus triangulatus, que depreda cucs de terra.
Es coneixen unes 25.000 espècies. La majoria són hermafrodites que habiten ambients marins, fluvials i terrestres humits; moltes de les espècies més difoses són paràsits que necessiten diversos hostes, uns per a l'estat larvari i altres per a l'estat adult.
Anifeiliad di-asgwrn-cefn o'r ffylwm Platyhelminthes yw llyngyr lledog (neu lyngyr fflat). Mae ganddynt gyrff meddal a gwastad heb geudod y corff (coelom; neu segmentau). Mae llawer o rywogaethau'n barasitig e.e. llyngyr rhuban a llyngyr yr afu.
Ploštěnci, dříve občas ploší červi (kvůli jejich plochému tvaru), zastarale ploští červi, (Platyhelminthes, též Plathelminthes[1]) jsou kmen prvoústých živočichů. Je známo kolem 20 000 druhů.[2] Žijí v moři a sladké vodě, na souši, jako paraziti ve vnitřních orgánech hostitelů.
Mají dvoustrannou tělní souměrnost a jedinou rovinu souměrnosti. Dvojstranná tělní souměrnost umožňuje rozeznat přední (paraziti - hlava s eskolexem) a zadní část těla. Jsou schizocelní (prostor mezi vnitřními orgány je vyplněn parenchymem se soustavou štěrbinek vyplněných tělní tekutinou). Na povrchu (tělní pokryv) mají jednovrstevný epitel ektodermálního původu. Dosahují velikosti od 0,15 mm do 17 m (některé tasemnice).[3] Jsou to obvykle hermafrodité, jen vzácně gonochoristé. Mají ploché (dorzoventrálně zploštěné) dvoustranně souměrné tělo a slepě zakončenou trávicí soustavu. Cévní a dýchací soustava není vyvinutá, dýchají celým povrchem těla nebo anaerobně (endoparaziti). Vylučování zajišťují protonefridie, které jsou tvořeny plaménkovými buňkami. Nervovou soustavu tvoří objícnový prstenec a z něj vybíhající břišní provazce (většinou 6) spojené příčnými spojkami (komistruami). Jejich vývoj je obvykle nepřímý, především parazité mají složité vývojové cykly.
Žijí hlavně ve sladké vodě, v mořích již méně. Na souši žije jen několik zástupců. Jejich tělo je pokryto obrvením, které přihání čerstvou vodu s kyslíkem. Mohutná svalovina se skládá ze 3 vrstev svalů - podélné, okružní, šikmé. Trávicí soustava začíná vychlípitelným hltanem. V přední části těla se nacházejí jednoduchá očka. Rozmnožují se pohlavně i nepohlavně, a to příčným dělením. Vajíčka kladou do zvláštních schránek (kokonů) a nedospělí jedinci žijí a živí se jako dospělci. Většina ploštěnek je dravých.
Zástupci: ploštěnka mléčná (Dendrocoelum lacteum), ploštěnka potoční (Dugesia gonocephala), ploštěnka kalužní (Dugesia lugubris)
Jednorodí jsou povětšinou vnější parazité ryb, obojživelníků a plazů. Na přední i zadní části těla jsou umístěny přísavky s drobnými háčky kterými se přichytávají na kůži svého hostitele. Vývojový cyklus není nijak složitý jelikož na rozdíl od většiny parazitujících ploštěnců jednorodí nestřídají hostitele. Zástupci: žábrohlíst ouškovaný (Dactylogyrus vastator), žábrohlíst dvojitý (Diplozoon paradoxum)
Dospělci jsou vnitřními parazity ve střevech obratlovců. Mají anaerobní metabolismus. V důsledku jejich způsobu života u nich zanikla trávicí soustava (cévní ani dýchací vyvinuta nebyla), živiny jsou přijímány celým povrchem těla. Jsou to poměrně nebezpeční parazité způsobují vážná onemocnění člověka i zvířat a to tím že odebírají živiny a do organismu vylučují toxiny. Mohou způsobovat trávicí poruchy nebo poškozovat tkáně. Mají složitý vývojový cyklus, mohou se vyvíjet až přes tři hostitele. Zástupci: tasemnice bezbranná (Taeniarhynchus saginatus), tasemnice dlouhočlenná (Taenia solium), měchožil zhoubný (Echinococcus granulosus), řemenatka ptačí (Ligula intestinalis), škulovec široký (Diphyllobothrium latum)
Motolice nemají článkové tělo. Mají složité vývojové cykly. U jejich zástupců se střídá partenogeneze s pohlavním rozmnožováním. Jsou to až na některé výjimky hermafroditi. Zástupci: motolice jaterní (Fasciola hepatica), Fascioloides magna, Paragonimus westermani, motolice žlučová, krevnička močová
Moderní fylogenetická systematika se snaží respektovat příbuznost jednotlivých skupin a eliminovat polyfyletické a pokud možno i parafyletické taxony. Molekulárními analýzami byla odhalena nepřirozenost bývalé třídy ploštěnek (Turbellaria). Zbylé tradiční třídy všechny spadají do jediné přirozené skupiny Neodermata, vztahy na bázi vývojové větve ploštěnců jsou však složitější, což si vyžádalo zásadní revizi hierarchických úrovní systému[4][5] (české názvy dle BioLibu[6]):
Současné (r. 2015) představy o příbuzenských vztazích mezi recentními skupinami zobrazuje následující schéma:[7]
PlatyhelminthesCatenulida
Macrostomorpha
Polycladida
Prorhynchida
Gnosonesimida
Rhabdocoela
Proseriata
Prolecithophora
Fecampiida
Tricladida
Bothrioplanida
Trematoda
Monogenea
Cestoda
Ploštěnci, dříve občas ploší červi (kvůli jejich plochému tvaru), zastarale ploští červi, (Platyhelminthes, též Plathelminthes) jsou kmen prvoústých živočichů. Je známo kolem 20 000 druhů. Žijí v moři a sladké vodě, na souši, jako paraziti ve vnitřních orgánech hostitelů.
Fladorme (Platyhelminthes) er en række af hvirvelløse dyr.
Fladorme Platyhelminthes
Fladorme (Platyhelminthes) er en række af hvirvelløse dyr.
Plattwürmer oder Plathelminthen (Plathelminthes, auch Platyhelminthes von griech.: platys = platt; helminthes = Würmer) sind einfache, zweiseitig symmetrische, abgeplattete, wurmförmige, wirbellose Tiere. Die meisten Arten sind Parasiten, wobei es allerdings auch freilebende, sich räuberisch ernährende Arten gibt. Zahlreiche Eigenschaften machen die Spezialisierung als Parasit oder Räuber möglich.
Von den vier Klassen der Plathelminthes werden die Bandwürmer (Cestoden), die Saugwürmer und die Hakensaugwürmer, also die parasitischen Formen, auch zu dem Unterstamm der Neodermata zusammengefasst. Die Klasse der Strudelwürmer umfasst alle freilebenden Arten.
Im Vergleich zu den Nesseltieren haben die Plattwürmer eine Reihe von evolutionären Entwicklungen durchgemacht:
Die einschichtige, selten mehrreihige Epidermis (Oberhaut) der Plattwürmer ist sehr drüsenreich und ursprünglich mit Zilien besetzt. Die Drüsenzellen liegen innerhalb der basalen Matrix unterhalb der Epidermis. Die Sekretionskanäle der Drüsenzellen durchdringen die Epidermiszellen oder treten zwischen diesen hervor. Eine echte Cuticula kommt sehr selten vor, es gibt jedoch Verhärtungen in den Epidermiszellen (falsche Cuticula) oder Versteifungen der basalen Matrix.
Plattwürmer besitzen einen Hautmuskelschlauch, der die Stützfunktion des Körpers erfüllt. Er besteht aus der Epidermis, einer äußeren Ringmuskulatur und einer inneren Längsmuskulatur. Zwischen diesen beiden Muskulaturen liegen meistens zwei Schichten sich kreuzender Diagonalmuskelfasern. Die Muskelfasern sind ursprünglich einkernig und vom glatten Evertebraten-Typ. Im Hautmuskelschlauch selbst befinden sich keine Hohlräume.
Plattwürmer werden auch parenchymatöse Würmer genannt, weil sie fast alle ein Parenchym genanntes Füllgewebe zwischen Darm und Körperwand besitzen (mesodermales Bindegewebe), in das sämtliche Organe eingelagert sind (= acoelomat), womit die Plathelminthen als einfachster Stamm das Organisationsniveau von Organtieren erreichen. Bei Plathelminthen ist im Gegensatz zu den Coelenteraten Triblastie vorhanden, d. h., dass zwischen der ektodermalen Epidermis und dem entodermalen Verdauungsepithel das mesodermale Parenchym liegt. Dieses Parenchym besteht aus extrazellulärer Matrix und verschiedenen Zelltypen (Neoblasten, Muskelzellen, Parenchymzellen). Das Zytoplasma des Parenchyms dient gleichzeitig als intrazelluläres hydrostatisches Skelett. Nur bei einigen Mikroturbellarien tritt ein geräumiges Pseudocoel auf. Die Saugnäpfe der parasitischen Formen werden aus parenchymaler Muskulatur und dem Integument gebildet. Vor allem im Parenchym befinden sich Neoblasten, also undifferenzierte Stammzellen. Diese sind wichtig bei der Zellvermehrung in der Epidermis. Sie wandern in die Epidermis ein und bilden somit bei der Entwicklung der parasitischen Formen eine neue Körperdecke nach dem Verlust der ursprünglichen Epidermis. Daher stammt der Name Neodermata.
Plattwürmer besitzen ein strickleiterförmiges Nervensystem. Eine wechselnde Anzahl an der Bauchseite liegender Nervenstränge verbinden sich vorn an der Kopfseite zu Nervenknoten (Zerebralganglion). Die Längsstränge sind häufig regelmäßig rechtwinklig (orthogonal) durch Kommissuren verbunden. Kommissuren, Zerebralganglion und Nervenstränge stellen das zentrale Nervensystem (ZNS) dar. Das periphere Nervensystem wird von netz- oder filzförmig angeordneten Nervenfasern gebildet, die mit dem zentralen Nervensystem verbunden sind. Die meisten Plathelminthen besitzen eine Vielzahl von Sinnesorganen. Dies ist auch bei parasitischen Formen der Fall. Vor allem Zilienrezeptoren mit unterschiedlichster Feinstruktur, verschiedene Typen von Pigmentbecherozellen und Statozysten sind häufig.
Plattwürmer verfügen weder über ein Blut- oder Kreislaufsystem noch über Organe für den Gasaustausch mit ihrer Umgebung. Nur einige wenige Saugwürmer besitzen ein mit Endothel ausgekleidetes Kanalsystem zwischen Darm und den Kanälchen der Protonephridien. Ein muskulärer, drüsenreicher Pharynx führt direkt in ein verästeltes Verdauungssystem, aus dem Nährstoffe direkt in alle Zellen diffundieren können. Der Darm endet meistens blind, bei manchen Parasiten (z. B. den Bandwürmern) ist er jedoch völlig rückgebildet. Bei diesen Formen werden die Nährstoffe über eine spezialisierte Körperoberfläche aufgenommen. Die Verdauung findet sowohl intra- als auch extrazellulär statt. Phagozytosezellen und exokrine Drüsen wechseln sich ab. Exkretionsorgane sind – außer bei Acoelomorpha – vor allem Protonephridien, aber seltener auch Paranephrozyten.
Sauerstoff diffundiert von außen in die Zellen (Mitochondrien). Um eine optimale Diffusion zu erreichen, sind vor allem die großen parasitischen Plathelminthes stark abgeplattet (Namensgebung), so dass die Diffusionsstrecke auf ein Minimum reduziert ist. Kleine freilebende Plathelminthen sind dagegen häufig rund.
Nur etwa ein Viertel der Plattwürmer ist freilebend. Die freilebenden Arten trifft man häufig im Süßwasser und im Meer an Felsküsten und Riffen an (Sande, Schlamm, Algenaufwuchs). Sie leben benthisch, das heißt, sie sind bodenorientiert. Besonders in den Tropen und Subtropen gibt es einige wenige Arten, die terrestrisch leben. Freilebende Plattwürmer werden als die ursprünglichsten Bilateria angesehen und haben eine Größe zwischen 1 mm und 50 cm (Landtriclade Bipalium kewense in China oder auch Süßwasserplanarien des Baikalsees).
Plattwürmer sind aber vor allem für ihre parasitische Lebensweise bekannt. Besonders Saugwürmer und Bandwürmer haben auch den Menschen bzw. dessen Haustiere als End- oder Zwischenwirt.[1] Als Endwirte werden im überwiegenden Maße Wirbeltiere genutzt, während die Zwischenwirte häufig Wirbellose sind, besonders Schnecken und Gliederfüßer. Auch bei den Turbellarien gibt es endoparasitische und kommensalische Arten. Parasitische Arten werden häufig mehrere Zentimeter lang. Der größte wird bis 25 Meter lang – es ist der Fischbandwurm Diphyllobothrium latum.
Die Plattwürmer sind vornehmlich proterandrische Zwitter und pflanzen sich normalerweise geschlechtlich fort. Die Komplexität der Reproduktionsorgane kann sehr hoch sein. Die Befruchtung findet immer innerlich statt und es ist immer ein Penis für die Übertragung der Spermien vorhanden. Die Geschlechtsöffnungen können getrennt sein, sie können aber auch in eine gemeinsame Kammer münden. Geschlechtszellen liegen ursprünglich frei im Parenchym bzw. an der Darmbasis oder sie befinden sich davon abgeleitet in Sackgonaden, die von Hüllzellen gebildet werden. Der Dotter wird ursprünglich von den Eizellen selbst angereichert, davon abgeleitet wird er bei den meisten Plathelminthen von spezialisierten Dotterzellen (Vitellocyten) im Dotterstock (Vitellarium) gebildet. Bei parasitischen Formen laufen Dottergänge, Eileiter, Receptaculum seminis und Schalendrüsen im Ootyp zusammen. Dort werden Spermien, Ei und Dotter in die Eischale gehüllt und in den Uterus befördert.
Im Geschlechtssystem weiblicher Band- und Saugwürmer findet sich auch die nach Eduard Mehlis benannte Mehlissche Drüse, die den Ootyp umgibt, ihre Funktion ist noch umstritten.[2]
Bei parasitischen Plattwürmern sind Larvenstadien in der Entwicklung die Regel; bei freilebenden Plathelminthes hingegen kommen Larven seltener vor. Müllersche, Goettesche und Luthersche Larven freilebender Formen werden als sekundäre Entwicklungen aufgefasst. Die direkte Entwicklung ohne Larvenstadium wird als die ursprünglichere Entwicklung angesehen. Larvenstadien sind z. B. Miracidium, Zerkarie, Oncosphaera oder Oncomiracidium.
Allerdings berichtete schon Thomas Hunt Morgan (1927–1933) von einer asexuellen Vermehrungsmöglichkeit durch Querteilung mit vorausgegangener Differenzierung der neuen Organsysteme (Paratomie) oder ohne vorausgegangene Differenzierung (Architomie). Vereinzelt kommt es bei einigen freilebenden Formen auch zur Knospung am Hinterende. Heute ist auch bei den Trematoda ein Klonen durch Parthenogenese (Jungfernzeugung) bekannt.
Die Plattwürmer wurden lange Zeit als besonders urtümliche Bilateria (zweiseitig symmetrische Tiere) angesehen. In evolutionsbiologischen Rekonstruktionen wurden frühe Plattwürmer daher oft als direkte Nachkommen bestimmter radiärsymmetrischer Tiere dargestellt (beispielsweise der Rippenquallen) und entsprechende Homologiebeziehungen angenommen (z. B. Entstehung des typischen Plattwürmer-Parenchyms aus der bindegewebigen Mesogloea der Rippenquallen). Zurzeit sind diese Modelle nur noch eingeschränkt gültig, da Plattwürmer in molekularbiologischen Stammbäumen keinen frühen Bilaterier-Zweig repräsentieren – es könnte sich sogar um sekundär vereinfachte Formen handeln. Nur eine bestimmte ehemalige Plattwurmgruppe, die Acoelomorpha (siehe auch Abschnitt „Systematik“), zweigt sehr früh ab und könnte somit urtümliche Bilaterier repräsentieren. Von der Erforschung der Acoelomorpha erhofft man sich daher Hinweise auf die evolutive Entstehung der Bilateria.
Abgesehen von evolutionsbiologischen Fragen spielten in der Forschung traditionell eher bestimmte Turbellarienvertreter eine wichtige Rolle, siehe hierzu den Artikel Strudelwürmer.
Innerhalb der Plattwürmer unterscheidet man vier Klassen mit etwa 35 Ordnungen, die ungefähr 20.000 Arten umfassen:
Die drei ersten Taxa, die parasitisch lebenden Plattwürmer, werden unter dem Namen Neodermata zusammengefasst. Die Strudelwürmer umfassen alle freilebenden Arten der Plattwürmer, sind jedoch eine paraphyletische Gruppe, das heißt, sie haben eine gemeinsame Stammform, enthalten aber nicht alle Taxa, die von dieser Stammform abstammen. Stattdessen werden die Plattwürmer heute in zwei monophyletische Gruppen aufgeteilt, die Catenulida und die Rhabditophora, zu denen auch die Neodermata gehören:
Die wahrscheinlichen verwandtschaftlichen Verhältnisse zeigt folgendes Kladogramm:[3]
PlattwürmerNeoophora i. e. S.
Hakensaugwürmer (Monogenea)
Bandwürmer (Cestoda)
Saugwürmer (Trematoda)
Die ursprünglich zu den Strudelwürmern gezählten Acoelomorpha gelten heute als Unterstamm der Xenacoelomorpha.[4]
Plattwürmer oder Plathelminthen (Plathelminthes, auch Platyhelminthes von griech.: platys = platt; helminthes = Würmer) sind einfache, zweiseitig symmetrische, abgeplattete, wurmförmige, wirbellose Tiere. Die meisten Arten sind Parasiten, wobei es allerdings auch freilebende, sich räuberisch ernährende Arten gibt. Zahlreiche Eigenschaften machen die Spezialisierung als Parasit oder Räuber möglich.
Von den vier Klassen der Plathelminthes werden die Bandwürmer (Cestoden), die Saugwürmer und die Hakensaugwürmer, also die parasitischen Formen, auch zu dem Unterstamm der Neodermata zusammengefasst. Die Klasse der Strudelwürmer umfasst alle freilebenden Arten.
Minyoo-bapa ni wanyama wanaofanana na minyoo, lakini wao hawana uwazi wa mwili (coelom). Kwa hivyo hawana ogani za mfumo wa mzunguko wa damu au za mfumo wa upumuaji na lazima mwili uwe bapa ili oksijeni iweze kuingia kwa mtawanyiko. Mwili wao una uwazi umoja, ule wa mmeng'enyo, lakini uwazi huu una kipenyo kimoja tu pamoja kwa umezaji na kwa utoaji.
Kuna minyoo-bapa ambao huishi kwa maji au kwa udongo. Kwa kawaida hawa hula wanyama wadogo lakini pia wanyama wakubwa kuliko wao wenyewe, kama konokono. Zaidi ya nusu ya spishi zote za minyoo-bapa ni vidusia, k.m. mategu. Hawa hufyonda virutubishi vilivyoyeyuka katika giligili za mwili wa mwenyeji.
Minyoo-bapa ni wanyama wanaofanana na minyoo, lakini wao hawana uwazi wa mwili (coelom). Kwa hivyo hawana ogani za mfumo wa mzunguko wa damu au za mfumo wa upumuaji na lazima mwili uwe bapa ili oksijeni iweze kuingia kwa mtawanyiko. Mwili wao una uwazi umoja, ule wa mmeng'enyo, lakini uwazi huu una kipenyo kimoja tu pamoja kwa umezaji na kwa utoaji.
Kuna minyoo-bapa ambao huishi kwa maji au kwa udongo. Kwa kawaida hawa hula wanyama wadogo lakini pia wanyama wakubwa kuliko wao wenyewe, kama konokono. Zaidi ya nusu ya spishi zote za minyoo-bapa ni vidusia, k.m. mategu. Hawa hufyonda virutubishi vilivyoyeyuka katika giligili za mwili wa mwenyeji.
Pampa kuru (Platyhelminthes) nisqakunaqa huk uywa rikch'aq putum. Sillwi kurukunaqa sillwinnaq, llusp'i, chakinnaq, siki hutk'unnaq uywachakunam. Muyuri kuru (Turbellaria) nisqakunaqa yakupi, allpapi mayninpipas aycha mikhuspa kawsaptin, lliw wakin pampa kuru rikch'aqkunataq uywakunapi runapipas atam kaspa kawsanku.
Kaymi huk iskay pampa kuru rikch'aqkuna:
Pampa kuru (Platyhelminthes) nisqakunaqa huk uywa rikch'aq putum. Sillwi kurukunaqa sillwinnaq, llusp'i, chakinnaq, siki hutk'unnaq uywachakunam. Muyuri kuru (Turbellaria) nisqakunaqa yakupi, allpapi mayninpipas aycha mikhuspa kawsaptin, lliw wakin pampa kuru rikch'aqkunataq uywakunapi runapipas atam kaspa kawsanku.
Kaymi huk iskay pampa kuru rikch'aqkuna:
Muyuri kuru (Turbellaria) Kinwara (Cestoda) Ch'iwi pampa kuru (Monogenea) Ch'unqa pampa kuru (Trematoda): Alikuya (Fasciola hepatica), huk atamkunapasLe plathelminthes es un phylo del Bilateria. Illos es animales vermiforme e plan.
└─o Platihelminto ├─o Catenulido └─o Rabditoforo ├─o Lesitepiteliato ├─o Macrostomorfo │ ├─o Haplofarinjido │ └─o Macrostomido ├─o Policladido │ ├─o Cotileo │ └─o Acotileo └─o Eulesitoforo ├─o Prolesitoforo ├─o Seriato │ ├─o Proseriato │ └─o Tricladido │ ├─o Cavernicolo o Dimarcusido │ ├─o Maricolo │ ├─o Tericolo │ └─o Paludicolo └─o Rabdoselo ├─o Daliellisido ├─o Endoaxonemato o Acoladido ├─o Tifloplanoido ├─o Caliptorincio │ ├─o Scizorinchio │ └─o Eucaliptorincio ├─o Temnosefalido └─o Revertospermato ├─o Fecampido └─o Mediofusato └─o Neodermato ├─o Sercomeromorfo │ ├─o Sestodario │ ├─o Monojeno │ └─o │ ├─o Amfilinido │ └─o Sestodo └─o Trematodo ├─o Aspidogastreo └─o Dijeneo ├─o Strijedido ├─o Azijido ├─o Ecinostomido ├─o Opistorcido └─o Plajiorcido
Plattwierm (Plathelminthes, och Platyhelminthes vum griechechen platys = platt an helminthes = Wierm) sinn einfach, zweesäiteg symmetresch, flaach, wuermfërmeg, wierbellos Déieren.
Déi meescht Aarte si Parasiten, woubäi et och fräiliewend Aarte ginn, déi sech raiberesch ernieren.
Dë Stamm vun de Plattwierm huet véier Klassen. Déi dräi Klasse Bandwierm, Suckelwierm an Hokesuckelwierm liewe parasitesch a ginn am Ënnerstamm Neodermata zesummegefaasst. D'Klass Strudelwierm ëmfaasst all fräi liewend Aarten.
Plattwierm (Plathelminthes, och Platyhelminthes vum griechechen platys = platt an helminthes = Wierm) sinn einfach, zweesäiteg symmetresch, flaach, wuermfërmeg, wierbellos Déieren.
Déi meescht Aarte si Parasiten, woubäi et och fräiliewend Aarte ginn, déi sech raiberesch ernieren.
Dë Stamm vun de Plattwierm huet véier Klassen. Déi dräi Klasse Bandwierm, Suckelwierm an Hokesuckelwierm liewe parasitesch a ginn am Ënnerstamm Neodermata zesummegefaasst. D'Klass Strudelwierm ëmfaasst all fräi liewend Aarten.
Plattwörmer, ok Plattwurms, Plattpieren un Plattwörm(e) (Plathelminthes, ok Platyhelminthes vun ooldgr.: platys = platt; helminthes = Wörmer, Pieren) sünd en Stamm vun warvellose Wörmer. Se sünd eenfach, na twee Sieden hen symmetrisch un platt. De meisten Aarden leevt as Parasiten, man dat gifft ok Plattwörmer, de leevt free un freet annere Leevwesen.
Vun de veer Klassen mank de Plattwörmer weert de Bandwörmer, de Suugwörmer un de Hakensuugwörmer in den Unnerstamm vun de Neodermata tohopenfaat. Dat sünd just de Klassen, de as Parasiten leven doot. To de Dwirrelwörmer höört all Aarden to, de free leven doot.
Bloß man en Viddel vun de Plattwörmer leevt free. Düsse Aarden sünd faken in Söötwater un in de See an Felsküsten un Riffe antodrepen, wo se sik in Sand, Slick un up Algen upholen doot. Dor leevt se an’n Grund bi. Sunnerlich in de Tropen un Subtropen gifft dat en poor Aarden (Landplanarien) , de leevt up’e Eer un nich in’t Water. Plattwörmer könnt twuschen 1mm un 50 cm groot weern (De Hamerkopp-Plattworm up Land in China, man ok Söötwaterplanarien in’n Baikalsee).
Sunnerlich sünd Plattwörmer as Parasiten bekannt, dormank besunners bekannt sünd de Suugwörmer un Bandwörmer. Se hefft ok den Minschen as End- un Twuschenweert. As Endweert weert tomeist Warveldeerter nahmen, wieldes de Twuschenweerte faken Warvellose sünd, sunnerlich Sniggen un Liddfööt. Ok mank de Dwirrelwörmer gifft dat Aarden, de leevt as Endoparasiten oder Kommensalisten. De Parasiten-Aarden weert faken en poor Zentimeters lang. De gröttste is de Fischbandworm Diphyllobothrium latum. He warrt bit hen to 25 m lang.
De Plattwörmer sünd tomeist Halfsläge (Hermaphroditen). Normolerwiese plant se sik geslechtlich wieter. Befrucht weert de Wörmer jummers binnen in’t Lief un jummers gifft dat en Penis, wo de Saat mit wietergeven warrt. De Geslechtsgöter könnt scheedt sien, man se könnt ok münnen in en gemeensame Kamer. Bi Parasiten loopt de Wörmer normolerweise eerst mol dat Stadium vun en Larve dör, bi Plattwörmer, de free leven doot, sünd Larven roorer. An un for sik is dat bi all Plattwörmer woll so ween, datt se ohne Larven utkamen sünd. Verscheden Stadien vun Larven sünd u. a. Miracidium, Zerkarie, Oncosphaera oder Oncomiracidium.
Man Thomas Hunt Morgan hett al 1927–1933 vertellt, datt Plattwörmer sik ok asexuell vermehren könnt. Dor deelt se sik dwass dör bi. Hen un wenn vermehrt se sik ok dör Knubben an’t Achtereene. Bi de Suugwörmer is hüdigendags ok bekannt, datt se sik klonen könnt dör Parthenogenese, also ohn Befruchten.
De Plattwörmer weert in veer Klassen unnerdeelt. Dor höört alltohopen bi 35 Ornen to mit um un bi 20.000 Aarden:
Hüdigendags weert de Plattwörmer ok in twee monophyleetsche Gruppen updeelt, dat sünd de Catenulida un de Rhabditophora, wo ok de Neodermata tohören doot.
De Acoelomorpha, de vörmols to de Dwirrelwörmer torekent wurrn sünd, weert vundagen as Unnerstamm vun de Xenacoelomorpha ankeken.[1].
Plattwörmer, ok Plattwurms, Plattpieren un Plattwörm(e) (Plathelminthes, ok Platyhelminthes vun ooldgr.: platys = platt; helminthes = Wörmer, Pieren) sünd en Stamm vun warvellose Wörmer. Se sünd eenfach, na twee Sieden hen symmetrisch un platt. De meisten Aarden leevt as Parasiten, man dat gifft ok Plattwörmer, de leevt free un freet annere Leevwesen.
Vun de veer Klassen mank de Plattwörmer weert de Bandwörmer, de Suugwörmer un de Hakensuugwörmer in den Unnerstamm vun de Neodermata tohopenfaat. Dat sünd just de Klassen, de as Parasiten leven doot. To de Dwirrelwörmer höört all Aarden to, de free leven doot.
Platwirmer (Plathelminthes of uk Platyhelminthes faan griichisk platys = plat; helminthes = wirmer) san ianfach diarten saner wäärlisen. Miast san't parasiiten.
Amanbi 20.000 slacher wurd uun sjauer klasen iindiald:
Platwirmer (Plathelminthes of uk Platyhelminthes faan griichisk platys = plat; helminthes = wirmer) san ianfach diarten saner wäärlisen. Miast san't parasiiten.
De platwörm (Letien: Platyhelminthes) vörmen 'n stam van dere die waere gekènmirk door e lankwirpig en plat lief.
't Guuef zoeaget 20.000 versjillige saorte die allemaol in hieël vochtig ómstenjigheje laeve. De meiste saorte laeven ónger 't water of inne weefsele van anger organisme. Väöl saorte, wie de lintjwörm parasitere, mer 't guuef ouch saorte die vrielaevendj zeen. Vrielaevendje saorte die in zeut- of zaatwater laeve zeen döks aafvalvraeters, mer ouch jagendje platwörm kómme veur. 't Voor wuuertj ieës veurzeen van vertaerendje sape, waonao de halfvertaerdje pap nao binne wuuertj gezoek mitte móndjdeiler.
De platwörm (Letien: Platyhelminthes) vörmen 'n stam van dere die waere gekènmirk door e lankwirpig en plat lief.
't Guuef zoeaget 20.000 versjillige saorte die allemaol in hieël vochtig ómstenjigheje laeve. De meiste saorte laeven ónger 't water of inne weefsele van anger organisme. Väöl saorte, wie de lintjwörm parasitere, mer 't guuef ouch saorte die vrielaevendj zeen. Vrielaevendje saorte die in zeut- of zaatwater laeve zeen döks aafvalvraeters, mer ouch jagendje platwörm kómme veur. 't Voor wuuertj ieës veurzeen van vertaerendje sape, waonao de halfvertaerdje pap nao binne wuuertj gezoek mitte móndjdeiler.
Platyhelminthes ya iku filum ing Karajan Animalia (kéwan).[1] Filum iki nyakup kabèh cacing pipih kejaba Nemertinea, kang biyèn minangka salah siji kelas Platyhelminthes, kang wis kapisah.[1]
Awake pipih dosoventral lan ora duwé segmen.[2] Lumrahé, golongan cacing pipih urip ing kali, tlaga, segara, utawa minangka parasit ing jero organisme liyané.[2]. Cacing golongan iki sensitif banget karo cahya.[2] tuladhané Platyhelminthes ya iku Planaria kang kerep tinemu ing ngisor watu (dawane 2–3 cm), Bipalium kang urip ing ngisor lumut lembab (kira-kira dawane 60 cm), Clonorchis sinensis, cacing ati, lan cacing pita.[2]
Platyhelminthes minangka cacing kang kagolong triploblastik aselomata amarga duwé 3 lapisan embrional kang kasusun saka ektoderma, endoderma, lan mesoderma.[3] Nanging mesoderma cacing iki ora ngalami spesialisasi mula sel-selnya tetep seragam lan ora mbentuk sel kusus.[3]
Sistem pencernaan cacing pipih diarani sistem gastrovaskuler.[3] Ing kono peredaran panganan ora lumantar getih nanging lumantar usus.[3] Sistem pencernaan cacing pipih dimulai saka cangkem, faring, lan dterusake ing krongkongan.[3] Ing mburi krongkongan iki ana usus kang duwé cabang ing sakojur awak.[3] mula saliyané selain nyerna panganan, usus ga ngedarake panganan tekan sakojur awak.[3]
The flatwirms, flat wirms, Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes, or platyhelminths (frae the Greek πλατύ, platy, meanin "flat" an ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meanin "wirm")[3] are a phylum o relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmentit, saft-bouked invertebrates.
Platyhelminthes (asal kecap ti basa Yunani, platy hartina pipih atawa ipis, helminthes hartina cacing) nyaéta filum ti karajaan Animalia (sato) nu struktur awakna geus leuwih sampurna ti batan Porifera jeung Coelenterata.[1][2][3]
Platyhelminthes boga tilu lapisan sél (triplobastik) nyaéta éktoderm, mésoderm jeung éndoderm. Ahli biasana mikawanoh platyhelminthes dumasar kana ukuran, bentuk, struktur jeung pungsi awak.[2]
Platyhelminthes boga ukuran anu rupa-rupa, ti mimiti nu ukurana mikroskopis nepi ka nu panjangna 20 m. Awak platyhelminthes simétri bilateral kalawan wangunna nu ipis. Di sakabéh sato simétri bilateral, platyhelminthes boga awak nu pangsederhanana.[2]
Platyhelminthes teu boga lolongkrang atawa rangka awak (selom) nepi ka disebut sato aselomata. Sistem pencernaan ngawengku sungut, faring jeung usus (teu boga anus). Usus nu boga cabang ka sakabéh awakna. Platyhemilnthes teu boga sistem sirkulasi getih. Platyhelminthes ogé teu boga sistem réspirasi jeung ékskrési. Sistem napasna ngaliwatan cara difusi ka sakabéh sél awakna. Prosés ieu bisa dilakukeun sabab dilantarankeun awakna anu pipih. Sistem ékskrési di kelompok platyhelmintes séjén boga pungsi pikeun ngajaga kadar cai dina awakna.[2]
Sistem réproduksi platyhelminthes dilakukeun sacara aséksual jeung séksual. Filum ieu kaasup sato hérmaprodit, hartina dina hiji individu boga organ séksual jalu sarta organ séksual bikang. Réproduksi sacara aséksual biasana dilakukeun ngaliwatan cara fragméntasi. Sedengkeun réproduksi sacara séksual dilakukeun ngaliwatan ngahijina spérma jeung ovum.[2]
Platyhelminthes kawengku ku tilu klasifikasi nyaéta Turbellaria, Trematoda jeung Cestoda. Sakabéh klasifikasi baris ditataan saperti ieu di handap:
Turbellaria nyaéta kelas ti filum platyhelminthes anu hirup nonparasit sarta lolobana hirup di laut. Turbellaria mibanda struktur awak silia (rambut getar). Silia dipaké pikeun alat gerak. Iwal maké silia, sato ieu gerak maké otot awakna anu sarupa siga gelombang. Conto sato turbellaria nyaéta Dugesia sp. atawa sakapeung disebut ogé planaria. Planaria boga struktur awak wangunna segitilu jeung boga bintik panon di bagéan hareup (anterior). Bintik panon ieu anu boga pungsi ngabédakeun kaayaan poék jeung caang.[2]
Pikeun sistem réproduksina, sacara aséksual jeung séksual. Sacara aséksual ngaliwatan cara fragméntasi (unggal sésa pameulahan awakna bakal jadi individu anyar nu utuh). Réproduksi séksualna ngaliwatan fértilisasi sacara silang antara dua individu. Sistem pencernaan ngawengku sungut, faring anu tuluy lanjut ka usus mangcabang-cabang nu disebut gastrovaskulér, sarta teu boga anus. Faring nongtot di sisi véntral jeung tungtungna balik deui ka sungut. Sistem ékskrési ngawengku sapasang saluran manjang sarta boga loba cabang nu disebut protonefridia nu tungtungna aya di liang/pori awakna anu disebut sél seuneu/flame sél.[2]
Trématoda disebut ogé cacing isap (bs. Sunda, sedot) sabab cacing ieu ngaboga alat penghisap. Alat éta aya di sungut bagéan anterior awakna. Alat éta digunakeun pikeun napel ka awak indung inang. Ku kituna bisa disebut yén trématoda minangka sato parasit.[3]
Trématoda nu geus gedé biasana hirup di jero haté, usus, paru-paru, ginjal jeung pembuluh getih vertebrata. Trématoda aya sarta ngajaga hirupna di jero awak inangna ku cara ngalapisan awakna ku kutikula. Awakna teu boga silia. salah sahiji conto trématoda nyaéta cacing haté (Fasciola hepatica). Cacing ieu boga siklus hirup nu kompléks sabab kudu boga dua rupa inang, nyaéta inang utama jeung inang perantara. Siklus hirup cacing ieu ngawengku dua faseu nyaéta aséksual jeung séksual. Aséksual ku cara meulah awakna nalika masih jadi larva di jero awak inang perantara. Séksual nalika cacing geus gedé di jero awak inang utama.[3]
Céstoda disebut ogé cacing pita sabab wangunna pipih tuluy manjang siga pita. Awakna nu diwangun ku sababaraha ségmén, unggal ségmén disebut prolotid. Proglotid saliwat bisa katempo siga individu mandiri sabab boga kalengkepan organ sakumaha organismeu biasana. Ku kituna sistem ségméntasi di céstoda dingaranan ségméntasi strobilasi. Di bagéan anterior aya skoleks (hulu) anu dilengkepan ku pangait (rostelum) jeung alat penghisap (sucker). Cacing pita sipatna hérmaprodit.[4]
Proglotid nu geus leuwih kolot biasana aya di pangtukangna jauh ti hulu. Cara daharna ngaliwatan nyokot ka inang ku cara absorbsi ngaliwatan sakabéh awakna.[4]
Los platelmints son un embrancament de vèrmes plats que nombrosas espècias son des parasits. Aquel embrancament amassa principalament des vèrmes que son d'animals alongats sens apendici.
La classificacion dels platelmints es variabla segon los autors.
Aquel grop se compausa d'aperaquí 20000 espècias e comporta quatre classas que correspondon a d'adaptacions a un mitan precís, aquestas son :
Los platelmints son un embrancament de vèrmes plats que nombrosas espècias son des parasits. Aquel embrancament amassa principalament des vèrmes que son d'animals alongats sens apendici.
Platyhelminthes (asal kecap ti basa Yunani, platy hartina pipih atawa ipis, helminthes hartina cacing) nyaéta filum ti karajaan Animalia (sato) nu struktur awakna geus leuwih sampurna ti batan Porifera jeung Coelenterata.
Platyhelminthes ya iku filum ing Karajan Animalia (kéwan). Filum iki nyakup kabèh cacing pipih kejaba Nemertinea, kang biyèn minangka salah siji kelas Platyhelminthes, kang wis kapisah.
The flatwirms, flat wirms, Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes, or platyhelminths (frae the Greek πλατύ, platy, meanin "flat" an ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meanin "wirm") are a phylum o relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmentit, saft-bouked invertebrates.
Pljosnati crvi (latinski Platyhelminthes; grč. πλατύ platy = ravno, pljosnato + ἕλμινς, ἑλμινθ-helminth- = crv)[1] su koljeno relativno jednostavnih bilateralnih, nesegmentiranih organizama, beskičmenjaka, mehkog tijela. Za razliku od ostalih dvosimetrijskih organizama, oni nemaju celom (koji nemaju sekundarnu tjelesnu šupljinu) i nemaju specijaliziran krvotok i respiratorne organe, što ih ograničava na složene oblike koji omogućuju kisiku i hranjivim tvarima prolazak kroz njihova tijela putem difuzije. Digestivna šupljina ima samo jedan otvor i za gutanje (unos hranjivih sastojaka) i za uklanjanje neprobavljenog otpada; posljedica toga je da se hrana ne može kontinuirano prerađivati.
U tradicionalnim medicinskim tekstovima Platyhelminthes se dijele na Turbellaria, koje su uglavnom neparazitske životinje poput planarija i tri potpuno parazitske skupine: Cestoda, Trematoda i Monogenea; međutim, budući da je za turbelarije od tada dokazano da nisu monofiletke, ova je klasifikacija zastarjela. Slobodno živući crvi uglavnom su grabežljivci i žive u vodi ili u hladu vlažnih kopnenih sredina, poput gomila listova. Cestode (trakavice) i trematode imaju složene životne cikluse, sa zrelim fazama koje žive kao paraziti u probavnom traktu riba ili kopnenih kičmenjaka, i međufaznim stadijima koji infestiraju sekundarne domaćine. Jaja trematoda izlučuju se iz njihovih glavnih domaćina, dok odrasle cestode stvaraju ogroman broj hermafroditnih, segmenata proglotida, koji se odvajaju kada sazriju, izlučuju se, a zatim ispuštaju jaja. Za razliku od ostalih parazitskih skupina, Monogenea su vanjski paraziti koji infestiraju vodene životinje, a njihove se larve preobražavaju u odrasle oblike, nakon pripajanja za pogodnog domaćina. Acoelomorpha, kao bazni bilateralni organizmi- bliže su izvornim bilaterijama nego bilo kojim drugim modernim skupinama. Preostale Platyhelminthes tvore monofiletsku grupu, koja sadrži sve (i samo) potomke zajedničkog pretka koji je i sam član grupe. Ponovno definirani Platyhelminthes dio je grupe Lophotrochozoa, jedne od tri glavne skupine složenijih bilateralija. Te su analize zaključile da se redefinirana Platyhelminthes, izuzev Acoelomorpha, sastoje od dvije monofiletne podskupine, Catenulida i [Rhabditophora], s tim da Cestoda, Trematoda i Monogenea formiraju monofileskuu podskupinu unutar jedne grane Rhabditophora. Stoga se tradicijskaa podgrupa "Turbellaria" sada smatra parafiletskom, jer isključuje potpuno parazitske grupe, iako su porijeklom iz jedne skupine "praturbelarija".
Dvije planarijske vrste uspješno se koriste na Filipinima, Indoneziji, Havajima, Novoj Gvineji i Guamu za biološku kontrolu populacija uvedenog divovskog afričkog puža Achatina fulica, koji je istjerao domaće puževe. Međutim, same ove plarijani predstavljaju ozbiljnu prijetnju urođenim puževima i ne bi ih trebalo koristiti za biološku kontrolu. U sjeverozapadnoj Evropi postoji zabrinutost zbog širenja novozelandskog planarija Arthurdendyus triangulatus koja je predator kišne gliste.
Nemaju celom - unutrašnju duplju (prostor između crijeva i tjelesnog zida). Prostor između organa ispunjen je vezivnim tkivom paramhimom.
Nervni sistem sastoji se od para nervnih ćelija-ganglija. Čulni organi su sitni čulni čvorovi- tanktilni papile. To su razne osjećajne niti i ocele proste očne mrlje. Prisutni su kod odraslih neparazitskih oblika. Aparat za varenje djelimično imaju acelomati. Odsutni su kod parazitskih pantljičara. Sastoji se od usta smještenih sa donje strane tijela, ždrijela i zatvorenih crijeva. Ćelije crijeva fagocitarne su i snabdjevene trepljama.
Svaka jedinka ima muške i ženske polne ćelije. Nisu sposobne za samooplodnju. Prednost je ta što mužjak ne mora tražiti ženku. Odgovara svaki partner. Mogu razmjeniti spermu i tako oploditi jajnu ćeliju druge jedinke. Oplodnja se vrši u unutrašnjosti jedinke pomoću kopulatornog organa.
Pljosnati crvi dijele se u tri klase:
Ovo su veoma raširene životinje, koje žive u moru, slatkoj vodi i vlažnoj zemlji. To su
Tijelo im je prekriveno epidermom, na kome su talasaste dlačice treplje. Služe za kretanje.
Najmanji pljosnati crvi su iz grupe acela. Nemaju crijevnu duplju. Dužine su 1 – 4 mm. Ovo su morske životinje. U njihovim tkivima nekad žive u simbiozi zelene alge kao kod Convoluta. Na morskom dnu stvara zeleni tepih. Najveći broj je iz porodice triklada. Žive u hladnim i umjereno toplim morima, slatkoj vodii u vlažnoj zemlji. Među slatkovodnim su Planarije. Žive ispod kamenja i u mulju, a suhozemni oblici žive u vlažnoj zemlji tropskih šuma. Dostižu dužinu do 60 cm. Grupa polikladida živi na stjenovitom priobalnom području. To su trepljasti crvi diskoidalnog oblika. Tropske vrste su živo obojene. Aktivni su lovci koji žive od malih morskih životinja. Jedna vrsta živi na ostrigama. Gnatostomulide najprimitivnije su vrste koje imaju aparat za žvakanje. Veličina im je 1-2 mm. Žive u pijesku i u mulju morskog dna.
Svi su paraziti. Njihova fiziologija i tjelesna građa prilagođeni su ovom načinu života. Mnogi se prićvrste sisaljkom za domaćina.
Nervni sistem i čulni organi manje su razvijeni nego kod drugih pljosnatih crva. Nose veliki broj jaja kao pantljičara. Imaju visokorazvijen sistem za razmnožavanje. Mogu biti spoljašnji ili unutrašnji paraziti. Spoljašnji žive na ribama sisajući im krv. Unutrašnji kao metilji jetre – Fascioza hepatica žive u žučnim kanalima biljojeda. Neke vrste krvnih metilja iz roda Schistosoma kod ćovjeka izazivaju razne oblike bilharijaze. U istočnoj Aziji živi plućni metilj Paragonimus westermani. Živi u plućima čovjeka, psa, mačke i tigra. Ima ovalno i debelo tijelo dužine 8 – 16 mm. Izaziva hronični kašalj sa izbacivanjem sluzi. Do zaraze dolazi jedenjem nekuhanog mesa ili slatkovodnih kraba koje se u priobalnom području jedu žive.
Unutrašnji paraziti. Žive u crijevima kičmenjaka. Na prednjem dijelu imaju pijavke i kuke kojim se pričvrste za zid crijeva. Tijelo im se sastoji od segmenata. Svaki segment ima muški i ženski sistem za razmnožavanje. Potpunim razvojem na zadnjem dijelu pucaju i izlaze zajedno sa izmetom. Domaćini su im ribe, psi, vukovi ili šakali. Diphyllbotrium u odraslom stepenu žive u pticama (gnjurci i labudi) koji se hrane ribama. Zajedno sa izmetom jajašca dospijevaju u vodu. Izlegu se larve koje dospijevaju u planktonske račiće. Kad ih pojede riba larve se mijenjaju u pleurocerboid koji ima bijel, pljosnat i trakast oblik. Zauzima velik dio tijela ribe koja otiče i lahak je plijen ribama. U tijelu ptica prelazi u oblik odrasle pantljičare. Ovaj ciklus ne može se skratiti, jer pantljičara mora proći sve oblike razvoja određenim redom. Poznate pantljičare su iz roda toenia:
Na glavi imaju četiri jake pijavke kojim se pričvrste za crijevo čovjeka. Prelazni oblici se razvijaju u svinjama i govedima. Do čovjeka dolaze slabo kuhanim mesom.
Ovu grupu čini oko 600 vrsta. Tijelo im je cilindrično, često spljošteno i izduženo. Njena dužina je od nekoliko milimetara do nekoliko metara. Poznati su kao riličasti crvi zbog prednjeg dijela na kome je duga mišična cijev - rilica. Ona je nekad duža od crva. Retraktornim mišićem pričvšćena je za zid tečnošću ispunjene duplje. Smještene iznad crijeva. Kontrakcijama mišičnog tkiva izbacuje rilicu van, retraktor je vraća. Ona nekad ima otrovnu žaoku. Služi za hvatanje plijena koji ponekad obavije oko sebe i parališe otrovom. Hrane se uglavnom člankovitim (prstenastim) glistama, sitnim beskičmenjacima, nekad i ribom.
Prve su životinje sa sistemom za varenje. Posjeduju usta i analnim otvorom. Žive uglavnom u moru, krijući se u pijesku i pod kamenjem. Ima nekoliko slatkovodnih vrsta i kopnenih koji žive u tropskim šumama.
Odnosi koljena Platyhelminthes prema drugim Bilateria
BilateriaUnutrašnji odnosi Platyhelminthes su prikazani dolje. Njihovo filogenetsko stablo nije u potpunosti riješeno.[4][5]
Platyhelminthes Mucorhabda CatenulideaTricladida (planarians)
Bothrioplanida (freshwater)
Neodermata (flukes, tapeworms)
Pljosnati crvi (latinski Platyhelminthes; grč. πλατύ platy = ravno, pljosnato + ἕλμινς, ἑλμινθ-helminth- = crv) su koljeno relativno jednostavnih bilateralnih, nesegmentiranih organizama, beskičmenjaka, mehkog tijela. Za razliku od ostalih dvosimetrijskih organizama, oni nemaju celom (koji nemaju sekundarnu tjelesnu šupljinu) i nemaju specijaliziran krvotok i respiratorne organe, što ih ograničava na složene oblike koji omogućuju kisiku i hranjivim tvarima prolazak kroz njihova tijela putem difuzije. Digestivna šupljina ima samo jedan otvor i za gutanje (unos hranjivih sastojaka) i za uklanjanje neprobavljenog otpada; posljedica toga je da se hrana ne može kontinuirano prerađivati.
U tradicionalnim medicinskim tekstovima Platyhelminthes se dijele na Turbellaria, koje su uglavnom neparazitske životinje poput planarija i tri potpuno parazitske skupine: Cestoda, Trematoda i Monogenea; međutim, budući da je za turbelarije od tada dokazano da nisu monofiletke, ova je klasifikacija zastarjela. Slobodno živući crvi uglavnom su grabežljivci i žive u vodi ili u hladu vlažnih kopnenih sredina, poput gomila listova. Cestode (trakavice) i trematode imaju složene životne cikluse, sa zrelim fazama koje žive kao paraziti u probavnom traktu riba ili kopnenih kičmenjaka, i međufaznim stadijima koji infestiraju sekundarne domaćine. Jaja trematoda izlučuju se iz njihovih glavnih domaćina, dok odrasle cestode stvaraju ogroman broj hermafroditnih, segmenata proglotida, koji se odvajaju kada sazriju, izlučuju se, a zatim ispuštaju jaja. Za razliku od ostalih parazitskih skupina, Monogenea su vanjski paraziti koji infestiraju vodene životinje, a njihove se larve preobražavaju u odrasle oblike, nakon pripajanja za pogodnog domaćina. Acoelomorpha, kao bazni bilateralni organizmi- bliže su izvornim bilaterijama nego bilo kojim drugim modernim skupinama. Preostale Platyhelminthes tvore monofiletsku grupu, koja sadrži sve (i samo) potomke zajedničkog pretka koji je i sam član grupe. Ponovno definirani Platyhelminthes dio je grupe Lophotrochozoa, jedne od tri glavne skupine složenijih bilateralija. Te su analize zaključile da se redefinirana Platyhelminthes, izuzev Acoelomorpha, sastoje od dvije monofiletne podskupine, Catenulida i [Rhabditophora], s tim da Cestoda, Trematoda i Monogenea formiraju monofileskuu podskupinu unutar jedne grane Rhabditophora. Stoga se tradicijskaa podgrupa "Turbellaria" sada smatra parafiletskom, jer isključuje potpuno parazitske grupe, iako su porijeklom iz jedne skupine "praturbelarija".
Dvije planarijske vrste uspješno se koriste na Filipinima, Indoneziji, Havajima, Novoj Gvineji i Guamu za biološku kontrolu populacija uvedenog divovskog afričkog puža Achatina fulica, koji je istjerao domaće puževe. Međutim, same ove plarijani predstavljaju ozbiljnu prijetnju urođenim puževima i ne bi ih trebalo koristiti za biološku kontrolu. U sjeverozapadnoj Evropi postoji zabrinutost zbog širenja novozelandskog planarija Arthurdendyus triangulatus koja je predator kišne gliste.
Жалпак курттар (лат. Platyhelmintes) – жөнөкөй түзүлүштүү курттар тиби. Денеси кош симметриялуу, узун, жалпак. Узундугу 0,2 ммден 18 мге чейин жетет. Эркин жашоочуларынын денеси кирпикчелүү эпителий менен, мителериники ядросуз катмар (тегумент) менен капталган. Мителеринин соргучтары бар. Жалпак курттар алгачкы ооздуу, алардын дене көңдөйү жок (органынын ортосу паренхима менен толгон), үч түйүлдүк жалбыракчалардан – экто-, энто- жана мезодермадан өөрчүйт жана кан тамыр, дем алуу органдары жок. Жалпак курттардын ичинде киши жана жаныбарларга коркунучтуу мителер да бар. Алар морфологиялык-физиологиялык өзгөчөлүктөрүнө жараша 3 класска (кирпикчелүүлөр, соргуч курттар жана тасма курттар) бөлүнөт. 12 500гө жакын түрү белгилүү. Деңизде, тузсуз сууда жана кургакта жашап, дээрлик көбү мителер.
Сплесканите црви, односно типот Platyhelminthes се најниско градени билатерално симетрични ткивни животни, со слободен или паразитски начин на живеење. Основен белег за нив, по кој и го добиле името, е дорзо-вентралното сплескано тело. Инаку, основната форма на телото е вретеновидна, листовидна или лентовидна, додека големината варира од 1 mm до 10 m во должина. Карактеристично е отсуството на телесна празнина, за сметка на што просторот меѓу органите е исполнет со паренхимско ткиво. Кај слободните форми, телото е покриено со трепчест епител, а кај паразитските со кутикула. Под епителот е расположен мускулниот слој од кружни и надолжни мускулни влакна (кожно-мускулен слој). Денес се познати околу 15.000 видови на сплескани црви.
Сплесканите црви се делат на следниве класи:
Како што е претходно наведено, во сплесканото тело на овие животни отсуствува телесна празнина (целом), а наместо неа целата внатрешност е исполнета со паренхим. Сите органи се наоѓаат во овој паренхим. Тие се:
Сплесканите црви, односно типот Platyhelminthes се најниско градени билатерално симетрични ткивни животни, со слободен или паразитски начин на живеење. Основен белег за нив, по кој и го добиле името, е дорзо-вентралното сплескано тело. Инаку, основната форма на телото е вретеновидна, листовидна или лентовидна, додека големината варира од 1 mm до 10 m во должина. Карактеристично е отсуството на телесна празнина, за сметка на што просторот меѓу органите е исполнет со паренхимско ткиво. Кај слободните форми, телото е покриено со трепчест епител, а кај паразитските со кутикула. Под епителот е расположен мускулниот слој од кружни и надолжни мускулни влакна (кожно-мускулен слој). Денес се познати околу 15.000 видови на сплескани црви.
Сплесканите црви се делат на следниве класи:
класа Тении (Cestoda) класа Метили (Trematoda) класа Еднороди (Monogenea) класа Трепчести црви (Turbellaria)Яҫы селәүсендәр тибы(лат. Plathelminthes, әйки Platyhelminthes, рус. Плоские черви, бор. грек. πλατύς — киң, һәм ἕλμινθος) — сөсө һәм диңгеҙ һыуында йәшәй, бик күптәре кешенең һәм хайуандарҙың эсәк буйҙарыда паразитлыҡ итеп бик күп зарар килтерә торған, ябай төҙөлөштәге ялпаҡ селәүсендәр[1].
Яҫы селәүсендәр тибына өс ҡатлы, ике яҡлы симметриялы хайуандар керәләр. Уларҙың тән стенкаһы өс ҡатлау: экто-, энто- һәм мезодерма күҙәнәктәренән барлыкка килгән.
Хәҙерге ваҡытта яҫы селәүсендәрҙең 12,5 мең төрө билдәле. Улар бер нисә класка берләшкән: Керпексәле (төклө) селәүсендәр, Имгес селәүсендәр, йәки Трематодалар һәм Таҫма селәүсендәр.
Һуңғы ике класс эволюция процессында паразит йәшәү рәүешенә күскән һәм, төзөлөшөндәге үҙенсәлектәр менән, ирекле йәшәүсе төклө селәүсендәрҙән шаҡтай айырылып тора. Улар, бигерәк тә таҫма селәүсендәр, хужа организмынан ситтә йәшәргә мөмкинлек биреүсе күп кенә ағзаларын һәм системаларын юғалтҡандар.
Яҫы селәүсендәрҙең тәне өс ҡатлы. Ул эпителий менән (ирекле йәшәүселәрҙең — төклө эпителий) ҡапланған тире-мускул ҡапсыҡтан тора, эпителий аҫтында мускул ҡатлау урынлаша; тән ҡыуышлығы юҡ.
Яҫы селәүсендәр тибы(лат. Plathelminthes, әйки Platyhelminthes, рус. Плоские черви, бор. грек. πλατύς — киң, һәм ἕλμινθος) — сөсө һәм диңгеҙ һыуында йәшәй, бик күптәре кешенең һәм хайуандарҙың эсәк буйҙарыда паразитлыҡ итеп бик күп зарар килтерә торған, ябай төҙөлөштәге ялпаҡ селәүсендәр.
Яҫы селәүсендәр тибына өс ҡатлы, ике яҡлы симметриялы хайуандар керәләр. Уларҙың тән стенкаһы өс ҡатлау: экто-, энто- һәм мезодерма күҙәнәктәренән барлыкка килгән.
Хәҙерге ваҡытта яҫы селәүсендәрҙең 12,5 мең төрө билдәле. Улар бер нисә класка берләшкән: Керпексәле (төклө) селәүсендәр, Имгес селәүсендәр, йәки Трематодалар һәм Таҫма селәүсендәр.
Һуңғы ике класс эволюция процессында паразит йәшәү рәүешенә күскән һәм, төзөлөшөндәге үҙенсәлектәр менән, ирекле йәшәүсе төклө селәүсендәрҙән шаҡтай айырылып тора. Улар, бигерәк тә таҫма селәүсендәр, хужа организмынан ситтә йәшәргә мөмкинлек биреүсе күп кенә ағзаларын һәм системаларын юғалтҡандар.
Яҫы селәүсендәрҙең тәне өс ҡатлы. Ул эпителий менән (ирекле йәшәүселәрҙең — төклө эпителий) ҡапланған тире-мускул ҡапсыҡтан тора, эпителий аҫтында мускул ҡатлау урынлаша; тән ҡыуышлығы юҡ.
চেপেটা কৃমি (ইংৰাজী: Flatworm; (বৈজ্ঞানিক নাম: Platyhelminthes)) শব্দটো গ্ৰীক শব্দ Platys অৰ্থাৎ Flat বা চেপেটা আৰু Helminths অৰ্থাৎ Worm বা কৃমি বা কীটৰ পৰা আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে। ই হৈছে অমেৰুদণ্ডী প্ৰাণীৰ এটা পৰ্ব।
প্লেটিহেলমিনথিছ পৰ্বৰ মুঠ ৩ টা শ্ৰেণী আছে।[2]
লেটিন শব্দ Turbella অৰ্থ Stirringৰ পৰা টাৰবেলাৰিয়া শব্দটো আহিছে। পাতৰ দৰে দেহত কিউটিকল নাথাকে, এপিডাৰ্মিছ (Epidermis) চিলিয়েটেড (Ciliated) আৰু ৰেব্দাইট (Rhabdite) থাকে। চোষক অঙ্গ উপস্থিত অথবা অনুপস্থিত। মুখছিদ্ৰ অঙ্কীয় দিশত উন্মুক্ত আৰু পেশীযুক্ত খাদ্যনলীৰ (Muscular pharynx) মাধ্যমত অন্ত্ৰৰ (Intestine) সৈতে সংযুক্ত। অধিকাংশই উভয় লিঙ্গী (Hermaphrodite) অৰ্থাৎ একেই প্ৰাণী দেহত পুৰুষ আৰু স্ত্ৰী দুয়োটা প্ৰজনন অঙ্গ থাকে, বহুতে অযৌন পদ্ধতিত বংশ বিস্তাৰ কৰে। শোষক (Sucker) নাথাকে। মুক্তজীৱী আৰু পলু (Larva) পৰ্যায় নাথাকে। স্থলচৰ (Terrestrial) বা জলচৰ (Aquatic), সামুদ্ৰিক বা অগভীৰ পানীত বসবাস কৰে। সাধাৰণভাৱে ইহঁত এডিৱৰ্ম (Eddyworm) নামে পৰিচিত। উদাহৰণ: Dugesia tigrina (প্লানেৰিয়া)
গ্ৰীক শব্দ Trema অৰ্থ Hole বা গৰ্ত বা বিবৰ বা কোটৰ আৰু Eidos অৰ্থাৎ Form বা আকাৰৰ পৰা ট্ৰিমাট'ডা শব্দটি আহিছে। নলাকাৰ বা চেপেটা পাতৰ দৰে দেহত কিউটিকলৰ স্তৰ থাকে আৰু চিলিয়া নাথাকে। মুখছিদ্ৰত বৃহৎ শোষক অঙ্গ থাকে আৰু অনেক সময়ত হুক (Hook) দেখিবলৈ পোৱা যায়। ইহঁতৰ মুখছিদ্ৰ আৰু দুই শাখাত বিভক্ত খাদ্যনালী থাকে কিন্তু পায়ু (Anus) নাথাকে। একাধিক পলু (Larva) পৰ্যায় থাকে। সকলো পৰজীবী (বহিঃ অথবা অন্তঃ) আৰু জীবনচক্ৰ সম্পন্ন কৰোতে পৰ্যায়ক্ৰমে মেৰুদণ্ডী আৰু অমেৰুদণ্ডী পোষকদেহত অৱস্থান কৰে। অধিকাংশই উভয় লিঙ্গী (Monoecious) প্ৰাণী। সাধাৰণভাৱে ফ্লুক (Fluke) নামে পৰিচিত। উদাহৰণ: Fasciola hepatica (যকৃৎ কৃমি)
গ্ৰীক শব্দ Kestos অৰ্থ Girdle বা কটিবন্ধ আৰু Eidos অৰ্থ Form বা আকাৰৰ পৰা ছিষ্ট'ডা শব্দটো আহিছে। ইয়াৰ দেহ দীৰ্ঘ আৰু চেপেটা ফিটাৰ দৰে। দেহত কিউটিকলৰ স্তৰ থাকে। চিলিয়া নাথাকে আৰু ৮০০-৯০০টা প্ৰ'গ্ল'টিড (Proglottid) নামক খণ্ডাংশৰ দ্বাৰা গঠিত। প্ৰতিটো খণ্ডাংশত এক বা দুই পুৰুষ অথবা স্ত্ৰী প্ৰজনন অঙ্গৰ গোট থাকে। দেহৰ অগ্ৰ প্ৰান্তত শোষক অঙ্গ (Sucker) আৰু বেকা হুক (Hook) বিশিষ্ট স্ক'লেক্স (Scolex) থাকে। মুখছিদ্ৰ আৰু খাদ্যনালী নাথাকে। সংবেদী অঙ্গ (Sense organ) নাথাকে। একাধিক পলুৰ (Larva) পৰ্যায় থাকে। সকলো অন্তঃপৰজীবী আৰু জীবনচক্ৰ সম্পন্ন কৰোতে এক বা একাধিক পোষকদেহত অৱস্থান কৰে। সাধাৰণভাবে ইহঁত টেপৱৰ্ম (Tapeworm) নামে পৰিচিত। উদাহৰণ: Taenia solium (ফিটা কৃমি)
চেপেটা কৃমি (ইংৰাজী: Flatworm; (বৈজ্ঞানিক নাম: Platyhelminthes)) শব্দটো গ্ৰীক শব্দ Platys অৰ্থাৎ Flat বা চেপেটা আৰু Helminths অৰ্থাৎ Worm বা কৃমি বা কীটৰ পৰা আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে। ই হৈছে অমেৰুদণ্ডী প্ৰাণীৰ এটা পৰ্ব।
தட்டைப் புழுக்கள் (Flat worms) முதுகு-வயிற்றுப்புறமாகத் தட்டையாக்கப்பட்ட உடலைக் கொண்ட கணம் (Phylum) Platyhelminthes ஐச் சேர்ந்த புழு உடலமைப்பை உடைய விலங்குகளாகும். இவற்றில் சுயாதீன வாழிகளும், ஒட்டுண்ணிகளும் உண்டு. Planaria உதாரண அங்கியாகக் கற்கப்படும் ஒரு சுயாதீன வாழி அங்கத்தவராகும். ஈரற் தட்டையன், நாடாப் புழு என்பன மனிதனைத் தொற்றுகின்ற முக்கிய ஒட்டுண்ணிகளாகும். இவற்றில் சுவாசத் தொகுதியோ, சுற்றோட்டத் தொகுதியோ இல்லாததால் உடல் மேற்பரப்பினூடான வாயுப் பரவல் வீதத்தை அதிகரிக்க அதிக மேற்பரப்புக்கேற்றவாறாகத் தட்டையான உடலைக் கொண்டுள்ளன. இவற்றில் பிரதானமாக 4 வகுப்புக்கள் உள்ளன. அவை டர்பெல்லேரியா(Turbelleria), ட்ரேமடோடா(Trematoda), செஸ்டோடா(Cestoda), மோனோஜீனியா(Monogenea) , என்பவையாகும். இவற்றில் டர்பலேரியாவைத் தவிர ஏனைய மூன்று வகுப்புக்களைச் சார்ந்த அங்கிகள் அனைத்தும் ஒட்டுண்ணிகளாகும். இவற்றின் உடலமைப்பு ஏனைய முப்படை விலங்குகளைக் காட்டிலும் எளியதாகக் காணப்பட்டாலும், இவை ஒப்பீட்டளவில் அண்மையில் கூர்ப்படைந்த விலங்குக் கணமாகும். சுயாதீன வாழிகள் நன்னீரிலும், ஈரப்பதனான மண்ணிலும் வாழ்கின்றன. சுயாதீன வாழிகள் பொதுவாக ஊனுண்ணிகளாக உள்ளன. உதாரணமான Bipalium எனும் டர்பலேரியா வகுப்பைச் சார்ந்த தட்டைப் புழு மண் புழுவைப் பிடித்து உண்ணக்கூடியதாகும்.
மரபியல் பாகுபாட்டின் படி தட்டைப்புழுக்கள் டர்பலேரியா (Turbelleria), டிரெமட்டோடா (Tremetoda), செஸ்டோடா (Cestoda), மொனோஜீனியா (Monogenea) என நான்கு வகுப்புக்களாகப் பிரிக்கப்பட்டுள்ளன. எனினும் தற்போதைய ஆய்வுகளின் படி டர்பலேரியாக்களின் பாகுபாடு செயற்கையானது எனக் கண்டறியப்பட்டுள்ளது. அத்துடன் Tremetoda, Cestoda, Monogenea என்ற மூன்று வகுப்புக்களும் மிக நெருங்கிய கூர்ப்புத் தொடர்பைக் கொண்டிருப்பதால் அவற்றை ஒரே வகுப்பெனப் பாகுபடுத்த முடியுமெனவும் கண்டறியப்பட்டுள்ளது. எனினும் இங்கு அனேகமான நூல்களில் பயன்படுத்தப்படும் மரபியல் பாகுபாட்டு முறையே இங்கும் விபரிக்கப்பட்டுள்ளது.
இவற்றில் அனேகமானவை ஊனுண்ணிகளாகவோ அல்லது பிணந்தின்னிகளாகவோ உள்ளன. 4500 இனங்கள் வரை அறியப்பட்டுள்ளன. இவற்றின் நீளம் 1-600 mm வரை காணப்படலாம். டர்பலேரியாக்களில் புறத்தோல் இருப்பதில்லை. உடலின் கீழ்ப்புறத்தில் பிசிர்கள் பல காணப்படும். பிசிர்கள் மற்றும் தசைகளின் உதவியால் இடம்பெயரும். இவற்றின் வயிற்றுப் புறத்தில் வெளித்தள்ளப்படக் கூடிய தொண்டை காணப்படும். இத்தொண்டையின் உறிஞ்சல் மூலம் உணவு உள்ளடெக்கப்படும். உறிஞ்சப்பட்ட உணவு முழுமையற்ற, கிளைகொண்ட உணவுக் கால்வாய்க்குள் கடத்தப்படும். இவற்றின் தலையில் இரண்டு அல்லது அதற்கு மேற்பட்ட கட்புள்ளிகள் (eyespots) உள்ளன. சிலவற்றில் சிலைச்சிறைப்பைகளும் (statocyst) உள்ளன. டர்பலேரியாக்கள் ஈரிலிங்கமானவை. அவற்றில் அகக்கருக்கட்டலே நடைபெறும். அத்துடன் அனேகமானவை நேரடி விருத்தியைக் காண்பிக்கின்றன. அதாவது அவற்றின் வாழ்க்கை வட்டத்தில் குடம்பிப் பருவங்கள் இருப்பதில்லை. டர்பலேரியாக்கள் இலிங்கமில் முறைகளிலும் இனம்பெருகுகின்றன. உதாரணமாக Planaria (பிளனேரியா) புழு இரண்டாக வெட்டப்படின் ஒவ்வொரு துண்டும் இரு அங்கிகளாகப் புத்துயிர்க்கும் (regeneration) ஆற்றலைக் கொண்டுள்ளன.
இவ்வகுப்பைச் சார்ந்த இனங்கள் அனைத்தும் ஒட்டுண்ணிகளாகும். இவற்றில் வாய்ப்புற மற்றும் வயிற்றுப்புற உறிஞ்சிகளும் காணப்படும். இவை அக மற்றும் புற ஒட்டுண்ணிகளாக உள்ளன. இவற்றில் மனிதனைத் தாக்கக்கூடிய ஈரற் தட்டையன் (Fasciola hepatica) புழுவும் அடங்கும். [2]இது ஈரலில் வளர்ந்து ஈரல் அழற்சியை உண்டாக்கக்கூடியது. இவற்றின் நிறையுடலி உடலில் விருந்தி வழங்கியின் இழையத்துடன் ஒட்டிக்கொள்வதற்காகத் தோலில் முட்கள் உள்ளன. டிரெமெட்டோடாக்களின் உணவுக் கால்வாய் ஒடுக்கப்பட்டது. நிறையுடலியில் கட்புள்ளிகள் இருப்பதில்லை. தலையாக்கம் தெளிவற்றது. இவை சிக்கலான வாழ்க்கை வட்டத்தைக் காட்டுகின்றன. மிராசிடியம், ரீடியா, செர்க்கேரியா போன்ற குடம்பிப் பருவங்களூடாக மனிதனிலிருந்து நத்தைக்கும், நத்தையிலிருந்து மீன்களுக்கும், மீன்களூடாக மனிதனுக்கும் தொற்றக்கூடியது. நிறையுடலிகளின் நீளம் 0.2-6 mm வரை காணப்படலாம். நிறையுடலியாக வாழும் போது 10000 தொடக்கம் 100000 வரையான முட்டைகளை உருவாக்கக் கூடியது.
இவற்றின் நீளமான தட்டையான உடலமைப்பு காரணமாக இவை பொதுவாக நாடாப் புழுக்கள் என அழைக்கப்படுகின்றன. தலையாக்கம் தெளிவற்றது. தலைக்குப் பதிலாக கீடகச் சென்னி (scolex) எனும் உணவூட்டல் கட்டமைப்பு காணப்படும். கீடகச் சென்னியில் உணவூட்டலுக்காகவும், விருந்தி வழங்கியின் இழையத்தினோடு ஒட்டிக்கொள்வதற்காகவும் உறிஞ்சிகளும், கொழுக்கிகளும் காணப்படும். இவற்றில் உணவுக்கால்வாய் இருப்பதில்லை. போசணைப் பொருட்கள் உறிஞ்சியின் கீழுள்ள தோலினூடாக உறிஞ்சப்படுகின்றன. கீடகச் சென்னின்யின் கீழுள்ள கழுத்துப் பாகத்திலிருந்து விருத்தியுடன் மூட்டுத் துண்டங்கள் தொடர்ச்சியாக உருவாக்கப்படுகின்றன. எனினும் இவை ஒரே வயதைக் கொண்டிராமையால் இவை உண்மையான அனுபாத்துத் துண்டங்கள் அல்ல. நாடாப் புழுக்களின் நீளம் பொதுவாக நன்கு வளர்ச்சியடைந்தவற்றில் 4 மீற்றர்களாக இருந்தாலும், சிலவற்றில் 20 மீற்றர்களை எட்டலாம். ஒரு விருத்தியுடன் மூட்டுத் துண்டத்தில் (proglottid) ஆண் மற்றும் பெண் இனப்பெருக்கத் தொகுதிகள் உண்டு. கருக்கட்டலின் பின்னர் முட்டைகள் முதிர்ச்சியடைந்து முடியும் போது விருத்தியுடன் மூட்டுத் துண்டம் உடலிலிருந்து விடுபட்டு மலத்துடன் வெளியேற்றப்படும். இம்முட்டைகளிலிருந்து குடம்பிகள் வெளியேறும். பின்னர் மாடு, பன்றி போன்ற இடை நிலை விருந்து வழங்கிகளினூடாக மீண்டும் மனிதனைத் தொற்றும். சீரான மலசலகூட வசதிகளைப் பேணுவதாலும், நன்றாக அவிக்கப்பட்ட இறைச்சியையே உண்பதாலும் இத்தொற்றைத் தவிர்க்கலாம். இப்புழுக்களில் நிறையுடலி நிலையில் புலனங்கங்கள் இருப்பதில்லை.
தட்டைப் புழுக்கள் (Flat worms) முதுகு-வயிற்றுப்புறமாகத் தட்டையாக்கப்பட்ட உடலைக் கொண்ட கணம் (Phylum) Platyhelminthes ஐச் சேர்ந்த புழு உடலமைப்பை உடைய விலங்குகளாகும். இவற்றில் சுயாதீன வாழிகளும், ஒட்டுண்ணிகளும் உண்டு. Planaria உதாரண அங்கியாகக் கற்கப்படும் ஒரு சுயாதீன வாழி அங்கத்தவராகும். ஈரற் தட்டையன், நாடாப் புழு என்பன மனிதனைத் தொற்றுகின்ற முக்கிய ஒட்டுண்ணிகளாகும். இவற்றில் சுவாசத் தொகுதியோ, சுற்றோட்டத் தொகுதியோ இல்லாததால் உடல் மேற்பரப்பினூடான வாயுப் பரவல் வீதத்தை அதிகரிக்க அதிக மேற்பரப்புக்கேற்றவாறாகத் தட்டையான உடலைக் கொண்டுள்ளன. இவற்றில் பிரதானமாக 4 வகுப்புக்கள் உள்ளன. அவை டர்பெல்லேரியா(Turbelleria), ட்ரேமடோடா(Trematoda), செஸ்டோடா(Cestoda), மோனோஜீனியா(Monogenea) , என்பவையாகும். இவற்றில் டர்பலேரியாவைத் தவிர ஏனைய மூன்று வகுப்புக்களைச் சார்ந்த அங்கிகள் அனைத்தும் ஒட்டுண்ணிகளாகும். இவற்றின் உடலமைப்பு ஏனைய முப்படை விலங்குகளைக் காட்டிலும் எளியதாகக் காணப்பட்டாலும், இவை ஒப்பீட்டளவில் அண்மையில் கூர்ப்படைந்த விலங்குக் கணமாகும். சுயாதீன வாழிகள் நன்னீரிலும், ஈரப்பதனான மண்ணிலும் வாழ்கின்றன. சுயாதீன வாழிகள் பொதுவாக ஊனுண்ணிகளாக உள்ளன. உதாரணமான Bipalium எனும் டர்பலேரியா வகுப்பைச் சார்ந்த தட்டைப் புழு மண் புழுவைப் பிடித்து உண்ணக்கூடியதாகும்.
The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the Greek πλατύ, platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meaning "worm")[4] are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates. Unlike other bilaterians, they are acoelomates (having no body cavity), and have no specialized circulatory and respiratory organs, which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through their bodies by diffusion. The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion (intake of nutrients) and egestion (removal of undigested wastes); as a result, the food cannot be processed continuously.
In traditional medicinal texts, Platyhelminthes are divided into Turbellaria, which are mostly non-parasitic animals such as planarians, and three entirely parasitic groups: Cestoda, Trematoda and Monogenea; however, since the turbellarians have since been proven not to be monophyletic, this classification is now deprecated. Free-living flatworms are mostly predators, and live in water or in shaded, humid terrestrial environments, such as leaf litter. Cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes) have complex life-cycles, with mature stages that live as parasites in the digestive systems of fish or land vertebrates, and intermediate stages that infest secondary hosts. The eggs of trematodes are excreted from their main hosts, whereas adult cestodes generate vast numbers of hermaphroditic, segment-like proglottids that detach when mature, are excreted, and then release eggs. Unlike the other parasitic groups, the monogeneans are external parasites infesting aquatic animals, and their larvae metamorphose into the adult form after attaching to a suitable host.
Because they do not have internal body cavities, Platyhelminthes were regarded as a primitive stage in the evolution of bilaterians (animals with bilateral symmetry and hence with distinct front and rear ends). However, analyses since the mid-1980s have separated out one subgroup, the Acoelomorpha, as basal bilaterians – closer to the original bilaterians than to any other modern groups. The remaining Platyhelminthes form a monophyletic group, one that contains all and only descendants of a common ancestor that is itself a member of the group. The redefined Platyhelminthes is part of the Lophotrochozoa, one of the three main groups of more complex bilaterians. These analyses had concluded the redefined Platyhelminthes, excluding Acoelomorpha, consists of two monophyletic subgroups, Catenulida and Rhabditophora, with Cestoda, Trematoda and Monogenea forming a monophyletic subgroup within one branch of the Rhabditophora. Hence, the traditional platyhelminth subgroup "Turbellaria" is now regarded as paraphyletic, since it excludes the wholly parasitic groups, although these are descended from one group of "turbellarians".
Two planarian species have been used successfully in the Philippines, Indonesia, Hawaii, New Guinea, and Guam to control populations of the imported giant African snail Achatina fulica, which was displacing native snails. However, these planarians are themselves a serious threat to native snails and should not be used for biological control. In northwest Europe, there are concerns about the spread of the New Zealand planarian Arthurdendyus triangulatus, which preys on earthworms.
Platyhelminthes are bilaterally symmetrical animals: their left and right sides are mirror images of each other; this also implies they have distinct top and bottom surfaces and distinct head and tail ends. Like other bilaterians, they have three main cell layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm),[5] while the radially symmetrical cnidarians and ctenophores (comb jellies) have only two cell layers.[6] Beyond that, they are "defined more by what they do not have than by any particular series of specializations."[7] Unlike most other bilaterians, Platyhelminthes have no internal body cavity, so are described as acoelomates. Although the absence of a coelom also occurs in other bilaterians: gnathostomulids, gastrotrichs, xenacoelomorphs, cycliophorans, entoproctans and the parastic mesozoans.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14] They also lack specialized circulatory and respiratory organs, both of these facts are defining features when classifying a flatworm's anatomy.[5][15] Their bodies are soft and unsegmented.[16]
The lack of circulatory and respiratory organs limits platyhelminths to sizes and shapes that enable oxygen to reach and carbon dioxide to leave all parts of their bodies by simple diffusion. Hence, many are microscopic, and the large species have flat ribbon-like or leaf-like shapes. Because there is no circulatory system which can transport nutrients around, the guts of large species have many branches, allowing the nutrients to diffuse to all parts of the body.[7] Respiration through the whole surface of the body makes them vulnerable to fluid loss, and restricts them to environments where dehydration is unlikely: sea and freshwater, moist terrestrial environments such as leaf litter or between grains of soil, and as parasites within other animals.[5]
The space between the skin and gut is filled with mesenchyme, also known as parenchyma, a connective tissue made of cells and reinforced by collagen fibers that act as a type of skeleton, providing attachment points for muscles. The mesenchyme contains all the internal organs and allows the passage of oxygen, nutrients and waste products. It consists of two main types of cell: fixed cells, some of which have fluid-filled vacuoles; and stem cells, which can transform into any other type of cell, and are used in regenerating tissues after injury or asexual reproduction.[5]
Most platyhelminths have no anus and regurgitate undigested material through the mouth. The genus Paracatenula, tiny flatworms living in symbiosis with bacteria, is even missing a mouth and a gut.[18] However, some long species have an anus and some with complex, branched guts have more than one anus, since excretion only through the mouth would be difficult for them.[15] The gut is lined with a single layer of endodermal cells that absorb and digest food. Some species break up and soften food first by secreting enzymes in the gut or pharynx (throat).[5]
All animals need to keep the concentration of dissolved substances in their body fluids at a fairly constant level. Internal parasites and free-living marine animals live in environments with high concentrations of dissolved material, and generally let their tissues have the same level of concentration as the environment, while freshwater animals need to prevent their body fluids from becoming too dilute. Despite this difference in environments, most platyhelminths use the same system to control the concentration of their body fluids. Flame cells, so called because the beating of their flagella looks like a flickering candle flame, extract from the mesenchyme water that contains wastes and some reusable material, and drive it into networks of tube cells which are lined with flagella and microvilli. The tube cells' flagella drive the water towards exits called nephridiopores, while their microvilli reabsorb reusable materials and as much water as is needed to keep the body fluids at the right concentration. These combinations of flame cells and tube cells are called protonephridia.[5][17]
In all platyhelminths, the nervous system is concentrated at the head end. Other platyhelminths have rings of ganglia in the head and main nerve trunks running along their bodies.[5][15]
Early classification divided the flatworms in four groups: Turbellaria, Trematoda, Monogenea and Cestoda. This classification had long been recognized to be artificial, and in 1985, Ehlers[19] proposed a phylogenetically more correct classification, where the massively polyphyletic "Turbellaria" was split into a dozen orders, and Trematoda, Monogenea and Cestoda were joined in the new order Neodermata. However, the classification presented here is the early, traditional, classification, as it still is the one used everywhere except in scientific articles.[5][20]
These have about 4,500 species,[15] are mostly free-living, and range from 1 mm (0.04 in) to 600 mm (24 in) in length. Most are predators or scavengers, and terrestrial species are mostly nocturnal and live in shaded, humid locations, such as leaf litter or rotting wood. However, some are symbiotes of other animals, such as crustaceans, and some are parasites. Free-living turbellarians are mostly black, brown or gray, but some larger ones are brightly colored.[5] The Acoela and Nemertodermatida were traditionally regarded as turbellarians,[15][21] but are now regarded as members of a separate phylum, the Acoelomorpha,[22][23] or as two separate phyla.[24] Xenoturbella, a genus of very simple animals,[25] has also been reclassified as a separate phylum.[26]
Some turbellarians have a simple pharynx lined with cilia and generally feed by using cilia to sweep food particles and small prey into their mouths, which are usually in the middle of their undersides. Most other turbellarians have a pharynx that is eversible (can be extended by being turned inside-out), and the mouths of different species can be anywhere along the underside.[5] The freshwater species Microstomum caudatum can open its mouth almost as wide as its body is long, to swallow prey about as large as itself.[15]
Most turbellarians have pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"); one pair in most species, but two or even three pairs in others. A few large species have many eyes in clusters over the brain, mounted on tentacles, or spaced uniformly around the edge of the body. The ocelli can only distinguish the direction from which light is coming to enable the animals to avoid it. A few groups have statocysts - fluid-filled chambers containing a small, solid particle or, in a few groups, two. These statocysts are thought to function as balance and acceleration sensors, as they perform the same way in cnidarian medusae and in ctenophores. However, turbellarian statocysts have no sensory cilia, so the way they sense the movements and positions of solid particles is unknown. On the other hand, most have ciliated touch-sensor cells scattered over their bodies, especially on tentacles and around the edges. Specialized cells in pits or grooves on the head are most likely smell sensors.[15]
Planarians, a subgroup of seriates, are famous for their ability to regenerate if divided by cuts across their bodies. Experiments show that (in fragments that do not already have a head) a new head grows most quickly on those fragments which were originally located closest to the original head. This suggests the growth of a head is controlled by a chemical whose concentration diminishes throughout the organism, from head to tail. Many turbellarians clone themselves by transverse or longitudinal division, whilst others, reproduce by budding.[15]
The vast majority of turbellarians are hermaphrodites (they have both female and male reproductive cells) which fertilize eggs internally by copulation.[15] Some of the larger aquatic species mate by penis fencing – a duel in which each tries to impregnate the other, and the loser adopts the female role of developing the eggs.[27] In most species, "miniature adults" emerge when the eggs hatch, but a few large species produce plankton-like larvae.[15]
These parasites' name refers to the cavities in their holdfasts (Greek τρῆμα, hole),[5] which resemble suckers and anchor them within their hosts.[16] The skin of all species is a syncitium, which is a layer of cells that shares a single external membrane. Trematodes are divided into two groups, Digenea and Aspidogastrea (also known as Aspodibothrea).[15]
These are often called flukes, as most have flat rhomboid shapes like that of a flounder (Old English flóc). There are about 11,000 species, more than all other platyhelminthes combined, and second only to roundworms among parasites on metazoans.[15] Adults usually have two holdfasts: a ring around the mouth and a larger sucker midway along what would be the underside in a free-living flatworm.[5] Although the name "Digeneans" means "two generations", most have very complex life cycles with up to seven stages, depending on what combinations of environments the early stages encounter – the most important factor being whether the eggs are deposited on land or in water. The intermediate stages transfer the parasites from one host to another. The definitive host in which adults develop is a land vertebrate; the earliest host of juvenile stages is usually a snail that may live on land or in water, whilst in many cases, a fish or arthropod is the second host.[15] For example, the adjoining illustration shows the life cycle of the intestinal fluke metagonimus, which hatches in the intestine of a snail, then moves to a fish where it penetrates the body and encysts in the flesh, then migrating to the small intestine of a land animal that eats the fish raw, finally generating eggs that are excreted and ingested by snails, thereby completing the cycle. A similar life cycle occurs with Opisthorchis viverrini, which is found in South East Asia and can infect the liver of humans, causing Cholangiocarcinoma (bile duct cancer). Schistosomes, which cause the devastating tropical disease bilharzia, also belong to this group.[28]
Adults range between 0.2 mm (0.0079 in) and 6 mm (0.24 in) in length. Individual adult digeneans are of a single sex, and in some species slender females live in enclosed grooves that run along the bodies of the males, partially emerging to lay eggs. In all species the adults have complex reproductive systems, capable of producing between 10,000 and 100,000 times as many eggs as a free-living flatworm. In addition, the intermediate stages that live in snails reproduce asexually.[15]
Adults of different species infest different parts of the definitive host - for example the intestine, lungs, large blood vessels,[5] and liver.[15] The adults use a relatively large, muscular pharynx to ingest cells, cell fragments, mucus, body fluids or blood. In both the adult and snail-inhabiting stages, the external syncytium absorbs dissolved nutrients from the host. Adult digeneans can live without oxygen for long periods.[15]
Members of this small group have either a single divided sucker or a row of suckers that cover the underside.[15] They infest the guts of bony or cartilaginous fish, turtles, or the body cavities of marine and freshwater bivalves and gastropods.[5] Their eggs produce ciliated swimming larvae, and the life cycle has one or two hosts.[15]
These parasites attach themselves to their hosts by means of disks that bear crescent-shaped hooks. They are divided into the Monogenea and Cestoda groupings.[15]
Of about 1,100 species of monogeneans, most are external parasites that require particular host species - mainly fish, but in some cases amphibians or aquatic reptiles. However, a few are internal parasites. Adult monogeneans have large attachment organs at the rear, known as haptors (Greek ἅπτειν, haptein, means "catch"), which have suckers, clamps, and hooks. They often have flattened bodies. In some species, the pharynx secretes enzymes to digest the host's skin, allowing the parasite to feed on blood and cellular debris. Others graze externally on mucus and flakes of the hosts' skins. The name "Monogenea" is based on the fact that these parasites have only one nonlarval generation.[15]
These are often called tapeworms because of their flat, slender but very long bodies – the name "cestode" is derived from the Latin word cestus, which means "tape". The adults of all 3,400 cestode species are internal parasites. Cestodes have no mouths or guts, and the syncitial skin absorbs nutrients – mainly carbohydrates and amino acids – from the host, and also disguises it chemically to avoid attacks by the host's immune system.[15] Shortage of carbohydrates in the host's diet stunts the growth of parasites and may even kill them. Their metabolisms generally use simple but inefficient chemical processes, compensating for this inefficiency by consuming large amounts of food relative to their physical size.[5]
In the majority of species, known as eucestodes ("true tapeworms"), the neck produces a chain of segments called proglottids via a process known as strobilation. As a result, the most mature proglottids are furthest from the scolex. Adults of Taenia saginata, which infests humans, can form proglottid chains over 20 metres (66 ft) long, although 4 metres (13 ft) is more typical. Each proglottid has both male and female reproductive organs. If the host's gut contains two or more adults of the same cestode species they generally fertilize each other, however, proglottids of the same worm can fertilize each other and even themselves. When the eggs are fully developed, the proglottids separate and are excreted by the host. The eucestode life cycle is less complex than that of digeneans, but varies depending on the species. For example:
Members of the smaller group known as Cestodaria have no scolex, do not produce proglottids, and have body shapes similar to those of diageneans. Cestodarians parasitize fish and turtles.[5]
The relationships of Platyhelminthes to other Bilateria are shown in the phylogenetic tree:[22]
Bilateria Protostomia Spiralia Platytrochozoa Rouphozoa 270 mya Lophotrochozoa 550 mya 580 myaThe internal relationships of Platyhelminthes are shown below. The tree is not fully resolved.[30][31][32]
Platyhelminthes Mucorhabda Catenulidea Rhabditophora Macrostomorpha Trepaxonemata Amplimatricata Gnosonesimora Euneoophora Rhabdocoela Acentrosomata AdiaphanidaTricladida (planarians)
Bothrioneodermata BothrioplanataBothrioplanida (freshwater)
Neodermata (flukes, tapeworms)
parasiticThe oldest confidently identified parasitic flatworm fossils are cestode eggs found in a Permian shark coprolite, but helminth hooks still attached to Devonian acanthodians and placoderms might also represent parasitic flatworms with simple life cycles.[33] The oldest known free-living platyhelminth specimen is a fossil preserved in Eocene age Baltic amber and placed in the monotypic species Micropalaeosoma balticus,[34] whilst the oldest subfossil specimens are schistosome eggs discovered in ancient Egyptian mummies.[16] The Platyhelminthes have very few synapomorphies - distinguishing features that all Platyhelminthes (but no other animals) exhibit. This makes it difficult to work out their relationships with other groups of animals, as well as the relationships between different groups that are described as members of the Platyhelminthes.[35]
The "traditional" view before the 1990s was that Platyhelminthes formed the sister group to all the other bilaterians, which include, for instance, arthropods, molluscs, annelids and chordates. Since then, molecular phylogenetics, which aims to work out evolutionary "family trees" by comparing different organisms' biochemicals such as DNA, RNA and proteins, has radically changed scientists' view of evolutionary relationships between animals.[22] Detailed morphological analyses of anatomical features in the mid-1980s, as well as molecular phylogenetics analyses since 2000 using different sections of DNA, agree that Acoelomorpha, consisting of Acoela (traditionally regarded as very simple "turbellarians"[15]) and Nemertodermatida (another small group previously classified as "turbellarians"[21]) are the sister group to all other bilaterians, including the rest of the Platyhelminthes.[22][23] However, a 2007 study concluded that Acoela and Nemertodermatida were two distinct groups of bilaterians, although it agreed that both are more closely related to cnidarians (jellyfish, etc.) than other bilaterians are.[24]
Xenoturbella, a bilaterian whose only well-defined organ is a statocyst, was originally classified as a "primitive turbellarian".[25] Later studies suggested it may instead be a deuterostome,[26][36] but more detailed molecular phylogenetics have led to its classification as sister-group to the Acoelomorpha.[37]
The Platyhelminthes excluding Acoelomorpha contain two main groups - Catenulida and Rhabditophora - both of which are generally agreed to be monophyletic (each contains all and only the descendants of an ancestor that is a member of the same group).[23][30] Early molecular phylogenetics analyses of the Catenulida and Rhabditophora left uncertainties about whether these could be combined in a single monophyletic group; a study in 2008 concluded that they could, therefore Platyhelminthes could be redefined as Catenulida plus Rhabditophora, excluding the Acoelomorpha.[23]
Other molecular phylogenetics analyses agree the redefined Platyhelminthes are most closely related to Gastrotricha, and both are part of a grouping known as Platyzoa. Platyzoa are generally agreed to be at least closely related to the Lophotrochozoa, a superphylum that includes molluscs and annelid worms. The majority view is that Platyzoa are part of Lophotrochozoa, but a significant minority of researchers regard Platyzoa as a sister group of Lophotrochozoa.[22]
It has been agreed since 1985 that each of the wholly parasitic platyhelminth groups (Cestoda, Monogenea and Trematoda) is monophyletic, and that together these form a larger monophyletic grouping, the Neodermata, in which the adults of all members have syncytial skins.[38] However, there is debate about whether the Cestoda and Monogenea can be combined as an intermediate monophyletic group, the Cercomeromorpha, within the Neodermata.[38][39] It is generally agreed that the Neodermata are a sub-group a few levels down in the "family tree" of the Rhabditophora.[23] Hence the traditional sub-phylum "Turbellaria" is paraphyletic, since it does not include the Neodermata although these are descendants of a sub-group of "turbellarians".[40]
An outline of the origins of the parasitic life style has been proposed;[41] epithelial feeding monopisthocotyleans on fish hosts are basal in the Neodermata and were the first shift to parasitism from free living ancestors. The next evolutionary step was a dietary change from epithelium to blood. The last common ancestor of Digenea + Cestoda was monogenean and most likely sanguinivorous.
The earliest known fossils confidently classified as tapeworms have been dated to 270 million years ago, after being found in coprolites (fossilised faeces) from an elasmobranch.[1] Putative older fossils include a ribbon-shaped, bilaterally symmetrical organism named Rugosusivitta orthogonia from the Early Cambrian of China,[2] brownish bodies on the bedding planes reported from the Late Ordovician (Katian) Vauréal Formation (Canada) by Knaust & Desrochers (2019), tentatively interpreted as turbellarians (though the authors cautioned that they might ultimately turn out to be fossils of acoelomorphs or nemerteans)[3] and circlets of fossil hooks preserved with placoderm and acanthodian fossils from the Devonian of Latvia, at least some of which might represent parasitic monogeneans.[42]
Cestodes (tapeworms) and digeneans (flukes) cause diseases in humans and their livestock, whilst monogeneans can cause serious losses of stocks in fish farms.[43] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is the second-most devastating parasitic disease in tropical countries, behind malaria. The Carter Center estimated 200 million people in 74 countries are infected with the disease, and half the victims live in Africa. The condition has a low mortality rate, but usually presents as a chronic illness that can damage internal organs. It can impair the growth and cognitive development of children, increasing the risk of bladder cancer in adults. The disease is caused by several flukes of the genus Schistosoma, which can bore through human skin; those most at risk use infected bodies of water for recreation or laundry.[28]
In 2000, an estimated 45 million people were infected with the beef tapeworm Taenia saginata and 3 million with the pork tapeworm Taenia solium.[43] Infection of the digestive system by adult tapeworms causes abdominal symptoms that, whilst unpleasant, are seldom disabling or life-threatening.[44][45] However, neurocysticercosis resulting from penetration of T. solium larvae into the central nervous system is the major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide.[46] In 2000, about 39 million people were infected with trematodes (flukes) that naturally parasitize fish and crustaceans, but can pass to humans who eat raw or lightly cooked seafood. Infection of humans by the broad fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum occasionally causes vitamin B12 deficiency and, in severe cases, megaloblastic anemia.[43]
The threat to humans in developed countries is rising as a result of social trends: the increase in organic farming, which uses manure and sewage sludge rather than artificial fertilizers, spreads parasites both directly and via the droppings of seagulls which feed on manure and sludge; the increasing popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods; imports of meat, seafood and salad vegetables from high-risk areas; and, as an underlying cause, reduced awareness of parasites compared with other public health issues such as pollution. In less-developed countries, inadequate sanitation and the use of human feces (night soil) as fertilizer or to enrich fish farm ponds continues to spread parasitic platyhelminths, whilst poorly designed water-supply and irrigation projects have provided additional channels for their spread. People in these countries usually cannot afford the cost of fuel required to cook food thoroughly enough to kill parasites. Controlling parasites that infect humans and livestock has become more difficult, as many species have become resistant to drugs that used to be effective, mainly for killing juveniles in meat.[43] While poorer countries still struggle with unintentional infection, cases have been reported of intentional infection in the US by dieters who are desperate for rapid weight-loss.[47]
There is concern in northwest Europe (including the British Isles) regarding the possible proliferation of the New Zealand planarian Arthurdendyus triangulatus and the Australian flatworm Australoplana sanguinea, both of which prey on earthworms.[48] A. triangulatus is thought to have reached Europe in containers of plants imported by botanical gardens.[49]
In Hawaii, the planarian Endeavouria septemlineata has been used to control the imported giant African snail Achatina fulica, which was displacing native snails; Platydemus manokwari, another planarian, has been used for the same purpose in Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea and Guam. Although A. fulica has declined sharply in Hawaii, there are doubts about how much E. septemlineata contributed to this decline. However, P. manokwari is given credit for severely reducing, and in places exterminating, A. fulica – achieving much greater success than most biological pest control programs, which generally aim for a low, stable population of the pest species. The ability of planarians to take different kinds of prey and to resist starvation may account for their ability to decimate A. fulica. However, these planarians are a serious threat to native snails and should never be used for biological control.[50] [51]
A study[52] in La Plata, Argentina, shows the potential for planarians such as Girardia anceps, Mesostoma ehrenbergii, and Bothromesostoma evelinae to reduce populations of the mosquito species Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens. The experiment showed that G. anceps in particular can prey on all instars of both mosquito species yet maintain a steady predation rate over time. The ability of these flatworms to live in artificial containers demonstrated the potential of placing these species in popular mosquito breeding sites, which would ideally reduce the amount of mosquito-borne disease.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) {{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the Greek πλατύ, platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meaning "worm") are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates. Unlike other bilaterians, they are acoelomates (having no body cavity), and have no specialized circulatory and respiratory organs, which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through their bodies by diffusion. The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion (intake of nutrients) and egestion (removal of undigested wastes); as a result, the food cannot be processed continuously.
In traditional medicinal texts, Platyhelminthes are divided into Turbellaria, which are mostly non-parasitic animals such as planarians, and three entirely parasitic groups: Cestoda, Trematoda and Monogenea; however, since the turbellarians have since been proven not to be monophyletic, this classification is now deprecated. Free-living flatworms are mostly predators, and live in water or in shaded, humid terrestrial environments, such as leaf litter. Cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes) have complex life-cycles, with mature stages that live as parasites in the digestive systems of fish or land vertebrates, and intermediate stages that infest secondary hosts. The eggs of trematodes are excreted from their main hosts, whereas adult cestodes generate vast numbers of hermaphroditic, segment-like proglottids that detach when mature, are excreted, and then release eggs. Unlike the other parasitic groups, the monogeneans are external parasites infesting aquatic animals, and their larvae metamorphose into the adult form after attaching to a suitable host.
Because they do not have internal body cavities, Platyhelminthes were regarded as a primitive stage in the evolution of bilaterians (animals with bilateral symmetry and hence with distinct front and rear ends). However, analyses since the mid-1980s have separated out one subgroup, the Acoelomorpha, as basal bilaterians – closer to the original bilaterians than to any other modern groups. The remaining Platyhelminthes form a monophyletic group, one that contains all and only descendants of a common ancestor that is itself a member of the group. The redefined Platyhelminthes is part of the Lophotrochozoa, one of the three main groups of more complex bilaterians. These analyses had concluded the redefined Platyhelminthes, excluding Acoelomorpha, consists of two monophyletic subgroups, Catenulida and Rhabditophora, with Cestoda, Trematoda and Monogenea forming a monophyletic subgroup within one branch of the Rhabditophora. Hence, the traditional platyhelminth subgroup "Turbellaria" is now regarded as paraphyletic, since it excludes the wholly parasitic groups, although these are descended from one group of "turbellarians".
Two planarian species have been used successfully in the Philippines, Indonesia, Hawaii, New Guinea, and Guam to control populations of the imported giant African snail Achatina fulica, which was displacing native snails. However, these planarians are themselves a serious threat to native snails and should not be used for biological control. In northwest Europe, there are concerns about the spread of the New Zealand planarian Arthurdendyus triangulatus, which preys on earthworms.
La platvermoj (latine Plathelminthes aŭ Platyhelminthes) [1] konsistigas grupon de prabuŝuloj, kies ekzakta filogenetika pozicio ankoraŭ estas diskutata. Ilin karakterizas tre simpla organizformo, kiu dum longa tempo igis ilin esti konsiderataj kiel "primitiva" grupo. La grupo enhavas proksimume 20 000 speciojn, kiuj troveblas en ĉiuj akvoriĉaj vivmedioj. La plej multaj platvermoj vivas libere, sed multaj el ili ankaŭ estas parazitoj, interalie por mamuloj.
La platvermoj (latine Plathelminthes aŭ Platyhelminthes) konsistigas grupon de prabuŝuloj, kies ekzakta filogenetika pozicio ankoraŭ estas diskutata. Ilin karakterizas tre simpla organizformo, kiu dum longa tempo igis ilin esti konsiderataj kiel "primitiva" grupo. La grupo enhavas proksimume 20 000 speciojn, kiuj troveblas en ĉiuj akvoriĉaj vivmedioj. La plej multaj platvermoj vivas libere, sed multaj el ili ankaŭ estas parazitoj, interalie por mamuloj.
Los platelmintos, también llamados gusanos planos (Platyhelminthes o Plathelminthes, del griego πλατυς platys, "plano" y έλμινθος hélminthos, "gusano"), son un filo de animales invertebrados acelomados protóstomos triblásticos, que comprende unas 20 000 especies.[1] La mayoría son hermafroditas que habitan en ambientes marinos, fluviales, terrestres húmedos y aéreos; muchas de las especies más difundidas son parásitos que necesitan varios huéspedes, unos para el estado larvario y otros para el estado adulto. Son los animales más simples que presentan interneuronas además de una mayor concentración neuronal en una zona determinada del organismo (cefalización y centralización). Suponen, por tanto, un avance fundamental en la evolución del sistema nervioso.
Actualmente se considera que el filo comprende varios clados, y desde un punto de vista riguroso la clasificación tradicional se considera obsoleta.
Los platelmintos son los carnívoros triblásticos más simples y probablemente los más primitivos. Son aplanados dorso-ventralmente como una cinta y presentan simetría bilateral. Los de la clase Rhabditophora, como las planarias, presentan cefalización con ganglios concentrados en un cerebro en uno de los extremos del cuerpo; los grupos parásitos carecen de cabeza; los trematodos y monogeneos tienen ventosas y ganchos de fijación, y los cestodos tienen un escólex con cuatro ventosas y una corona de garfios.
El espacio entre el ectodermo y el endodermo está lleno de un tejido mesodérmico denominado mesénquima en el cual están incrustados los órganos internos. A diferencia de la mayoría de bilaterales carecen, pues, de cavidad general y la estructura del cuerpo es de tipo macizo (acelomado).
El tubo digestivo carece de ano, actuando como cavidad digestiva, es decir, realiza las funciones digestivas y de distribución de los nutrientes, dado que carecen de aparato circulatorio; suele presentar numerosas ramificaciones, en especial en las especies de mayor tamaño (hasta 60 cm en algunas planarias terrestres). Muchas formas parásitas carecen de aparato digestivo. Tampoco tienen aparato respiratorio y el oxígeno que necesitan para su metabolismo pasa a través de los delgados tegumentos del animal.
Tampoco tienen apéndices locomotores; se desplazan mediante las vibraciones de su epitelio ciliado. Tienen un sencillo sistema nervioso bilateral que recorre el cuerpo y un aparato excretor rudimentario está constituido por los protonefridios, que comienzan ciegos en el mesénquima.
En contraposición a esta organización simple, los órganos reproductores son de los más complicados del reino animal. La mayoría son hermafroditas, presentan siempre fecundación interna y por tanto, órganos copuladores. En las hembras, los óvulos van a parar al ootipo, donde numerosas glándulas vierten su contenido; los vitelarios también vierten sus células vitelinas, ricas en nutrientes, al ootipo. Los óvulos son empaquetados junto con numerosas células vitelinas, que llegan al útero, donde el pene (llamado también cirro) del macho ha introducido los espermatozoides. En algunas especies, su sistema muscular les permite partirse en segmentos que esparcen los huevos que lleva cada fragmento. Cada segmento también puede tener testículos y ovarios, además de reproducir un animal completo de cada segmento. Los platelmintos parásitos tienen complejos ciclos vitales, parasitando a varios hospedadores vertebrados e invertebrados.
También se reproducen asexualmente y por regeneración de sí mismo.
Según la clasificación tradicional, el filo Platyhelminthes comprende cuatro clases:
El Registro Mundial de Especies Marinas los clasifica en los siguientes clados, agrupando un grupo de ellos sin clasificar definitivamente en una clase incertae sedis:[2]
Se muestran dos cladogramas, el primero muestra las relaciones de los platelmintos con el resto de bilaterales; el segundo muestra las relaciones de los diferentes grupos de platelmintos.
En cuanto a la relación de los platelmintos con el resto de bilaterales cabe destacar que son un grupo con tasas de evolución genética más rápida lo que puede llevarlos a la atracción de ramas largas.[3] Todos los estudios moleculares han apoyado que los platelmintos pertenecen a Spiralia; un superfilo que agrupa a anélidos, moluscos, nemertinos, lofoforados, gastrotricos, gnatíferos, entre otros. Inicialmente los análisis moleculares los agrupaban junto a los gnatíferos y gastrotricos en el taxón Platyzoa que resultó ser causado por la atracción de ramas largas. Análisis moleculares recientes utilizando especies de evolución lenta para resolver las relaciones de los espiralios han encontrado que los platelmintos se relacionan estrechamente con los nemertinos en un clado Parenchymia recuperando una agrupación antigua de gusanos acelomados, además de estar respaldada por datos morfológicos y que constituyó el grupo hermano de los anélidos.[4][5][6][7] Lo que implica que platelmintos y nemertinos por su naturaleza evolucionaron de ancestros celomados.[4] No obstante otros estudios sostienen que los platelmintos pueden estar relacionados con Gastrotricha.
Bilateria Protostomia Spiralia Lophotrochozoa Tetraneuralia Kamptozoa Lophophorata ParenchymiaPlatyhelminthes
La filogenia molecular ha encontrado que Turbellaria es un grupo parafilético, lo que significa que los platelmintos parásitos constituyen un grupo monofilético que desciende de formas de vida libre; lo que puede resumirse de la siguiente forma:[8]
Plathelminthes Rhabditophora sensu latoRhabditophora sensu stricto (P)
NeodermataEn 1955, Thompson y James McConnell condicionaron planarias combinando una luz brillante con un choque eléctrico. Después de repetir esto varias veces, las planarias empezaron a reaccionar a la luz como si hubieran sido sometidas al choque. Thompson y McConnel descubrieron que si cortaban al gusano en dos y dejaban que ambas mitades se regenerasen, cada mitad desarrollaba la reacción luz-choque eléctrico. En 1962, McConnell repitió el experimento, pero en lugar de cortar los gusanos entrenados en dos, los cortó en pedazos pequeños y alimentó con ellos a otras planarias. Increíblemente, estas planarias aprendieron a asociar la luz brillante con un choque mucho más rápido que las planarias que no habían sido alimentadas con los gusanos entrenados.[cita requerida]
Con este experimento quisieron demostrar que la memoria quizá podría ser transferida químicamente. El experimento se repitió con ratones, peces y ratas, pero nunca se consiguieron los mismos resultados. La explicación sugerida fue que la memoria, más que ser transferida a otros animales, serían las hormonas en los animales ingeridos los que cambiaban su comportamiento. McConnell creía que esto era evidencia de una base química para la memoria, la cual el identificó como memoria RNA. Los resultados de McConnell son ahora atribuidos a una perspectiva errónea. No se reprodujeron estos resultados en posteriores experimentos.[cita requerida]
Los platelmintos, también llamados gusanos planos (Platyhelminthes o Plathelminthes, del griego πλατυς platys, "plano" y έλμινθος hélminthos, "gusano"), son un filo de animales invertebrados acelomados protóstomos triblásticos, que comprende unas 20 000 especies. La mayoría son hermafroditas que habitan en ambientes marinos, fluviales, terrestres húmedos y aéreos; muchas de las especies más difundidas son parásitos que necesitan varios huéspedes, unos para el estado larvario y otros para el estado adulto. Son los animales más simples que presentan interneuronas además de una mayor concentración neuronal en una zona determinada del organismo (cefalización y centralización). Suponen, por tanto, un avance fundamental en la evolución del sistema nervioso.
Actualmente se considera que el filo comprende varios clados, y desde un punto de vista riguroso la clasificación tradicional se considera obsoleta.
Lameussid (Platyhelminthes ehk Plathelminthes) on kõige primitiivsem bilateraalse sümmeetriaga loomade hõimkond.
Enamik lameusse on parasiidid.
Lameusside ühtlane või lülideks jaotunud keha on selja-kõhu suunas tugevalt lamenenud. Nende nahklihasmõik koosneb keha kattest (epiteelist) ja mitmekehalisest lihastikust. Kõik siseelundid paiknevad parenhüümis (tülbkoes) – kogu nahklihasmõiku täitvas õrnas koes.
Seedeelundkond algab keha kõhtmisel küljel paikneva suuavaga. Esinevad neel ja sool, pärak puudub. Selle asemel on arenenud kanalitekujuline erituselundkond, mida mööda vedelad jäägid eritatakse tavaliselt keha tagaotsast paikneva spetsiaalse eritusurve kaudu väliskeskkonda.
Lameusside närvisüsteemi moodustavad pikinärvitüved. Neil on arenenud meeleelundid, sealhulgas keemilise meele elundid ja fotoretseptorid, samuti erilised tasakaalu elundid.
Lameussidel puuduvad ringe- ja hingamiselundid.
Lameussid on mõlemasugulised loomad (hermafrodiidid).
Lameusside hõimkonda kuulub 4 klassi:
Need klassid sisaldavad umbes 360 perekonda ja 13 000 liiki.
Lameussid (Platyhelminthes ehk Plathelminthes) on kõige primitiivsem bilateraalse sümmeetriaga loomade hõimkond.
Enamik lameusse on parasiidid.
Lameusside hõimkonna mõned esindajad Ernst Haeckeli värviplaadilPlatelmintoak, Platyhelminthes edo Platelminthes (grezieraz, πλατύ, platy, «zapal», eta ἕλμινς (ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, «har») animalia ornogabe bigun, ez-segmentatu eta bilateral sinpleak dira. Beste bilateralek ez bezala ez dute gorputz barrunberik eta ez dute zirkulazio- edo arnasketa-sistema bereziturik. Horregatik forma laua behar dute oxigeno eta elikagaiak gorputz osora heldu ahal izateko difusio bitartez.
Taxonomia klasikoan Turbellaria (planariak bezala animalia ez-parasitoz osatuak) eta beste hiru talde parasito daude: Cestoda, Trematoda eta Monogenea. Turbelaria taldekoak batez ere predatzaileak dira eta uretan edo lurzoru oso hezeetan bizi dira. Cestoda eta Trematodak bizitza-ziklo konplexua dute.
Zestodoek zinta baten antzekoa dute; digestio aparaturik ez dute, eta besteek ere itsua edo zulo batekoa dute, aurreko aldean edo azpiko aldean kokatua. Handik irensten dituzte janariak eta hondakinak botatzen ere. Ugaltzeko eraz hermafroditak dira. Arrari dagokion aldea bi barrabilez, hazi-hodiz eta hazia botatzeko zakil itxurako hodi batez osatua dute, emeari dagokiona, berriz, obulutegiz, hazi-zorroz, eta umetokiz osatua dute. Nahiz hermafroditak izan eta batzuek haien erara ugaldu askotan (zestodoak adibidez), beste asko elkar ernalduz ugaltzen dira gehienetan; zatiketaz ugaltzeko ere badute ahalmena, bestalde.
Bizitzeko eraz, bizitzako egoera batean behintzat, bizkarroiak dira hainbat platelminto mota. Uretan bizi izaten dira. Planariak eta trematodoak dira platelmintoetan ezagunenetakoak.
Platelmintoak, Platyhelminthes edo Platelminthes (grezieraz, πλατύ, platy, «zapal», eta ἕλμινς (ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, «har») animalia ornogabe bigun, ez-segmentatu eta bilateral sinpleak dira. Beste bilateralek ez bezala ez dute gorputz barrunberik eta ez dute zirkulazio- edo arnasketa-sistema bereziturik. Horregatik forma laua behar dute oxigeno eta elikagaiak gorputz osora heldu ahal izateko difusio bitartez.
Taxonomia klasikoan Turbellaria (planariak bezala animalia ez-parasitoz osatuak) eta beste hiru talde parasito daude: Cestoda, Trematoda eta Monogenea. Turbelaria taldekoak batez ere predatzaileak dira eta uretan edo lurzoru oso hezeetan bizi dira. Cestoda eta Trematodak bizitza-ziklo konplexua dute.
Zestodoek zinta baten antzekoa dute; digestio aparaturik ez dute, eta besteek ere itsua edo zulo batekoa dute, aurreko aldean edo azpiko aldean kokatua. Handik irensten dituzte janariak eta hondakinak botatzen ere. Ugaltzeko eraz hermafroditak dira. Arrari dagokion aldea bi barrabilez, hazi-hodiz eta hazia botatzeko zakil itxurako hodi batez osatua dute, emeari dagokiona, berriz, obulutegiz, hazi-zorroz, eta umetokiz osatua dute. Nahiz hermafroditak izan eta batzuek haien erara ugaldu askotan (zestodoak adibidez), beste asko elkar ernalduz ugaltzen dira gehienetan; zatiketaz ugaltzeko ere badute ahalmena, bestalde.
Bizitzeko eraz, bizitzako egoera batean behintzat, bizkarroiak dira hainbat platelminto mota. Uretan bizi izaten dira. Planariak eta trematodoak dira platelmintoetan ezagunenetakoak.
Laakamadot (Platyhelminthes) on yksi eläinkunnan pääjaksoista. Suurin osa tunnetuista laakamatolajeista on toisten eläinten loisia, mutta lähes yhtä paljon on vapaina eläviä lajeja. Laakamatoihin kuuluvat muiden muassa skistosomiaasia (bilhartsiaa) aiheuttavat halkiomadot sekä lapamato ja muut suolistossa elävät heisimadot.
Laakamatoja on ruumiinrakenteen perusteella pidetty yhtenä alkeellisimmista kaksikylkissymmetristen eläinten ryhmistä. Kehittyneemmistä eläimistä kuten nivelmadoista tai niveljalkaisista ne erottaa se, ettei niillä ole ruumiinonteloa ihon ja suolen välissä eikä myöskään erilaistuneita hengitys- ja verenkiertoelimiä. Hengityskaasujen vaihto tapahtuu suoraan diffuusiolla pintasolukon lävitse. Tähän liittyen laakamadot ovat joko hyvin pieniä tai sitten litteitä, nauha- tai lehtimäisiä matoja, mikä mahdollistaa kaasujen vaihdon koko ruumiiseen. Toinen ominaispiirre on pussimainen suoli, jossa sekä ravinnon otto että jätteiden poisto tapahtuu suun kautta; erillistä peräaukkoa ei yleensä ole. Suoli sinänsä voi olla monihaarainen, ravinnon tehokkaaksi kuljettamiseksi ruumiin eri osiin.
Laakamadoilla ei ole ulkoista tai sisäistä tukirankaa. Epidermin (pintakerroksen) solut ovat värekarvallisia, ja karvoja on useita kussakin solussa. Epidermin ja suolen välissä on mesenkyymisolukkoa ja lihassäikeitä.[1] Laakamadot ovat kaksineuvoisia, eli sama yksilö tuottaa sekä naaras- että koiraspuolisia sukusoluja. Siittiösolut ovat tyypillisesti kaksipyrstöisiä.[1] Munat kehittyvät joko suoraan madoiksi tai vapaana uivan toukkavaiheen jälkeen. Jotkut laakamadot pystyvät lisääntymään suvuttomasti jakautumalla.[2]
Perinteisesti laakamadot on jaettu neljään luokkaan. Näistä kidusmadot (Monogenea), tiehytmadot (Trematoda) ja heisimadot (Cestoda) ovat kaikki yksinomaan loismatoja sisältäviä luokkia. Ne muodostavat yhdessä monofyleettisen ryhmän Neodermata. Neljäs luokka värysmadot (Turbellaria) puolestaan sisältää enimmäkseen vapaana eläviä laakamatoja. Ne ovat petoja, joiden elinympäristöä ovat meret, sisävedet ja kostea maaperä. Värysmadot ei kuitenkaan ole yhtenäinen taksoni, vaan laaja parafyleettinen ryhmä, jonka yhdestä haarasta loismatoluokat polveutuvat.[1]
Värysmatoihin aiemmin luettu alkeellisten matojen Acoela-ryhmä on hiljattain kokonaan erotettu laakamadoista omaksi pääjaksokseen Acoelomorpha, joka ilmeisesti edustaa kaksikylkissymmetristen eläinten sukupuun varhaista haaraa.[3] Näin ollen jäljelle jäävät varsinaiset laakamadot olisivat lähempää sukua muille eläimille, esimerkiksi selkärankaisille, kuin näille ulkoisesti laakamatomaisille Acoelomorpha-madoille. Näin määritellyt laakamadot ovat yhtenäinen ryhmä, joka jakaantuu kahteen haaraan, "Catenulida" ja "Rhabditophora". Värysmatoja ("Turbellaria") on molemmissa haaroissa, ja kolmen loismatoluokan ryhmä muodostaa sivuhaaran Rhabditophora-ryhmän sisällä.[1]
Laakamadot (Platyhelminthes) on yksi eläinkunnan pääjaksoista. Suurin osa tunnetuista laakamatolajeista on toisten eläinten loisia, mutta lähes yhtä paljon on vapaina eläviä lajeja. Laakamatoihin kuuluvat muiden muassa skistosomiaasia (bilhartsiaa) aiheuttavat halkiomadot sekä lapamato ja muut suolistossa elävät heisimadot.
Les Plathelminthes ou Platyhelminthes sont un embranchement du règne des Animaux (Animalia). Ils sont parfois aussi appelés en français Platodes[1] ou vers plats.
Du grec ancien πλατύς, platús, « aplati » et ἕλμινς, hélmins, « ver intestinal » : ce sont les "vers plats".
Les Plathelminthes sont des vers plats dont de nombreuses espèces sont des parasites[2]. Cet embranchement regroupe principalement des vers qui sont des animaux allongés sans appendice. Les vers les plus connus de la classe des Turbellaria (vers plats non exclusivement parasites) sont les planaires, vers libres, nageurs ou rampants, dont l’épaisseur du corps peut mesurer moins d’un millimètre. Les plathelminthes ont une symétrie bilatérale et appartenaient à l'ancienne catégorie des acœlomates (ils ne possèdent pas de cavité générale : ni cœlome ni pseudocœlome[3]), il est apparu que l'absence de cœlome est due à une régression de ce dernier. La seule trace de leur ancien cœlome restant visible est leur mésenchyme. Ils n'ont pas d'anus séparé de la bouche, leur tube digestif possède une unique ouverture (qui sert à la fois de bouche et d'anus). Ils possèdent par ailleurs un appareil génital complexe. Ils peuvent se reproduire de façon sexuée (les planaires sont hermaphrodites, la reproduction est croisée) ou par scissiparité. Leur corps étant extrêmement fragile, elles sont capables de régénérer une de ses parties amputées, y compris la tête, qui contient un réseau organisé de neurones[4]. Ce sont des êtres complexes, qui sont capables d’apprentissage et donc de mémoire, les contenus mémorisés restant intacts après décapitation et régénération de la tête[5].
La classification des Plathelminthes est variable selon les auteurs.
Ce groupe se compose d'environ 20 000 espèces et comporte quatre classes qui correspondent à des adaptations à un milieu précis, ainsi on a[6] :
Selon World Register of Marine Species (14 décembre 2013)[6] :
Le schistosome, un Trematoda
Les vers plats sont encore mal connus, hormis quelques espèces posant des problèmes importants pour la santé humaine ou animale, ou utilisés comme modèles en laboratoires.
Quelques collections naturalistes de référence en conservent des échantillons collectés dans le monde, dont celle du MHNG (Muséum d'histoire naturelle de Genève) réputée pour contenir environ 25 % des types de cestodes du monde, avec plus de 30 000 préparations[7].
Leur classification évolue, notamment sur la base de caractères ultrastructuraux, dont ceux relatifs à leurs spermatozoïdes[8].
Selon Turbellarian Taxonomic Database, Version 2.0[9],[10].
PlathelminthesPosition :
Certaines espèces introduites hors de leur milieu d'origine sont devenues invasives en Europe et/ou posent problème en s'attaquant à de nombreux invertébrés :
En Europe, hors de France ont aussi été trouvés :
Turbellarian Mudigere, un ver terrestre
Pseudoceros monostichos, un ver marin
Pseudobiceros sp.
Pseudobiceros sp.
Eurylepta sp.
Bipalium sp.
Les Plathelminthes ou Platyhelminthes sont un embranchement du règne des Animaux (Animalia). Ils sont parfois aussi appelés en français Platodes ou vers plats.
Fíleam ainmhithe leata, cosúil le péisteanna, ina bhfuil grúpaí seadán (na péisteanna ribíneacha is na púcháin) agus ainmhithe a mhaireann go neamhspleách (na plánáraigh).
Os platihelmintos (Platyhelminthes, do grego πλατύ, "plano" e ἕλμινς , "verme") constitúen un filo de animais invertebrados non segmentados. Os membros deste grupo non teñen unha verdadeira cavidade corporal, e carecen de aparello circulatorio e respiratorio, o que os restrinxe a ter formas achatadas, que permiten que o osíxeno e nutrientes poidan penetrar a través do seu organismo por difusión.
Os platihelmintos son animais bilaterais acelomados que gardan bastante semellanza cos Radiados, mantendo só algunhas diferenzas que fan que os situemos en grupos distintos. Entre elas temos:
Os platihelmintos tradicionalmente dividíronse en dous grandes grupos: o primeiro deles, os Turbelarios, son principalmente animais non parasitos de tipo depredador. Os outros tres grupos, Cestodos, Trematodos e Monoxeneos son parasitos nalgunha fase dos seus complexos ciclos vitais. Actualmente esta clasificación está sendo revisada xa que se pensa que segundo as novas clasificacións, os Acelomorfos forman o seu propio filo [1] pero antes se lles consideraba dentro do grupo dos platihelmintos turbelarios.
Os platihelmintos restantes forman un grupo monofilético, é dicir, unha agrupación que contén todos os descendentes dun único antepasado común sendo el mesmo un membro do grupo. Na redefinición dos Platihelmintos agora forman parte do superfilo Lophotrochozoa.
Os platihelmintos (Platyhelminthes, do grego πλατύ, "plano" e ἕλμινς , "verme") constitúen un filo de animais invertebrados non segmentados. Os membros deste grupo non teñen unha verdadeira cavidade corporal, e carecen de aparello circulatorio e respiratorio, o que os restrinxe a ter formas achatadas, que permiten que o osíxeno e nutrientes poidan penetrar a través do seu organismo por difusión.
Plošnjaci (lat. Platyhelminthes) su koljeno iz carstva životinja iz skupine beskralješnjaka. Pripadaju također i skupini Acelomata, tj. nemaju tjelesnih šupljina. Plošnjaci su prvi bilateralno simetrični organizmi u lancu evolucije, leđno-trbušno spljoštenog tijela, što je ujedino napredak u odnosu na primitivnije oblike životinja. Također su i prvi organizmi koji imaju formirane organe i organske sustave. Dvobočna (bilateralna) simetrija je kao posljedicu imala polarizaciju tijela na prednji i stražnji (repni) dio tijela što je omogućilo osvajanje novih životnih prostora. Kao napredak također se pojavila i cefalizacija tijela (koncentriranje živčanog sustava) u području glave što je pak omogućilo bolje snalaženje u prostoru i kretanju.
Plošnjaci žive aktivnim životom. Neki su nametnici (metilji, jednorodni metilji i trakavice), a neki žive nenametničkim životom (virnjaci). Imaju neprohodno probavilo, a neke nametničke vrste čak i nemaju probavilo. Pokazuju također i složeniju organizaciju sustava organa za izlučivanje u odnosu na spužve i žarnjake.
Koljeno plošnjaci dijeli se u četiri razreda:
Virnjaci (Turbellaria)
Metilji (Trematoda)
Jednorodni metilji (Monogenea)
Trakavice (Cestoda)
Plošnjaci (lat. Platyhelminthes) su koljeno iz carstva životinja iz skupine beskralješnjaka. Pripadaju također i skupini Acelomata, tj. nemaju tjelesnih šupljina. Plošnjaci su prvi bilateralno simetrični organizmi u lancu evolucije, leđno-trbušno spljoštenog tijela, što je ujedino napredak u odnosu na primitivnije oblike životinja. Također su i prvi organizmi koji imaju formirane organe i organske sustave. Dvobočna (bilateralna) simetrija je kao posljedicu imala polarizaciju tijela na prednji i stražnji (repni) dio tijela što je omogućilo osvajanje novih životnih prostora. Kao napredak također se pojavila i cefalizacija tijela (koncentriranje živčanog sustava) u području glave što je pak omogućilo bolje snalaženje u prostoru i kretanju.
Plošnjaci žive aktivnim životom. Neki su nametnici (metilji, jednorodni metilji i trakavice), a neki žive nenametničkim životom (virnjaci). Imaju neprohodno probavilo, a neke nametničke vrste čak i nemaju probavilo. Pokazuju također i složeniju organizaciju sustava organa za izlučivanje u odnosu na spužve i žarnjake.
Platyhelminthes adalah filum dalam Kerajaan Animalia (hewan). Filum ini mencakup semua cacing pipih kecuali Nemertea, yang dulu merupakan salah satu kelas pada Platyhelminthes, yang telah dipisahkan.[1]
Tubuh pipih dosoventral dan tidak bersegmen. Umumnya, golongan cacing pipih hidup di sungai, danau, laut, atau sebagai parasit di dalam tubuh organisme lain.[2] Cacing golongan ini sangat sensitif terhadap cahaya.[2] Beberapa contoh Platyhelminthes adalah Planaria yang sering ditemukan di balik batuan (panjang 2–3 cm), Bipalium yang hidup di balik lumut lembap (panjang mencapai 60 cm), Clonorchis sinensis, cacing hati, dan cacing pita.[2]
Platyhelminthes merupakan cacing yang tergolong triploblastik aselomata karena memiliki 3 lapisan embrional yang terdiri dari ektoderma, endoderma, dan mesoderma.[3] Namun, mesoderma cacing ini tidak mengalami spesialisasi sehingga sel-selnya tetap seragam dan tidak membentuk sel khusus.[3]
Sistem pencernaan cacing pipih disebut sistem gastrovaskuler, dimana peredaran makanan tidak melalui darah tetapi oleh usus.[3] Sistem pencernaan cacing pipih dimulai dari mulut, faring, dan dilanjutkan ke kerongkongan.[3] Di belakang kerongkongan ini terdapat usus yang memiliki cabang ke seluruh tubuh.[3] Dengan demikian, selain mencerna makanan, usus juga mengedarkan makanan ke seluruh tubuh.[3]
Selain itu, cacing pipih juga melakukan pembuangan sisa makanan melalui mulut karena tidak memiliki anus.[3] Cacing pipih tidak memiliki sistem transpor karena makanannya diedarkan melalui sistem gastrovaskuler.[3] Sementara itu, gas O2 dan CO2 dikeluarkan dari tubuhnya melalui proses difusi.[3]
Ada beberapa macam sistem saraf pada cacing pipih:[3]
Beberapa jenis cacing pipih memiliki sistem penginderaan berupa oseli, yaitu bintik mata yang mengandung pigmen peka terhadap cahaya.[3] Bintik mata tersebut biasanya berjumlah sepasang dan terdapat di bagian anterior (kepala).[3] Seluruh cacing pipih memiliki indra meraba dan sel kemoresptor di seluruh tubuhnya.[4] Beberapa spesies juga memiliki indra tambahan berupa aurikula (telinga), statosista (pegatur keseimbangan), dan reoreseptor (organ untuk mengetahui arah aliran sungai).[3] Umumnya, cacing pipih memiliki sistem osmoregulasi yang disebut protonefridia.[5] Sistem ini terdiri dari saluran berpembeluh yang berakhir di sel api.[4] Lubang pengeluaran cairan yang dimilikinya disebut protonefridiofor yang berjumlah sepasang atau lebih.[5] Sedangkan, sisa metabolisme tubuhnya dikeluarkan secara difusi melalui dinding sel.[5]
Cacing pipih dapat bereproduksi secara aseksual dengan membelah diri dan secara seksual dengan perkawinan silang, walaupun hewan ini tergolong hermafrodit.[6]
Platyhelminthes dapat dibedakan menjadi 3 kelas, yaitu Turbellaria (cacing bulu getar), Trematoda (cacing hisap), Monogenea, dan Cestoda (cacing pita).[7]
Telur (bersama feces) -> larva bersilia (mirasidium) -> siput air (lymnea auricularis atau lymnea javanica) -> sporokista -> redia -> serkaria -> keluar dari tubuh siput -> menempel pada rumput / tanaman air -> membentuk kista (metaserkaria) -> dimakan domba(hepatica)/sapi(gigantica) -> usus -> hati -> sampai dewasa
Telur (bersama feces) -> mirasidium -> siput air -> sporokista -> menghasilkan redia -> menghasilkan serkaria -> keluar dari tubuh siput -> ikan air tawar (menempel di ototnya) -> membentuk kista (metaserkaria) -> ikan dimakan -> saluran pencernaan -> hati -> sampai dewasa
Telur (bersama feces) -> mirasidium -> siput air -> sporokista -> menghasilkan redia -> menghasilkan serkaria -> keluar dari tubuh siput -> menembus kulit manusia -> pembuluh darah vena
Proglotid (bersama feces) -> mencemari makanan babi -> babi -> usus babi (telur menetas jadi hexacan) -> aliran darah -> otot/daging (sistiserkus) -> manusia -> usus manusia (sistiserkus pecah -> skolex menempel di dinding usus) -> sampai dewasa di manusia -> keluar bersama feces[3][8]
Beberapa spesies Platyhelminthes dapat menimbulkan penyakit pada manusia dan hewan.[8] Salah satu diantaranya adalah genus Schistosoma yang dapat menyebabkan skistosomiasis, penyakit parasit yang ditularkan melalui siput air tawar pada manusia.[8] Apabila cacing tersebut berkembang di tubuh manusia, dapat terjadi kerusakan jaringan dan organ seperti kandung kemih, ureter, hati, limpa, dan ginjal manusia.[3][8] Kerusakan tersebut disebabkan perkembanganbiakan cacing Schistosoma di dalam tubuh hingga menyebabkan reaksi imunitas. Penyakit ini merupakan salah satu penyakit endemik di Indonesia.[3][8]. Contoh lainnya adalah Clonorchis sinensis yang menyebabkan infeksi cacing hati pada manusia dan hewan mamalia lainnya.[9] Spesies ini dapat menghisap darah manusia.[9] Pada hewan, infeksi cacing pipih juga dapat ditemukan, misalnya Scutariella didactyla yang menyerang udang jenis Trogocaris dengan cara menghisap cairan tubuh udang tersebut.[10]
tidak sah; nama "pp" didefinisikan berulang dengan isi berbeda Kesalahan pengutipan: Tanda
tidak sah; nama "pp" didefinisikan berulang dengan isi berbeda |first1=
tanpa |last1=
di Authors list (bantuan) |month=
yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan) |month=
yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan)Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link) |month=
yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan) |month=
yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan) Platyhelminthes adalah filum dalam Kerajaan Animalia (hewan). Filum ini mencakup semua cacing pipih kecuali Nemertea, yang dulu merupakan salah satu kelas pada Platyhelminthes, yang telah dipisahkan.
Il Phylum Platyhelminthes[1] (in italiano platelminti) o vermi piatti (dal greco: πλατύς platýs, "piatto"; ἕλμινς hélmins, genit. ἕλμινθος hélminthos, "verme"; cioè "vermi piatti") è costituito da circa 25 000 specie di animali vermiformi. I platelminti comprendono sia specie conducenti vita libera che parassiti, i quali infestano molti tipi di organismi incluso l'uomo.
I platelminti conducenti vita libera appartengono tutti alla classe dei Turbellari e sono presenti sulle rocce, nel fango e nella sabbia dei fondali acquatici (marini, salmastri e dulciacquicoli). Molti turbellari vivono negli stagni o in pozze temporanee mentre solo alcune specie, come la geoplanaria, sono tipiche dei terreni umidi. I turbellari più noti e studiati sono quelli appartenenti al genere Planaria.
I platelminti parassiti rappresentano l'85% del phylum e vengono raggruppati in quattro classi: i Turbellari, i Monogenei, i Trematodi e i Cestodi. Fra questi ultimi i più conosciuti, per i danni che provocano agli uomini, sono le specie del genere Tenia (Taenia o Taeniarhynchus)
I platelminti sono organismi acelomati, quindi non sono dotati di una cavità che separa il canale alimentare dalla parete del corpo, e mostrano uno schiacciamento dorso-ventrale che conferisce loro il nome di vermi piatti, distinguendosi così dai Nematodi (vermi cilindrici) e dagli Anellidi (vermi segmentati o metamerici).
Generalizzando sulla loro morfologia, si può dire che tutti i platelminti sono costituiti da un sacco muscolo-cutaneo che avvolge e protegge il parenchima, un tessuto connettivo di origine mesodermica, all'interno del quale si trovano immersi i vari organi ed apparati. Dei liquidi interstiziali impregnano gli spazi extracellulari nel parenchima offrendo un sostegno idrostatico all'organismo e agevolando, con il movimento, la circolazione delle sostanze nutritive e dei gas respiratori.
I platelminti sono rivestiti da un tessuto epidermico monostratificato. Nelle forme conducenti vita libera, come i raggruppamenti più basali (Turbellari), le cellule dell'epitelio sono pluriciliate, soprattutto nella zona ventrale, e sono atte alla locomozione che avviene per strisciamento su una sostanza mucosa secreta da apposite cellule ghiandolari. Un altro tipo di cellule presenti nell'epitelio sono quelle rabditogene, che producono strutture bastoncellari dette rabditi. La loro espulsione provoca la formazione di una guaina mucosa a scopo di difesa dai predatori.
In altre specie, come quelle dei Trematodi e dei Cestodi, adattati ad una vita di parassitismo, l'epitelio è di tipo sinciziale e talvolta, come nel caso dei Cestodi, presenta microvilli. Nell'epidermide sinciziale le cellule sono fuse a formare una continua massa citoplasmatica connessa ai corpi cellulari, che si trovano sotto la muscolatura, da sottili ponti citoplasmatici. Molti tipi di Turbellari e di specie parassite mostrano invece un epitelio di tipo insunk (cioè affondato): i corpi cellulari contenenti i nuclei si trovano protetti al di sotto di una lamina basale sopra la quale poggia il tegumento citoplasmatico che riveste l'organismo.
Nelle forme parassite il tegumento secerne uno strato protettivo esterno detto glicocalice, costituito da polisaccaridi e glicoproteine che hanno lo scopo di eludere le difese immunitarie dell'organismo ospitante. L'epidermide dei parassiti è munita, inoltre, di organi di attacco: uncini e ventose organizzati in rostelli, spicole o botri, necessari per l'ancoraggio alle superfici interne od esterne dell'ospite.
Al di sotto dello strato epidermico, i platelminti sono dotati di una serie di strati muscolari lisci (longitudinali, circolari e diagonali) che permettono movimenti ondulatori utili per la torsione ed il nuoto. All'interno del parenchima, sottili strati muscolari si estendono dorso-ventralmente assicurando una maggiore consistenza alla massa corporea (nonostante ciò i platelminti sono facilmente sgretolabili in mano).
Tutti i platelminti sono aprocti. La bocca si trova in posizione anteriore o ventrale ed è quasi sempre munita di una faringe che la collega all'intestino. In alcune specie la faringe è muscolosa e può essere protrusa per catturare la preda e succhiarne le parti nutrienti prima di giungere all'intestino dove la digestione continua poi intracellularmente.
La regione intestinale è a fondo cieco e si può trovare in varie forme: a sacco (come nei Rabdoceli), ramificata (Tricladi e Policladi) oppure formata da un semplice strato di cellule digestive come negli Aceli che, come dice il nome, sono privi di qualsiasi cavità compreso il canale alimentare.
I platelminti non hanno un apparato circolatorio[2] e le sostanze nutritive e i gas respiratori raggiungono le cellule grazie ai liquidi interstiziali che bagnano il parenchima. Il tutto è facilitato dai movimenti dell'animale.
Essendo privi di organi respiratori,[3] gli scambi gassosi avvengono per diffusione attraverso la superficie corporea: a questo riguardo, risulta particolarmente vantaggiosa la forma appiattita del corpo dei platelminti, cosicché nessuna cellula si trovi troppo distante dall'ambiente esterno.
L'escrezione dei cataboliti e l'osmoregolazione sono affidati ad un apparato protonefridiale.
Nei Turbellari Aceli, i platelminti meno evoluti, il sistema nervoso è simile a quello degli Cnidari: una semplice rete nervosa subepiteliale non centralizzata. Nei platelminti più evoluti si assiste invece ad una cefalizzazione e centralizzazione del sistema nervoso, con la comparsa di uno o più gangli cefalici dai quali si dipartono da 1 a 4 paia di cordoni nervosi longitudinali submuscolari, che innervano l'intero organismo, collegati tra di loro attraverso commissure trasverse. Dal ganglio cefalico si diramano inoltre fasci di fibre nervose dirette agli organi di senso.
Gli organi sensoriali comprendono ocelli fotosensibili, statocisti e recettori superficiali. Gli organi visivi sono formati da cellule pigmentate e fotorecettori localizzati nell'estremità anteriore del corpo in prossimità dei gangli cefalici. La statocisti è un organo di senso statico che permette all'organismo di riconoscere la sua posizione nello spazio. È formata da una capsula rivestita da cellule meccanorecettrici e contenente al suo interno lo statolite, una sferetta di calcite che in base alla posizione dell'animale tocca alcuni punti della capsula e trasmette informazioni ai gangli cefalici. Recettori superficiali ciliati sono diffusi su tutto il corpo e permettono la ricezione di stimoli fisici e chimici. In alcune specie, come le planarie, cellule chemiorecettrici sono concentrate ai lati del capo formando campi sensori detti auricole.
Ad eccezione di poche specie, tutti i platelminti sono ermafroditi ed utilizzano una fecondazione incrociata, mentre l'autofecondazione si ha più frequentemente nei Cestodi. Alcune specie utilizzano anche la riproduzione asessuale che può avvenire per scissione trasversale (detta schizogenesi architomica - Turbellari dulciacquicoli) o per amplificazione dei diversi stadi larvali nei Trematodi e Cestodi.
Il sistema riproduttivo maschile è formato da 1 o più testicoli collegati, tramite dotti deferenti, ad una vescicola seminale dove vengono raccolti gli spermatozoi. La vescicola continua con un apparato copulatore rappresentato da un pene o un cirro.
L'apparato riproduttore femminile è costituito da 1 o più ovari che si collegano tramite ovidotti ad una borsa seminale, dove vengono momentaneamente raccolti gli spermatozoi dopo la copulazione. Il gonoporo femminile può coincidere o no con quello maschile. Nei Turbellari Arcoofori gli ovari producono uova ricche di vitello o endolecitiche mentre nelle forme più evolute (Turbellari Neoofori e le altre 3 classi) si hanno due strutture: i germari, che producono uova prive di vitello, e i vitellari, che producono cellule vitelline che, in seguito, verranno accorpate alle uova con la formazione dei bozzoli. Le uova, dai Neoofori in poi, sono quindi ectolecitiche.
Dopo la fecondazione, lo zigote subisce una segmentazione spirale. In molti Turbellari lo sviluppo è diretto e porta alla formazione di un individuo adulto. Nei Turbellari Policladi e nei parassiti si assiste ad uno sviluppo indiretto con formazione di 1 o più stadi larvali che precedono la forma adulta. (I cicli biologici dei platelminti parassiti saranno descritti nella parte riguardante ciascuna classe).
Phylum Platyhelminthes viene generalmente suddiviso in 4 classi:
Il Phylum Platyhelminthes (in italiano platelminti) o vermi piatti (dal greco: πλατύς platýs, "piatto"; ἕλμινς hélmins, genit. ἕλμινθος hélminthos, "verme"; cioè "vermi piatti") è costituito da circa 25 000 specie di animali vermiformi. I platelminti comprendono sia specie conducenti vita libera che parassiti, i quali infestano molti tipi di organismi incluso l'uomo.
I platelminti conducenti vita libera appartengono tutti alla classe dei Turbellari e sono presenti sulle rocce, nel fango e nella sabbia dei fondali acquatici (marini, salmastri e dulciacquicoli). Molti turbellari vivono negli stagni o in pozze temporanee mentre solo alcune specie, come la geoplanaria, sono tipiche dei terreni umidi. I turbellari più noti e studiati sono quelli appartenenti al genere Planaria.
I platelminti parassiti rappresentano l'85% del phylum e vengono raggruppati in quattro classi: i Turbellari, i Monogenei, i Trematodi e i Cestodi. Fra questi ultimi i più conosciuti, per i danni che provocano agli uomini, sono le specie del genere Tenia (Taenia o Taeniarhynchus)
Platyhelminthes (Gegenbauer, 1859) (-um, f.) sunt phylum invertebratorum animalium quod circa 25 000 specierum continet. Cavitate? corporea carent cum bilateria sint.
Platyhelminthes (Gegenbauer, 1859) (-um, f.) sunt phylum invertebratorum animalium quod circa 25 000 specierum continet. Cavitate? corporea carent cum bilateria sint.
Plokščiosios kirmėlės (lot. Platyhelminthes) – bestuburių gyvūnų tipas. Tai daugialąsčiai gyvūnai, turintys dvišalę kūno simetriją. Jų audiniai ir organai išsivystė iš trijų gemalinių lapelių: ektodermos, entodermos ir mezodermos. Dėl prisitaikymo šliaužioti substratu kūno viršutinė pusė priplota prie apatinės, o tarpas užpildytas parenchima. Išsivysčiusios raumenų, virškinimo, šalinimo, nervų ir lytinė sistemos.
Virškinimo sistema yra arba jos nėra. Jai esant, ji sudaryta iš ektoderminės vidurinės žarnos, paprastai besibaigiančios aklai. Šalinimo sistema protonefridinio tipo.
Nervų sistema paprastai sudaryta iš paprastai porinių ganglijų ir išilginių nervinių kamienų, išsidėsčiusių meridialiai, sujungtų skersinėmis jungtimis- komisūromis, sudarančiomis sudėtingą nervinį raizginį.
Lytinė sistema hermafroditinė. Jos sandara gana įvairi ir sudėtinga. Vystymasis tiesioginis, su metamorfoze arba sudėtingas su kartų ir šeimininkų kaita.
Gyvena jūrose ir gėluose vandenyse, taip pat dirvoje. Apie 80 procentų plokščiųjų kirmėlių yra parazitai.
Žinoma apie 18500 rūšių.
4 plokščiųjų kirmėlių klasės:
Plakantārpi (Platyhelminthes) ir dzīvnieku tips. Ir uzskats, ka šis ir parafilētisks tips, un nākotnē, iespējams, tiks sadalīts vairākos atsevišķos tipos.
Ķermenis parasti lentveida vai lapveida, dorsoventrāli plakans. Ķermeņa izmēri ir no milimetra daļām līdz vairākiem metriem. Dažām formām redzami izteikta homologo orgānu kompleksu likumsakarīga atkārtošanās, kam atbilst tikpat likumsakarīgs ārējais posmojums (neīstā segmentācija jeb pseidometamērija). No ārpuses ķermeni ietver ādas-muskuļu maiss, kas sastāv no epitēlija un parasti arī no daudzslāņainas un saliktas muskulatūras. Parazītiskajām formām ķermeni klāj blīva, kutikula. Ķermeņa dobuma nav, iekšējie orgāni vienmēr atrodas parenhīmā (parasti mezodermālas izcelsmes). Gremošanas orgānu sistēma vairumam formu ir slēgta gremojamā maisa veidā, dažkārt tā komplicēti sazarojusies. Dažām sugām gremošanas orgānu sistēma sastāv tikai no parenhimā iegrimušu šūnu sakopojuma, kas izpilda gremošanas funkciju. Dažām parazītiskajām formām gremošanas orgānu sistēma ir atrofējusies, un barību tās uzņem osmotiski caur ādu. Asinsrites sistēmas un elpošanas orgānu plakanajiem tārpiem nav. Tie elpo caur ādu, bet zarnu trakta parazītiem paralēli aerobai elpošanai notiek anaerobās elpošanas process (rūgšana), kurā bezskābekļa vidē sadalās tārpu ķermenī esošās organiskās vielas (galvenokārt glikogēns). Izvadorgānu sistēma ir protonefrīdiju tipa. Nervu sistēma sastāv no galvas nervu mezgliem (ganglijiem) un dažāda skaita gareniskajām nervu stiegrām, kas vairākumā gadījumu ir saistītas ar šķērseniskām komisūrām; parasti attīstītāki par citiem ir divi sānu zari. Dzimumorgānu sistēma, ar dažiem izņēmumiem, hermafrodītiska, ar vairākiem papildu dziedzeriem, kuri piedalās olu un to apvalku formēšanas procesā.
Pašreiz pazīstamas apmēram 25 000 plakantārpu sugas. Daļa no tām ir brīvi dzīvojošas formas, kas mīt jūrās, saldūdeņos, kā arī mitrās vietās uz sauszemes, bet lielākais vairums ir dzīvnieku parazīti. Dažas formas parazitē arī cilvēkā. Attīstība pārsvarā ir sarežģīta, ar paaudžu (dzimumpaaudzes un bezdzimumpaaudzes) un saimnieku maiņu: starpsaimnieks (attīstās parazīta kāpurs), finna (iecistējies biezos apvalkos parazīta kāpurs), definitīvais saimnieks (dzīvo pieaudzis parazīts).
Tips Plakantārpi (Platyhelminthes)
Plakantārpi (Platyhelminthes) ir dzīvnieku tips. Ir uzskats, ka šis ir parafilētisks tips, un nākotnē, iespējams, tiks sadalīts vairākos atsevišķos tipos.
Cacing pipih (bahasa Inggeris:flatworm), dikenali dalam bahasa saintifik sebagai Platyhelminthes atau Plathelminthes (daripada bahasa Greek πλατύ, platy, bermaksud "pipih/rata" dan ἕλμινς (kata akar: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, bermaksud cacing) ialah filum bilateria ringkas, haiwan invertebrat tidak bersegmen dan berbadan lembut . Tidak seperti bilateria lain, cacing pipih tiada selom (rongga badan), dan tiada sistem peredaran khusus dan organ pernafasan, yang mengehadkannya untuk meratakan badan untuk membenarkan oksigen dan nutrien untuk melalui badan dengan resapan.
Cacing pipih (bahasa Inggeris:flatworm), dikenali dalam bahasa saintifik sebagai Platyhelminthes atau Plathelminthes (daripada bahasa Greek πλατύ, platy, bermaksud "pipih/rata" dan ἕλμινς (kata akar: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, bermaksud cacing) ialah filum bilateria ringkas, haiwan invertebrat tidak bersegmen dan berbadan lembut . Tidak seperti bilateria lain, cacing pipih tiada selom (rongga badan), dan tiada sistem peredaran khusus dan organ pernafasan, yang mengehadkannya untuk meratakan badan untuk membenarkan oksigen dan nutrien untuk melalui badan dengan resapan.
Pelbagai spesies cacing pipih dari Kunstformen der Natur (1904), plate 75Platwormen (Platyhelminthes) vormen een stam van dieren die gekenmerkt worden door een langwerpig en plat lichaam.
Er zijn ongeveer 20.000 soorten, die allemaal in zeer vochtige omstandigheden leven. De meeste soorten leven onder water of in de weefsels van andere organismen. Veel soorten (zoals de lintwormen) parasiteren, maar er zijn ook soorten die vrijlevend zijn. Vrijlevende soorten in zoet of zout water zijn vaak afvaleters, maar ook jagende platwormen komen voor. Het voedsel wordt eerst voorzien van verterende sappen, waarna het halfverteerde voedsel met de monddelen naar binnen wordt gezogen.
Platwormen zijn vaak slechts enkele millimeters tot soms 20 meter lang, hebben een zeer slap en plat lichaam en twee of meer ogen aan de voorzijde bij de kop. De kop is meestal van de achterzijde te onderscheiden door een iets andere vorm of een insnoering en de lichtere of juist donkere oogvlekken. Deze 'ogen' kunnen slechts grote veranderingen in de lichtval waarnemen en niet echt zien zoals veel zoogdieren kunnen. Een platworm heeft geen bloed; de huid is zo dun dat zuurstof erdoorheen dringt en de organen en spieren bereikt. De mond- en geslachtsopeningen liggen meestal aan de buikzijde. De voortbeweging geschiedt met behulp van trilharen (enkel de trilhaarwormen) en spieren. Het spijsverteringsstelsel bestaat meestal uit een sterk vertakte verteringsbuis, waarin vertering gebeurt door fagocytose van de endodermcellen; een anus ontbreekt echter vaak, de mond fungeert als anus. Sommige platwormen (zoals de lintwormen) bezitten zelfs geen spijsverteringsstelsel: excretie gebeurt aan de hand van een protonephridiumbuisje, dat bestaat uit vlamcellen of solenocyten en in verbinding staat met twee afvoerkanaaltjes. Dit zijn cellen met cilia die filteren en de afvalstoffen in één kanaal brengen. Ook het zenuwstelsel is nog vrij rudimentair, er komen enkel enkele zenuwstrengen voor.
Platwormen zijn net als veel andere wormachtige dieren tweeslachtig en kunnen zowel mannelijke als vrouwelijke geslachtscellen produceren. Ook kan een aantal platwormen zich letterlijk in tweeën delen, waarna beide delen kunnen uitgroeien tot aparte exemplaren. Andere platwormen doen aan zelfbevruchting. Het vervelende van veel parasitaire platwormen is dat de verschillende stadia, soms wel vijf, door faecaliën verspreid worden en zo overal terechtkomen, zoals in straatvuil en drinkwater. Sommige soorten, zoals de beruchte vossenlintworm (Echinococcus multilocularis), kunnen na besmetting levensgevaarlijk zijn voor mensen. Niet alleen vossen maar ook honden, katten en knaagdieren kunnen drager zijn van deze worm.
Onderzoek, gepubliceerd in het vooraanstaande wetenschappelijke tijdschrift Science, heeft uitgewezen dat niet-parasitaire platwormen (klasse Turbellaria) geen centrosoom in hun cellen hebben en toch een normale celdeling lijken te hebben. Daardoor is onduidelijk geworden wat de rol van een centrosoom is, omdat altijd werd verondersteld dat de centrosomen een essentiële rol spelen bij de kerndeling.[1]
De indeling van de platwormen is voor de encyclopediemaker een nachtmerrie, omdat er een groot aantal verschillende opvattingen over bestaan. Nog steeds zeer gangbaar is een indeling in vier klassen Platyhelminthes.
Vooral de klasse van de Turbellaria is eigenlijk een vergaarbak van groepen met verschillende gemeenschappelijke voorouders.[2]
Ook de volgende indeling wordt wel gehanteerd:[3]
Platwormen (Platyhelminthes) vormen een stam van dieren die gekenmerkt worden door een langwerpig en plat lichaam.
Er zijn ongeveer 20.000 soorten, die allemaal in zeer vochtige omstandigheden leven. De meeste soorten leven onder water of in de weefsels van andere organismen. Veel soorten (zoals de lintwormen) parasiteren, maar er zijn ook soorten die vrijlevend zijn. Vrijlevende soorten in zoet of zout water zijn vaak afvaleters, maar ook jagende platwormen komen voor. Het voedsel wordt eerst voorzien van verterende sappen, waarna het halfverteerde voedsel met de monddelen naar binnen wordt gezogen.
Flatmakkar (Platyhelminthes, frå gresk platy, 'flat' og helminth, 'makk') er ei rekke av relativt ukompliserte dyr med blaut kropp. Det er kjent om lag 25 000 artar, noko som gjer gruppa til den største grupperinga innanfor acoelomatane, og dei lever i fuktige omgjevnadar over heile verda. Dei fleste er frittlevande, men ganske mange artar lever òg parasittisk.
Flatormer er en dyregruppe som består av både frittlevende (marine, limniske og terrestriske) og parasittiske ormer.
Best kjent er kanskje flimmerormene (spesielt planariene), men de parasittiske flatormene er mest suksessrike i antall arter. De parasittiske flatormene er ikter og bendelormer, som begge har representanter som snylter på mennesker. Slektene Gyrodactylus og Dactylogyrus er parasitter på fisk. Gyrodactylus snylter også på frosker.
Flatormer er tvekjønnet.
Rhabditophora kjennetegnes ved flere unike egenskaper. Rabitt-cellene produserer sekreter av ukjent funksjon. De har også et «klebeorgan», som består av tre celler: én kjertelcelle som produserer «lim», og én som produserer «løsemiddel», som begge munner ut gjennom den tredje celle. Dette organet er av stor betydning for bentiske arter i rennende vann, i og med at det muliggjør en nesten momentan forankring og like momentan løsning fra sedimentet.
Delgruppen Neoophora, som blant annet består av de parasittiske, men også flertallet av de frittlevende, artene, er kjennetegnet ved et klart avledet særtrekk: Eggene er såkalt ektolecitale, dvs. at plommen ikke er lagret i, men utenfor eggcellen. Eggene er altså «eggkapsler» som består av én egg- og flere plommeceller. Gruppens vitenskapelige navn (latinsk) Neo-ophora betyr «ny-egginger».
Slektskapsforholdene innen Neoophora fremdeles uavklarte. Anførselstegnene rundt «Dalyellioida» og «Typhloplanoida» antyder at disse gruppene kan være kunstige.
Flatormer som sådan er en parafyletisk gruppe. De frittlevende flatormene (flimmerormene «Turbellaria») har gitt opphav ikke bare til de parasittiske gruppene, men også resten av de bilaterale dyrene. I fylogenetisk systematikk tas derfor gjerne (Acoela og Nemertodermatida) ut av flatormene og utgjør søtergruppa til resten av de bilaterale dyrene. Den systematiske posisjonen til Xenoturbella og Catenulida er også usikkre. Det er derimot hevet over all tvil at de resterende flatormene som danner gruppen Rhabdithophora, utgjør en naturlig gruppe.
Slektskapsforholdene mellom delgruppene er, gjengitt i hierarkisk skrivemåte.
Flatormer er en dyregruppe som består av både frittlevende (marine, limniske og terrestriske) og parasittiske ormer.
Best kjent er kanskje flimmerormene (spesielt planariene), men de parasittiske flatormene er mest suksessrike i antall arter. De parasittiske flatormene er ikter og bendelormer, som begge har representanter som snylter på mennesker. Slektene Gyrodactylus og Dactylogyrus er parasitter på fisk. Gyrodactylus snylter også på frosker.
Flatormer er tvekjønnet.
Płazińce, robaki płaskie (Platyhelminthes) – typ zwierząt o prymitywnej budowie.
Filogeneza - Przypuszcza się, że wirki (Turbellaria) pochodzą od parzydełkowców, a ich przodkowie mogli być podobni do planuli. Pozostałe gromady pasożytów takich jak: przywry (Trematoda), skrzelowce (Monogenea), tasiemce (Cestoda) wywodzą się od pierwotnych wirków.
Ciało możemy podzielić na przód (bez wyodrębnionej głowy), tył, stronę brzuszną i grzbietową. Pokryte jest ono jednowarstwowym nabłonkiem ektodermalnym, u wirków pokryty jest rzęskami, u pasożytów komórki nie są orzęsione i zlewają się w jedną warstwę zwaną syncytium. Pasożyty posiadają dodatkowo nabłonek pokryty oskórkiem, który chroni przed strawieniem przez enzymy gospodarza. Pod nabłonkiem znajdują się mięśnie gładkie pochodzenia mezodermalnego, u wirków tworzące kilka warstw, u pasożytów mają postać pojedynczych włókienek. Nabłonek oraz mięśnie tworzą wór powłokowo-mięśniowy nadający kształt. Wewnętrzna jama ciała wypełniona jest parenchymą.
Wewnątrz ciała występuje pierwotna jama ciała wypełniona parenchymą, która wypycha ciało od wewnątrz (pełni funkcję szkieletu hydraulicznego).
Rozpoczyna się otworem gębowym, położonym po brzusznej stronie ciała, dalej przechodzącym w sporą mięsistą gardziel (może być wynicowana na zewnątrz w postaci rurki czy rękawa), za nią znajduje się proste lub rozgałęzione jelito. Zawsze jednak jest ono ślepo zakończone, bez otworu odbytowego i wszelkie ewentualne niestrawione resztki są usuwane przez otwór gębowy. Otwór odbytowy występuje tylko u niektórych wirków i przywr. Tasiemce nie posiadają układu pokarmowego, ponieważ żyjąc w jelicie cienkim są całe zanurzone w strawionym pokarmie i mogą chłonąć całą powierzchnią swego płaskiego ciała.
Do wymiany gazowej dochodzi bezpośrednio przez powierzchnię ciała. Nie posiadają układu oddechowego. U pasożytów wewnętrznych jak np. tasiemiec podstawowym procesem dostarczającym energii jest oddychanie beztlenowe. Jednak niektóre płazińce oddychają tlenowo - wirki i skrzelowce.
Płazińce nie mają układu krążenia: substancje odżywcze rozprowadzane są przez płyn znajdujący się w parenchymie. U niektórych transport ułatwia jeszcze silnie rozgałęzione jelito.
Układ charakteryzujący się prostą budową zbudowany z dwóch zwojów nerwowych położonych zazwyczaj w przedniej części ciała oraz z odchodzących pni nerwowych połączonych poprzecznymi spoidłami.
U wolno żyjących wirków najsilniej rozwinięte są dwa pnie położone po brzusznej stronie ciała. Występują u nich także dość dobrze wykształcone narządy zmysłów, wśród których spotykamy zarówno receptory chemiczne, dotykowe, jak i proste oczka (fotoreceptory) w liczbie od jednej do kilkunastu par. Niektóre morskie wirki mają też statocysty.
Pasożyty, w związku z prowadzonym trybem życia, mają słabo rozwinięty układ nerwowy i właściwie pozbawione są wyspecjalizowanych narządów zmysłów. Występują u nich jedynie komórki czuciowe i proste receptory chemiczne.
Składa się z kanalików znajdujących się w parenchymie zakończonych protonefrydiami, do których uchodzą komórkami płomykowymi. Taki układ nosi nazwę układu protonefrydialnego.
Główną funkcją tego układu jest jednak nie tyle usuwanie ubocznych produktów metabolizmu (których z powodu małej intensywności metabolizmu jest niewiele), ale osmoregulacja. Świadczy o tym między innymi brak układu wydalniczego u niektórych wirków morskich. Kanały wydalnicze większości pozostałych wirków tworzą dwa podłużne ciągi uchodzące na zewnątrz jednym lub kilkoma otworkami po grzbietowej stronie ciała. Układ wydalniczy pozostałych płazińców ma podobny plan budowy.
Charakteryzuje je hermafrodytyzm. Najczęściej występuje zapłodnienie krzyżowe. Zróżnicowany jest również rozwój osobnika. Wirki charakteryzują się rozwojem prostym, zaś pasożyty rozwojem złożonym. Bardzo różna jest liczba jaj produkowanych przez płazińce. Wolno żyjące wirki składają około 200 w ciągu swojego życia, a u wewnętrznych pasożytów liczy się je w milionach sztuk.
Wirki
Typ: Platyhelmithes – płazińce
Na podstawie:
Halanych et al. Evidence from 18S ribosomal DNA that the lophophorates are protostome animals. „Science”. 267 (5204), s. 1641–1643, 1995. DOI: 10.1126/science.7886451 (ang.).
Edgecombe et al. Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress and remaining questions. „Organisms Diversity and Evolution”. 11, s. 151–172, 2011. DOI: 10.1007/s13127-011-0044-4 (ang.).
Płazińce, robaki płaskie (Platyhelminthes) – typ zwierząt o prymitywnej budowie.
Filogeneza - Przypuszcza się, że wirki (Turbellaria) pochodzą od parzydełkowców, a ich przodkowie mogli być podobni do planuli. Pozostałe gromady pasożytów takich jak: przywry (Trematoda), skrzelowce (Monogenea), tasiemce (Cestoda) wywodzą się od pierwotnych wirków.
Pseudobiceros bedfordi - przedstawiciel wirków wielojelitowychPlatyhelminthes (do grego πλατύ, platy, "achatado" e ἕλμινς, helminth-, "verme"),[2] comumente designados por platelmintes,[3] platelmintas, platelmintos ou vermes planos, é um filo de invertebrados com simetria bilateral, não-segmentados, protostómios, de corpo mole e relativamente simples. A par com os nematelmintas e anelídeos, são considerados vermes.
Os Platyhelminthes são animais bilateralmente simétricos, em cuja anatomia o lado esquerdo e direito se espelham como imagens invertidas um do outro. Esta simetria implica que apresentem face inferior e superior distintas e que no seu corpo é possível destrinçar as extremidades anterior (cabeça) e posterior (cauda). Medindo desde alguns milímetros até metros de comprimento, para além das características anatómicas básicas atrás apontadas, o corpo é mole e não segmentado.[4]
Como os restantes animais com simetria bilateral (os Bilateria ou bilaterianos), os Platyhelminthes apresentam três camadas principais de células, denominadas endoderme, mesoderme e ectoderme,[5] o que os distingue dos animais radialmente simétricos, os cnidários e os ctenóforos, que apresentam apenas duas camadas celulares.[6] Essa estrutura triblástica traduz-se na presença de uma epiderme uniestratificada, abaixo da qual existem duas camadas musculares, sendo a primeira composta por músculos circulares e a segunda por músculos longitudinais. A esse conjunto dá-se o nome de tubo músculo-dermático, ao qual cabem funções de protecção, locomoção (suportando as restantes estruturas anatómicas).
Para além das características anatómicas e citológicas atrás apontadas, os Platyhelminthes são "definidos mais por aquilo que não apresentam do que por qualquer conjunto particular de especializações".[7] Entre as características em falta, os Platyhelminthes, ao contrário dos restantes bilaterianos, não apresentam cavidade corporal interna, sendo por isso descritos como acelomados. Também não apresentam sistema circulatório ou sistema respiratório com órgãos especializados, ausências que são consideradas aspectos definidores para a classificação anatómica deste grupo de organismos.[5][8]
Nos platelmintos de vida livre, a epiderme apresenta cílios, utilizados na locomoção. Nas espécies parasitas, existe uma cutícula que envolve o tubo músculo-dermático, conferindo-lhe resistência à acção dos sucos digestivos.
Em resultado de serem organismos acelomados, para além da ausência de sistemas respiratório e circulatório especializados, não formam um sistema digestivo completo, apresentando uma única abertura, a boca, por onde ingerem alimentos e eliminam as fezes, não apresentando ânus. Outra consequência, especialmente devida à falta de sistema circulatório especializado, é a forma achatada, necessária para que as células fiquem próximas ao meio externo (para respirar) e próximas ao intestino (para obter nutrientes).
Alguns nem tubo digestivo têm, por estarem adaptados à vida parasitária, absorvendo, através da pele o alimento previamente digerido pelo organismo hospedeiro.[9]
A comparação das características anatómicas dos Platyhelminthes com os Bilateria e Cnidaria e Ctenophora pode ser resumida da seguinte forma:
A falta de órgãos circulatórios e respiratórios específicos limita os platelmintas a tamanhos e formas que permitam ao oxigénio alcançar e ao dióxido de carbono deixar todas as partes dos seus corpos através de simples difusão. Por isso, muitos apresentam tamanhos microscópicos e as espécies de maiores dimensões apresentam corpos com formas planas semelhantes a fitas ou folhas. O sistema digestivo das espécies de maiores dimensões apresentam muitas ramificações, permitindo que os nutrientes possam atingir todas as partes do corpo por simples difusão.[7]
A respiração através de toda a superfície do corpo torna estes animais vulneráveis à perda de fluidos o que os restringe a ambientes onde a desidratação seja improvável, nomeadamente o mar, as massas de água doce e os habitats terrestres húmidos (tais como sob a manta morta ou entre os grãos de solo) e como parasitas dentro de outros animais.[5]
O espaço entre a pele e a parede do intestino é preenchido com mesênquima, um tecido conjuntivo constituído por células reforçadas por fibras de colagénio que actuam como um tipo de esqueleto, proporcionando pontos de fixação para os músculos. O mesênquima contém todos os órgãos internos e permite a passagem de oxigénio, nutrientes e produtos excretórios. O tecido é composto por dois tipos principais de células: (1) células fixas, algumas das quais com vacúolos cheios de líquido; e (2) células estaminais, que se podem transformar em qualquer outro tipo de célula, utilizados na regeneração de tecidos após lesão ou para reprodução assexuada.[5]
A maioria dos platelmintas não têm ânus e regurgitam o material não digerido pela boca. No entanto, algumas espécies de corpo alongado têm um ânus e algumas espécies com intestino complexo ramificado podem ter mais de um ânus, uma vez que a excreção apenas através da boca seria difícil.[8] O intestino é revestido com uma camada única de células derivadas da endoderme que absorvem e digerem os alimentos. Algumas espécies iniciam o processo digestivo pela quebra e suavização do alimento através da secreção de enzimas para o intestino ou da faringe.[5]
Todos os animais necessitam para manter a concentração de substâncias dissolvidas nos fluidos corporais a um nível relativamente constante. Os parasitas internos e os animais marinhos de vida livre vivem em ambientes com altas concentrações de materiais dissolvidos e geralmente deixam seus tecidos manter um nível de concentração semelhante ao do ambiente, enquanto os animais de água doce precisam de impedir que seus fluidos corporais se tornem demasiado diluídos. Apesar desta diferença, resultado das especificidades ambientais, a maioria dos platelmintas usa o mesmo sistema para controlar a concentração dos seus fluidos corporais: células especializadas, designadas por células-chama (ou células-flama), assim chamadas porque quando visto ao microscópio o batimento dos seus flagelos se parece com a chama bruxuleante de uma vela, extraem do mesênquima a água que contém resíduos e algum material reutilizável, conduzindo o fluido retirado através de redes de células tubulares revestidas por flagelos e microvilosidades. Os flagelos das células do tubo conduzem a água para saídas chamados nefridióporos, enquanto as microvilosidades reabsorvem materiais reutilizáveis e água, tanta quanto necessário para manter os fluidos do corpo na concentração correcta. Estes agrupamentos de células-chama e células tubulares são chamados protonefrídeos.[5][10]
Em todos os platelmintas, o sistema nervoso está concentrada na extremidade da cabeça. Estas concentração é menos marcada nos Acoelomorpha, que apresentam redes nervosas semelhantes às dos cnidários e ctenóforos, embora mais densas em torno da cabeça. Outros platelmintas têm anéis de gânglios na cabeça e troncos nervosos principais que funcionam ao longo dos seus corpos.[5][8]
Possui apenas uma abertura em todo o sistema, portanto é incompleto. Constitui-se por boca, faringe e intestino ramificado que termina em fundo cego. Os cestóides (endoparasitas, como a ténia) não possuem sistema digestivo. A digestão é extra e intracelular.[9]
Apresentam sistema nervoso central formado por um anel nervoso ligado a cordões longitudinais ou por um par de gânglios cerebroides dos quais partem filetes nervosos laterais que percorrem todo o corpo, emitindo ramificações. Isso permite uma melhor coordenação do sistema muscular, bem desenvolvido, o que disciplina os movimentos do animal e lhe dá mais orientação.[9]
A excreção é feita através dos protonefrídeos que incluem células terminais multiciliadas denominadas de células-flama (ou solenócitos). Estruturas típicas dos platelmintes, as células-flama eliminam os excreta para dentro de ductos anastomosados, e por vezes ciliados, que se abrem para o exterior por um ou mais poros.[9]
São amoniotélicos, pois excretam amónia e não ureia como os mamíferos.[9]
Os platelmintos não possuem sistemas ou órgãos especializados em trocas gasosas ou respiração nem destinados à distribuição de nutrientes pelo corpo. O oxigénio e o dióxido de carbono são transferidos através da pele e dos tecidos por difusão molecular.[9] Os nutrientes são absorvidos directamente pelos tecidos a partir do tracto digestivo ou da pele (no caso dos endoparasitas).
Geralmente são hermafroditas, podendo ou não praticar a autofecundação, sendo que alguns se reproduzem por partenogénese.[9]
Nos turbelários e trematódeos monogenéticos o desenvolvimento é direto. Já nos digenéticos e cestoides é indireto. Os platelmintes de menor porte podem-se dividir por fissão(também chamada de bipartição). As planárias reproduzem-se por reprodução assexuada através de um processo de fissão longitudinal em que cada metade regenera e forma uma nova planária.
Os platelmintos também podem realizar reprodução sexuada, sendo disso exemplo as planárias, que se unem e trocam sémen, reproduzindo-se por fecundação cruzada.[9]
As antigas classificações, actualmente consideradas parafiléticas e obsoletas do ponto de vista taxonómico, dividiam os Platyhelminthes em quatro grupos, considerados como sendo classes:[11]
Esta classificação foi há muito reconhecida como artificial[12] e em 1985 foi proposto um novo sistema de classificação, filogenicamente mais correcto, no qual o grupo Turbellaria, que era em larga escala polifilético, foi dividido numa dúzia de ordens e os grupos Trematoda, Monogenea e Cestoda foram agrupados na nova ordem Neodermata.
Apesar disso, e sem prejuízo da nova classificação (apresentada abaixo) ter obtido amplo consenso entre os taxonomistas e geneticistas, a classificação tradicional continua a ser rotineiramente utilizada em alguns campos do saber, especialmente nas ciências biomédicas e na parasitologia, excepto em artigos científicos.[5]
Os fósseis mais antigos de vermes-planos parasíticos que até agora foram identificados com confiança são ovos de um céstode encontrados num coprólito de um tubarão datado do Pérmico, mas ganchos de helmintas encontrados presos a acantódios e placodermes datados do Devoniano podem provir de platelmintas parasíticos com ciclos de vida simples.[13] O espécime mais antigo de platelminta de vida livre que se conhece é um fóssil preservado em âmbar báltico datado do Eoceno e colocado no género monotípico Micropalaeosoma como Micropalaeosoma balticus.[14] Os mais antigos espécimes de subfóssil conhecidos são ovos de Schistosoma encontrados em antigas múmias egípcias.[4]
Os Platyhelminthes apresentam um número diminuto de sinapomorfias, no caso entendidas como as características morfológicas partilhadas por todos os membros do agrupamento e que nenhum outro animal, que não seja membro dos Platyhelminthes, tenha. Esta pobreza de características distintivas torna difícil determinar tanto as relações filogenéticas com os outros grupos de animais como as relações entre os diferentes grupos que são considerados, na actual circunscrição taxonómica, membros dos Platyhelminthes.[15]
A visão taxonómica "tradicional", dominante antes da década de 1990, considerava os Platyhelminthes como o grupo irmão de todos os restantes animais com simetria bilateral, grupo que inclui, por exemplo, artrópodes, moluscos, anelídeos e cordados. Desde então, os progressos conseguidos no campo da filogenia molecular, campo de estudo que visa determinar as "árvores genealógicas" evolucionárias pela comparação das características bioquímicas de diferentes organismos, recorrendo a compostos como o DNA, o RNA e as proteínas, mudaram radicalmente essa visão e permitiram conhecer toda uma nova teia de relações evolucionárias entre espécies animais.[16]
Análises morfológicas detalhadas das características anatómicas realizadas na década de 1980 e as análises de filogenia molecular realizadas a partir do ano 2000 usando diferentes áreas do genoma (segmentos de DNA) convergem no sentido de considerar os Acoelomorpha, agrupamento que integra os Acoela (tradicionalmente considerados como turbelários muito simples[8]) e os Nemertodermatida (outro pequeno grupo anteriormente classificado entre os Turbellaria[17]) são o clado irmão de todos os outros animais com simetria bilateral, incluindo os restantes Platyhelminthes.[16][18] Contudo, um estudo publicado em 2007 concluiu que Acoela e Nemertodermatida são dois grupos distintos de Bilateria, apesar de concordar que ambos estão filogeneticamente mais próximos dos cnidários (medusas, etc.) do que os outros bilaterianos.[19]
Xenoturbella, um género de animais com simetria bilateral cujo único órgão bem definido é um estatocisto, foi originariamente classificado como um "turbelário primitivo",[20] mas foi recentemente reclassificado como um animal deuterostómico.[21][22]
Na sua actual circunscrição taxonómica, os Platyhelminthes (excluindo os Acoelomorpha) contêm dois grupos principais, Catenulida e Rhabditophora, ambos geralmente considerados como monofiléticos (cada um contém todos e apenas os descendentes de um ancestral que é membro do mesmo grupo).[18][23] As análises iniciais de filogenia molecular realizadas nos Catenulida e Rhabditophora deixaram incertezas sobre a possibilidade de combinar ambos os grupos num único grupo monofilético, mas um estudo realizado em 2008 concluiu por essa possibilidade, podendo por isso o agrupamento Platyhelminthes ser redefinido como os Catenulida mais os Rhabditophora, excluindo os Acoelomorpha.[18]
Análises de filogenia molecular mostraram que os platelmintos fazem parte do clado Spiralia. Inicialmente, considerou-se que eles formaram um clado chamado Platyzoa com Gastrotricha e Gnathifera,[16][24] mas atualmente as análises moleculares concluíram que esse clado é parafilético.[25] De acordo com análises moleculares recentes, os platelmintos estão intimamente relacionados aos nemertinos, que são vermes acelominados como os platelmintos, que por sua vez estão relacionados aos anelídeos e moluscos.[26][27][28]
Desde 1985 que se estabeleceu como consensual que um dos grupos totalmente parasíticos de Platyhelminthes (Cestoda, Monogenea e Trematoda) é monofilético e que conjuntamente estes agrupamentos formam um grupo monofilético alargado, denominado Neodermata, no qual os adultos de todos os membros apresentam neoderme, um tipo especial de derme sincícial.[29] Contudo, não existe consenso sobre a possibilidade de combinar os Cestoda e os Monogenea num grupo monofilético intermédio, os Cercomeromorpha, dentro dos Neodermata.[29][30] Também é geralmente considerado consensual que os Neodermata são um subgrupo, situado alguns níveis abaixo na "árvore genealógica", dos Rhabditophora.[18] Em consequência, o tradicional sub-filo "Turbellaria" é parafilético, pois não inclui os Neodermata paesar destes serem descendentes de um subgrupo de "turbelários".[31]
Com base nas relações acima expostas é possível estabelecer o seguinte cladograma explicitando a relação dos grupos tradicionalmente considerados como constituindo os Platyhelminthes com os restantes membros dos Bilateria:
Platyhelminthes
Com base nas considerações de natureza filogenética, com destaque para os resultados de análises de filogenia molecular, é possível estabelecer as seguintes relações entre os agrupamentos taxonómicos que constituem os Platyhelminthes (na sua moderna circunscrição taxonómica, isto é, sem os Acoelomorpha):
Apesar de reconhecida como artificial por ser claramente parafilético, e em muitos grupos polifilético, continua a ser frequentemente utilizado o sistema classificativo que divide os Platyhelminthes em quatro grandes grupos: (1) Turbellaria; (2) Trematoda (geralmente subdivididos em Digenea e Aspidogastrea); (3) Monogenea; e (4) Cestoda. Os dois últimos grupos (Monogenea e Cestoda) são em geral incluídos no agrupamento Cercomeromorpha. Tendo em conta que essa classificação «tradicional» é ainda usada em diversos ramos das ciências biomédicas e da parasitologia, excepto em artigos científicos,[5] nos pontos seguintes apresenta-se um resumo das características e taxonomia de cada um deles.
O grupo dos Turbellaria agrupa cerca de 4 500 espécies,[8] na sua maioria organismos de vida livre, com comprimentos máximos que variam de 1 mm a 600 mm. São maioritariamente predadores ou necrófagos, sendo as espécies terrestres principalmente animais nocturnos que vivem em locais húmidos sombreados, tais como a manta morta de florestas ou madeira húmida em apodrecimento. No entanto, alguns são simbiontes de outros animais, especialmente de crustáceos, e alguns são parasitas. Os turbelários de vida livre são principalmente de coloração negra, castanha ou acinzentada, mas algumas das espécies de maiores dimensões são brilhantemente coloridas.[5]
Os grupos taxonómicos Acoela e Nemertodermatida eram tradicionalmente considerados como turbelários,[8][17] mas são actualmente considerados como membros de um filo distinto, o dos Acoelomorpha,[16][18] ou em alternativa considerados como dois filos distintos.[19] Também o género Xenoturbella, um grupo de animais de anatomia muito simples,[20] foi reclassificado como fazendo parte de um filo separado.[21] Esta circunscrição taxonómica é consensual e remoção destes agrupamentos veio reduzir a polifilia do grupo Platyhelminthes.
Alguns turbelários apresentam uma faringe simples revestida por cílios. Muitas espécies apresentam também cílios na epiderme, os quais são usados para locomoção e alimentação. Neste último caso, os cílios epidérmicos são utilizados para encaminhar as partículas de alimento e as pequenas presas para a boca, a qual está geralmente situada na região central da face inferior do corpo, e daí para o interior do sistema digestivo. A maioria dos restantes turbelários apresentam uma faringe que é eversível (pode ser alongada ao ser voltada de dentro para fora). A boca das diferentes espécies pode estar situada em qualquer posição na face inferior do animal.[5]
A espécie de água doce Microstomum caudatum pode abrir a boca de forma quase tão alargada como o comprimento do corpo, o que lhe permite engolir presas quase tão grandes como o próprio animal.[8]
A maioria dos turbelários apresenta ocelos (pequenos olhos) com pigmentos fotorreceptores, um par na maioria das espécies, mas dois ou mesmo três pares em algumas outras espécies. Algumas espécies de maiores dimensões apresentam múltiplos olhos agrupados em cachos sobre o cérebro, instalados sobre tentáculos, ou espaçados uniformemente em torno do bordo do corpo. Os ocelos apenas podem distinguir a direcção de onde a luz incide, permitindo orientação para que os animais a possam evitar.
Alguns grupos têm estatocistos, câmaras cheias de líquido contendo uma pequena partícula sólida ou, em alguns grupos, duas dessas partículas. Estes estatocistos funcionam como sensores de equilíbrio e de aceleração, função que também se sabe desempenharem nos cnidários e nas medusas e ctenóforos. No entanto, os estatocistos dos turbelários não têm cílios sensoriais, desconhecendo-se como detectam os movimentos e posições das partículas sólidas.
Por outro lado, a maioria dos turbelários apresenta células ciliadas sensíveis ao toque espalhadas sobre o corpo, especialmente nos tentáculos e em torno dos bordos laterais. Apresentam ainda células especializadas localizadas em depressões ou sulcos na cabeça, as quais são provavelmente sensores olfactivos.[8]
As planárias, um subgrupo dos turbelários, são famosas pela sua capacidade de regeneração quando o seu corpo é dividido transversalmente. Experiências mostram que em fragmentos que não incluem a cabeça, uma nova cabeça cresce mais rapidamente nos fragmentos que resultam de partes corporais mais próximas da cabeça original. Este resultado sugere que o crescimento de uma nova cabeça é controlada por um produto químico cuja concentração diminui da cabeça à cauda. Muitos turbelários autoclonam-se por divisão transversal ou longitudinal e outros, especialmente os Acelomorpha (já considerados consensualmente como filo autónomo), reproduzem-se por brotamento.[8]
A vasta maioria dos turbelários é hermafrodita, produzindo células reprodutivas femininas e masculinas, e fertiliza os ovos internamente por copulação.[8] Algumas das espécies aquáticas de maiores dimensões acasalam por esgrima peniana, um duelo em que cada um dos animais tenta fecundar o outro, cabendo ao perdedor adoptar o papel de fêmea e desenvolver os ovos.[34] Na maioria das espécies, quando os ovos eclodem emergem "adultos miniatura", mas algumas espécies de maiores dimensões produzem larvas do tipo planctónico.[8]
A designação de «tremátodes» atribuída a este grupo é uma referência às cavidades existentes no seu órgão de fixação (do grego τρῆμα, cavidade),[5] que se assemelham a ventosas, que são utilizadas para ancorar o tremátode dentro de seus hospedeiros.[4] A pele de todas as espécies do grupo Trematoda é um sincício, uma camada de células que compartilha uma única membrana externa. Os tremátodes são em geral divididos em dois grupos: (1) os Digenea; e (2) os Aspidogastrea (também designados por Aspodibothrea).[8]
Este grupo de organismos inclui as espécies frequentemente designadas por fascíolas ou vermes-planos-parasitas, devido à sua morfologia corporal plana e romboide (semelhante a uma minúscula solha). Conhecem-se cerca de 11 000 espécies, mais do que todos os outros platelmintas combinados, número apenas ultrapassado pelos nemátodes (Nematoda) entre os parasitas metazoários.[8]
Os adultos em geral apresentam dois dispositivos de fixação (holdfasts) destinados a permitir a sua fixação no interior do hospedeiro: um anel em torno da boca e uma ventosa na região central daquela que seria a face inferior do corpo num verme de vida livre.[5]
Embora o nome "Digenea" signifique literalmente "duas gerações", a maioria têm ciclos de vida muito complexos, com até sete etapas, dependendo de que combinações de ambientes os estágios iniciais encontram, sendo em especial determinados em função de os ovos serem depositados em meio terrestre ou aquático. Os estágios intermediários destinam-se maioritariamente a permitir transferir o parasita de um hospedeiro para outro. O hospedeiro definitivo em que os adultos se desenvolvem é sempre um vertebrado terrestre, sendo que o hospedeiro da primeira série de estágios juvenis é geralmente um caracol que pode ser terrestre ou aquático. Em muitos casos o segundo hospedeiro intermédio é um peixe ou um artrópode.[8]
Por exemplo, o ciclo de vida dos vermes intestinais do género Metagonimus inicia-se com a eclosão do ovo no intestino de um caracol, transferindo-se como larva para um peixe, cujo corpo penetra e enquista na carne. Quando o peixe seja ingerido por um animal terrestre, move-se para o intestino delgado desse animal, onde atinge o estado adulto e gera ovos que são excretados e ingeridas por moluscos, completando assim o ciclo de visa. Os parasitas do género Schistosoma, que causam a devastadora doença tropical bilharziose, pertencem a este grupo.[35]
Os adultos variam entre 0,2 mm e 6 mm de comprimento. Os indivíduos adultos são de um único sexo e, em algumas espécies, as fêmeas são organismos em extremo delgados que vivem em sulcos fechados que percorrem os corpos dos machos, apenas emergindo parcialmente para libertar os ovos. Em todas as espécies, os adultos têm sistemas reprodutivos complexos e podem produzir entre 10 000 e 100 000 vezes mais ovos do quem um verme de vida livre de dimensão comparável. Além disso, as fases intermédias que vivem em caracóis podem-se reproduzir assexuadamente.[8]
Os adultos de espécies diferentes infestam distintas partes do hospedeiro definitivo, perferindo, por exemplo, o intestino, o pulmão, os grandes vasos sanguíneos,[5] ou o fígado.[8] Os adultos usam uma faringe relativamente grande e muscular para ingerir células, fragmentos celulares, muco, fluidos corporais ou sangue. Tanto nos adultos como nos estágios intermédios que vivem em caracóis, o sincício externo absorve nutrientes do hospedeiro por difusão. Os adultos podem viver sem oxigénio por longos períodos.[8]
Os membros deste pequeno grupo taxonómico apresentam uma única ventosa dividido ou uma fileira de ventosas que cobrem a face inferior do corpo.[8] Os adultos infestam as entranhas de peixes (ósseos ou cartilaginosos) e de tartarugas aquáticas e as cavidades corporais de bivalves e gastrópodes marinhos ou de água doce.[5] Os ovos produzem larvas ciliadas capazes de nadar. O seu ciclo de vida tem um ou dois hospedeiros.[8]
O táxon Cercomeromorpha agrupa um conjunto de parasitas que se fixa ao hospedeiro através de um disco provido de ganchos em forma de crescente. São subdivididos em dois grupos, os Monogenea e os Cestoda.[8]
Conhecem-se cerca de 1 100 espécies de Monogenea, a maioria das quais são parasitas externos que necessitam de espécies hospedeiras particulares, principalmente peixes, mas em alguns casos anfíbios ou répteis aquáticos. No entanto, alguns são parasitas internos.
Os adultos apresentam grandes órgãos de fixação na parte posterior do corpo, designados por haptores (do grego ἅπτειν, haptein, "agarrar") ou opistatores, que têm ventosas, grampos e ganchos. Apresentam frequentemente corpo achatado. Em algumas espécies, a faringe segrega enzimas para digerir a pele do hospedeiro, permitindo que o parasita se alimente do sangue e dos restos celulares do hospedeiro. Outros alimentam-se externamente ingerindo muco e flocos de pele do hospedeiro. Estes parasitas apresentarem apenas uma geração não larval, daí o nome «Monogenea».[8]
Este grupo inclui as espécies frequentemente designadas por solitárias ou vermes-fita por causa de seus corpos lisos e finos, mas muito longos. O nome "cestode" é derivado do vocábulo latino cestus, que significa "cinto".
Os adultos de todas as cerca de 3 400 espécies conhecidas são parasitas internos (endoparasitas). Com uma anatomia adaptada em extremo a este modo de vida, os cestodes não têm boca ou sistema digestivo, alimentando-se através da membrana sincicial que lhes serve de pele, a qual absorve nutrientes (principalmente carboidratos e aminoácidoss) dos fluidos corporais do anfitrião, ao memso tempo que o esconde quimicamente o parasita para evitar ataques do sistema imunitário do hospedeiro.[8]
A falta de carboidratos na dieta do hospedeiro impede o crescimento dos parasitas e mata alguns. O metabolismo destes parasitas geralmente utiliza processos químicos simples, mas ineficientes, que compensam consumindo grandes quantidades de alimentos em relação ao seu tamanho.[5]
Na maioria das espécies, agrupadas no subgrupo conhecido por eucéstodes ("verdadeiros céstodes"), a parte posterior do corpo produz uma cadeia de segmentos, designados por proglotes ou proglotídeos, por um processo conhecido por estrobilação. Em consequência, os proglotes mais maduros são os mais afastados do escólex, sendo libertados progressivamente à medida que novos vão sendo formados na parte anterior da «fita».
Os adultos da espécie Taenia saginata, que infesta humanos, podem formar proglotes em cadeias que atingem mais de 20 m de comprimento, apesar de cerca de 4 m ser o comprimento mais comum.
Cada proglote apresenta simultaneamente órgãos reprodutivos masculinos e femininos. Se o intestino do hospedeiro contiver mais do que um céstode adulto da mesma espécie, em geral fertilizam-se mutuamente, mas proglotes do mesmo espécime podem fertilizar-se entre si ou mesmo autofertilizar-se. Quando os ovos estão completamente desenvolvidos, os proglotes destacam-se do corpo do progenitor e são excretados pelo hospedeiro.
O ciclo de vida dos eucéstodes é menos complexo do que o dos Digenea, mas varia em função da espécie ou do género a que esta pertence. Por exemplo:
Um pequeno grupo de céstodes, designado por Cestodaria, não apresenta escólex, não produz proglotes e tem uma anatomia externa semelhante à dos Digenea. Os Cestodaria parasitam peixes e tratarugas aquáticas.[5]
Com base nos resultados da filogenia molecular foi proposto um esquema explicativo das origens do modo de vida parasítico,[37] uma característica de boa parte das espécies que integram o agrupamento taxonómico. Essa evolução assenta na constatação que os membros do agrupamento Monopisthocotylea, parasitas que se alimentam de tecidos epiteliais de peixes, são um grupo basal nos Neodermata, tendo sido os primeiros que adoptaram o parasitismo a partir de ancestrais de vida livre.
O passo evolucionário seguinte foi uma mudança dietária, passando dos epitélios para o sangue. O último ancestral comum entre os Digenea e os Cestoda foi um membro do agrupamento Monogenea que muito provavelmente era sanguinívoro.
O mais antigo fóssil conhecido de um Cestoda foi datado como tendo-se originado há 270 Ma atrás. Foi encontrado num coprólito (fezes fossilizadas) de um elasmobrânquio.[38]
Os Cestoda (ténia e similares) e os Digenea (tremátodes e similares) são a causa importantes patologias em humanos e em animais domésticos. Os Monogenea, parasitas de peixes, podem causar importantes perdas em instalações de aquacultura.[39] Um doença com esta origem, a bilharziose, também conhecida por esquistossomose ou doença-do-caramujo, é a segunda patologia mais expandida e devastadora da saúde das populações humanas das regiões tropicais, apenas ultrapassada pela malária.
O Carter Center estimou que 200 milhões de pessoas, em 74 países, estão infestadas com o parasita causador da bilharziose, sendo que metade destas pessoas vivem na África sub-sariana. Apesar da condição ter uma baixa taxa de mortalidade, assume frequentemente um carácter de doença crónica que progressivamente danifica os órgãos internos do paciente. Pode influenciar negativamente o crescimento e o desenvolvimento cognitivo de crianças e aumentar significativamente o risco de cancro da bexiga em adultos. A doença é causada por diversas espécies do género Schistosoma, os quais podem perfurar a pele humana penetrando por essa via no corpo. As pessoas em maior risco são as que utilizam corpos de água infestados para recreio ou para lavagem de roupas.[35]
No ano 2000, estimava-se que 45 milhões de de pessoas estavam infestadas coma ténia Taenia saginata, originária de carne bovina infestada, e 3 milhões com a espécie Taenia solium, de origem suína.[39] A infecção do sistema digestivo por ténias adultas causa sintomas abdominais considerados desagradáveis e debilitantes, mas em geral não causam incapacidade ou ameaçam a vida.[40][41] A neurocisticercose, resultante da penetração de larvas de T. solium no sistema nervoso central, é a principal causa de epilepsia adquirida a nível global.[42] Em 2000, cerca de 39 milhões de pessoas estavam infectadas com tremátodes que na natureza parasitam peixes e crustáceos, mas que podem ser transmitidos aos humanos pela ingestão da peixe ou de crustáceos crus ou mal passados. A infecção de humanos pela espécie Diphyllobothrium latum, um parasita de peixes, causa difilobotríase da qual ocasionalmente resulta deficiência de vitamina B12 e, em casos severos, anemia megaloblástica.[39]
A ameaça para a saúde pública resultante deste parasitas tem vindo a crescer nos países mais desenvolvidos em resultado do crescimento da agricultura orgânica, que usa estrumes e lamas de depuração em vez de fertilizantes artificiais, o que favorece a expansão dos parasitas tanto directamente como por via das fezes de gaivotas e outras aves que se alimentam do estrume e das lamas. Outro factor que favorece a expansão destes parasitas é a crescente popularidade do consumos de alimentos crus ou apenas ligeiramente cozidos, a que se associa a importação de carnes, mariscos e vegetais para salada com proveniência em regiões de alto risco. Potenciando esses factores, nas regiões mais desenvolvidas há uma menor sensibilidade do público em relação ao risco para a saúde pública que resulta das parasitoses dada a sua ausência há várias gerações. Em regiões menos desenvolvidas, o saneamento ambiental inadequado e a utilização de fezes humanas como fertilizante e para enriquecimento de instalações de piscicultura favorece a disseminação de platielmintas parasíticos, a que acresce a existência de sistemas de abastecimento de água para consumo humano vulneráveis à contaminação fecal e sistemas de irrigação que distribuem águas poluídas com matéria fecal. Nessas regiões as pessoas por vezes não dispõem de combustível para cozinhar convenientemente as refeições, ingerindo parasitas e seus gâmetas viáveis. Por outro lado, o controlo dos parasitas em humanos e animais domésticos tem vindo a ficar dificultado pelo aparecimento de estirpes resistentes aos medicamentos e outros produtos utilizados no seu controlo, especialmente para matar larvas e juvenis em carnes e seus derivados.[39] Enquanto nas regiões pobres ainda se luta contra a infestação não intencional, nas regiões ricas têm sido reportados casos de infestação propositada por indivíduos desesperados com o insucesso de dietas para perda rápida de peso.[43]
Tem causado preocupação a proliferação no noroeste da Europa de diversos Platyhelminthes, como a espécie de planária Arthurdendyus triangulatus introduzida nas ilhas Britânicas a partir da Nova Zelândia, e do verme australiano Australoplana sanguinea também ali introduzido, ambos predadores de minhocas.[44] A espécie A. triangulatus terá chegado à Europa em contentores de plantas importadas por jardins botânicos.[45]
No Hawaii, a planária Endeavouria septemlineata tem sido usada para controlo biológico do caracol gigante africano Achatina fulica que está a ocupar o nicho ecológico de várias espécies de caracóis nativos. O mesmo tem sido feito com a espécie Platydemus manokwari, outra planária, usada com o mesmo propósito nas Filipinas, Indonésia, Nova Guiné e Guam. Apesar das populações de A. fulica terem declinado marcadamente no Hawaii, há dúvidas quanto ao papel de E. septemlineata nessa redução. Contudo, P. manokwari é creditada como tendo reduzido, e em alguns casos exterminado, as populações de A. fulica, conseguindo muito melhores resultados do que a maioria dos outros programas de controlo biológico, que geralmente visam apenas atingir e manter as populações da espécie infestante estáveis e a nível reduzido. A capacidade das planárias predarem diferentes espécies e de resistirem à falta de alimento pode justificar o seu sucesso no controlo de A. fulica. Contudo, essas mesma características justificam o temor de que as planárias introduzidas possam ser um risco para as espécies nativas que se pretenda proteger.[46] [47]
Um estudo realizado em La Plata, Argentina,[48] demonstrou o potencial de planárias, como as espécies Girardia anceps, Mesostoma ehrenbergii e Bothromesostoma evelinae, para reduzirem as populações de espécies de mosquito, entre as quais as de Aedes aegypti e Culex pipiens. A experiência demonstrou que as espécie G. anceps em particular pode predar todos os ínstares de ambas as espécies de mosquito e manter um ritmo de predação estável ao longo do tempo. A possibilidade de manter populações destes vermes-planos em contentores artificiais permitira manter esses predadores próximo dos locais de reprodução dos mosquitos, o que idealmente reduziria a quantidade de pessoas afectadas por doenças transmitidas por mosquitos.
Verme terrestre da subfamília Bipaliinae
Pseudoceros monostichos, um verme marinho
Pseudobiceros sp.
Pseudobiceros sp.
Eurylepta sp.
Bipalium sp.
Platyhelminthes (do grego πλατύ, platy, "achatado" e ἕλμινς, helminth-, "verme"), comumente designados por platelmintes, platelmintas, platelmintos ou vermes planos, é um filo de invertebrados com simetria bilateral, não-segmentados, protostómios, de corpo mole e relativamente simples. A par com os nematelmintas e anelídeos, são considerados vermes.
Platelminții sau platelmintele, viermi lați (Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes) (de la greaca platus = lat + helmins, helminthos = vierme) este o încrengătură de viermi protostomieni acelomați, de tipul bine cunoscut al viermelui de gălbează, sau al panglicilor, sau al unor viermi mai puțin cunoscuți, ca planariile. Au simetrie bilaterală, corpul lățit, puternic turtit dorso-ventral, nesegmentat, lipsiți de aparat respirator și circulator, cu un singur orificiu buco-anal. Cavitatea corpului este de origine blastoceliană, plină cu parenchim mezenchimatic, care reprezintă mediul intern al animalului, sediul proceselor de metabolism. Prin lacune circulă un lichid fără o direcție definită, îndeplinind rolul sângelui sau al limfei. În general corpul este unitar: foliaceu (seamănă cu o frunză,), fuziform, sau în formă de panglică, excepție făcând Eucestodele la care este împărțit în proglote, în care se repetă aparatul genital, care asigură hiperfecunditatea (legată de viață parazitară). La formele libere tegumentul este ciliat. La cele mai multe specii tegumentul este acoperit cu o cuticulă, care împreună cu musculatura formează teaca musculo-cutanată. Speciile parazite au formațiuni cuticulare pentru fixare, constând în cârlige, spini, țepi. La formele libere spinii, țepii, dinții reprezintă armături cuticulare ale aparatului copulator. În general sunt hermafrodiți și paraziți (ex. gălbeaza, teniile), dar există și specii care trăiesc liber în apă (ex. planarii).
Viermii lați au 3 straturi de celule diferențiate: ectoderm, endoderm și mezoderm și 4 sisteme de organe cu țesuturi slab diferențiate.
Plathelminții sunt viermi clasificați ca protostomieni cu simetrie bilaterală, turtiți pe axa dorso-ventrală și cu cavitatea corpului de origine blastoceliană. Aceasta este plină cu un parenchim mezenchimatic ce reprezintă mediul intern al viermelui. În această cavitate sunt prezente lacune prin care circulă un lichid care are rolul sângelui și al limfei.
Corpul poate fi unitar sau împărțit în proglote (clasa Eucestoda). În fiecare dintre acestea aparatul genital se repetă, asigurând hiperfecunditatea. Tegumentul poate fi infranucleat, sincițial sau celular, fiind prevăzut cu cili la formele libere (Clasa Turbellaria) sau cu o cuticulă (la formele parazite din celelalte clase)și care împreună cu musculatura derivată din mezoderm formează 'teaca musculo-cutanee'
În general, la formele libere, tegumentul prezintă o rețea bogată de glande și care apar pe tot corpul acestora.La formele parazite există diverse formațiuni derivate din cuticulă și care servesc pentru fixarea parazitului de gazda sa (spini, cârlige, solzi etc.).
În cazul formelor libere formațiunile cuticulare reprezintă armături ale aparatului copulator.
Sistemul nervos-este prezent sub teaca musculo-cutană. Formele de tip primitiv (Acoela)prezintă un sistem nervos alcătuit dintr-un plex subcutanat și o comasare de elemente nervoase alcătuind un creier rudimentar. La formele mai evoluate elementele ce formează plexul se condensează și ele rezultând 3 până la 6 perechi de cordoane care se unesc între ele prin comisuri.
Organele de simț sunt mai bine dezvoltate la formele libere (tangoreceptori, statociști, oceli, fosete ciliate etc.). Formele parazite au doar celule receptoare și chemoreceptoare.
Aparatul digestiv-nu apare la toate speciile.Are un singur orificiu (orificiul bucal)apoi faringele (cu structură variată) și la sfârșit intestinul care poate avea o ramificație simplă sau poate fi închis în "fund de sac". Anusul lipsește. Tubul digestiv nu este prezent la Clasa Cestoda și familia Fecampiidae (platheminți paraziți ai clasei Turbellaria).
Aparatul excretor-corespunde tipului protonefridian. În partea terminală a acestui sistem apare o celulă cu flamură vibratilă (celulă de formă stelată cu canalicul excretor+un mănunchi de cili vibratili). Canaliculele excretoare se continuă cu un canal excretor longitudinal. Ele se pot deschide la exterior independent sau se pot uni într-un trunchi excretor. Segmentul tubular al celulei cu flamură vibratilă are o structură similară cu gulerașul citoplasmatic al choanocitelor de la spongieri.
Aparatul genital-majoritatea speciilor de plathelminți sunt hermafrodite (o excepție notabilă de la această regulă fiind genul Schistosoma, aparținând clasei Trematoda și care pot provoca boli grave la om).
Gonada femelă este împărțită in 2 segmente: segmentul vitelogen care indeplinește funcția de producere a celulelor viteline și segmentul germigen care produce ovule. La speciile cu intestin prezent glandele vitelogene merg în paralel cu traiectul acestuia, astfel facilitându-se absorbția substanțelor nutritive. La clasa Cestoda, glandele vitelogene sunt situate sub tegument. La aparatul genital femel este anexată o bursă copulatoare sau seminală, un uter pentru acumlarea ouălor, un receptacul seminal precum și o serie de glande anexe. În unele cazuri se diferențiază și un penis. Orificiile genitale se deschid la unele specii separat iar la altele se unesc într-un por comun.
Reproducerea și dezvoltarea platheminților-fecundarea este internă și încrucișată având loc prin copulare sau depunerea spermatoforului la suprafața corpului. La speciile cu gonadă femelă unitară ouăle sunt de tip ectolecit. La unele turbelariate marine larva amintește de larva trocoforă, prezentă la grupul spiraliilor (Filum Annelida, Filum Mollusca, Filum Nemertini).
Speciile parazite au cicluri evolutive mult mai complexe în care apar mai multe generații (și la un număr mare de specii și schimb de gazde).
Clasa Turbellaria (cu foarte puține excepții)prezintă forme adaptate la viața liberă.Celelalte clase cuprind în exclusivitate forme parazite. De obicei, gazda definitivă este un vertebrat, gazda intermediară poate fi atât un nevertebrat cât și un vertebrat. Cuticula formelor parazite prezintă o rezistență crescută la enzimele digestive ale gazdei dar dacă în ea apar fisuri, parazitul nu se mai poate apăra împotriva atacului enzimatic al gazdei.
Încrengătura Platelminte cuprinde peste 20 000 de specii de viermi, dintre care unii sunt liberi, trăind în toate mediile acvatice și pe uscat, dar cei mai mulți sunt paraziți la animale și la om. Ea se împarte în următoarele 4 clase:
Platelminții sau platelmintele, viermi lați (Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes) (de la greaca platus = lat + helmins, helminthos = vierme) este o încrengătură de viermi protostomieni acelomați, de tipul bine cunoscut al viermelui de gălbează, sau al panglicilor, sau al unor viermi mai puțin cunoscuți, ca planariile. Au simetrie bilaterală, corpul lățit, puternic turtit dorso-ventral, nesegmentat, lipsiți de aparat respirator și circulator, cu un singur orificiu buco-anal. Cavitatea corpului este de origine blastoceliană, plină cu parenchim mezenchimatic, care reprezintă mediul intern al animalului, sediul proceselor de metabolism. Prin lacune circulă un lichid fără o direcție definită, îndeplinind rolul sângelui sau al limfei. În general corpul este unitar: foliaceu (seamănă cu o frunză,), fuziform, sau în formă de panglică, excepție făcând Eucestodele la care este împărțit în proglote, în care se repetă aparatul genital, care asigură hiperfecunditatea (legată de viață parazitară). La formele libere tegumentul este ciliat. La cele mai multe specii tegumentul este acoperit cu o cuticulă, care împreună cu musculatura formează teaca musculo-cutanată. Speciile parazite au formațiuni cuticulare pentru fixare, constând în cârlige, spini, țepi. La formele libere spinii, țepii, dinții reprezintă armături cuticulare ale aparatului copulator. În general sunt hermafrodiți și paraziți (ex. gălbeaza, teniile), dar există și specii care trăiesc liber în apă (ex. planarii).
Ploskavce (zriedkavo ploché červy, ploské červy, červy ploché, červy ploské, zastarano hlísty ploské; lat. Plathelminthes, staršie Platyhelminthes) sú kmeň špirálovcov, skupiny kmeňov prvoústovcov.
Sú to podlhovasté až výrazne predĺžené dorzoventrálne sploštené, pretianuté, dvojstranne súmerné živočíchy na povrchu s obrveným epitelom, ktorý má u voľne žijúcich pohybovú funkciu. Parazity majú pevnú kutikulu. Pod kožou je systém epiteliálnych a parenchymatóznych hladkých svalov, ktorý tvorí podkožný svalový vak; pod ním je riedke mezenchýmové tkanivo. Majú 2 zárodočné vrstvy, medzi ktorými je dutina vyplnená parenchýmom. Priestor medzi bunkami tvorí telesnú dutinu schizocél.
Tráviaca sústava je jednoduchá uzavretá, u parazitov čiastočne až úplne redukovaná (pásomnice). Aj u ploskavcov sa zvykne označovať ako gastrovaskulárna sústava; táto plní funkcie už len tráviacej a obehovej sústavy, pretože vylučovanie zabezpečujú protonefrídie. Majú len jeden otvor, ktorý je prijimací aj vyvrhovací. Trávenie je extracelulárne v dutine čreva pomocou tráviacich enzýmov a dokončené intracelulárne. Parazity prijímajú potravu osmoticky. Tráviaca sústava pozostáva z ústneho otvoru, hltanu a slepo zakončeného čreva, ktoré môže byť priame alebo rôzne rozvetvené.
Nervová sústava je pásavá (gangliová) – prvé ganglium (mozgová uzlina), z nej vychádzajú pásy do prednej časti tela k hmatovým lalokom a pozdĺž celého tela sú spojené okolohltanovou obrúčkou. Z receptorov pozorujeme iba statocystu a ploché oči, u parazitov sú redukované. Nachádza sa v strede brušnej časti.
Ektoparazity dýchajú priamou difúziou z povrchu tela k jednotlivým bunkám. Endoparazity dýchajú anaeróbne.
Nemajú špecializovanú obehovú sústavu. Telová tekutina v gastrovaskulárej sústave (hydrolymfa) sa prelieva podľa pohybov tela.
Sú hermafrodity, rozmnožovacia sústava je objemná a zložitá, najmä u parazitov. Spermie ploskavcov majú dva bičíky, čo je výnimočný jav v živočíšnej ríši. Vývin je priamy (Triclada), alebo cez jednoduché trochoforoidné larvy, označované často ako Müllerova a Götteho larva (morské Turbellaria). Parazity majú zložité životné cykly s veľmi špecializovanými larválnymi štádiami.
Kmeň sa tradične rozdeľoval na 3 triedy: Turbellaria, Trematodes a Cestodes. Moderný systém ich delí do dvoch podkmeňov s až šiestimi triedami. Zatiaľ je známych asi 7 500 druhov.
Ploskavce (zriedkavo ploché červy, ploské červy, červy ploché, červy ploské, zastarano hlísty ploské; lat. Plathelminthes, staršie Platyhelminthes) sú kmeň špirálovcov, skupiny kmeňov prvoústovcov.
Plòski čŕvi ali plôskavci (znanstveno latinsko ime Plathelminthes) so sploščene živali dvobočno simetrične oblike. Imajo glavo - del telesa, na katerem so skoncentrirana čutila in živčevje. Prebavilo je aproktno, ima eno samo odprtino - usta. So brez krvožilja in dihal.
Prisotna so naslednja tkiva:
Taksonomsko obravnavamo ploske črve na nivoju debla. Po starejši klasifikaciji so jih uvrščali v danes opuščen takson nečlenarjev.
Plòski čŕvi ali plôskavci (znanstveno latinsko ime Plathelminthes) so sploščene živali dvobočno simetrične oblike. Imajo glavo - del telesa, na katerem so skoncentrirana čutila in živčevje. Prebavilo je aproktno, ima eno samo odprtino - usta. So brez krvožilja in dihal.
Prisotna so naslednja tkiva:
ektoderm - povrhnjica endoderm - notranji sloj mezogleja - vmesna plastPlattmaskar (Platyhelmintes) är en stam djur med bilateral symmetri. Vissa bandmaskar kan bli mer än 10 meter långa, den längsta som någon har uppmätt var 30 meter lång.[källa behövs] Stammen innehåller runt 100 000 ännu existerande arter, vilket gör den till den största stammen med acoelomater.
Plattmaskar är den enklaste djurgruppen med ett centralt nervsystem som förmedlar nervimpulser från olika delar på kroppen samt de enkla ögonen, som bara kan skilja på ljus och mörker. Nervsystemet består av två längsgående nerver med förgreningar och en ansamling av ganglier i huvudänden, vilken fungerar som en enkel hjärna. Vissa släkten har förlorat sin syn, då de lever parasitiskt.
Plattmaskarna saknar inre organ för cirkulation, och gas- närings- och slaggproduktsutbytet sker i interstitialvätskan.
Plattmaskar är hermafroditiska, det vill säga att varje individ producerar både ägg och spermier. När två plattmaskar parar sig så byter de spermier så att båda blir befruktade. Vissa plattmaskar, såsom Pseudobiceros hancockanus, deltar i en penisfäktning, där två individer försöker tränga igenom den andres skinn med sin penis. Den som först lyckas befrukta den andra individen slipper gå och bära på de befruktade äggen.[1] Plattmaskar befruktar vanligtvis inte sina egna ägg utan andras.
Plattmaskar (Platyhelmintes) är en stam djur med bilateral symmetri. Vissa bandmaskar kan bli mer än 10 meter långa, den längsta som någon har uppmätt var 30 meter lång.[källa behövs] Stammen innehåller runt 100 000 ännu existerande arter, vilket gör den till den största stammen med acoelomater.
Yassısolucanlar ya da Platyhelminthes, üç embriyonik tabakadan oluşmuş, bilateral simetrili, çoğunlukla yassı yapılı hayvanlar şubesidir.
Parazit yaşayanlarda döldeğişimi ve başkalaşım görülür. Sindirim kanalı tek bir açıklığa sahiptir. Vücutlarında sölom, yalancısölom ve dolaşım sistemi yoktur. Merkezi bir beyin içeren sinir sistemi vardır. Boşaltım sistemi olarak alev hücreleri görev yapar. Çoğalmalarında hermafroditizm görülür. Yaklaşık 13.000 türü bilinmektedir.Bilateral simetri ilk defa bu filumda ortaya çıkar.Bilateral simetride duyu organlarının ve sinir sistemi merkezlerinin vücudun ön kısmında toplanmasıyla baş bölgesinin oluşumu görülür.Bilateral simetrili canlılarda sesil(hareketsiz)yaşam görülmez.
5. Phylum (Şube): Platyhelminthes (Yassı Solucanlar)
Acoelomata'nın ilk şubesidir. Sindirim kanalı boşluğu bulunur, ancak bu boşluk sölom olarak kabul edilmez. Bilateral simetri, triploblasti, spiral segmentasyon ve buna bağlı olarak da mozaik gelişim görülür. Organizasyon organ-sistem düzeyindedir.
Protostomia üyeleri oldukları için, sadece ağız bulunur ve anüs olmaması nedeniyle sindirim tek yönlüdür. Boşaltım sistemleri bulunur. Alev hücreleri taşıyan protonefridiumları vardır.
Vücut dorso-ventral olarak (alt-üst yönünde) yassılaşmıştır. Solunum, iskelet ve dolaşım sistemleri bulunmaz. Basit duyu organlarına sahiptirler.
Çoğu tür monoiktir. Bazı denizel formlarda, silli ve serbest yüzücü olan Müller larvası görülür.
Şubenin 4 sınıfı bulunur:
Yassısolucanlar ya da Platyhelminthes, üç embriyonik tabakadan oluşmuş, bilateral simetrili, çoğunlukla yassı yapılı hayvanlar şubesidir.
Parazit yaşayanlarda döldeğişimi ve başkalaşım görülür. Sindirim kanalı tek bir açıklığa sahiptir. Vücutlarında sölom, yalancısölom ve dolaşım sistemi yoktur. Merkezi bir beyin içeren sinir sistemi vardır. Boşaltım sistemi olarak alev hücreleri görev yapar. Çoğalmalarında hermafroditizm görülür. Yaklaşık 13.000 türü bilinmektedir.Bilateral simetri ilk defa bu filumda ortaya çıkar.Bilateral simetride duyu organlarının ve sinir sistemi merkezlerinin vücudun ön kısmında toplanmasıyla baş bölgesinin oluşumu görülür.Bilateral simetrili canlılarda sesil(hareketsiz)yaşam görülmez.
Pseudobiceros hancockanus Bir yassısolucanın yandan görünüşü Pseudobiceros bedfordiПло́скі че́рви (Platyhelminthes) — тип двобічно-симетричних тварин.
Загальна характеристика типу:
Плоскі черви живуть у прісних і морських водоймах, у вологій підстилці тропічних лісів, ведуть паразитичний спосіб життя. Для них характерне плоске двобічно-симетричне листоподібне або стрічкоподібне тіло. За рівнем організації плоскі черви стоять дещо вище кишковопорожнинних. У них є покривна, м'язова, травна, видільна, нервова, статева системи органів, що розвиваються з трьох зародкових листків (ектодерми, ентодерми, мезодерми).
Відомо близько 15 тис. видів плоских червів. Найчисельнішими є класи Турбелярії, Трематоди і Цестоди.
Вільноіснуючі плоскі черви — переважно хижаки. Паразитуючі черви живляться або шляхом всмоктування живильних речовин за допомогою ротової присоски, або вбирають їх всією поверхнею тіла осмотичним шляхом.
Вільноіснуючі плоскі черви пересуваються поповзом або вплав. Цьому сприяють шкірно-м'язовий мішок і війки. Паразитуючі черви при пересуванні можуть користуватися присосками (пересуваються за типом гусениці-землеміра). Стрічкові черв'яки використовують перистальтику шкірно-м'язового мішка. Плоскі черви є найпримітивнішими двосторонньо-симетричними тваринами.
Пло́скі че́рви (Platyhelminthes) — тип двобічно-симетричних тварин.
Загальна характеристика типу:
Тришарові багатоклітинні тварини Двобічна симетрія тіла Несегментовані Ацеломічні (паренхімні) Центральна нервова система на передньому кінці; дуже проста нервова сітка; ганглії Органи чуття: світлочутливі вічка, органи рівноваги (статоцисти), нюху, дотику (сенсіли — нерухомі війки, до яких підходять нервові закінчення) — розвинені переважно у видів, що живуть вільно. Видільна система утворена розгалуженими трубочками, які закінчуються полум'яними клітинами (протонефридії) Сплощені в дорсовентральному напрямку. Ротовий отвір і сліпо замкнутий травний канал, диференційованій на два відділи — глотку і розгалужений кишечник. Гермафродити, статева система добре розвинена. Запліднення внутрішнє, може бути перехресне або самозапліднення. Звичайно є личинкові стадії (у паразитичних) — непрямий розвиток. А у вільноживучих — прямий. Є шкірно-м'язовий мішок. Дихальна система відсутня. Кисень надходить до клітин через покриви тіла.Плоскі черви живуть у прісних і морських водоймах, у вологій підстилці тропічних лісів, ведуть паразитичний спосіб життя. Для них характерне плоске двобічно-симетричне листоподібне або стрічкоподібне тіло. За рівнем організації плоскі черви стоять дещо вище кишковопорожнинних. У них є покривна, м'язова, травна, видільна, нервова, статева системи органів, що розвиваються з трьох зародкових листків (ектодерми, ентодерми, мезодерми).
Відомо близько 15 тис. видів плоских червів. Найчисельнішими є класи Турбелярії, Трематоди і Цестоди.
Вільноіснуючі плоскі черви — переважно хижаки. Паразитуючі черви живляться або шляхом всмоктування живильних речовин за допомогою ротової присоски, або вбирають їх всією поверхнею тіла осмотичним шляхом.
Вільноіснуючі плоскі черви пересуваються поповзом або вплав. Цьому сприяють шкірно-м'язовий мішок і війки. Паразитуючі черви при пересуванні можуть користуватися присосками (пересуваються за типом гусениці-землеміра). Стрічкові черв'яки використовують перистальтику шкірно-м'язового мішка. Плоскі черви є найпримітивнішими двосторонньо-симетричними тваринами.
Giun dẹp (ngành Platyhelminthes từ tiếng Hy Lạp πλατύ, platy, dẹp, và ἕλμινς (ban đầu: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, giun)[2] là một ngành động vật không xương sống. Chúng không có khoang cơ thể, cũng không có hệ tuần hoàn chuyên dụng hay cơ quan hô hấp, khiến chúng phải có cơ thể dẹp để dễ tiếp nhận oxy và chất dinh dưỡng qua khuếch tán, cùng với đó giác bám ở giun dẹp rất phát triển để bám chắc vào vật chủ tránh bị đẩy ra khỏi vật chủ.
Theo phân loại động vật học truyền thống Platyhelminthes được chia thành Turbellaria, hầu hết không ký sinh, và ba lớp toàn ký sinh là Cestoda, Trematoda và Monogenea; tuy nhiên, từ khi Turbellaria được chứng minh là không đơn ngành, phân loại này hiện nay bị phản đối. Các loại giun dẹp sống tự do đa số ăn thịt, sống trong nước hay môi trường đất ẩm. Cestoda (sán dây) và trematoda (sán lá gan) có vòng đời phức tạp, khi trưởng thành sống ký sinh trên cá hay động vật có xương sống trên cạn. Trứng của trematoda được vật chủ bài tiết, trong khi cestoda trưởng thành tách nhỏ mình ra nhiều đoạn nhỏ lưỡng tính được vật chủ bài tiết.
Giun dẹp (ngành Platyhelminthes từ tiếng Hy Lạp πλατύ, platy, dẹp, và ἕλμινς (ban đầu: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, giun) là một ngành động vật không xương sống. Chúng không có khoang cơ thể, cũng không có hệ tuần hoàn chuyên dụng hay cơ quan hô hấp, khiến chúng phải có cơ thể dẹp để dễ tiếp nhận oxy và chất dinh dưỡng qua khuếch tán, cùng với đó giác bám ở giun dẹp rất phát triển để bám chắc vào vật chủ tránh bị đẩy ra khỏi vật chủ.
Theo phân loại động vật học truyền thống Platyhelminthes được chia thành Turbellaria, hầu hết không ký sinh, và ba lớp toàn ký sinh là Cestoda, Trematoda và Monogenea; tuy nhiên, từ khi Turbellaria được chứng minh là không đơn ngành, phân loại này hiện nay bị phản đối. Các loại giun dẹp sống tự do đa số ăn thịt, sống trong nước hay môi trường đất ẩm. Cestoda (sán dây) và trematoda (sán lá gan) có vòng đời phức tạp, khi trưởng thành sống ký sinh trên cá hay động vật có xương sống trên cạn. Trứng của trematoda được vật chủ bài tiết, trong khi cestoda trưởng thành tách nhỏ mình ra nhiều đoạn nhỏ lưỡng tính được vật chủ bài tiết.
Platyhelminthes Gegenbaur, 1859
КлассыПло́ские че́рви (лат. Plathelminthes, Platyhelminthes, от др.-греч. πλατύς — широкий и ἕλμινθος — гельминт) — тип первичноротых беспозвоночных (Protostomia). Представители класса ресничных червей обитают в солёных и пресных водах, некоторые виды приспособились к жизни во влажных наземных местообитаниях. Представители остальных классов ведут исключительно паразитический образ жизни, паразитируя на различных животных, как позвоночных, так и беспозвоночных.
Из ресничных червей наиболее известны пресноводные планарии, из паразитических — дигенетические сосальщики (печёночная двуустка, кошачья двуустка, шистосомы) и ленточные черви (широкий лентец, бычий цепень, свиной цепень, эхинококк).
В составе класса ресничных червей ранее рассматривали ряд других таксонов беспозвоночных, обладающих червеобразной формой и лишённых полости тела: немертодерматид, бескишечных турбеллярий и ксенотурбеллид (ныне объединены в составе типа Xenacoelomorpha), а также гнатостомулид (ныне самостоятельный тип в кладе Gnathifera).
Плоские черви — двусторонне-симметричные животные, и, как и все Bilateria, имеют три основных клеточных слоя: эктодерму, мезодерму и энтодерму[1]. Однако, в отличие от большинства Bilateria, плоские черви не имеют полости тела. Они не имеют дыхательной и кровеносной систем, поэтому кислород и углекислый газ перемещаются по их телу путём простой диффузии. Поскольку дыхание идёт через поверхность тела, плоские черви крайне чувствительны к высыханию и в связи с этим населяют местообитания с достаточной влажностью: морские и пресные воды, влажные наземные местообитания, такие как листовой опад или частицы почвы, очень многие представители ведут паразитический образ жизни и обитают внутри других животных[1].
Пространство между кожей и внутренними органами заполнено мезенхимой — соединительной тканью, укреплённой коллагеновыми волокнами, которые выступают в роли скелетных элементов и точек крепления мышц. По мезенхиме путём простой диффузии перемещаются кислород, питательные вещества и продукты обмена, которые попадают в неё из внутренних органов. Мезенхима состоит из клеток двух типов: основных клеток, содержащих много вакуолей, и стволовых клеток, которые могут превращаться в клетки любых других типов. Стволовые клетки обеспечивают заживление повреждений и регенерацию при бесполом размножении[1].
Как правило, плоские черви не имеют анального отверстия, и непереваренные остатки пищи выводятся наружу через рот. Однако некоторые виды со значительной длиной тела всё-таки имеют анус, а некоторые представители имеют сложный разветвлённый кишечник, открывающийся наружу несколькими анусами. Кишка выстлана одним слоем эндодермальных клеток, которые расщепляют пищу и всасывают питательные вещества. У многих паразитических форм пищеварительная система редуцирована, поскольку необходимое питание обеспечивается хозяином и всасывается всей поверхностью тела[1].
Как и другие многоклеточные животные, плоские черви вынуждены поддерживать водно-ионный баланс с окружающей средой. Паразитические виды и обитатели морских вод вынуждены бороться с обезвоживанием, а пресноводные формы, напротив, должны препятствовать избыточному накоплению воды в тканях, поскольку вода стремится проникнуть внутрь их тела в силу осмоса. Для этих целей у плоских червей имеются специальные органы выделения — протонефридии. На их концах в мезенхиме находятся так называемые клетки мерцающего пламени, которые за счёт интенсивного биения жгутиков загоняют воду с растворёнными веществами из мезодермы в протонефридии. Далее вода движется по тонким канальцам, выстланным клетками с микроворсинками и жгутиками, которые всасывают обратно часть воды и растворённых в ней веществ. Излишек воды и растворённых в ней солей покидает тело червя через отверстие — нефридиопор, которым кончается протонефридий[1].
У большинства плоских червей основная масса нервных клеток сконцентрирована в головном конце тела. Многие виды имеют кольцо из ганглиев в головном отделе (мозг) с отходящими от него продольными нервными стволами. У некоторых видов даже имеются примитивные органы чувств — глазки. Многие плоские черви, особенно паразитические, — гермафродиты[1].
Большинство свободноживущих плоских червей достигают в длину менее 1 мм[2]. Самые мелкие плоские черви относятся к классу трематод, взрослая особь мелких видов может достигать 0,2 мм[3].Однако известны и весьма крупные формы, имеющие длину более 1 см. Например, планария Rimacephalus arecepta, обитающая в озере Байкал, достигает 60 см в длину. Как правило, чем крупнее червь, тем сильнее уплощено его тело[4] (это связано с особенностями внутреннего транспорта, который целиком обеспечивается диффузией). Паразиты, например, печёночная двуустка (Fasciola hepatica), достигает нескольких см в длину. Самый крупный представитель плоских червей — широкий лентец (Diphyllobothrium latum) — имеет тело длиной 25 м[5]. Некоторые плоские черви, такие как морские поликладиды, имеют очень необычную расцветку, из-за которой их нередко путают с голожаберными моллюсками и донными гребневиками[6].
Стенка тела-кожно-мускульный мешок. Кожно-мускульный мешок состоит из однослойного эпителия и трех слоев гладких мышц: кольцевые, косые и продольные. У сосальщиков и ленточных червей имеется поверхностный слой-тугумент, у ресничных-реснички.
Заполняет промежутки между органами, выполняет опорную функцию и служит депо питательных веществ.
Представлена тремя слоями гладких мышц: косые, кольцевые и продольные.
Представлена парными узлами (ганглиями) и отходящими от них продольными стволами, которые соединяются кольцевыми перемычками. Такой тип нервной системы называется стволовым (ортогон).
Органы зрения и статоцисты у свободноживущих, органы осязания и вкуса. У ресничных червей имеется два светочувствительных глазка и осязательные лопасти на передней части тела. У ленточных и сосальщиков органы чувств слабо развиты, ввиду паразитического образа жизни, имеются органы химического чувства.
Состоит из ротового отверстия и двух отделов кишечника: переднего, представленного глоткой, и среднего, слепо замкнутого. Непереваренные остатки пищи, как и у кишечнополостных, выводится наружу через ротовое отверстие. У некоторых паразитических плоских червей (например, ленточных) пищеварительная система вообще отсутствует и питательные вещества поступают через покровы.
Выделительная система протонефридиального типа. Протонефридии-система канальцев, которая начинается в паренхиме клеткой с пучком ресничек и заканчивается общим выделительным протоком.
Плоские черви гермафродиты. Паразитические формы имеют сложный жизненный цикл.
Свободноживущие турбеллярии могут передвигаться различным образом. Некоторые скользят по поверхности дна (или другого субстрата) или же плавают с помощью ресничек расположенных на поверхности тела. Другие могут использовать для той же цели мышцы. У разных турбеллярий можно наблюдать широкий спектр движений. Их тело может сокращаться или вытягиваться, они могут изгибать тело под большим углом, поворачиваться во всех направлениях, совершать ундулирующие движения. По телу некоторых из них пробегают перистальтические волны. Механизм локомоции в основном коррелирует с массой тела - более мелкие трубеллярии чаще используют только лишь движение ресничек (перистальтика, если таковая наблюдается, предназначена для процесса пищеварения), а более крупные задействуют мышцы тела. У некоторых групп, вентральная поверхность тела образует специализированный орган локомоции, которая осуществляется путём его сокращения. Отдельные крупные турбеллярии (Polycladida) осуществляют поступательное движение путём дорсовентральной ундуляции боковых краёв тела[7].
В отличие от свободноживущих турбеллярий, эндопаразиты Neodermata имеют ограниченные способности к локомоции, проявляемые в основном в тех фазах жизненного цикла, в которых паразиту требуется покинуть предыдущего хозяина и найти, а потом заразить нового. Трематоды, например, имеют покрытый ресничками эпидермис на стадии мирацидия, который помогает личинке свободно плавать в воде до встречи с хозяином — брюхоногим моллюском[8]. На более поздней стадии развития трематод, церкарии, эти формы обладают мускулистым хвостом, позволяющим им плавать в поисках очередного хозяина (которым является позвоночное животное)[9]. Аспидогастры имеют одну личиночную стадию, на которой имеется ресничная плавающая личинка[10].
У моногеней имеется одна промежуточная стадия развития — свободноплавающая личинка онкомирацидий. Её эпидермис несёт несколько поясов ресничных клеток с помощью которых личинка может плавать[11]. Моногенеи в своём большинстве являются эктопаразитами, и, в отличие от трематод, сохраняют ограниченную подвижность на стадии взрослой особи. Чередуя прикрепление к телу хозяина с помощью прикрепительного диска расположенного на задней части особи и с помощью головной присоски, червь может передвигаться по поверхности тела хозяина[12].
Многие виды эндопаразитических ленточных червей обходятся вообще без механизмов локомоции. Это происходит в тех случаях, когда жизненный цикл червя не предполагает водную фазу, как например происходит у представителей рода Taeniidae. Другие же виды цестод имеют стадию ресничной свободноплавающей личинки наподобие других Neodermata. У ленточных червей, например у представителей рода Diphyllobothrium такая личинка называется корацидий[13].
Пло́ские че́рви (лат. Plathelminthes, Platyhelminthes, от др.-греч. πλατύς — широкий и ἕλμινθος — гельминт) — тип первичноротых беспозвоночных (Protostomia). Представители класса ресничных червей обитают в солёных и пресных водах, некоторые виды приспособились к жизни во влажных наземных местообитаниях. Представители остальных классов ведут исключительно паразитический образ жизни, паразитируя на различных животных, как позвоночных, так и беспозвоночных.
Из ресничных червей наиболее известны пресноводные планарии, из паразитических — дигенетические сосальщики (печёночная двуустка, кошачья двуустка, шистосомы) и ленточные черви (широкий лентец, бычий цепень, свиной цепень, эхинококк).
В составе класса ресничных червей ранее рассматривали ряд других таксонов беспозвоночных, обладающих червеобразной формой и лишённых полости тела: немертодерматид, бескишечных турбеллярий и ксенотурбеллид (ныне объединены в составе типа Xenacoelomorpha), а также гнатостомулид (ныне самостоятельный тип в кладе Gnathifera).
扁形动物门(學名:Platyhelminthes;語源:πλατύ platy 扁平 + ἑλμινθ- helminth- 蟲[2])是动物界的一个门,無脊椎動物,是一类簡單的無環節两侧对称动物,有三胚层,无体腔,無呼吸系統、無循環系統,有口无肛门的动物。所以必須保持身體扁平,以使氧氣及養料能夠透過滲透來吸收。消化腔只有一個開口,同時用於進食及排洩;所以食物在其體內無法有效處理。
已记录的扁形动物约有15000种。生活於淡水、海水等潮溼處,體前端有兩個可感光的色素點。體表部分或全部分布有纖毛。
傳統的醫學文獻會將扁形動物劃分為非寄生的渦蟲綱(例如:真渦蟲科的物種)和三個會寄生的物種的綱:絛蟲綱、吸蟲綱及單殖綱。然而,由於渦蟲綱已證實並非單系群,這種劃分方式在動物學來看已經過時。 非寄生的扁蟲都是捕食者,棲息於水中或遮蔭的陸上潮濕環境,例如:落葉堆。絛蟲和吸蟲的生命週期比較複雜:牠們的成熟階段會以寄生蟲的形式居住在魚類或陸上脊椎動物的消化系統裡;而中間宿主階段會尋找可被感染的中間宿主。吸虫的卵从最终宿主体内排出,而成年绦虫会产生大量雌雄同体的节片,在成熟后会分离,排出宿主,再释放卵。与其他寄生的类群不同,单殖纲是水生生物的体外寄生虫,其幼虫在附着于合适宿主厚变态为成虫。
因为扁形动物没有体腔,它们曾被认为是最原始的两侧对称动物(有两侧对称,有头尾之分的动物)。但是,在1980年代中期以来的研究发现原来被分类为扁形动物的一个群体,无腔动物门,离最初的两侧对称动物较任何其他现代类群更近。除去无腔动物后的扁形动物门是一个单系群,即是有一个共同祖先及其所有后裔组成的。扁形动物门属于冠轮动物,是较复杂的两侧对称动物的三个进化支之一。These analyses had concluded the redefined Platyhelminthes, excluding Acoelomorpha, consists of two monophyletic subgroups, Catenulida and Rhabditophora, with Cestoda, Trematoda and Monogenea forming a monophyletic subgroup within one branch of the Rhabditophora. Hence, the traditional platyhelminth subgroup "Turbellaria" is now regarded as paraphyletic, since it excludes the wholly parasitic groups, although these are descended from one group of "turbellarians".
超过一半已知的扁形动物属于 寄生虫, and some do enormous harm to humans and their livestock. Schistosomiasis, caused by one genus of trematodes, is the second-most devastating of all human diseases caused by parasites, surpassed only by malaria. Neurocysticercosis, which arises when larvae of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium penetrate the central nervous system, is the major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide. The threat of platyhelminth parasites to humans in developed countries is rising because of the popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods, and imports of food from high-risk areas. In less developed countries, people often cannot afford the fuel required to cook food thoroughly, and poorly designed water-supply and irrigation projects increase the dangers presented by poor sanitation and unhygienic farming.
Two planarian species have been used successfully in the Philippines, Indonesia, Hawaii, New Guinea, and Guam to control populations of the imported giant African snail Achatina fulica, which was displacing native snails. However, there is now concern that these planarians may themselves become a serious threat to native snails. In northwest Europe, there are concerns about the spread of the New Zealand planarian Arthurdendyus triangulatus, which preys on earthworms.
Platyhelminthes are bilaterally symmetrical animals: their left and right sides are mirror images of each other; this also implies they have distinct top and bottom surfaces and distinct head and tail ends. Like other bilaterians, they have three main cell layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm),[3] while the radially symmetrical cnidarians and ctenophores (comb jellies) have only two cell layers.[4] Beyond that, they are "defined more by what they do not have than by any particular series of specializations."[5] Unlike other bilaterians, Platyhelminthes have no internal body cavity, so are described as acoelomates. They also lack specialized circulatory and respiratory organs, both of these facts are defining features when classifying a flatworm's anatomy.[3][6] Their bodies are soft and unsegmented.[7]
Attribute Cnidarians and Ctenophores[4] Platyhelminthes (flatworms)[3][6] More "advanced" bilaterians[8] Bilateral symmetry No Yes Number of main cell layers Two, with jelly-like layer between them Three Distinct brain No Yes Specialized digestive system No Yes Specialized excretory system No Yes Body cavity containing internal organs No Yes Specialized circulatory and respiratory organs No YesThe lack of circulatory and respiratory organs limits platyhelminths to sizes and shapes that enable oxygen to reach and carbon dioxide to leave all parts of their bodies by simple diffusion. Hence, many are microscopic and the large species have flat ribbon-like or leaf-like shapes. The guts of large species have many branches, allowing nutrients to diffuse to all parts of the body.[5] Respiration through the whole surface of the body makes them vulnerable to fluid loss, and restricts them to environments where dehydration is unlikely: sea and freshwater, moist terrestrial environments such as leaf litter or between grains of soil, and as parasites within other animals.[3]
The space between the skin and gut is filled with mesenchyme, a connective tissue made of cells and reinforced by collagen fibers that act as a type of skeleton, providing attachment points for muscles. The mesenchyme contains all the internal organs and allows the passage of oxygen, nutrients and waste products. It consists of two main types of cell: fixed cells, some of which have fluid-filled vacuoles; and stem cells, which can transform into any other type of cell, and are used in regenerating tissues after injury or asexual reproduction.[3]
Most platyhelminths have no anus and regurgitate undigested material through the mouth. However, some long species have an anus and some with complex, branched guts have more than one anus, since excretion only through the mouth would be difficult for them.[6] The gut is lined with a single layer of endodermal cells that absorb and digest food. Some species break up and soften food first by secreting enzymes in the gut or pharynx (throat).[3]
All animals need to keep the concentration of dissolved substances in their body fluids at a fairly constant level. Internal parasites and free-living marine animals live in environments with high concentrations of dissolved material, and generally let their tissues have the same level of concentration as the environment, while freshwater animals need to prevent their body fluids from becoming too dilute. Despite this difference in environments, most platyhelminths use the same system to control the concentration of their body fluids. Flame cells, so called because the beating of their flagella looks like a flickering candle flame, extract from the mesenchyme water that contains wastes and some reusable material, and drive it into networks of tube cells which are lined with flagella and microvilli. The tube cells' flagella drive the water towards exits called nephridiopores, while their microvilli reabsorb reusable materials and as much water as is needed to keep the body fluids at the right concentration. These combinations of flame cells and tube cells are called protonephridia.[3][8]
In all platyhelminths, the nervous system is concentrated at the head end. This is least marked in the acoels, which have nerve nets rather like those of cnidarians and ctenophores, but densest around the head. Other platyhelminths have rings of ganglia in the head and main nerve trunks running along their bodies.[3][6]
早期分類將扁形動物分為四組,即:渦蟲綱、吸蟲綱、單殖綱及絛蟲綱。這個分類長久以來都被認為是一種人工強行分類,所以Ehlers (1985)[9]提出一個比較符合支序親緣學觀點的分類,將渦蟲綱分為12個目,然後再將吸蟲類、單殖類和絛蟲類等寄生蟲組合成一個新的Neodermata目。可是這個分類仍然主要只為科學文獻採用[3],所以以下我們仍然以傳統分類去介紹扁形動物的分類。
渦蟲綱包括有物種4500種[6]均能自由遷徙,長度從1 mm(0.039英寸)到600 mm(24英寸)不等。大多數為掠食者或者是食腐動物。多居住在陰暗潮濕的地方,如落葉底下。 However, some are symbiotes of other animals, such as crustaceans, and some are parasites. Free-living turbellarians are mostly black, brown or gray, but some larger ones are brightly colored.[3] The Acoela and Nemertodermatida were traditionally regarded as turbellarians,[6][10] but are now regarded as members of a separate phylum, the Acoelomorpha,[11][12] or as two separate phyla.[13] Xenoturbella, a genus of very simple animals,[14] has also been reclassified as a separate phylum.[15]
Some turbellarians have a simple pharynx lined with cilia and generally feed by using cilia to sweep food particles and small prey into their mouths, which are usually in the middle of their undersides. Most other turbellarians have a pharynx that is eversible (can be extended by being turned inside-out), and the mouths of different species can be anywhere along the underside.[3] The freshwater species Microstomum caudatum can open its mouth almost as wide as its body is long, to swallow prey about as large as itself.[6]
Most turbellarians have pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"), one pair in most species, but two or even three pairs in some. A few large species have many eyes in clusters over the brain, mounted on tentacles, or spaced uniformly around the edge of the body. The ocelli can only distinguish the direction from which light is coming and enable the animals to avoid it. A few groups have statocysts, fluid-filled chambers containing a small, solid particle or, in a few groups, two. These statocysts are thought to be balance and acceleration sensors, as that is the function they perform in cnidarian medusae and in ctenophores. However, turbellarian statocysts have no sensory cilia, and how they sense the movements and positions of the solid particles is unknown. On the other hand, most have ciliated touch-sensor cells scattered over their bodies, especially on tentacles and around the edges. Specialized cells in pits or grooves on the head are probably smell sensors.[6]
Planarians, a subgroup of seriates, are famous for their ability to regenerate if divided by cuts across their bodies. Experiments show that, in fragments that do not already have a head, a new head grows most quickly on those closest to the original head. This suggests the growth of a head is controlled by a chemical whose concentration diminishes from head to tail. Many turbellarians clone themselves by transverse or longitudinal division, and others, especially acoels, reproduce by budding.[6]
The vast majority of turbellarians are hermaphrodites (have both female and male reproductive cells), and fertilize eggs internally by copulation.[6] Some of the larger aquatic species mate by penis fencing, a duel in which each tries to impregnate the other, and the loser adopts the female role of developing the eggs.[16] In most species, "miniature adults" emerge when the eggs hatch, but a few large species produce plankton-like larvae.[6]
吸蟲綱的學名Trematoda源自希臘語的τρῆμα,意思就是一個孔洞,refers to the cavities in their holdfasts[3] which resemble suckers and anchor them within their hosts.[7] 。 The skin of all species is a syncitium, a layer of cells that shares a single external membrane. Trematodes are divided into two groups, Digenea and Aspidogastrea (also known as Aspodibothrea).[6]
These are often called flukes, as most have flat rhomboid shapes like that of a flounder (Old English flóc). There are about 11,000 species, more than all other platyhelminthes combined, and second only to roundworms among parasites on metazoans.[6] Adults usually have two holdfasts, a ring around the mouth and a larger sucker midway along what would be the underside in a free-living flatworm.[3] Although the name "Digeneans" means "two generations", most have very complex life cycles with up to seven stages, depending on what combinations of environments the early stages encounter – most importantly whether the eggs are deposited on land or in water. The intermediate stages transfer the parasites from one host to another. The definitive host in which adults develop is a land vertebrate, the earliest host of juvenile stages is usually a snail that may live on land or in water, and in many cases a fish or arthropod is the second host.[6] For example, the adjoining illustration shows the life cycle of the intestinal fluke metagonimus, which hatches in the intestine of a snail; moves to a fish, where it penetrates the body and encysts in the flesh; then moves to the small intestine of a land animal that eats the fish raw; and then generates eggs that are excreted and ingested by snails, thereby completing the cycle. Schistosomes, which cause the devastating tropical disease bilharzia, belong to this group.[17]
Adults range between 0.2 mm(0.0079英寸) and 6 mm(0.24英寸) in length. Individual adult digeneans are of a single sex, and in some species, slender females live in enclosed grooves that run along the bodies of the males, and partially emerge to lay eggs. In all species, the adults have complex reproductive systems and can produce between 10,000 and 100,000 times as many eggs as a free-living flatworm. In addition, the intermediate stages that live in snails reproduce asexually.[6]
Adults of different species infest different parts of the definitive host, for example the intestine, lungs, large blood vessels,[3] and liver.[6] The adults use a relatively large, muscular pharynx to ingest cells, cell fragments, mucus, body fluids or blood. In both the adults and the stages that live in snails, the external syncytium absorbs dissolved nutrients from the host. Adult digeneans can live without oxygen for long periods.[6]
Members of this small group have either a single divided sucker or a row of suckers that cover the underside.[6] They infest the guts of bony or cartilaginous fish and of turtles, and the body cavities of marine and freshwater bivalves and gastropods.[3] Their eggs produce ciliated swimming larvae, and the life cycle has one or two hosts.[6]
These parasites attach themselves to their hosts by means of disks that bear crescent-shaped hooks. They are divided into Monogenea and Cestoda.[6]
單殖綱,舊作單殖目,目前包括約1100個物種,絕大多數都是外部寄生蟲,需要特定物種作為中間宿主。體型細小,約2~3 cm長。這些中間宿主以魚類最為常見,但有時也可以是兩棲類或水生爬蟲類動物。少數屬於內部寄生蟲。單殖綱的成蟲在其後端有大型的附著器官,haptor(英语:haptor)s (Greek ἅπτειν, haptein, means "catch"), which have Sucker (parasitic worm anatomy)(英语:Sucker (parasitic worm anatomy)), clamp (zoology)(英语:clamp (zoology)), and hooks. They often have flattened bodies. In some species, the 咽 secretes enzymes to digest the host's skin, allowing the parasite to feed on blood and cellular debris. Others graze externally on mucus and flakes of the hosts' skins. 「單殖綱」這名稱源由於這些寄生蟲的生命週期只有一個非蚴階段(Nonlarval stage)[6]。
絛蟲有扁瘦但非常長的身體。其學名 “cestode”的字根源於拉丁語的 cestus,意思就是「帶子」。這3400個絛蟲的物種的成蟲都是內部寄生蟲。牠們沒有口部和腸臟, and the syncitial skin absorbs nutrients – mainly carbohydrates and amino acids – from the host, and also disguises it chemically to avoid attacks by the host's immune system.[6] Shortage of carbohydrates in the host's diet stunts the growth of the parasites and kills some. Their metabolisms generally use simple but inefficient chemical processes, and they compensate by consuming large amounts of food relative to their size.[3]
In the majority of species, known as eucestodes ("true tapeworms"), the neck produces a chain of segments called proglottids by a process known as strobilation. Hence, the most mature proglottids are furthest from the scolex. Adults of Taenia saginata, which infests humans, can form proglottid chains over 20米(66英尺) long, although 4米(13英尺) is more typical. Each proglottid has both male and female reproductive organs. If the host's gut contains two or more adults of the same cestode species, they generally fertilize each other, but proglottids of the same worm can fertilize each other and even fertilize themselves. When the eggs are fully developed, the proglottids separate and are excreted by the host. The eucestode life cycle is less complex than that of digeneans, but varies depending on the species. For example:
A members of the smaller group known as Cestodaria have no scolex, do not produce proglottids, and have body shapes like those of diageneans. Cestodarians parasitize fish and turtles.[3]
Acoelomorpha (Acoela and Nemertodermatida)
Deuterostomia (Echinoderms, chordates, etc.)
ProtostomiaEcdysozoa
(Arthropods, nematodes, priapulids, etc.)
Phoronida and Brachiopoda
PlatyzoaOther Platyzoa
Platyhelminthes
Tricladida
(planarians)
Neodermata
(all parasitic: flukes, tapeworms, etc.)
The oldest confidently identified parasitic flatworm fossils are cestode eggs found in a Permian shark coprolite, but helminth hooks still attached to Devonian acanthodians and placoderms might also represent parasitic flatworms with simple life cycles.[22] The oldest known free-living platyhelminth specimen is a fossil preserved in Eocene age Baltic amber and placed in the monotypic species Micropalaeosoma balticus,[23] while the oldest subfossil specimens are schistosome eggs discovered in ancient Egyptian mummies.[7] The Platyhelminthes have very few synapomorphies, distinguishing features that all Platyhelminthes and no other animals have. This makes it difficult to work out both their relationships with other groups of animals and the relationships between different groups that are described as members of the Platyhelminthes.[24]
The "traditional" view before the 1990s was that Platyhelminthes formed the sister group to all the other bilaterians, which include, for example, arthropods, molluscs, annelids and chordates. Since then molecular phylogenetics, which aims to work out evolutionary "family trees" by comparing different organisms' biochemicals such as DNA, RNA and proteins, has radically changed scientists' view of evolutionary relationships between animals.[11] Detailed morphological analyses of anatomical features in the mid-1980s and molecular phylogenetics analyses since 2000 using different sections of DNA agree that Acoelomorpha, consisting of Acoela (traditionally regarded as very simple "turbellarians"[6]) and Nemertodermatida (another small group previously classified as "turbellarians"[10]) are the sister group to all other bilaterians, including the rest of the Platyhelminthes.[11][12] However, a 2007 study concluded that Acoela and Nemertodermatida were two distinct groups of bilaterians, although it agreed that both are more closely related to cnidarians (jellyfish, etc.) than other bilaterians are.[13]
Xenoturbella, a bilaterian whose only well-defined organ is a statocyst, was originally classified as a "primitive turbellarian".[14] However, it has recently been reclassified as a deuterostome.[15][25]
The Platyhelminthes excluding Acoelomorpha contain two main groups, Catenulida and Rhabditophora, both of which are generally agreed to be monophyletic (each contains all and only the descendants of an ancestor that is a member of the same group).[12][19] Early molecular phylogenetics analyses of the Catenulida and Rhabditophora left uncertainties about whether these could be combined in a single monophyletic group, but a study in 2008 concluded they could, therefore Platyhelminthes could be redefined as Catenulida plus Rhabditophora, excluding the Acoelomorpha.[12]
Other molecular phylogenetics analyses agree the redefined Platyhelminthes are most closely related to Gastrotricha, and both are part of a grouping known as Platyzoa. Platyzoa are generally agreed to be at least closely related to the Lophotrochozoa, a superphylum that includes molluscs and annelid worms. The majority view is that Platyzoa are part of Lophotrochozoa, but a significant minority of researchers regard Platyzoa as a sister group of Lophotrochozoa.[11]
It has been agreed since 1985 that each of the wholly parasitic platyhelminth groups (Cestoda, Monogenea and Trematoda) is monophyletic, and that together these form a larger monophyletic grouping, the Neodermata, in which the adults of all members have syncitial skins.[26] However, there is debate about whether the Cestoda and Monogenea can be combined as an intermediate monophyletic group, the Cercomeromorpha, within the Neodermata.[26][27] It is generally agreed that the Neodermata are a sub-group a few levels down in the "family tree" of the Rhabditophora.[12] Hence the traditional sub-phylum "Turbellaria" is paraphyletic, since it does not include the Neodermata although these are descendants of a sub-group of "turbellarians".[28]
An outline of the origins of the parasitic life style has been proposed.[29] Epithelial feeding monopisthocotyleans on fish hosts are basal in the Neodermata and were the first shift to parasitism from free living ancestors. The next evolutionary step was a dietary change from epithelium to blood. The last common ancestor of Digenea + Cestoda was monogenean and most likely sanguinivorous.
The earliest known fossils of tapeworms have been dated to 270百萬年前. They were found in coprolites (fossilised faeces) from an elasmobranch.[1]
Cestodes (tapeworms) and digeneans (flukes) cause important diseases in humans and their livestock, and monogeneans can cause serious losses of stocks in fish farms.[30] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is the second-most devastating parasitic disease in tropical countries, behind malaria. The Carter Center estimated 200 million people in 74 countries are infected with the disease, and half the victims live in Africa. The condition has a low mortality rate, but often is a chronic illness that can damage internal organs. It can impair the growth and cognitive development of children, and increase the risk of bladder cancer in adults. The disease is caused by several flukes of the genus Schistosoma, which can bore through human skin. The people most at risk are those who use infected bodies of water for recreation or laundry.[17]
In 2000, an estimated 45 million people were infected with the beef tapeworm Taenia saginata and 3 million with the pork tapeworm Taenia solium.[30] Infection of the digestive system by adult tapeworms causes abdominal symptoms that are unpleasant but not disabling or life-threatening.[31][32] However, neurocysticercosis resulting from penetration of T. solium larvae into the central nervous system is the major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide.[33] In 2000, about 39 million people were infected with trematodes (flukes) that naturally parasitize fish and crustaceans, but can pass to humans who eat raw or lightly cooked seafood. Infection of humans by the broad fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum occasionally causes vitamin B12 deficiency and, in severe cases, megaloblastic anemia.[30]
The threat to humans in developed countries is rising as a result of social trends: the increase in organic farming, which uses manure and sewage sludge rather than artificial fertilizers, and spreads parasites both directly and via the droppings of seagulls which feed on manure and sludge; the increasing popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods; imports of meat, seafood and salad vegetables from high-risk areas; and, as an underlying cause, reduced awareness of parasites compared with other public health issues such as pollution. In less-developed countries, inadequate sanitation and the use of human feces (night soil) as fertilizer and to enrich fish farm ponds continues to spread parasitic platyhelminths, and poorly designed water-supply and irrigation projects have provided additional channels for their spread. People in these countries often cannot afford the cost of fuel required to cook food thoroughly enough to kill parasites. Controlling parasites that infect humans and livestock has become more difficult, as many species have become resistant to drugs that used to be effective, mainly for killing juveniles in meat.[30] While poorer countries still struggle with unintentional infection, cases have been reported of intentional infection in the US by dieters desperate for rapid weight-loss.[34]
There is concern about the proliferation in northwest Europe, including the British Isles, of the New Zealand planarian Arthurdendyus triangulatus and the Australian flatworm Australoplana sanguinea, both of which prey on earthworms.[35] A. triangulatus is thought to have reached Europe in containers of plants imported by botanical gardens.[36]
In Hawaii, the planarian Endeavouria septemlineata has been used to control the imported giant African snail Achatina fulica, which was displacing native snails, and Platydemus manokwari, another planarian, has been used for the same purpose in Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea and Guam. Although A. fulica has declined sharply in Hawaii, there are doubts about how much E. septemlineata contributed to this. However, P. manokwari is given credit for severely reducing, and in places exterminating, A. fulica – achieving much greater success than most biological pest control programs, which generally aim for a low, stable population of the pest species. The ability of planarians to take different kinds of prey and to resist starvation may account for their ability to decimate A. fulica. However, these abilities have raised concerns that planarians may themselves become a serious threat to native snails.[37] [38]
A study[39] in La Plata, Argentina shows the potential for planarians such as Girardia anceps, Mesostoma ehrenbergii, and Bothromesostoma evelinae to reduce populations of the mosquito species Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens. The experiment showed that G. anceps in particular can prey on all instars of both mosquito species and maintain a steady predation rate over time. The ability for these flatworms to live in artificial containers showed the potential of placing these species in popular mosquito breeding sites, which would ideally reduce the amount of mosquito-borne diseases.
以下為按照傳統分類方法最新近的分類:
根據分子親緣支序學,本門的物種都被重新分類過,與傳統分類的差異很大。現時本門物種被分為下列兩大支:
扁形动物门(學名:Platyhelminthes;語源:πλατύ platy 扁平 + ἑλμινθ- helminth- 蟲)是动物界的一个门,無脊椎動物,是一类簡單的無環節两侧对称动物,有三胚层,无体腔,無呼吸系統、無循環系統,有口无肛门的动物。所以必須保持身體扁平,以使氧氣及養料能夠透過滲透來吸收。消化腔只有一個開口,同時用於進食及排洩;所以食物在其體內無法有效處理。
已记录的扁形动物约有15000种。生活於淡水、海水等潮溼處,體前端有兩個可感光的色素點。體表部分或全部分布有纖毛。
傳統的醫學文獻會將扁形動物劃分為非寄生的渦蟲綱(例如:真渦蟲科的物種)和三個會寄生的物種的綱:絛蟲綱、吸蟲綱及單殖綱。然而,由於渦蟲綱已證實並非單系群,這種劃分方式在動物學來看已經過時。 非寄生的扁蟲都是捕食者,棲息於水中或遮蔭的陸上潮濕環境,例如:落葉堆。絛蟲和吸蟲的生命週期比較複雜:牠們的成熟階段會以寄生蟲的形式居住在魚類或陸上脊椎動物的消化系統裡;而中間宿主階段會尋找可被感染的中間宿主。吸虫的卵从最终宿主体内排出,而成年绦虫会产生大量雌雄同体的节片,在成熟后会分离,排出宿主,再释放卵。与其他寄生的类群不同,单殖纲是水生生物的体外寄生虫,其幼虫在附着于合适宿主厚变态为成虫。
因为扁形动物没有体腔,它们曾被认为是最原始的两侧对称动物(有两侧对称,有头尾之分的动物)。但是,在1980年代中期以来的研究发现原来被分类为扁形动物的一个群体,无腔动物门,离最初的两侧对称动物较任何其他现代类群更近。除去无腔动物后的扁形动物门是一个单系群,即是有一个共同祖先及其所有后裔组成的。扁形动物门属于冠轮动物,是较复杂的两侧对称动物的三个进化支之一。These analyses had concluded the redefined Platyhelminthes, excluding Acoelomorpha, consists of two monophyletic subgroups, Catenulida and Rhabditophora, with Cestoda, Trematoda and Monogenea forming a monophyletic subgroup within one branch of the Rhabditophora. Hence, the traditional platyhelminth subgroup "Turbellaria" is now regarded as paraphyletic, since it excludes the wholly parasitic groups, although these are descended from one group of "turbellarians".
超过一半已知的扁形动物属于 寄生虫, and some do enormous harm to humans and their livestock. Schistosomiasis, caused by one genus of trematodes, is the second-most devastating of all human diseases caused by parasites, surpassed only by malaria. Neurocysticercosis, which arises when larvae of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium penetrate the central nervous system, is the major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide. The threat of platyhelminth parasites to humans in developed countries is rising because of the popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods, and imports of food from high-risk areas. In less developed countries, people often cannot afford the fuel required to cook food thoroughly, and poorly designed water-supply and irrigation projects increase the dangers presented by poor sanitation and unhygienic farming.
Two planarian species have been used successfully in the Philippines, Indonesia, Hawaii, New Guinea, and Guam to control populations of the imported giant African snail Achatina fulica, which was displacing native snails. However, there is now concern that these planarians may themselves become a serious threat to native snails. In northwest Europe, there are concerns about the spread of the New Zealand planarian Arthurdendyus triangulatus, which preys on earthworms.
扁形動物(へんけいどうぶつ)とは、扁形動物門 Platyhelminthes に属する動物の総称。プラナリア、ヒラムシ、コウガイビル、サナダムシなどが扁形動物門に属する。
「扁形」と呼ばれるようにこの門の動物は平らな形をしている。循環器官や特別な呼吸器官を持ってはいない。血管やえらがなく、体に栄養や酸素を運ぶには拡散に頼っている。種類によっては細長くなったりする。太くなったり、丸くなったりすることは構造上ほとんど不可能である。 扁形動物は左右相称の体を持つ動物(ビラテリア)の中では非常に原始的な特徴を持っている。渦虫綱のものは、ほとんどが自由生活であり、大部分が水中生活をするが、それ以外の綱に属するものは、全てが寄生生活であり、体の構造の単純化が著しい。
左右相称で、前後と腹背の区別がある。自由生活のものでは、眼点や平衡胞、触覚器などを備えた頭部があり、内部には神経の集まった脳が形成される。寄生生活のものではそれらはほとんど退化し、その代わりに吸盤など体を固定するための器官が発達している。
内部は三胚葉性であるが、それ以外の三胚葉性動物とは異なり、その中胚葉は筋細胞と間充織が表皮と腸管の間を埋める状態にある。体腔がないので無体腔動物と呼ばれる。腸管は袋状で、出入口が一緒になっているため口と肛門が同じである。消化管は分枝して体内に広がり、各部で消化吸収が行われる。ただし、無腸類では消化管は腔所として存在しない。口の内側は多核で細胞の区別がない合胞体になっている体内につながり、ここに食物を取り込み、細胞内消化する。なお、吸虫では消化管は残っているが、条虫では完全に退化している。
神経系は中枢神経と末梢神経が区別でき、また頭部には脳が形成される。そこから後方へ左右一本の側神経が後方へ伸び、ほぼはしご形神経系に近いが、体節的構造がはっきりしないためかご型神経系と呼ばれる。
大部分では体内受精が行われ、交尾器が発達しているものが多い。生殖は分裂などの無性生殖(無性子)と卵などを産む有性生殖(有性子)の二種類がある。卵は5-8匹孵り1つの卵の中に卵細胞がいくつか入っているものもある。また、寄生性のサナダムシ類や吸虫類には、幼生が多胚形成などによって無性的に増殖するものがある。渦虫綱のものにも分裂で増殖する種が多く、それらでは再生能力も高い。
螺旋卵割。渦虫綱のものでは、多岐腸類に簡単な幼生を生じるものがあり、それらはミュラー幼生やゲッテ幼生と呼ばれる。繊毛帯を持ち、肛門がない点を除けばややトロコフォア幼生に似る。しかし多くのものでは直接発生が行われる。吸虫や条虫など寄生性のものでは、それぞれにかなり特殊化した幼生が見られる。
伝統的に以下のように分ける。しかし、分子系統の方からは渦虫綱が単系統ではないとの指摘がある。
サナダムシの仲間。
魚介類の寄生虫。
扁形動物(へんけいどうぶつ)とは、扁形動物門 Platyhelminthes に属する動物の総称。プラナリア、ヒラムシ、コウガイビル、サナダムシなどが扁形動物門に属する。
「扁形」と呼ばれるようにこの門の動物は平らな形をしている。循環器官や特別な呼吸器官を持ってはいない。血管やえらがなく、体に栄養や酸素を運ぶには拡散に頼っている。種類によっては細長くなったりする。太くなったり、丸くなったりすることは構造上ほとんど不可能である。 扁形動物は左右相称の体を持つ動物(ビラテリア)の中では非常に原始的な特徴を持っている。渦虫綱のものは、ほとんどが自由生活であり、大部分が水中生活をするが、それ以外の綱に属するものは、全てが寄生生活であり、体の構造の単純化が著しい。