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Tree Of Heaven

Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle

Associations

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Foodplant / spot causer
amphigenous colony of Mycocentrospora anamorph of Mycocentrospora acerina causes spots on live leaf of Ailanthus altissima

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Comments

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In Pakistan it is cultivated as a roadside tree on hills.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
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S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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Description

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A large polygamous tree, upto 30 m high or more. Leaves large, 30-40 cm or more long. Leaflets upto 12 cm long, 2.5-4 cm broad, alternate, ovate-lanceolate, usually cordate at base, glabrous except the veins and midrib near the base, with 2-4 coarse teeth, each with a large gland beneath, margin almost entire. Petiolules 2-10 mm long; midrib prominent. Inflorescence panicle, 10-30 cm long. Bracts minute. Flowers c. 7.0 mm across. Calyx 5-lobed, unequal, sepals much smaller than petals, c. 1 mm long and 0.5 mm broad, valvate, joined at the base, margin serrulate, glabrous, ovate, acuminate. Petals spreading, c.3 x 1.5 mm, glabrous, hairy at the base. Staminate flower with 10 stamens, filaments c. 3 mm long, arising from the base of small 10- lobed disc; anthers 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally. Pistillate flower: ovary deeply divided, ovule solitary in each cell. Fruit samara, 3.5-5 cm long, twisted at the top, light reddish brown.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
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S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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Description

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Trees, deciduous, up to 20 m tall; bark smooth and straightly grained. Branches with pith, yellow or yellow-brown pubescent when young, then glabrescent. Leaves odd-pinnate, 40-60 cm; petiole 7-13 cm; leaflets 13-27, opposite or nearly so; blades ovate-lanceolate, abaxially dark green, adaxially gray-green, smelly when rubbed. Panicles 10-30 cm. Flowers light green; pedicel 1-2.5 mm. Sepals 5, imbricate, 0.5-1 mm. Petals 5, 2-2.5 mm, base hispid. Stamens 10; filaments densely hispid basally, longer than petals in males, shorter than petals in females; anthers oblong, ca. 1 mm. Carpels 5; styles connate; stigmas 5-lobed. Samarium oblong, 3-4.5 × 1-1.2 cm. Seed in middle of wing, flat-globose. Fl. Apr-May, fr. Aug-Oct.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of China Vol. 11: 100, 101 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Distribution

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Distribution: Native in China, cultivated in temperate and subtropical regions of the world and often naturalized.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
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S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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Distribution

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All regions of China except Hainan, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Ningxia, Qinghai [widely cultivated and naturalized elsewhere].
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of China Vol. 11: 100, 101 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Flower/Fruit

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Fl. Per.: May-June Fr. Per.: July-August.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
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S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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eFloras.org
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Habitat

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● Found in many habitats; 100-2500 m.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of China Vol. 11: 100, 101 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Brief Summary

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Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima), also known ailanthus, Chinese sumac, and stinking shumac, is a deciduous tree in the mostly tropical Simaroubaceae family. Mature trees can reach 80 feet in height. Ailanthus has smooth stems with pale gray bark and twigs which are light chestnut brown, especially in the dormant season. Its large compound leaves are 1-4 feet in length, alternate, and composed of 10-41 smaller leaflets. Each leaflet has one or more glandular teeth along the lower margin. The leaf margins are otherwise entire or lacking teeth. Ailanthus is a dioecious (“two houses”) plant meaning that male and female flowers occur on separate plants. Flowers occur in large terminal clusters and are small and pale yellow to greenish. Flat, twisted, winged fruits each containing a single central seed are produced on female trees in late summer to early fall and may remain on the trees for long periods of time. The wood of ailanthus is soft, weak, coarse-grained, and creamy white to light brown in color. All parts of the tree, especially the leaves and flowers, have a nutty or burned nut odor.

Tree-of-heaven is a fast-growing tree and a prolific seeder that can take over sites, replacing native plants and forming dense thickets. Ailanthus also produces chemicals that prevent the establishment of other plant species nearby. Its root system may be extensive and has been known to cause damage to sewers and foundations.

Tree-of-heaven is a common tree in disturbed urban areas, where it sprouts up just about anywhere, including alleys, sidewalks, parking lots, and streets. For example, the book “A Tree Grows in Brooklyn,” by Betty Smith, is based on the tree-of-heaven. Away from cities, ailanthus is commonly seen in fields, and along roadsides, fencerows, woodland edges and forest openings. It occurs as seedlings that pop up by the hundreds in recently planted fields and as persistent thickets in rocky, untillable areas. In the United States, ailanthus is recognized to be a serious agricultural pest.

NOTE: It is important not to confuse native shrubs and trees with ailanthus. Native sumacs (Rhus) and trees like ash (Fraxinus), hickory (Carya), black walnut, butternut and pecan (Juglans) can be distinguished from tree-of-heaven by having completely serrated (toothed) leaf margins.

Common Hungarian name - mixup with 'vinegar tree'

provided by EOL authors
The common Hungarian name for the "Tree of Heaven" is "Bálványfa". Unfortunately, most people, even gardeners, call it "ecetfa" that can be translated word by word as "vinegar tree" which is actually a different specimen: 'Rhus typhina'. It would be interesting to know if there was a similar confusion in other languages/regions other than hungary.
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Breeding system

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More info for the terms: bisexual, dioecious, seed

Tree-of-heaven is mostly dioecious. Rarely, either bisexual trees or trees with both bisexual and unisexual flowers are found [71,104,148,211,328].

As with most species with wind-dispersed seed, tree-of-heaven appears to have a relatively uniform genetic system, with most diversity occurring among rather than within populations [94,249]. Because most North American tree-of-heaven populations originated from 3 introductions [71,139,288,312] (see General Distribution), they may be less genetically diverse than native Asian populations. A comparison of tree-of-heaven seedlings germinated from seed collections from 5 locations across the United States and 5 locations across China showed significant differences in height growth (P=0.01), root:shoot ratios (P=0.05), and leaf area (P=0.05) among seedlings from the United States and Chinese seedlings. Populations from the United States were taller, allocated relatively less biomass to roots than stems, and had greater leaf areas than Chinese populations [94]. In a common garden study comparing seedlings of populations within the United States, Feret and others [95] found California populations were significantly taller than eastern populations (P=0.01). Seed width and biomass were correlated with latitude (t=0.96), with northern populations having the widest, heaviest seeds. Feret [93] found some tree-of-heaven seed and seedling growth characteristics of provenances from the eastern United States and California appeared random, and they were not correlated (nor appeared best adapted) to site or geographic location. He reported significant differences between North American and Chinese tree-of-heaven provenances for seed and seedling characteristics. Contrary to expectations, there was no evidence of inbreeding depression in North American provenances compared to native Chinese provenances [93].

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bibliographic citation
Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: tree

tree-of-heaven

tree of heaven

stink tree

Chinese sumac
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bibliographic citation
Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Conservation Status

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More info for the term: forest

Tree-of-heaven is classified as a noxious or invasive plant on National Forest System lands [298,300] and in many states. Information on state-level noxious weed status of plants in the United States is available at Plants Database.
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bibliographic citation
Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Description

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More info for the terms: density, forest, fruit, perfect, ramet, tree

Botanical description: The following description of tree-of-heaven provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (for example, [71,104,105,135,199,317,324]). Billings and others [28] provide a key for identifying tree-of-heaven and other eastern trees in winter.

Tree-of-heaven is deciduous. It may reach 60 to 70 feet (18-21 m) in height, 80 feet (24 m) in crown width, and 20 feet (6 m) in trunk diameter at maturity [8,71,105,308]. The champion tree as of 2010 was in Virginia; it reached 55 feet (17 m) in height, 48 feet (15 m) in spread, and 20 feet in diameter [8]. Tree-of-heaven may be shrubby when suppressed beneath the canopy or pruned regularly [104]. It has smooth, thin bark and a straight bole. Branches are brittle and self-pruning [71,104,105,308]. There are 2 branch types: long and short shoots. Long shoots are sterile and may extend 18 feet (5 m), while short shoots bear flowers and rarely reach more than 18 inches (46 cm) long [63]. The large, malodorous leaves are pinnately compound, with prominent glands on the back of each leaflet. Leaflets range from 15 to 41 in number, and total leaf length may reach 3 feet (1 m) [71,104,105,308]. Leaf stipules have nectaries that excrete sugars [30].

Most flowers are unisexual, but some trees may have perfect flowers [328]. The inflorescence is a 4- to 7-inch (10-20 cm) long panicle with 6- to 8-mm long flowers. Staminate flowers have a strong odor that is objectionable to humans. Fruits are one-seeded, dry schizocarps with wings. They are 1 to 2 inches (2.5-5 cm) long and propeller-shaped, resembling maple (Acer spp.) fruits [71,104,135,136,147,149,250,317]. The fruits grow in clusters; a fruit cluster may contain hundreds of seeds [163]. Seeds average 0.2 Ã 1.0 inch (0.6 Ã 0.25 cm) in area [9] and 27 mg in mass [201].

Roots are shallow and wide-spread [211]. Young trees have a taproot and several large lateral roots [230,248,249], although the taproot may diminish with age [211]. Ramets do not have taproots. In dry, rocky soil or beneath pavement, tree-of-heaven grows long, horizontal roots that do not branch until reaching a more favorable substrate [230,248,249]. Roots near the trunk thicken with age, serving as storage organs. Deep roots send out smaller roots that grow near the soil surface; stem shoots generally sprout from these shallow roots. Most roots occur in the upper 18 inches (46 cm) of soil [211].

Stand structure: Tree-of-heaven typically occurs in clumps, although it may form rows along streams, roads, and fences, and occasionally it grows as widely spaced, single stems. Clumping can result from an even-aged seedling establishment or from clonal expansion through root sprouting [249]. Open-grown colonies may eventually become dense by sprouting. Davis [61] observed a half-acre (0.2 ha) stand in Kentucky that had 32 stems. Stands subject to infrequent control measures may develop into even-aged thickets [77,151]. Untreated stands self-thin, so the stand tends to become even-aged over time. Two years after tree-of-heaven harvest in Pennsylvania, density of tree-of-heaven sprouts averaged 17,860 two-year-old sprouts/acre (mean height=9 feet (3 m)), with 10,019 one-year-old sprouts/acre (mean height=2 feet (0.6 m)). After 3 years many of the sprouts had died, so dead stems were more common than live stems [151]. Sprouts volunteering in closed-canopy understories remain suppressed and few in number. For example, Hunter [148] reported scattered, single-stemmed trees-of-heaven—rather than thickets—in the understory of a mixed-evergreen forest in northern California. On the Jefferson National Forest, Virginia, tree-of-heaven had a clumped distribution on low-leave shelterwood sites and a random distribution on clearcuts and high-leave shelterwood sites [47].

    Figure 3—Over- and understory trees-of-heaven. Photo © John M. Randall, The Nature Conservancy.

There are few clues as to tree-of-heaven's original growth habit in China, where it is native. As valued ornamentals, mature trees-of-heaven in China are often pruned to aesthetically pleasing, single-stemmed forms, with sprouts harvested for firewood and medicinal uses [140,249].

Life span: Tree-of-heaven is typically short-lived, with life spans ranging from 30 to 70 years [85,163,211]. Cloning from root sprouts can extend ramet life hundreds of years [148]. Sprouts from the first tree-of-heaven in North America, planted in Philadelphia's Bartram Botanical Garden 1784, still existed at the turn of the 21st century [45].

Physiology: Tree-of-heaven has several physiological adaptations that probably aid in its establishment and spread. It appears to be allelopathic [64,184,190,206,209,217]. Chemical extracts from the leaves, bark, roots, and seeds have inhibited germination and growth of other plant species in the laboratory [129,130,131,184]. Allelopathic chemicals (ailanthone and other compounds identified in these sources: [9,10,64,206]) are concentrated in roots and in young trees, with young ramets producing more toxins than older trees [129,184].

Open-grown trees-of-heaven are highly efficient at photosynthesis [30,33,34,122,194,207] and store large quantities of photosynthate in stems and roots [30,33,34,194,207]. Foliar nectaries excrete photosynthates during growth and flower initiation [31]. A study in a Mediterranean region of Spain found that even after 5 years of once- or twice-yearly cuttings, leaves from new tree-of-heaven sprouts showed higher rates of stomatal conductance in spring than leaves of uncut trees-of-heaven. The authors conjectured that regulating stomatal conductance helps sprouting trees-of-heaven grow quickly [54].

Tree-of-heaven is drought tolerant [87]. In Nava-Constan and others' [54] experiment in Spain, trees-of-heaven showed more positive leaf water potentials than native flowering ashes (Fraxinus ornus). Conflicting information states tree-of-heaven is intolerant [108] or tolerant [18,87] of flooding. Further observations and field studies are needed to resolve this conflict.

Tree-of-heaven is highly tolerant of most industrial pollutants [207,253], although it is sensitive to ozone pollution [111]. In a highly polluted area of Armenia, tree-of-heaven showed the least damage and best growth of 8 urban tree species (Derojan 1958 cited in [93]).

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bibliographic citation
Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Distribution

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More info for the terms: forest, mesic, seed

Tree-of-heaven is native to Taiwan and central China, where it occurs from 22o to 34o N in latitude [304]. It is nonnative in North America, where it is distributed from British Columbia, southern Ontario and Quebec, and Maine south to Florida, Texas, southern California, and Mexico [105,158,208,297,328]. Tree-of-heaven spread in North America apparently followed 3 introductions from China. It was 1st imported to Pennsylvania in 1784 as an ornamental [71,93,139,287,288,312]. A 2nd introduction occurred in New York in 1820, where tree-of-heaven was again planted as an ornamental [62]. Both eastern introductions were from English stock imported from China. Tree-of-heaven was commercially available in eastern nurseries by 1840. The 3rd introduction was in California during the Gold Rush of the mid-1800s. Chinese immigrating to work in the gold fields and in construction of the transcontinental railroad brought tree-of-heaven to California, probably because of the tree's medicinal and cultural importance in their homeland (see Other Uses) [139,288]. Tree-of-heaven was first planted in Hawaii in 1924 [321]. Plants database provides a map of tree-of-heaven's distribution in the United States.

A century after the North American introductions, tree-of-heaven is still most common in its initial centers of distribution: the Northeast and California. In the eastern United States, it is most invasive from New England south to the mid-Atlantic states [93,233]. Tree-of-heaven is frequently found in the upper Midwest. It is weakly invasive in the middle and southern Great Plains [114,258]. It is uncommon south of North Carolina in the Southeast and in the South [82,233,324], but it is spreading in the South. By a 2008 estimate, tree-of-heaven was present in over 214,000 acres (86,600 ha) of southern forests [208]. In the West, tree-of-heaven is common throughout much of California and is locally common in Oregon and Washington [93,137]. In California, it is invasive in the Bay Area, the Central Valley, and in foothill counties with a history of gold mining (figure 2) [139,153]. It grows along waterways in the Pacific Northwest, including banks of the Snake and Columbia rivers [137]. In the Southwest it invades riparian zones and mesic canyons [287].

Figure 2—Tree-of-heaven (just to left of fence) in Coumbia State Park, CA. USDA, Forest Service image by Janet Fryer.

Tree-of-heaven has established in temperate climates throughout the world. Its earliest introductions may have been in Japan and Korea, where it is probably not native [191]. It was introduced in Europe in the 1700s and has become widespread there [86,163,288]. Using seed from European trees, introductions in Argentina, Australia, and Africa followed [139,140]. Kowarik [172] views human settlements as centers of distribution for tree-of-heaven, with roads providing the migration routes.

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Fire Management Considerations

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More info for the terms: density, fire suppression, restoration, seed

Due to its ability to sprout from the roots, fire is not recommended for tree-of-heaven control [147,163,275]. Limited fire studies [11,20,39,150,196,247] and anecdotal information [185] suggest that fire may increase tree-of-heaven density. Tree-of-heaven is capable of rapid growth even under adverse conditions, and it grows best with increased nutrient and open canopy conditions [14,34,124,163,166,173,228], which fire can create. Pomp [247] recommends removing tree-of-heaven from the understory prior to prescribed burning or logging.

Whenever there is a nearby tree-of-heaven seed source, disturbed sites require monitoring and follow-up treatments to prevent tree-of-heaven invasion and spread. Roadways, skid trails, and other disturbed grounds are corridors for tree-of-heaven invasion [40,46]. By disturbing soil, fire suppression efforts may lead to postfire establishment if there are trees-of-heaven nearby. Fire-fighting machinery can also disperse tree-of-heaven seed. Washing equipment before it enters fire suppression zones can help prevent tree-of-heaven invasion on burned sites. Postfire monitoring and treatment of skid trails is also advised [232].

Preventing invasive plants from establishing in weed-free burned areas is the most effective and least costly management method. This may be accomplished through early detection and eradication, careful monitoring and follow-up, and limiting dispersal of invasive plant propagules into burned areas. General recommendations for preventing postfire establishment and spread of invasive plants include:
  • Incorporate cost of weed prevention and management into fire rehabilitation plans
  • Acquire restoration funding
  • Include weed prevention education in fire training
  • Minimize soil disturbance and vegetation removal during fire suppression and rehabilitation activities
  • Minimize the use of retardants that may alter soil nutrient availability, such as those containing nitrogen and phosphorus
  • Avoid areas dominated by high priority invasive plants when locating firelines, monitoring camps, staging areas, and helibases
  • Clean equipment and vehicles prior to entering burned areas
  • Regulate or prevent human and livestock entry into burned areas until desirable site vegetation has recovered sufficiently to resist invasion by undesirable vegetation
  • Monitor burned areas and areas of significant disturbance or traffic from management activity
  • Detect weeds early and eradicate before vegetative spread and/or seed dispersal
  • Eradicate small patches and contain or control large infestations within or adjacent to the burned area
  • Reestablish vegetation on bare ground as soon as possible
  • Avoid use of fertilizers in postfire rehabilitation and restoration
  • Use only certified weed-free seed mixes when revegetation is necessary
For more detailed information on these topics, see the following publications: [13,37,109,301].
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Fire Regime Table

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Fire Regimes

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More info for the terms: fire exclusion, fire regime, seed, succession

The fire ecology of tree-of-heaven in its native China was not available in English-language literature as of this writing (2010). Tree-of-heaven is common in long-settled, densely populated regions of China. Although its pharmacological use is mentioned in early Chinese writings, Hu [140] reported that Chinese-language references to its historical ecology were lacking as of 1979. Tree-of-heaven's ability to sprout from photosynthate-storing roots and establish from off-site, wind-dispersed seed; its extraordinarily rapid growth rate; early age of seed production; and its appearance in early successional plant communities in North America (see Botanical and Ecological Characteristics) all suggest that tree-of-heaven has been subject to evolutionary pressures of frequent, stand-replacement disturbances. Whatever FIRE REGIMES tree-of-heaven's native ecosystems were subject to in the past, tree-of-heaven's ability to establish on disturbed sites and persist into late succession suggests that it is well-adapted to survive under a wide range of FIRE REGIMES. See the Fire Regime Table for information on FIRE REGIMES of North American plant communities in which tree-of-heaven may occur. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".

In North America, tree-of-heaven has invaded ecosystems where, for the most part, historic FIRE REGIMES are no longer functional (for example, see [12,239,313,322]). Dodge [76] speculates that fire exclusion in rare sugar maple-sweet birch communities of High Mountain Park Preserve, New Jersey, may have fostered establishment of tree-of-heaven. However, only a few fire studies have been conducted on tree-of-heaven to date (2010), so it is impossible to assess how—or whether—tree-of-heaven has altered historic FIRE REGIMES in North America.

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Fire adaptations and plant response to fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: basal area, density, ferns, fire management, fire severity, forbs, forest, fuel, marsh, root crown, root sprout, seed, severity, shrub, shrubs, top-kill, tree

Tree-of-heaven sprouts after top-kill by fire [103,274,299]. It sprouts from the roots, root crown, and/or bole after other aboveground damage (see Vegetative regeneration); so any of these sprouting strategies may occur after top-kill by fire, with root sprouting most likely. Anecdotal accounts suggest that tree-of-heaven is "able to sprout vigorously when...burnt" [185] and persists in some areas "despite...burning" [309]. The fire studies below provide other evidence of tree-of-heaven's ability to survive fire. It is likely—given its large, extended root system [211,230,248,249] and its ability to root sprout and show increased growth rates under fertilization [124]—that tree-of-heaven can flourish in postfire environments. As one of the fastest-growing trees in North America [166,244,259], tree-of-heaven may outcompete native woody species for the open spaces and flush of nutrients that often occur after fire. Further studies on the fire ecology of tree-of-heaven are needed.

Tree-of-heaven can also establish from seed after fire. Although this was documented in only 1 study as of 2010 [196], the potential for postfire tree-of-heaven seedling establishment seems high. Its seed disperses easily by wind [82,163,275], and tree-of-heaven is known to establish from seed in early-successional, disturbed environments other than burns [34,163,166,228] (see Successional Status).

Fire studies: Tree-of-heaven sprouted after the Chavez and Rio Grande Complex wildfires in Rio Grande cottonwood (Populus deltoides subsp. wislizeni) communities along the Middle Rio Grande, New Mexico [299]. It also sprouted after top-kill following 2 separate automobile-ignited fires at the same location in San Diego County, California. It was the only green vegetation in the burned area in postfire year 1 [103]. In mixed oak-pine forests of the Cooper State Forest and Wildlife Management Area, Tennessee, tree-of-heaven grew on sites burned under prescription [20].

Studies on the George Washington National Forest, West Virginia [196,247], and Tar Hollow State Forest, Ohio [11,39,150] show that prescribed burning or thinning and burning may increase tree-of-heaven abundance over prefire or pretreatment levels.

One year after late March prescribed fires on the George Washington National Forest, tree-of-heaven increased on 2 of 3 study sites compared to prefire abundance; these increases were not considered significant except on the upper portion of 1 site, where tree-of-heaven increased exponentially. All postfire tree-of-heaven regeneration was from seedling establishment. The community was a Table Mountain pine-pitch pine-chestnut oak-scarlet oak/mountain-laurel (Pinus pungens-P. rigida-Quercus prinus-Q. coccinea/Kalmia latifolia) forest [196] where fire had been excluded for 81 years. Elevation ranged from 1,880 to 2,782 feet (573-848 m) [247]. Plots on the 3 study sites (Heavener Mountain, Dunkle Knob, and Brushy Knob) were distinguished by aspect and elevation (above or below 2,400 feet (732 m)) [196]. Fire management objectives were to reduce fuel loads, reduce understory shrubs and trees, and increase wildlife forage in groundlayer vegetation. Fire conditions were [196]:

Fire weather conditions for prescribed March fires in a pine-oak forest on the George Washington National Forest [196]   Heavener Mountain Dunkle Knob Date 25 March 2009 29 March 2009 Air temperature 18-27 °C 11-21 °C Relative humidity 32-50% 29-76% Wind direction mostly SW; SE in late afternoon NW and SE Windspeed 1.6-9 km/h 2-10 km/h

Tree-of-heaven was not present on Brushy Knob sites either before fire or in postfire year 1. It increased significantly in density (P=0.032) and importance value (P=0.007) on the upper-northeast section of Heavener Mountain compared to adjacent unburned areas. In postfire year 1, tree-of-heaven seedlings also established on unburned portions of Heavener Mountain and on burned, southwest aspects of Heavener Mountain and on Dunkle Knob. Seedling establishment in the upper-northeast section of Dunkle Knob was about 4.5 times greater than that of the other sites combined [196].

Tree-of-heaven abundance before and after the prescribed March fires [196] Site Density (stems/ha) Importance value* Basal area (m²/ha) prefire postfire year 1 prefire postfire year 1 prefire postfire year 1 Heavener Mountain, lower-northeast section, seedlings 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00     Heavener Mountain, upper-northeast section, seedlings 0.00 277.78 0.00 0.93     Dunkle Knob, lower-southwest section, seedlings 0.00 277.78 0.00 0.56     Dunkle Knob, upper-southwest section, seedlings 0.00 833.33 0.00 2.04     Dunkle Knob, upper-southwest section, overstory 2.22 2.22 0.56 0.56 0.09 0.09 Dunkle Knob, upper-northeast section, seedlings 277.78 6,388.89** 0.23 14.78**     *Importance value=(relative density + relative basal area)/2
**Significant difference between years (P<0.05). Cells are blank where information is not available.

Since tree-of-heaven seedlings occurred on both burned and unburned areas of Heavener Mountain, Marsh [196] suggested that tree-of-heaven increases on burned sites were not due to fire alone. Increases were not correlated with aspect or elevation, so those factors apparently did not affect tree-of-heaven establishment. Tree-of-heaven was the only nonnative tree species on the site. Overall, the prescribed fires did not significantly increase abundance of nonnative invasive shrubs or herbs. Fuel loads were significantly less in postfire year 1 compared to prefire loads (P=0.0052). Shrub density was reduced 19% to 21%. Forbs and ferns were more abundant after than before fire on sites where fire behavior was "most severe" [196].

In a follow-up study on Dunkle Knob, Pomp [247] found that on most sites, tree-of heaven had returned to prefire levels by postfire year 3. Tree-of-heaven seedlings were producing root sprouts, suggesting that tree-of-heaven density would soon increase beyond prefire levels. Dunkle Knob is an "extremely dry" site. Tree-of-heaven abundance was positively correlated with either moist areas where fire severity was low, areas with a history of logging, or with an open canopy. Outside of riparian zones, tree-of-heaven abundance in postfire year 3 was not significantly associated with fire severity. In contrast to Marsh's [196] earlier findings, Pomp [247] found tree-of-heaven abundance was positively correlated with increasing elevation (R²=0.37).

In a mixed-oak forest in Tar Hollow State Forest, thin-and-burn treatments apparently promoted tree-of-heaven compared to thin-only and burn-only treatments, although the results could be due to pretreatment vegetation composition. Plots were thinned in fall and winter to a density of 19.5 m²/ha; burning was conducted the following March and April [39]. All plots were in white-tailed deer exclosures [11,39]. The following summer, tree-of-heaven was the 4th most common species among 26 woody plants in thin-and-burn treatments [11]. It did not occur on thin-only or burn-only plots [39]. By postfire year 3, tree-of-heaven was "widely distributed" on thin-and-burn plots, with mean density of 17.1 stems/100 m² compared to 5.8 stems/100 m² in thin-only plots and 0.6 stem/100 m² in burn-only plots. Seedling establishment was the assumed method of postfire establishment due to the scarcity of trees-of-heaven before fire [150]. Hutchinson and others [150] concluded that tree-of-heaven's high posttreatment occurrence on thin-and-burn plots was due to its higher pretreatment density on thin-and-burn units (18 trees/100 m²) compared to thin-only (8 trees/100 m²) and burn-only (1 tree/100 m²) units.

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Fuels

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More info for the terms: forest, fuel, invasive species, litter, total heat release, tree

Few quantitative measurements of tree-of-heaven litter, aboveground biomass, or leaf area indices were available as of 2010, so the ability of tree-of-heaven to alter fuel loads of native ecosystems is unclear. Fuel studies are needed on tree-of-heaven.

Although tree-of-heaven has large, finely divided leaves [71,104,105,250,308], its leaves may not contribute more to total leaf litter load than the leaves of many associated tree species in deciduous forests. In Connecticut, mean depth of tree-of-heaven litter alone was similar to litter depth averages under most associated tree species in the mixed-deciduous forest (about 0.8 inch (2 cm)). Oaks contributed most biomass to the litter layer, which was sampled in July and August [167]. Tree-of-heaven litter may decay more rapidly than litter of many associated deciduous trees. In Spain, tree-of-heaven litter decayed faster than native English elm (Ulmus minor) (P=0.01) [50]. A study in Maryland found that in first-order streams, litter of native trees contained more lignin and decayed more than twice as slowly as tree-of-heaven litter (P<0.0001) [284].

Tree-of-heaven may contribute important amounts of woody debris to fuel loads in invaded areas. It frequently sheds broken branches in all size classes. The brittle branches break easily even when green, and branch die-back from drought or frost is common [148,151]. In riparian areas by the Middle Rio Grande in New Mexico, tree-of-heaven and other nonnative, invasive woody species were implicated as the main source of heavy fuel loads, with altered hydrologic regimes likely partially responsible for nonnative invasions. The author states "excess woody materials consisting of exotic species and dead and downed fuels of all species are the primary fuels of catastrophic fires" in riparian bosques on the Middle Rio Grande. The community was a Rio Grande cottonwood bosque before nonnative invasions. Contributions to total fuel load were not broken down by species, but saltcedar and Russian-olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) apparently contributed more woody fuels than tree-of-heaven [152].

Flammability of tree-of-heaven was not reported in the literature as of 2010. Its growth habit and stand structure suggest that once ignited, tree-of-heaven stands probably burn easily. The large, finely divided leaves provide a surface-to-volume ratio favorable for ignition and burning. Dibble and others [69] conducted laboratory tests comparing fuel characteristics of nonnative invasive species with those of cooccurring native species. They found no significant difference between tree-of-heaven and quaking aspen in either total heat release or effective heat of combustion of leaves and twigs [69].

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Germination and seedling establishment

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Tree-of-heaven does not have exacting germination requirements, although germination may proceed slowly. Tree-of-heaven embryos are dormant, and stratification improves germination rates [19,112,148,211]. Seeds dispersed in the field likely overwinter before germinating. Hunter [148] reported a 30% germination rate for seeds that overwintered on parent trees and dispersed in spring. A study in Spain found tree-of-heaven schizocarp size was not correlated with rates of either germination or seedling establishment [66].

Substrate is seemingly not important for successful tree-of-heaven germination. Seed can germinate and establish in highly compacted soil [249] and in pavement cracks [291]. The seed is salt tolerant. Studies of several eastern hardwood species found roadside salt did not appreciably affect tree-of-heaven germination; native oak and birch seeds were far more adversely affected by road salt [27].

Immersion, light intensity, and presence of litter affect tree-of-heaven germination rates. Short immersion in water may enhance tree-of-heaven germination. A German study showed 87% mean germination for tree-of-heaven seed lots soaked for 3 days, 53% germination for unsoaked seed lots, and 32% germination for seed lots soaked for 20 days [174]. Tree-of-heaven may germinate in low light, but resulting emergents are unlikely to establish [85]. Litter has both negative and positive effects on germination. In eastern deciduous forests, oak (Quercus spp.) leaf litter delayed tree-of-heaven germination and increased seedling mortality, but it did not affect subsequent biomass of surviving tree-of-heaven seedlings [89]. Litter may have positive effects on tree-of-heaven germination and establishment by reducing interference from herbaceous species [90].

Although seed production is prolific, tree-of-heaven seedling establishment is infrequent on many sites [148,198,232]. Despite tree-of-heaven's large seed output in a Connecticut site (see Seed production) [198], seedling establishment was low. The authors concluded that tree-of-heaven required canopy gaps to establish in otherwise closed-canopy forests [198]. Dry climate may limit tree-of-heaven recruitment in the Great Plains and the western United States [93,232]. Even so, tree-of-heaven has successfully expanded its range through seed spread and seedling establishment [166,245,257,262], and establishment from seed appears more common than generally indicated in the literature [163,275]. In a root excavation study in New York, Knapp and Canham [166] found initial tree-of-heaven recruitment in gaps in an eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) forest was from off-site seed, not root sprouts. In the Black Rock Forest of New York, tree-of-heaven likely established from seed after a blowdown and subsequent logging and herbicide spraying in the 1960s. By the early 2000s, an oak-hickory forest had redeveloped; tree-of-heaven was present but not reproducing under the canopy [17]. Tree-of-heaven also established from seed on harvested oak forests on the Jefferson National Forest, Virginia [47].

Kostel-Hughes and others [169] surmised that tree-of-heaven is best adapted to establishment in early succession, when litter layers are lacking or shallow. In the greenhouse, tree-of-heaven seeds showed no significant differences in germination rate when placed on top of the litter, buried shallowly (0.4-0.8 inch (1-2 cm)), or buried deeply (2 inches (5 cm)). However, seedling height (P<0.001), aboveground biomass (P<0.03), and root:shoot ratio (P<0.001) decreased with increasing burial depth of seeds. The authors noted that some oak seedlings lifted up and hence reduced litter as they emerged, and some tree-of-heaven seedlings emerged from those reduced-litter microsites. Based on studies by Facelli and Pickett [90], they conjectured that a portion of tree-of-heaven's invasive success may be due to its ability to allocate more biomass to shoots than roots when emerging in deep litter. Although less root biomass means less ability to absorb water and nutrients, tree-of-heaven may compensate by allocating more resources to roots later in the growing season [169].

Two studies show tree-of-heaven germinated more slowly but had greater total emergence than native tree species. In the greenhouse, tree-of-heaven germinated later than native sweetgum, American sycamore, and nonnative princesstree [215,216]. In West Virginia field experiments in mixed-hardwood communities, stratified tree-of-heaven seeds showed better emergence across several sites compared to yellow-poplar seeds (P<0.0001). Tree-of-heaven showed no preference for north- vs. south-facing slopes, while yellow-poplar establishment was better on north slopes. Comparing tree-of-heaven germination across sites, there was no significant difference in emergence on clearcut and selective-cut sites (~80%), but tree-of-heaven emergence was significantly lower in intact forest (<20%) compared to logged sites (P=0.001) [171].

In Seoul, South Korea, tree-of-heaven seedlings established south of parent plants due to seed dispersal by prevailing northwest winds. The tree is nonnative there and is considered an urban weed because of its prolific seedling establishment and spread [53].

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Growth

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More info for the terms: density, forest, ramet, seed, tree, woodland

The tree-of-heaven embryo is well equipped for rapid growth. Although it lacks an endosperm, it has 2 large cotyledons with stored oils that provide energy for emergence and early growth [104,175,197,211,328]. Whether initial regeneration is accomplished from seed or by cloning, tree-of-heaven usually grows quickly on favorable sites. It is among the fastest-growing trees in North America [166,244,259]. Both the common name (tree-of-heaven) and the scientific name (Ailanthus, sky-tree) refer to the species' ability to attain height quickly [71,308]. In the eastern United States, tree-of-heaven's annual growth rate averaged 6 feet (1.8 m) for bole sprouts, 2.7 feet (0.8 m) for root sprouts, and 1.3 feet (6.5 m) for seedlings [151]. Root sprouts in California may exceed 3.5 feet (1 m) in their 1st year [148]. Tree-of-heaven sprouts generally grow faster than seedlings, although seedlings often grow 3.3 to 6.6 feet (1-2 m) in their 1st year [211]. A fact sheet states that tree-of-heaven may reach 80 feet (20 m) tall and 6 feet (2 m) in diameter in 10 years [87]. Two years after planting in a New York City common garden, height growth of tree-of-heaven seedlings was at least 3 times that of native sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) and nonnative Norway maple seedlings [230].

Mean seedling stem and root growth of 3 tree species after 3 years in a common garden [230] Species

Stem length (cm)

Lateral root length (cm)

Mean Minimum/ maximum Mean Minimum/ maximum tree-of-heaven 82.2 31/ 172 114.4 53/ 200 sweetgum 51.0 12/ 77 23.8 2/ 46 Norway maple 36.1 23/ 49 33.2 14/ 66

Even with its rapid height growth, tree-of-heaven may concentrate early growth in roots. A greenhouse study showed tree-of-heaven seedlings had higher root:shoot ratios than native sweetgum, American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), and nonnative princesstree seedlings; this was true whether tree-of-heaven was grown in disturbed soils that lacked organic matter or in soils collected from mixed-hardwood forests left undisturbed for ≥50 years [215,216].

Tree-of-heaven saplings may average 3 feet (1 m) of height growth per year for at least 4 years [1]. Relatively rapid growth continued into the pole size class in New York: pole-sized trees-of-heaven growing in canopy gaps gained 2 to 4 mm of radial growth annually, the highest rate of 6 tree species measured (the other 5 species were native) [166]. In a New England survey, trees-of-heaven reached 33 to 49 feet (10-15 m) in height and 3.7 to 4.3 inches (9-11 cm) DBH in 30 years [1], and a 55-year-old tree on the George Washington National Forest, West Virginia, had a DBH of 15 inches (37 cm) [247]. In North America, growth is usually fastest for trees-of-heaven in California's mediterranean climate. Trees in the Central Valley have an 8-month growing season, so those trees may be 35 to 63 feet (10-20 m) tall by 12 to 20 years of age [149]. In Pennsylvania, growth slowed greatly after age 20 to 25, with height increases of 3 inches (7.6 cm) or less per year [151].

Once established, tree-of-heaven density increases by root sprouting. One ramet may occupy over 1 acre (0.4 ha). Sprout growth slows to several centimeters per year if sprouts become shaded [149]. In West Virginia, Kowarik [173] reported an average growth rate of 0.36 foot/year (0.11 m) for tree-of-heaven sprouts suppressed in the understory of an oak (Quercus spp.)-sugar maple forest.

Browsing and/or unfavorable site conditions can reduce tree-of-heaven growth. Cattle, deer, and small rodent browsing may slow tree-of-heaven establishment and growth [229]. Browsing effects may vary with animal density and by site. In a New York oak-hickory woodland, Forgione [99] found no significant differences in tree-of-heaven seedling establishment on open plots and plots with white-tailed deer exclosures. On Mediterranean islands of Spain, France, and Greece, tree-of-heaven clones on intermittent streams were significantly smaller than those on old fields and roadsides (P=0.022), and clones at relatively high elevations were larger than those at low elevations (P=0.004) [292].

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: geophyte, phanerophyte

Raunkiaer [254] life form:
Phanerophyte
Geophyte
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Habitat characteristics

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More info for the terms: alliance, cover, density, forest, frequency, presence, reclamation, relative density, tree, woodland

Tree-of-heaven occurs on a variety of sites in North America, ranging from very poor to very productive. In Ithaca, New York, it was positively correlated with urban sites where rooting space was limited and other species could not establish (P=0.05) [230,248]. In contrast, soils in the Central Valley of California, where tree-of-heaven is also common, are nutrient-rich and productive [128]. Little information is available on tree-of-heaven's original habitats in China; it is common there as a cultivated tree [139,140,249].

Tree-of-heaven has been characterized as "the most adaptable and pollution tolerant tree available" for urban plantings [74]. Highly tolerant of industrial gases, dust, and smoke, it is common on disturbed urban sites, especially alleyways, roadsides, and fence rows [71,105,114,214,324]. It is generally more common in urban, suburban, and rural than wild environments [57,181]. In wildlands, tree-of-heaven occurs on floodplains and other disturbed sites, riparian areas, open woodlands and forests, and rock outcrops [41,114,137,164,280,312]. After Hurricane Camille, tree-of-heaven was positively associated with debris avalanche chutes in Virginia [145]. It was most frequent on roadsides in an oak-hickory forest in West Virginia [141]:

Tree-of-heaven frequency on different sites within a West Virginian oak-hickory forest [141] Habitat Frequency (%) roadsides 26 streams 19 mature forest 13 open forest 7 railroad rights-of-way 6 residential 6 trails 3 old fields 0 other 20

Tree-of-heaven has invaded rare sugar maple-sweet birch (Betula lenta) rock outcrop communities in High Mountain Park Preserve, New Jersey [76]. In the Southwest, it invades canyons, arroyos, and riparian zones, including the banks of the Rio Grande [6,203].

Soils and topography: Tree-of-heaven tolerates a wide range of soil moisture conditions [82,211]. In oak-hickory woodland of Sussex County, New Jersey, it grows in permanently swampy, ridgebottom soils of an abandoned Boy Scout camp [18]. At the other extreme, tree-of-heaven tolerates dry, rocky soils and extended drought, aided by its large, water-storing roots. Even seedlings show drought tolerance, often volunteering in pavement cracks and other dry sites [113,293]. In Kansas, mature trees-of-heaven and eastern redcedars showed better survivorship during the "Dust Bowl" drought of 1934 than associated tree species [278].

Tree-of-heaven also tolerates a wide range of soil nutrient levels and other soil conditions. Best growth occurs on nutrient-rich, loamy soils, but tree-of-heaven establishes in nutrient-poor soils [93,163,211,328]. Tree-of-heaven tolerates all soil textures [216]. It often establishes on disturbed sites lacking topsoil [164]. In the Appalachians and the Northeast, the tree-of-heaven alliance occurs on limestone clifftops and on calcareous soils [223,237]. On reclamation sites, trees-of-heaven tolerated acid mine spoils better than calcareous spoils and grew on low-phosphorus soils [211]. Tree-of-heaven can grow on soils as low as 4.1 pH, in soluble salt concentrations of 0.25 mmhos/cm, and in soils with phosphorus levels as low as 1.8 ppm [245]. In a mixed-deciduous forest on Staten Island, New York, tree-of-heaven had the highest importance value and relative density of all tree species on neutral soils but was absent on acidic soils (pH ≤5.1) [186]. It tolerates compacted soils [230].

Topography on tree-of-heaven sites may be flat, rolling, or very steep, with tree-of-heaven potentially occurring on all aspects. Tree-of-heaven's spreading root system permits establishment and growth on steep inclines and cliff faces [7]. In Massachusetts, tree-of-heaven is reported on upland, interior wetland, and coastal areas [200]. On the floodplain of the Raitan River, New Jersey, tree-of-heaven was not important on low floodplains (<11 feet (3.3 m) above sea level), but it ranked in the top one-third of species' importance values on upper floodplains [101]. In a slippery elm-white ash woodlot in Ohio, tree-of-heaven presence on forest-roadside edges was similar on north- and south-facing exposures [85]. In Inwood Hill Park, a mixed-hardwood wildland site in Manhattan, tree-of-heaven was most common on west-facing ridges [98]:

Density of tree-of-heaven seedlings and saplings in a wildland park in New York City [98]   Seedlings (<2 cm DBH) Saplings (2-10 cm DBH) Valley forest 55 9 East ridge 113 38 Ridgetops 0 50 West ridge 363 211

Climate: Tree-of-heaven is most common in temperate climates, in both North America and its native China. It tolerates minimum temperatures of -38 °F (-39 °C) and maximum temperatures of 110 °F (45 °C). Mean annual precipitation ranges from 0.55 to 158 inches (14-4,010 mm) across tree-of-heaven's North American and Chinese distributions. Tree-of-heaven tolerates drought of several month's duration [3].

Climate within tree-of-heaven's North American distribution ranges from subtropical and wet in Florida; arid in the Great Plains and western United States; to cold and wet in the Northeast. It occurs in USDA hardiness zones 4 to 8 [144]. Annual mean maximum and minimum temperatures within its North American range are 15o F and 97 oF (-9 oC and 36 oC). It tolerates as much as 90 inches (2,290 mm) of mean annual precipitation in the Appalachian Mountains as little as 14 inches (360 mm) of annual precipitation and 8 months of drought in the western United States. Large, water-storing roots confer drought tolerance [140], although tree-of-heaven may not reach maximum growth on dry sites. On an "extremely dry" site on the George Washington National Forest, Pomp [247] observed that trees-of-heaven in an oak-pine forest only reached the canopy in riparian areas and on logged sites. Because seedlings are not cold resistant, extreme cold and prolonged snow cover restrict its occurrence to lower slopes in mountainous regions. Tree-of-heaven may be able to colonize in cold regions that experience several successive years of mild climate [211]. It is the only species in its genus that tolerates cold climates [140].

Elevation: Tree-of-heaven is reported from the following elevations in the western United States:

Elevational range of tree-of-heaven in 3 western states State Elevation California <6,600 feet [135,149] New Mexico 4,500-7,000 feet [199] Utah 790-5,900 feet [317]

It grows from 4,900 to 5,900 feet (1,500-1,800 m) elevation in China [304].

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Immediate Effect of Fire

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Fire top-kills tree-of-heaven [185,274,299]. Because tree-of-heaven has thin bark [71,104,105,308], live tissues beneath the bark probably scorch easily.
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Impacts and Control

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More info for the terms: allelopathy, competition, cover, density, fire management, forest, fresh, hardwood, herbaceous, invasive species, litter, natural, nonnative species, prescribed fire, presence, root crown, root sprout, seed, selection, succession, top-kill, tree

Impacts: Tree-of-heaven is invasive in many regions of the United States. It can have detrimental effects on ecosystem processes, damage structures, and poses risk to human health.

Invasiveness: Tree-of-heaven's preference for disturbed, early-seral habitats, ability to spread from root sprouts, prodigious seed production, and rapid growth make it an "aggressive" invader [47]. Hammerlynck [122] speculated that tree-of-heaven invasiveness may be due in part to its unusually high capacity to photosynthesize and its high water-use efficiency. These abilities, coupled with pollution [207,253] and drought [87] tolerance, make tree-of-heaven especially successful in urban environments and may also help it invade wildlands [122]. Although it is more common in populated areas (see Site Characteristics), it may spread from developed areas to wildlands [146], especially those disturbed by logging [181] or other canopy-opening events. Tree-of-heaven is most invasive in eastern deciduous forests [34,161,163,166,173,228]. It has invaded the Wayne National Forest, Ohio [79], and is common in white oak-red oak-chestnut oak-Carolina basswood/eastern hophornbeam (Quercus alba-Q. rubra-Q. prinus-Tilia americana var. caroliniana/Ostrya virginiana) forest alliances of the Uwharrie National Forest, North Carolina [224]. In 2007, the Alabama Invasive Plant Council determined there were "extensive and dense" tree-of-heaven infestations in Alabama's managed forests and wildlands [2]. In California, tree-of-heaven is most invasive in riparian zones [44,81] but also invades oak woodlands and valley grasslands [44]. Tellman [287] states tree-of-heaven is "rapidly becoming a problem species" in the Southwest, where it invades riparian zones and other moist areas.

Tree-of-heaven has been rated a threat or potential threat in many areas of the United States. It is rated a potential invader in low-montane areas of the Cascade Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Middle Rocky Mountains [231]; a high threat to northeastern deciduous and riparian forests and a potentially high threat to northeastern coniferous and mixed forests, grasslands, and fresh and tidal wetlands [70]; and a high threat to oak-hickory forests of the Southeast [279]. Other ratings of tree-of-heaven invasiveness as of 2010 include:

Ratings of tree-of-heaven's invasiveness by state Rating Area Affected ecosystems West Potentially high threat coastal southern Oregon and coastal California mixed-evergreen, coniferous, and riparian forests, grasslands, chaparral, and wetlands [165] very invasive, especially on disturbed sites Willamette Valley, Oregon Oregon prairie and white oak woodlands [222] Hawaii Large potential threat throughout native Hawaiian plant communities [272,321] Northeast 1 of the top 10 most invasive weeds Bronx River Parkway Reservation, New York riparian and urban forests [100] Appalachians Low threat Oak Ridge National Environmental Research Park, Tennessee oak-hickory [78] Southeast Highly invasive Savage Neck Dunes Natural Area Preserve on the Delmarva Peninsula, Virginia Chesapeake Bay beach, dune, and maritime forest communities [225] Highly invasive Petersburg National Battlefield and Colonial National Historical Park, Virginia oak-gum-cypress, loblolly-shortleaf pine, oak-hickory [237] and oak-hickory, oak-gum-cypress, maple-beech-birch, old-field, fresh wetland, and saltmarsh [236] communities, respectively Most invasive and rapidly spreading nonnative species on site Booker T. Washington National Monument, Virginia oak-hickory, maple-beech-birch, and old-field communities [235]

There is some controversy about tree-of-heaven's ability to invade intact ecosystems. Some authors note that although tree-of-heaven established in North America over 100 years ago, it has not spread to many sites that appear to be good habitat for the species [219]. Hunter [148] considers it "only potentially invasive, and also potentially eradicable" in California. Huebner's [142] model predicts that in wildlands, tree-of-heaven will mostly spread along nonforested corridors and invade forests slowly. Tree-of-heaven may not invade closed-canopy forests [93,148]. It was ranked the least invasive of 18 nonnative, invasive species on the Oak Ridge National Environmental Research Park, Tennessee [78]. Long-distance seed dispersal, however, may enable tree-of-heaven to quickly invade disturbed openings in forest interiors [142]. Merriam [210] estimated a 4.76% increase in tree-of-heaven's rate of spread per year in North Carolina. Further information and research are needed to recognize undisturbed sites at risk for tree-of-heaven invasion [139].

Effects on ecosystem processes: As an early-seral species favoring disturbed sites (see Successional Status), tree-of-heaven grows extremely rapidly and interferes with growth of native species. The large, interconnected roots effectively occupy underground space and crowd out native species. Tree-of-heaven sometimes forms large thickets, displacing native vegetation [172,173]. It may affect natural successional trajectories, in part from competition for light and nutrients in early-successional environments, and possibly from allelopathy [129,130,131,140,184]. Tree-of-heaven and Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) were the most abundant and ubiquitous woody species in disturbed urban areas of Ohio. The authors speculate that these exotic species invasions have the potential to modify forest composition and ecological function of urban riparian systems [240].

Allelopathic species may alter stand structure and alter key ecosystem processes [314]. Tree-of-heaven's reputed allelopathy may slow succession in plant communities where it is invasive [129,163]. It is apparently toxic to other plants, rodents, and microbes. In an abstract of their laboratory work, Greer and Aldrich [116] report higher toxicity in leaves of young (≤2 years) trees-of-heaven than in leaves of older trees; they also found that minor injury to tree-of-heaven increases toxin production. Concentration of allelopathic chemicals is highest in young tree-of-heaven stands [45,184]; allelopathy may help tree-of-heaven seedlings establish [184] and clones to spread [209]. Seasonally, toxins are greatest in spring and decline as the growing season progresses. Allelopathic chemicals are present in all portions of the tree, but they are most concentrated in roots. The litter is also likely allelopathic. In the greenhouse, slash (Pinus elliottii) and Monterey pine (P. radiata) seed germination was inhibited by fresh tree-of-heaven litter. Allelopathy of tree-of-heaven litter was highest during pine's spring germination period and dwindled through the growing season [311]. In a red maple-sugar maple-northern red oak forest in northwestern Connecticut, tree-of-heaven did not inhibit emergence or survival of either red maple, sugar maple, or northern red oak seedlings beneath tree-of-heaven canopies, but tree-of-heaven significantly reduced seedling growth of red maple (R²=0.33), sugar maple (R²=0.31), and northern red oak (R²=0.49) compared to seedling growth on control sites. Activated carbon was added to the soil on control sites to neutralize the effects of tree-of-heaven's allelopathic chemicals. Allelopathic effects in the soil were positively related to nearness of tree-of-heaven trunks, and soils lost their allelopathic effects about 20 feet (5 m) from the trunks. Cumulative allelopathic effects were proportional to tree-of-heaven density, regardless of tree-of-heaven size [107].

Tree-of-heaven may alter litter layer depth and increase available soil nitrogen in native plant communities. In Spain, tree-of-heaven litter decayed faster than litter of native English elm (P=0.01), and nitrogen release was greater beneath trees-of-heaven than beneath English elms (P=0.005). Soils beneath trees-of-heaven were not higher in nitrogen, however; the authors speculated this may be due to quick nitrogen uptake by nearby plants [50]. Studies on Mediterranean islands of Spain, France, Italy, and Greece found tree-of-heaven presence significantly decreased soil carbon:nitrogen ratios and reduced diversity of native species compared to uninvaded plots (P<0.05 for both variables) [307]. In aquatic ecosystems, preference of invertebrate detritus-feeders for tree-of-heaven litter over litter of native trees (see Palatability) may alter decay rates of native species [284]. Relative palatability of tree-of-heaven litter may affect successional trajectories and increase invasibility of mixed-hardwood communities. In a greenhouse study, earthworms consumed or buried nearly 100% of tree-of-heaven litter; in turn, this increased establishment and growth of nonnative tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), which had been seeded onto mesocosms (soil-filled tubs) with litter, soil, and earthworms. Tall fescue recruitment was less in mesocosms with native American chestnut (Castanea dentata), northern red oak, or yellow-popular litter than in mesocosms with tree-of-heaven litter [22]. A study in a sugar maple-white ash-northern red oak forest in Connecticut found significantly greater total soil nitrogen, calcium, and nutrient- cycling rates on sites with tree-of-heaven compared to sites without it. This effect increased in soil samples nearer to tree-of-heaven and with increasing tree-of-heaven DBH [106].

Socioeconomic factors: In developed areas, tree-of-heaven roots can damage buildings, foundations, and water facilities [140]. The rapidly growing, extensive root system also allows the tree to establish on steep to vertical structures including roofs and cracked walls, which are damaged if seedlings are not promptly killed [7,262]. Tree-of-heaven has damaged archeological sites in Europe. A study in Mediterranean Italy found it was the only nonnative tree species establishing in and damaging archeological remains [51]. In Portugal, tree-of-heaven roots damaged the walls and roof of the 800-year-old Sé Velha of Coimbra Cathedral after establishing in the wall mortar and clay roof tiles [7]. The water-seeking roots can stop up sewer lines and invade wells and cisterns, damaging infrastructures and giving potable water an unpleasant taste [62,140].

Tree-of-heaven poses human health risks. The pollen can cause an allergic reaction [68]. The sap causes a dermatitis reaction in some people [68,319], and prolonged exposure of broken skin to sap can have serious consequences. For at least one tree remover, exposure to tree-of-heaven sap on rope burns resulted in an elevated heart rate and chest pain that was severe enough to require hospitalization for several days [29].

Control: In all cases where invasive species are targeted for control, the potential for other invasive species to fill their void must be considered no matter what method is employed [38]. Control of biotic invasions is most effective when it employs a long-term, ecosystem-wide strategy rather than a tactical approach focused on battling individual invaders [192].

Prevention: It is commonly argued that the most cost-efficient and effective method of managing invasive species is to prevent their establishment and spread by maintaining "healthy" natural communities [192,270] (e.g., avoid road building in wildlands [296]) and by monitoring several times each year [155]. Managing to maintain the integrity of the native plant community and mitigate the factors enhancing ecosystem invasibility is likely to be more effective than managing solely to control the invader [138]. Weed prevention and control can be incorporated into many types of management plans, including those for logging and site preparation, grazing allotments, recreation management, research projects, road building and maintenance, and fire management [301]. See the Guide to noxious weed prevention practices [301] for specific guidelines in preventing the spread of weed seeds and propagules under different management conditions. The Center for Invasive Plant Management provides an online guide to noxious weed prevention practices. Nursery businesses can reduce tree-of-heaven introductions by not stocking tree-of-heaven and discouraging its use [126]. Gonzalez and Christoffersen [108] give suggestions for alternative landscaping species that are native in the Southeast and Southwest.

Posttreatment monitoring and retreatment are essential for this root-sprouting, rapidly growing species (see Regeneration Processes). Monitoring efforts are best concentrated on the most disturbed areas in a site, particularly along potential pathways for tree-of-heaven invasion: roadsides, trails, parking lots, fencelines, trails, and waterways [40,46,141]. In a West Virginia study, tree-of-heaven occurrence was heaviest along interstate freeways I-68 and I-79 [141]. Fortunately, tree-of-heaven's pattern of roadside and trail invasion makes accessibility, early detection, and treatment relatively easy on many sites [40]. Treated areas need checking once or twice a year, with any new sprouts or seedlings retreated as soon as possible so that plants do not have time to build up carbohydrate reserves and grow larger [139]. Whenever there is a nearby tree-of-heaven seed source, disturbed sites require monitoring and follow-up treatments to prevent tree-of-heaven invasion. Initial summer treatment impacts trees when their root reserves are low. Targeting female trees-of-heaven for control helps slow seed dissemination [139]. Monitoring is most effective when continued for at least a year after tree-of-heaven sprouting appears controlled [149]. Tree-of-heaven may show up on sites where treatments for other invasive weeds have created open, disturbed conditions. For example, tree-of-heaven and Norway maple seedlings invaded a New Jersey site after Norway maple removal treatments (cutting mature trees and hand-pulling Norway maple seedlings). Tree-of-heaven was not present on study plots prior to Norway maple removal [315].

Fire: Prescribed fire is not recommended to control tree-of-heaven due to tree-of-heaven's ability to establish from root sprouts and seed after disturbance [87,149] (see Fire Management Considerations). Nava-Constan and others' [54] experiment in Spain (see Physical and/or mechanical treatment) demonstrates tree-of-heaven's ability to increase by sprouting after top-kill. However, fire may be used as the initial top-kill treatment for tree-of-heaven control or for spot treatment. Instead of using mechanical or chemical methods to top-kill stems, a flame thrower or weed burner can heat-girdle tree-of-heaven boles [56]. As with all top-kill methods, tree-of-heaven sprouts after heat girdling [56,87], so follow-up treatments are needed to control sprouts.

Cultural: Maintaining a healthy overstory can help minimize invasive potential for tree-of-heaven [270]. Establishing a thick cover of native trees or grass helps shade out tree-of-heaven and discourages tree-of-heaven regrowth [139]. Broadcasting seed of native tree species may help slow tree-of-heaven establishment on some disturbed sites. In West Virginia, seedling establishment experiments in a harvested mixed-hardwood community showed yellow-poplar seedling survivorship 2 years after sowing was higher than that of tree-of-heaven seedlings (80% vs. 28%, P<0.01) on selection cuts. However, tree-of-heaven survivorship was higher than that of yellow-poplar on clearcut and unharvested control sites [171]. Moore and Lacey [216] found sweetgum and American sycamore germinated and established more quickly in the greenhouse than nonnative trees, including tree-of-heaven (P<0.001); they suggested establishing native tree seedlings on disturbed sites to help reduce invasion of nonnative tree species such as tree-of-heaven [216]. If artificial regeneration of native trees is indicated, it is important to establish the native seedlings quickly. With one of the fastest growth rates of any tree in North America [166], young trees-of-heaven may grow faster than and overtop young native tree species [149,166,173].

Physical and/or mechanical: Mechanical treatments, including cutting or girdling, are a good first step in controlling tree-of-heaven. Mechanical treatment alone encourages both stump and root sprouts, so follow-up treatments are required [149,316]. Cutting stems before flowering prevents seed spread, and cutting at ground level prevents bole sprouts [149]. Root and root crown sprouts can be controlled by further cutting treatments or herbicides [139,149,178], although herbicides are more effective (see Chemical control). Unless the treatment area is heavily shaded, it usually takes at least 5 years of follow-up mechanical treatment to control sprouts [58,139]. Removing the roots eliminates sprouting [58,87] but is impractical on most sites. Cutting without further treatment is not recommended because it promotes tree-of-heaven sprouting [58] and may increase tree-of-heaven abundance. A study in a Mediterranean ecosystem of Spain found that after tree-of-heaven was cut twice a year for 5 years, its density and leaf area index were greater on cut than on uncut plots (P<0.05) [54].

In small areas, seedlings can be controlled by hand pulling. Seedlings quickly develop extensive root systems, so the entire root needs to be removed to prevent sprouting [178]. Seedling and root sprout top-growth looks similar, but root sprouts are connected by large lateral roots. Tree-of-heaven seedlings can sometimes be compared to the variable number of leaflets and thicker stems of sprouts [149]. Grubbing roots may be effective for saplings [294]. Except for small infestations, grubbing for mature trees or well-established tree-of-heaven colonies. The root systems are extensive and nearly impossible to entirely remove, and even a small root fragment can produce root sprouts [139,149].

Biological: Biological control of invasive species has a long history that indicates many factors must be considered before using biological controls. Refer to these sources: [305,320] and the Weed control methods handbook [294] for background information and important considerations for developing and implementing biological control programs.

As of this writing (2010), there were no biological control agents approved for tree-of-heaven [134,260,294]. Eucryptorrhynchus brandti and E. chinensis, weevils native to China, are apparently host-specific tree-of-heaven feeders [72,134,260]. As of 2009, they were being tested as possible control agents for tree-of-heaven [134,260]. A wilt fungus (Verticullum albo-atrum) is also being tested for tree-of-heaven control [265]. Ding and others [73] provide a review of these and other biological control agents being tested for tree-of-heaven as of 2006.

Chemical: Herbicides are effective in gaining initial control of a new invasion or a severe infestation, but they are rarely a complete or long-term solution to weed management [42]. Herbicides are most large infestations when incorporated into long-term management plans that include replacement of weeds with desirable species, careful land use management, and prevention of new infestations. Control with herbicides is temporary, as it does not change conditions that allow infestations to occur in the first place (for example, [326]). See the Weed control methods handbook [294] for considerations on the use of herbicides in natural areas and detailed information on specific chemicals.

Systemic herbicides that kill roots (for example, triclopyr and glyphosate) currently provide the best chemical control for tree-of-heaven. Dicamba, imazapyr, and methsulfuron methyl have also provided control [83,84,139,178,275]. See The Nature Conservancy's Weed control methods handbook for considerations on the use of herbicides in Natural Areas and detailed information on specific chemicals. See these sources for information pertaining to chemical of tree-of-heaven in particular: [83,139,145,178,199,212,275,276,294,294,304,311,312,317].

Several studies indicate that herbicides control tree-of-heaven better than cutting [40,54,208], and probably better than prescribed fire (see Fire studies). In oak-hickory communities of Shenandoah National Park, low-volume basal application of herbicides (triclopyr, picloram, imazapyr, and combinations) gave better tree-of-heaven control than cutting. At posttreatment year 2, a shift toward native herbs had occurred on plots where tree-of-heaven was controlled, while nonnative herbs including garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) and burdock (Arctium minus) were more prevalent on plots where tree-of-heaven density remained high [40].

Mean tree-of-heaven density 2 years after control treatments in Shenandoah National Park [40] Treatment Stems/acre cutting 5,645 imazapyr 363 picloram + triclopyr* 81 *Several herbicide combinations and application rates were used. See Burch and Zedaker [40] for details.

Herbicides meant for tree-of-heaven may kill nontarget trees, even when injected into tree-of-heaven stems. Spraying may be indicated when there are large thickets without nontarget species or as a follow-up treatment to other control methods, but in mixed stands herbicides will probably have a greater impact on nontarget species that lack tree-of-heaven's ability to root sprout than on tree-of-heaven [139,178,275,294]. Tree-of-heaven roots may exude herbicides, so caution is recommended when treating trees-of-heaven growing next to high-value trees [83]. In southeastern Ohio, 17.5% of native hardwoods within 10 feet (3 m) of trees-of-heaven injected with imazapyr were also killed. The authors surmised that root grafts and/or shared mycorrhizae translocated imazapyr from tree-of-heaven to native hardwood roots [187].

Chemical control programs targeting herbaceous species may unintentionally increase tree-of-heaven, depending upon the herbicides used. In West Virginia, diuron, simazine, and terbacil treatments for rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), and other herbaceous weeds in a commercial apple (Malus sylvestris) orchard successfully reduced most herbaceous weeds; however, tree-of-heaven and nonnative tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus) dominated the ground layer of plots treated with diuron and simazine. Terbacil gave best control of tree-of-heaven [295].

Integrated management: A combination of complementary control methods may be helpful for rapid and effective control of tree-of-heaven. Integrated management includes not only killing the target plant, but establishing desirable species and discouraging nonnative, invasive species over the long term. In a black oak community in Rondeau Provincial Park, Ontario, cutting and applying glyphosate to tree-of-heaven stumps best controlled trees-of-heaven for 2 years, while cutting alone increased tree-of-heaven density over pretreatment levels. Hand-pulling and mulching was done on seedlings that had not yet developed taproots and on juveniles (<20 inches (60 cm) tall)); juveniles were extracted by the roots to prevent sprouting [208]:

Tree-of-heaven density (shoots/m²) after control treatments in Rondeau Provincial Park [208]   Juveniles Control Mature trees Treatment   Hand-pulling & mulch Cut stump & glyphosate Cut stump Untreated Glyphosate-injected Pretreatment 12.7a 11.8a 12.8a 13.4a 14.2a Posttreatment year 1 1.7b 0.8b 9.2a 10.6a 9.8a Posttreatment year 2 5.8b 1.0c 20.9d 10.9a 8.9a Within rows, means followed by different letters are significantly different (P=0.05). Means of juvenile trees on experimental plots are compared only with means of juvenile trees on control plots, and means of mature trees on experimental plots are compared only with means of mature trees on control plots.
In an experiment in the Mediterranean region of Spain (see Physical and/or mechanical control), a single stump cutting followed by glyphosate treatment significantly reduced tree-of-heaven biomass, density, and leaf area index compared to single cutting, twice-yearly cutting, and control treatments (P<0.05) [54].
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

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There are few reports of either wildlife or domestic animal use of tree-of-heaven. White-tailed deer and domestic goats browse the foliage [35,147,308], but tree-of-heaven browse is apparently not preferred. In mixed-hardwood stands of Virginia, white-tailed deer browsed 0.4% of available tree-of-heaven seedlings and 12.6% of tree-of-heaven saplings in recently logged forests but preferred black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica). Browsing pressure on tree-of-heaven was greater in mature stands—where other browse was less available—with white-tailed deer utilizing 33.3% of tree-of-heaven seedlings and 41.7% of saplings. Across tree species, browsing pressure was significantly greater in mature than logged stands (P=0.02) [49]. Meadow voles also browse tree-of-heaven [43]. An old-field study in New York showed meadow voles preferred tree-of-heaven seedlings over eastern white pine seedlings, but white-footed mice preferred eastern white pine, sugar maple, and white ash seedlings over tree-of-heaven seedlings [229].

Wildlife consumption of tree-of-heaven seeds is apparently light. A few birds, including pine grosbeak and crossbills, eat the seeds [147]. A New Jersey study found granivorous rodents ignored tree-of-heaven seeds in an old field [193].

Invertebrates use tree-of-heaven; the few studies available as of 2010 suggested tree-of-heaven is important in the diet of some invertebrate species. In a mixed-hardwood forest in New York, invertebrates browsed tree-of-heaven seedlings preferentially [43]. Tree-of-heaven nectaries attract ants, which may defend trees-of-heaven against other insects, including potential pollinators. Ants sometimes colonize hollow boles of fungus-infested trees-of-heaven [5]. A study in Maryland found detritus-feeding, aquatic isopods and caddisflies preferred tree-of-heaven litter to litter of 6 native species, possibly because tree-of-heaven litter decayed more rapidly than that of native species [284]. A greenhouse study found nonnative earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) preferred tree-of-heaven litter to that of native yellow-poplar [22].

Palatability and nutritional value: Tree-of-heaven is unpalatable to ungulates [99]. The bark and leaves contain saponins, quassinoids, and other bitter compounds that discourage consumption [10,131,190,308].

Tree-of-heaven is a fairly good source of protein, especially early in the growing season [15].

Nutritional content  (%) of tree-of-heaven browse in Pakistan [15]   Digestible matter Crude protein Neutral- detergent fiber Acid- detergent fiber Hemi-
cellulose Acid- detergent lignin Ash Dry matter digestibility* Spring 65.3 27.2 22.3 17.9 4.4 4.8 9.4 78.56 Winter 66.3 10.5 26.0 18.3 7.7 2.6 13.5 67.26 *For domestic goats.

The seeds are a good source of fatty oils [32,156]. Seed collected in the United States had 56% fatty oil and 23% protein content [10].

Cover value: No information is available on this topic.

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Key Plant Community Associations

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Tree-of-heaven is most common in urban areas [141]. It varies from a minor to important component of wildland vegetation in its North American range. Because of its scattered and disjunct distribution in North America, tree-of-heaven occurrence is not well documented for all plant communities where
it may occur [211]. The following descriptions are not restrictive, but they include plant communities where tree-of-heaven is a known invader.

In wildlands of the East and Midwest, tree-of-heaven is a common component in oak-hickory (Quercus-Carya spp.) and maple-birch-beech (Acer-Betula-Fagus spp.) forests [286]. It has infested hundreds of acres of oak-hickory forest in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia [195,303]. In eastern oak-hickory forests, tree-of-heaven is frequently associated with native black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), an early-successional species, and nonnative Norway maple (Acer platanoides) and princesstree (Paulownia tomentosa) [45,46,117,227,249,314]. Other early-seral associates are black cherry (Prunus serotina), gray birch (Betula populifolia), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) [117]. In oak-hickory woodlands of Gettysburg National Military Park, Pennsylvania, tree-of-heaven is associated with overstory with black oak (Q. velutina), red oak (Q. rubra), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), mockernut hickory (C. tomentosa), and bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis). Nonnative invasives other than tree-of-heaven include the understory species Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) and multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora). Late-successional native understory species include white ash (Fraxinus americana), black cherry, sassafras (Sassafras albidum), and boxelder (Acer negundo) [91]. In silver maple (Acer saccharinum)-white oak-red oak forests of Ohio, tree-of-heaven occurs with American elm (Ulmus americana), hickory, black locust, black walnut (Juglans nigra), and black cherry [67]. Tree-of-heaven stands have been observed in estuaries and freshwater marshes on the Atlantic seaboard. Tree-of-heaven dominated the overstory of the estuary at Jug Bay Wetlands Sanctuary, Maryland [164].


On the Georgia piedmont, tree-of-heaven is an important species in early-successional loblolly pine (Pinus taeda)-black oak-white oak forests. Native flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) and nonnative Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) and winged elm
(U. alata) are common associated species [55].


Tree-of-heaven is most common in riparian, valley, and foothill communities of California. In riparian areas of southern California, tree-of-heaven frequently associates with Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii), California sycamore (Platanus racemosa), mule-fat (Baccharis
salicifolia), and poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum). A 1990 to 1992 survey in Chino Hills State Park showed 15% frequency for tree-of-heaven, with
its geographic range and "vigor" increasing over the study period [162].


Tree-of-heaven is invasive in riparian zones of the Southwest [135,266,273,281]. In the middle Rio Grande Basin of New Mexico, it occurs in Fremont cottonwood-Rio Grande cottonwood-sandbar willow (P. deltoides var. wislizenii-Salix exigua) bosques along with nonnative, invasive Siberian elm (U. pumila) and white mulberry (Morus alba) [97]. Tree-of-heaven has invaded arroyos of the Sandia National Laboratory, New Mexico; nonnative Siberian elm and saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima) and native Apache plume (Fallugia paradoxa) and fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) are common associated species. On upland sites it occurs in Colorado pinyon-oneseed juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus monosperma) stands with Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) and Siberian elm [203].


The following vegetation classifications describe plant communities in which tree-of-heaven is a dominant or indicator species:



Appalachians and Northeast

  • tree-of-heaven forest alliance.
    Occurs in the Appalachians, the Piedmont, the Interior Low Plateau, eastern Kentucky, the Ozark and Ouachita mountains, and probably other areas in the northeastern
    United States. Common in disturbed areas, along roadsides, urban abandoned lands, and on limestone clifftops [223].



California

  • locally dominant in riparian woodlands [204]



North Carolina

  • dominant and indicator species in edge communities developing on logged sites near oak-loblolly pine forest [205]



Pennsylvania

  • eastern white pine (Pinus strobiformis)-gray birch-tree-of-heaven shale scree slopes in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area [241]

  • occasional codominant in the black cherry-yellow-poplar-red maple (Acer rubrum)-white ash forest alliance of
    Valley Forge National Historical Park [246]

  • modified successional forest at Allegheny Portage Railroad National Historic Site; this forest is dominated by "weedy, early successional
    species" [243]



Tennessee

  • tree-of-heaven forest alliance in Great Smoky Mountains National Park [290]



Virginia

  • successional mixed shrublands on the Petersburg National Battlefield [237] and in Richmond National Battlefield Park; sweetgum may codominate [238]

  • locally dominant on disturbed calcareous forest on the Petersburg National Battlefield [237]

  • successional tree-of-heaven forest in Colonial National Historical Park [236] and Appomattox Court House National Historical Park [234]

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Life Form

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Tree
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Other uses and values

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Tree-of-heaven has been widely planted as an ornamental because it grows quickly, can be trained into an attractive shape, and has attractive foliage and fruits. It was once widely cultivated in North America [312,324] and is still available as a horticultural plant [126]. It is planted less frequently now [312,324] because of its disagreeable odor and strong tendency to spread into areas where it is not wanted. It is occasionally used for shelterbelts and urban plantings [211,328].

Tree-of-heaven's tolerance to pollution has management uses. It is a bioindicator of ozone pollution, to which it is sensitive. When subjected to heavy ozone concentrations, the leaves show spotting damage and drop off [111]. Conversely, tree-of-heaven tolerates high levels of sulfur and mercury pollution, concentrating mercury in its leaves (review by [175]). It has been used to rehabilitate mine spoils in the eastern United States. Tolerant of saline soils and low pH, tree-of-heaven shows better growth on mine spoils than many native species [245]. Due to its tendency to spread on disturbed sites, however, it is not generally recommended for rehabilitation [147,178].

Tree-of-heaven provides shade, medicine, wood, clothing, and food for humans. The species has a long history of folk medicine and cultural use in Asia [140]. It is used as an astringent, antispasmodic, anthelmintic, and parasiticide. Fresh stem bark is used to treat diarrhea and dysentery; root bark is used for heat ailments, epilepsy, and asthma.  The fruits are used to regulate menstruation and treat ophthalmic diseases. Leaves are an astringent and used in lotions for seborrhea and scabies [9,140]. Laboratory studies show tree-of-heaven has a potential role in modern medicine. Tree-of-heaven extracts have antibacterial, antioxidant [251], and antiinflammatory [154] properties. Pharmacological research is focusing on possible use of tree-of-heaven extracts for treating cancer, malaria, and HIV-1 infection [9,36,52,226]. In China, tree-of-heaven is grown commercially as a host for Attacus cynthia, a silkworm that produces coarse, durable silk [140,308]. Tree-of-heaven is a food for honeybees worldwide. Initially bad-tasting, tree-of-heaven honey ages to a high-quality, flavorful product [59,211].

Putative allelopathic tree-of-heaven extracts have potential use as herbicides [64,131,190].

Wood Products: Tree-of-heaven wood resembles ash (Fraxinus spp.) wood in appearance and quality. It is easily worked with tools and glue, and takes a finish well. Alden [4] and Moslemi and Bhagwat [219] summarize manufacturing properties of tree-of-heaven wood. Berchem and others [23] and Adamik and Brauns [1] provide information on properties and potential uses of tree-of-heaven wood fiber.

Tree-of-heaven is an important timber and fuelwood tree in China, and is planted for timber and afforestation in New Zealand, the Middle East, eastern Europe, and South America [14,140,268,304,328]. Zasada and Little [328] provide information on tree-of-heaven cultivation.

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Phenology

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Leaf expansion typically begins in early spring, with trees-of-heaven flowering and dispersing pollen in late spring [148,211]. Tree-of-heaven's seasonal development may sometimes be slower than associated woody species. On Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, tree-of-heaven was noted in a 1912 publication as "nearly naked" in early June, when other tree species had already leafed out [26]. Seed ripening begins in late summer and continues through fall. Schizocarps usually persist on female trees through winter [198,211], but they may disperse anytime from October through the next spring [211]. In New York, schizocarp clusters usually broke off in fall, while individual schizocarps often persisted until spring [230].

Tree-of-heaven phenology by state and region Area Event Time Arkansas flowers April-May fruits September-spring [147] California flowers May seeds ripen September-October [149] Carolinas flowers late May-early June fruits July-October [250] Florida flowers spring [324] Illinois flowers June-July [214] New Jersey seeds disperse October-early April;
about half disperse October-November [181] New Mexico flowers June-July [199] New York seeds germinate June seeds disperse October-April  [249] Texas flowers April-May fruits September-October[308] West Virginia flowers June-July [280] fruits late October-early April;
most dispersal October-November [180] Great Plains flowers mid-May-June [114] New England fruits mid-August-mid-October [267] Pacific Northwest flowers June-July [137] Southeast flowers May-July [82]

Seasonally, tree-of-heaven's allelopathic toxins are greatest in spring and decline as the growing season progresses [311]. See Impacts and Control for more information on allelopathy.

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Pollination

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A variety of nectar- and pollen-feeding insects pollinate tree-of-heaven [5,227]. Although disagreeable to humans, the strong odor of the flowers attracts honey bees, flies, beetles, and other insects [5,211]. A study in suburban Chicago found large bee species were the primary pollinators; the bees visited both male and female trees. Flies, especially those attracted to fetid-smelling flowers, visited female trees-of-heaven often but were probably less efficient pollinators than the bees [5].
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Post-fire Regeneration

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POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [277]:
Tree with root suckers, a sprouting root crown, and adventitious buds
Geophyte, growing points deep in soil
Initial off-site colonizer (off site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer (on- or off-site seed sources)
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Regeneration Processes

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Tree-of-heaven reproduces by sprouting and from seed [71,135,312]. Both methods are important to tree-of-heaven's reproductive success and invasiveness [87,249].
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Seed banking

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Seeds retain dormancy for less than a year, so tree-of-heaven does not build up a persistent seed bank [87,149,176]. Tree-of-heaven establishes transient soil seed banks from on- and off-site parent sources [328]. Dobberpuhl [75] found viable tree-of-heaven seed in a soil seed bank in Tennessee, although there were no trees-of-heaven in the mixed-oak overstory [75]. A West Virginia field study showed tree-of-heaven's seed bank averaged 48.5 seeds/m² in soils of rural woodlands and grasslands [180]. In soils from a New York City park, tree-of-heaven establishment in the greenhouse averaged 27.7 emergents/m² in soils collected at 0- to 2-inch (5 cm) depths and 14.3 emergents/m² in soils collected at 2- to 4-inch (5-10 cm) depths [168].
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Seed dispersal

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The winged schizocarps are easily and widely dispersed by wind [53,82,163,170,180,181,261]. Entire schizocarp clusters may break off and disperse as a unit. In Ithaca, New York, tree-of-heaven schizocarp clusters often fell and dispersed in clumps in fall, resulting in patches of closely related seedlings. Over the winter, seeds dispersed individually as the fruit clusters disintegrated [230]. A New Jersey study found large, heavy tree-of-heaven seeds traveled as far as light tree-of-heaven seeds [181]. In Seoul, South Korea, tree-of-heaven seed traveled a maximum of 7.5 times the width of the parent crown [53]. On Staten Island, New York, tree-of-heaven seedlings volunteered on a restored landfill site planted to native woody species. A year after restoration plantings, tree-of-heaven count on fifty 10 × 30 meter plots totaled 65 seedlings, the 6th highest among 32 taxa that regenerated on the site. Distance to the nearest seed-bearing tree-of-heaven was 299 feet (70 m) [257]. In West Virginia, seeds from trees on steep slopes dispersed farther downhill than seeds on gentle or flat sites (P157]. Matlack [201] reported the following dispersal patterns for tree-of-heaven schizocarps collected in Delaware:

Dispersal characteristics for tree-of-heaven schizocarps in the laboratory. Data are means (SD) [201]. Rate of descent Lateral movement in still air Lateral distance in a 10 km/hr breeze (estimated) 0.56 m/sec (0.09) 0.87 m (0.10) 111.6 m

Distance traveled was significantly greater than that of fruits or seeds of 37 other wind-dispersed species (P<0.05) [201].

Water [174,232,261] and machinery [232] also disperse tree-of-heaven schizocarp clusters and seeds. A study in Germany found that for cities with rivers, the rivers were a secondary dispersal agent that moved wind-dispersed tree-of-heaven seed that landed in rivers from urban to distant rural areas [261]. Tree-of-heaven seeds dispersed in and along the Monogahela River of West Virginia showed germination rates similar to those of seeds on land (94% germination, P=0.006). Seeds from trees growing near water were most likely to land in and be transported directly by water; water-borne seeds stayed buoyant about 1.5 days [157]. In a pine-oak community in West Virginia, Marsh [196] observed that tree-of-heaven established near roads and on tree harvest sites; machinery may have helped disperse seeds onto these sites.

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Seed production

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Tree-of-heaven produces many small, light seeds [77,92]. In a mixed-hardwood forest in Connecticut, tree-of-heaven averaged 4.84 inches (12.3 cm) DBH in size at first seed production. It had greatest average seed production of 10 overstory trees across 2 years; its seed production was 40 times that of the next highest-producing species. For parent trees of 12 inches (30 cm) DBH, tree-of-heaven produced means of 400,000 seeds in 1994 and 2 million seeds in 1995. Tree-of-heaven and white ash had the longest seed dispersal distances of the 10 trees, but most tree-of-heaven seeds fell within 20 feet (5 m) of the parent trunk. Tree-of-heaven seed rain spiked at 2,500 seeds/m²/12-inch DBH parent tree, showing greatest seed output of all 10 tree species. The authors concluded that tree-of-heaven is "exceptionally fecund even in competitive, closed-canopy forest stands" [198].

Flower, fruit, and seed production begins early in development. Six-week-old seedlings have flowered in the greenhouse [92], and 1-year-old seedlings and 2-year-old root sprouts have been observed in the field with fruit [148,163,275]. Trees in California produce viable seed by 10 years of age [148]. Heaviest seed production is from 12 to 20 years of age [211]. In France, which has a climate similar to California, 1.6- to 3.3-foot long (0.5-1 m) root sprouts produced seeds [30].

Mature female trees may produce several hundred flower clusters in a year. Hunter [148] reports that over 5 years, production of a female tree in Martinez, California, averaged 150, 183, 219, 439, and 56 clusters/year. An individual flower contains hundreds of seeds, so individual trees may produce >325,000 seeds/year [30,148]. Illick and Brouse [151] estimated that a small, 12-inch-diameter (30 cm) tree in Pennsylvania produced over a million seeds in 1 year. Most seeds are viable, even those that overwinter on the tree and disperse in spring [148,328]. Repeated top-kill reduces seed production [211].

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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Successional Status

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Tree-of-heaven is mostly an early-successional species in forest ecosystems [257], and it is most common on disturbed sites throughout its North American range. Starting with a few stems along roadsides or woodland edges, tree-of-heaven may encroach into meadows, woodlands, and open forests [163,250,275]. In invades open eastern hardwood forests, sometimes sharing the canopy with native hardwoods into late succession [280]. In 1986, tree-of-heaven and princesstree were classified as the 2 most successful nonnative trees invading hardwood forests in the Northeast [227], where they often established after tree harvest or other disturbances [211,257]. Huebner [141] found tree-of-heaven was positively associated with either highly disturbed or urban counties in West Virginia (P<0.05). In mixed oak-pine forests on the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee, tree-of-heaven occurred on early-seral sites disturbed by tornados or construction, on prescribed burns, and along roads, pipelines, and ditches [20]. It is an early-seral, subcanopy or canopy species characteristic of the black cherry-yellow-poplar-red maple-white ash forest association in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, Pennsylvania [242]. It sometimes codominates in successional black cherry-yellow-poplar-red maple-American ash forests in Valley Forge National Historical Park, North Carolina [246]. Tree-of-heaven is associated with eastern white pine/rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.) second growth on the Carl Sandberg Home National Historic Site, North Carolina [318].

Tree-of-heaven often establishes after logging [247]. It was most common on logged sites in oak-hickory forests on the Jefferson National Forest, especially on skid trails [47]. In another study in oak-hickory on the Jefferson National Forest, tree-of-heaven was most common on clearcut plots; less common on low-leave shelterwood plots; and least common on high-leave shelterwood plots, respectively [46]. On the George Washington National Forest, 71% of the sites where tree-of-heaven was found had previously been logged; the other sites were along roads [247]. Tree-of-heaven density was much greater in recently logged mixed-hardwood stands than mature forest stands in south-central Virginia; only yellow-poplar was more abundant on logged sites [49].

Tree-of-heaven density (stems/ha) in mixed-hardwood in Virginia [49]   Recently logged stands Mature stands Seedlings 10,138 (6,692)* 320 (147) Saplings 318 (112)* 244 (212) *Significant difference between logged and mature stands (P≤0.05)).
Seedlings are

Tree-of-heaven may also establish in early-seral shrubfields [238] and old fields. In Rock Creek, Washington, DC, tree-of-heaven is a common component in an Allegheny blackberry-multiflora rose (Rubus allegheniensis-Rose multiflora) shrubland [289]. In Maryland, it grew with black locust and princesstree on a farm abandoned 14 years previously [21]. A review of studies conducted in the Hutcheson Memorial Forest Center, New Jersey—which has the largest set of old-field permanent plots established for the longest time in the United States—determined that tree-of-heaven typically established 2 to 4 years after field abandonment [221]. Tree-of-heaven may also occur in middle old-field succession. It was not reported in initial old-field succession in Pennsylvania, but was found in old fields that were abandoned approximately 20 years before. In year 20, hardwoods were forming a 23- to 39-foot (7-12 m) canopy over the herbs. Tree-of-heaven was common in these young hardwood stands [161].

Capacity for rapid growth, mycorrhizal associations [143], and—in eastern hardwood forests with dense white-tailed deer populations—relative unpalatability compared to associated hardwood species [99,166] may confer advantages to tree-of-heaven during early succession. A West Virginia study found mycorrhizal colonization of tree-of-heaven seedling roots was significantly greater on a steep, barren slope (62%) compared to a forest site adjacent to a stream (38%) (P<0.002). The authors suggested that tree-of-heaven established more successfully on open sites due to this trend [143].

Tree-of-heaven is moderately shade tolerant [16,47,108,196] and may persist into late forest succession, typically at low levels in the subcanopy until a canopy gap allows further invasion or expansion [47,166,173,328]. In urban oak-hickory woodlots of central Massachusetts, tree-of-heaven was present only on disturbed sites and did not invade intact woodlands [25]. Gaps created by storms [145,325], hemlock woolly adelgid [228] or gypsy moth defoliation, windstorms [145], or possibly fire [20] may facilitate tree-of-heaven invasion. In Nelson County, Virginia, tree-of-heaven occurred in 2 of 4 avalanche debris chutes surveyed 10 years after Hurricane Camille, but it did not occur in adjacent, undisturbed hardwood forest [145]. Xi and others [325] found tree-of-heaven was invasive following hurricanes in mixed oak-sweetgum piedmont forests of Duke Forest, North Carolina.

Once established in a gap, tree-of-heaven may grow into the forest canopy [166]. It occurs in mature upland hardwood forests of northern New Jersey (review by [60]). It also occurs in upland, mature mixed oak-pignut hickory (Carya glabra) forest in the Black Rock Forest of New York. However, it is most common on disturbed sites, especially near reservoirs [17]. On the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee, tree-of-heaven was a minor species in gaps within a sugar maple-red maple-yellow-poplar forest. Tree-of-heaven density averaged 4.7 saplings/ha, which represented <0.1 % relative density of tree species in forest gaps [127]. In Ohio, tree-of-heaven apparently invaded canopy gaps in an old-growth slippery elm-white ash woodlot from adjacent secondary stands. Its density was similar in secondary and old-growth stands, although density decreased with distance from roads. In a 2002 survey, tree-of-heaven had increased in all size classes compared to a 1980 survey. Density of trees-of-heaven in the canopy had increased threefold, but subcanopy and smaller trees had the largest increases. Survivorship of sprouts from 2001 to 2002 averaged 42% [85].

Tree-of-heaven does not regenerate from seed under its own canopy [17,85,173]. The seedlings are intolerant of deep shade [34,99,118,119,173], and tree-of-heaven does not photosynthesize efficiently in shade [33,34] at any age. A West Virginia survey found 100% mortality of seedlings in the understory of an oak (Quercus spp.)-sugar maple forest [170]. Seed plantings in New Jersey showed best tree-of-heaven establishment in an open-grown herbaceous community, intermediate establishment in an eastern redcedar/little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) woodland, and least establishment in a closed-canopy oak-hickory forest. Mortality rate was over 90% for tree-of-heaven seed planted under a closed-canopy oak-hickory forest [99]. In the Black Rock Forest of New York, tree-of-heaven likely established from seed after a blowdown and subsequent logging and herbicide spraying in the 1960s. By the early 2000s, an oak-hickory forest had redeveloped; tree-of-heaven was present but not reproducing under the canopy [17].

Tree-of-heaven is generally uncommon in closed-canopy, late-successional hardwood forests lacking gaps [25,34,328]. However, trees-of-heaven on forest edges may spread into the surrounding understory by root sprouts, which may grow slowly but persist with shade [132,148,173]. Without canopy-opening disturbance, under-canopy sprouts remain suppressed and grow slowly [118,148,173]. Tree-of-heaven was scarce in a midsuccessional, mixed oak-hickory forest in southern Illinois, with 2.5 stems/ha, relative dominance of 0.1%, and a low importance value of 0.4% [188].

Little information was available on successional patterns of tree-of-heaven where it is native. A study on coal mine spoils in Shanxi, China, found tree-of-heaven dominated late stages of spoil recovery, after the grassland and shrubland stages had succeeded to a tree-of-heaven woodland [189].
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Synonyms

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Ailanthus altissima forma erythrocarpa (Carr.) Schneider [267]

Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. [153]
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Taxonomy

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The scientific name of tree-of-heaven is Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. It is in quassia (Simaroubaceae) [71,104,105,114,136,137,158,199,214,250,280,317,323,324], a family of mostly tropical woody plants [285].
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Fryer, Janet L. 2010. Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Vegetative regeneration

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More info for the terms: root crown, root sprout, seed, top-kill

Tree-of-heaven sprouts from the roots, root crown, and bole [93,145,163,185,211,275]. Although reproduction from seed is not rare, sprouting is its most common method of regeneration [163]. In Ithaca, New York, 58% of 1-year-old, excavated tree-of-heaven stems were root sprouts and 42% were seedlings [230]. Young trees that are cut to the root crown before bark becomes thick and corky often sprout from both the root crown and roots [163,275]. Bole damage promotes root, root crown, and bole sprouting [148,163]. Death or injury of the main stem usually results in prolific root sprouting [211]. Top-growth damage is not necessary for root sprouting to occur, however. Even as seedlings, trees-of-heaven produce horizontal roots capable of sprouting [45]. Except in the rose (Rosacea) [96,269] and willow (Salicaceae) (review by [327]) families, root sprouting without top damage is uncommon in woody species (reviews by [65,120]), but it is a powerful regeneration strategy for species employing it. Roots have more nutrient- and photosynthate-storing capacity than rhizomes, conferring better protection from aboveground disturbances such as fire [159,160] and show a stronger sprouting response after top-kill [65,120]. Tree-of-heaven sprouts are more likely to persist in low-light conditions, such as within a subcanopy, than are seedlings [85].

With tree-of-heaven's spreading root system, root sprouts may appear as far as 50 to 90 feet (15-27 m) from the parent stem [151,163,275]. During drought, tree-of-heaven translocates stem water into roots and begins stem die-back. Die-back may be extensive during extended droughts, but tree-of-heaven typically survives drought by sprouting from the roots when there is sufficient water to support new growth. Sprouting after frost die-back is common in tree-of-heaven's northern limits [93].

On the Himalayan foothills of India, trees-of-heaven with root crown girths between 12 and 16 inches (30 and 40 cm) showed greatest root sprout production following road construction. Trees in the largest-diameter class did not produce sprouts [179].

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Distribution ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Comprehensive Description

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Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. Mem. Acad. Paris 1786 : 265. 1789 A large tree with smoothish gray bark and a stout trunk. Leaves deciduous, 3-9 dm. long ; leaflets 11-41, opposite or alternate, the blades oblong-lanceolate to lanceolate or ovate, 7-18 cm. long, acute or acuminate at the apex, entire or with 2-4 coarse teeth at the base, cordate or truncate and often oblique at the base, petioluled ; panicles 1-3.5 dm. long ; sepals ovate to triangular-ovate, 1-1.5 mm. long, acute, ciliolate ; petals ovate or oval, 2.5-4 mm. long, greenish or yellowish, villose near the base within ; stamens villose at the base ; samaras oblong to oblong-elliptic, 3-5 cm. long, spirally twisted.
Type locality :
Distribution : Southern Ontario to Massachusetts, North Carolina, Alabama, and Texas. Native of China.
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John Kunkel Small, Lenda Tracy Hanks, Nathaniel Lord Britton. 1907. GERANIALES, GERANIACEAE, OXALIDACEAE, LINACEAE, ERYTHROXYLACEAE. North American flora. vol 25(1). New York Botanical Garden, New York, NY
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Associated Forest Cover

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Because of ailanthus' scattered and disjunct occurrence over a wide geographical range, a listing of associated species would have little significance. Forest stands around cities are common areas of invasion and establishment, but it may be an occasional or minor component of forests following disturbance anywhere within its naturalized range.

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Climate

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Because of its wide distribution, ailanthus grows under a variety of climatic conditions. Within the naturalized range of the species, the climate can be temperate to subtropical and humid to arid. In arid regions bordering the Great Plains, low precipitation, from 360 to 610 mm (14 to 24 in) annually with 8 dry months, can be tolerated (7), whereas in humid localities in the southern Appalachians rainfall can exceed 2290 mm (90 in) annually (15). Annual maximum and minimum temperatures are -9° and 36° C (15° and 97° F). Extreme cold and prolonged snow cover restricts the elevational range to the lower slopes of the Rocky Mountains and prolonged cold temperatures have reportedly caused dieback, but resprouting occurs (1,7).

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Damaging Agents

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The species is relatively resistant to insect predation (7). Three insect species are known to feed on ailanthus foliage, however (2). Most noted of the foliage feeders in the eastern range, especially in the South, is the ailanthus web-worm (Atteva punctella). Larvae from this insect feed on leaves enclosed in a frail, silken web. Another larval feeder, imported from Asia, is the cynthia moth (Samia cynthia). Ailanthus is the preferred host for this insect, but wild cherry and plum can also become infested. The Asiatic garden beetle (Maladera castanea) feeds on numerous plants during night flights, including ailanthus.

Although many fungi have been reported on the leaves and twigs of ailanthus, the tree suffers little from disease, and its pathology need rarely be a consideration in its culture (9). If ailanthus can be said to be subject to a major disease it would be Verticillium wilt (Verticillium albo-atrum). Many trees were killed by this soil-borne wilt in Philadelphia in 1936. Shoestring root rot (Armillaria mellea) has been reported in trees in New York (16).

While this tree is rated moderately susceptible to Phymatotrichum root rot (Phymatotrichum omnivorum) in Texas, it is considered most satisfactory for planting in the southern parts of Texas root rot belt (20,23).

In Texas, seeds are eaten by a number of birds, including the pine grosbeak and the crossbill (21). Occasional browsing by deer has also been reported.

Wind, snow, and hard freezes are damaging to tops of seedlings, while mature trees are resistant to ice breakage (3). Resprouting usually occurs, although repeated damage leads to a reduction in seedling survival.

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Flowering and Fruiting

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The yellowish-green flowers of ailanthus appear from mid-April to July, south to north, depending on latitude. The flowers are arranged in large panicles at the ends of new shoots. A dioecious species, it bears male and female flowers on different trees, with male trees producing three to four times more flowers than are usually found on female trees (11). Male flowers are more conspicuous than female ones, emitting a disagreeable odor that attracts numerous insects. The foul odor of the male flowers makes the tree less favored for ornamental plantings in cities.

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Genetics

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In the two centuries since its introduction into North America, ailanthus has probably become differentiated into genetically different subpopulations based on seed traits. Seed characteristics of ailanthus have been identified as traits that differentiate varieties and geographical strains. Ailanthus with bright red samaras compared to the more common greenish yellow has been named Ailanthus altissima var. erythrocarpa (Carr.) Rehd. A study of 11 seed sources from California and Eastern States found that seed width and weight were correlated with latitude (6). Northern sources have wider, heavier seed than the more southern sources.

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Growth and Yield

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Information on the growth and yield of ailanthus in the United States at this time is lacking. Maximum heights are often reported as 17 to 27 m (56 to 90 ft) and a maximum d.b.h. as 100 cm (40 in) (10,12). A short-lived species, it lives 30 to 50 years (20). On arid sites, 15 m (50 ft) or more of height growth can be reached in 25 years, with a straight bole for 10 to 12 m (33 to 40 ft) (7). At a New England location, trees reached a 10 to 15 m (33 to 49 ft) height and 9 to 11 cm (3.7 to 4.3 in) d.b.h. in 30 years (11).

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Reaction to Competition

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Ailanthus is a successional pioneer species, intolerant of shade (8). It competes successfully in mixed stands of hardwoods throughout its range, indicating that it was present at the start of stand establishment.

Allelopathic effects on over 35 species of hardwoods and 34 species of conifers have been demonstrated for water extracts of ailanthus leaves (14). Only white ash (Fraxinus americana) was not adversely affected. Germination and growth of slashand Monterey pines (Pinus elliottii and P radiata) were inhibited by scattering leaves of ailanthus collected in June and July on the seed bed surface, while leaves collected in October stimulated germination and growth (22). Such studies point to a strong allelopathic role for ailanthus in forest succession.

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Rooting Habit

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Ailanthus roots are shallow spreading, often apparent at the soil surface, and roots near the trunk thicken into enlarged storage structures. These large rounded structures are assumed to be for water storage, contributing to the drought hardiness of the species (4). There is a general absence of a taproot with most roots present in the upper 46 cm (18 in) of soil. Within this zone, the deeper roots send numerous small roots to the surface. Adventitious shoots may arise from any of the surface roots.

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Seed Production and Dissemination

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Pollination occurs in the spring and clusters of seed ripen from September to October. The fruit is a samara with the seed in the center of a thin, oblong wing, well adapted for wind dispersal. The ripe samaras are greenish yellow or reddish brown. The seed usually persists on the female tree through the winter, characterizing their appearance, but can be dispersed any time from October to the following spring. The species is a prolific seeder; the most abundant seed production is from trees that are 12 to 20 years.

After collection, seeds should be spread to air-dry. Number of seeds per kilogram averages from 27,000 to 33,000 (12,235 to 14,970lb) and germination after cold stratification averages 65 to 85 percent (7,18). Seeds should be stored dry in sealed containers. The recommended cold stratification is 50 C (410 F) in moist sand for 60 days.

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Seedling Development

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Seeds, can be sown immediately upon ripening or stratified until spring. In nurseries, seeds are usually sown in the spring and seedlings transplanted early the following spring. Germination is epigeal. Vigorous first-year seedling growth of 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft) has been reported (1,11). Average survival on 11 different plantings in Indiana strip mines was 74 percent after the first growing season and then decreased to 58 percent after the first winter (5). This illustrates the winter damage and mortality frequently reported (1,7).

Because ailanthus is intolerant of shade, reproduction in natural stands appears sparse and erratic except by sprouting.

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Soils and Topography

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Ailanthus grows best in loamy, moist soils but tolerates a wide range of textures, stoniness, and pH. On the dry end of the moisture spectrum it is drought hardy, and on the wet end it cannot tolerate flooding. The species is widely recognized by the urban populace since it frequently occupies and covers untended areas in cities. The species' tolerance of harsh sites led to testing for strip mine reclamation; a study in eastern Kentucky found ailanthus better adapted to acid spoil than to calcareous spoil and capable of growing on spoils with low to moderate phosphorus (17). Soils on which ailanthus is most commonly found are within the orders Ultisols, Inceptisols, and Entisols.

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Special Uses

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Ailanthus's main importance remains in urban forestry, the original purpose of its importation into the United States. The species, tolerance of noxious emissions of gases and various dusts assures its continued use for plantings in industrial environments. Tolerance of poor soils and low soil moisture dictates its selection for city plantings in arid climates as well as shelterbelt plantings and on strip mine reclamation projects, although its unfavorable traits (odor and root sprouting) have decreased city plantings.

Root sprouting into fields is also a problem in shelterbelt plantings.

Pollinating insects are attracted by the male flowers. Honey from ailanthus has been reported as having an initial foul taste that disappears with aging, resulting in an exceptionally good tasting honey (13).

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Vegetative Reproduction

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The dense thickets of ailanthus reproduction on disturbed soils of road cuts and city building sites develop from root sprouts. Prolific root and stump sprouting has discouraged use of ailanthus as an ornamental species. After death or injury of the main stem the wide-spreading shallow root system can give rise to an abundance of sprouts. Sprouts have shown first-year height growth of 3 to 4 m (10 to 13 ft) (19). Thus, the species can be easily propagated from either root cuttings or from coppicing.

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Brief Summary

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Simaroubaceae -- Quassia family

James H. Miller

Ailanthus (Ailanthus altissima), also called tree-of-heaven, Chinese sumac, paradise-tree, and copal-tree (fig. 1), is an introduced species that has become widely naturalized across the continent. Ailanthus has found an extremely wide variety of places to establish itself, from urban areas to reclaimed surface-mined lands. Its successful reproduction on impoverished soils and in harsh environments results from its ability to sprout from the roots and to seed prolifically. Ailanthus is found as an upper-canopy component, with varying frequency, in the eastern hardwood forests, apparently spreading by sprouting after harvest disturbance.

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Ailanthus altissima ( Asturian )

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«Ailanto» redirixe equí. Pa la otra planta, ver Alnus viridis.
Pa ver otros usos d'esti términu, Ailanto (dixebra).
 src=
A. altissima (detalle).
 src=
La corteza de A. altissima ye gris y llisa, pero faise rugosa y fisurada llonxitudinalmente nos árboles adultos
 src=
Flores de A. altissima
 src=
Granes inmadures de A. altissima.

Ailanthus altissima, el ailanto, árbol del cielu, árbol de los dioses o falsu zumaque, ye un árbol ornamental bien utilizáu en xardinos públicos nel sur d'Europa, orixinariu de China. De crecedera rápida, ye bien resistente a la contaminación.

Descripción

Algama una talla de 17 hasta 27 metros. Puede llegar a vivir de 40 a 50 años. Ye de fueya caduca.

El tueru ye de corteza gris y sedada, con tonos castaños n'exemplares de mayor edá. Les fueyes son llargues y peciolaes; esprenden el golor desagradable que caracteriza a esta especie. El frutu ye una sámara que s'esvalixa de forma bien eficiente; calteniéndose munches vegaes n'a l'árbol cuando perdió yá tola fueya, n'espera de rabaseres de vientu.

Introducir dende China a mediaos del sieglu XVIII, pola so crecedera rápidu, y siguiendo la moda china de la dómina, col enfotu de repoblar los montes, sicasí, la mala calidá de la madera y los sos desfavorables carauterístiques fixeron fracasar el proyeutu.

Ye un bon colonizador d'espacios degradaos (solares, escampleros).

Especie invasora

N'España, y otres munches árees como Australia, Estaos Xuníos o'l sur d'Europa, convirtióse nuna especie montesa invasora pol so rápidu crecedera y la so capacidá pa espolletar en cualquier llugar, formando trupes arbolees nos márxenes de les carreteres. Crez en zones ensin colonizar por otres especies; nun ye un árbol forestal. Por cuenta del so potencial colonizador y constituyir una amenaza grave pa les especies autóctones, los hábitats o los ecosistemes, foi catalogada nel Catálogu Español d'Especies exótiques Invasores, aprobáu por Real Decretu 1628/2011,[1] de 14 de payares, tando prohibida n'España la so introducción nel mediu natural, posesión, tresporte, tráficu y comerciu.

Les carauterístiques bioecológicas de la especie convertir n'altamente invasora: ye resistente a la contaminación y a gran parte d'inclemencies ambientales, fabrica una enorme cantidá de frutos al añu, y tien una gran capacidá de rebrote. Amás, afecta de forma direuta a la organización y al funcionamientu del ecosistema nel que s'instaura, yá qu'amenorga la cobertoria vexetal del estratu herbal pola proyeición de solombra y la lliberación de sustances alelopáticas al traviés de los sos raigaños, amonta la cobertoria del estratu arbóreo, amenorga la biodiversidá y la riqueza d'especies y amonta la dominancia en favor de sigo mesmu.[2]

Propiedaes

Principios activos: contién glucósidos, resina, esencia acre, taníns, mucílagos.[3]

Indicaciones: ye astrinxente, antihelmíntico, antidiarréico, rubefaciente, emético. Tien De actuase con prudencia nel so emplegu per vía interna, una y bones una dosis escesiva tien en primer llugar un efeutu purgante y dempués emético.[3]

Otros usos: les fueyes utilizar pa fabricación de papel y como colorante mariellu pa la llana.[3]

Taxonomía

Les primeres descripciones científiques del ailanto fixéronse pocu dempués de que s'introdució n'Europa pol xesuita francés Pierre Nicholas d'Incarville. D' Incarville unviara granes dende Beixín al traviés de Siberia al so amigu'l botánicu Bernard de Jussieu na década de 1740. Creyóse que les granes unviaes por d'Incarville yeren d'un árbol asemeyáu y de gran importancia económica, el Toxicodendron vernicifluum, que reparara na rexón del baxu Yangtsé, más que del ailanto. D' Incarville axuntó una nota qu'indicaba esto, lo que causó gran tracamundiu taxonómicu nos siguientes decenios. En 1751, Jussieu llantó delles granes en Francia y unvió a otres a Philip Miller, el superintendente del Chelsea Physic Garden, y a Philip C. Webb, el dueñu d'un xardín de plantes exótiques en Busbridge, Inglaterra.[4]

El tracamundiu nel nome empezó cuando l'árbol foi descritu polos trés homes con trés nomes distintos. En París, Linneo dio a la planta'l nome de Rhus succedanea, ente que popularmente yera conocíu como grand vernis du Japon. En Londres, les amueses fueron llamaes por Miller Toxicodendron altissima y en Busbridge foi llamáu nel antiguu sistema de clasificación como Rhus Sinese foliis alatis. Hai rexistros esistentes de la década de 1750 de disputes sobre'l nome fayadizu ente Philip Miller y John Ellis, curador del xardín de Webb en Busbridge. Más que resolver la cuestión, llueu apaecieron más nomes pa la planta: Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart reparó una amuesa n'Utrecht en 1782 y llamar Rhus cacodendron.[4]

La cuestión foi esclariada un pocu en 1788 cuando René Louiche Desfontaines reparó les sámaras de los especímenes de París, qu'inda fueren etiquetaos como Rhus succedanea, y llegó a la conclusión de que la planta nun yera un zumaque. Publicó un artículu con una descripción ilustrada y dio-y el nome de Ailanthus glandulosa, asitiándolo nel mesmu xéneru que les especies tropicales entós conocíes como A. integrifolia (güei, A. triphysa). El nome derivar de la pallabra ambonesa Ailanto, que significa "árbol de cielu" o "árbol qu'algama'l cielu".[4][5] Diolu como nome específicu glandulosa en referencia a les glándules nes fueyes; esi nome perduró hasta fecha tan tardida como 1957, pero a la fin resultó inválidu por un homónimu tardíu a nivel d'especie.[4] El nome de la especie actual provién de Walter T. Swingle que foi contratáu pol Departamentu d'Estaos Xuníos d'Industria de Plantes. Decidió tresferir el nome específicu más antiguu de Miller al xéneru de Desfontaines, dando como resultáu'l nome güei aceptáu de Ailanthus altissima.[6] Altissima ye la espresión en llatín que quier dicir "el más altu",[7] y refierse a los altores que l'árbol puede algamar. Dacuando a esta planta llámase-y, incorrectamente, col epítetu específicu na forma masculina (glandulosus o altissimus), pero nun ye correctu porque los botánicos, como nel llatín clásicu, traten a la mayoría de los nomes d'árboles en femenín.

Variedaes

Hai trés variedaes de A. altissima:

  • Ailanthus altissima var. altissima, que ye la variedá tipu y ye orixinaria de China continental.
  • Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai, que ye un endemismu de les tierres altes del norte de Taiwán. Difier del tipu en que tien una corteza amarellentada, fueyes extrañamente pinnaes que tamién son de promediu más curties con 45-60 cm de llongura con namái 13–25 fascículos paecíos a un focete.[8][9][10] Ta incluyíu na Llista Colorada de la UICN d'especies amenaciaes por cuenta de la perda d'hábitat pola construcción y los plantíos industriales.[11]
  • A. altissima var. sutchuenensis, que s'estrema en que tien ramillas coloraes.[8][9]
 src=
Un exemplar femenín de A. altissima con una intensa carga de granes madures.
Sinonimia
  • Ailanthus cacodendron (Ehrh.) Schinz & Thell.
  • Ailanthus erythrocarpa Carrière
  • Ailanthus giraldii Dode
  • Ailanthus giraldii var. duclouxii Dode
  • Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. erythocarpa (Carrière) Mouill.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. erythocarpa (Carrière) C.K.Schneid.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. rubra Dippel
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. spinosa M. Vilm. & Bois
  • Ailanthus guangxiensis S.L.Mo
  • Ailanthus japonica K.Koch
  • Ailanthus japonica Dippel
  • Ailanthus pelegrina (Buc'focete) F.A.Barkley
  • Ailanthus pongelion J.F.Gmel.
  • Ailanthus procera Salisb.
  • Ailanthus rhodoptera F.Muell.
  • Ailanthus sinensis Dum.Cours.
  • Ailanthus sutchuensis Dode
  • Ailanthus vilmoriniana Dode
  • Ailanthus vilmoriniana var. henanensis J.Y.Chen & L.Y.Jin
  • Albonia pelegrina Buc'focete
  • Choerospondias auriculata D.Chandra
  • Pongelion cacodendron (Ehrh.) Farw.
  • Rhus cacodendron Ehrh.
  • Toxicodendron altissimum Mill.
var. altissima
  • Pongelion glandulosum (Desf.) Pierre ;var.

sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder & Y.H.Wilson

  • Ailanthus cacodendron var. sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder & Y.H. Wilson
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder
  • Ailanthus sutchuenensis Dode
var. tanakae (Hayata) Kaneh. & Sasaki
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. tanakae Hayata[12]

Nome común

  • Castellanu: ailanto, ailanto glandulosu, arcacia, barniz del Xapón, cinamomo, galbanón de carretera, noguera lloca, oilanto, árbol de la China, árbol del cielu, árbol del Xapón, árbol de los dioses, zumaque del Xapón, zumaque falsu.[13]

Plagues

Una especie de Lepidoptera Atteva aurea, nativa d'América atopó nel Árbol del cielu un hospedero alternativu, causando grandes daños por herbivoría en dellos exemplares

 src=
Árbol del cielu afeutáu por Atteva aurea

Ver tamién

Referencies

  1. BOE. «Real Decretu 1628/2011, de 14 de payares, pol que se regula'l llistáu y catálogu español d'especies exótiques invasores.» (español).
  2. Bayón, A. y Llapaes, F.. «Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle (Simarubaceae) como potencial invasora.» (español).
  3. 3,0 3,1 3,2 «Ailanthus altissima». Plantes útiles: Linneo. Consultáu'l 13 d'ochobre de 2009.
  4. 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 Hu, Shiu-ying (Marzu). «Ailanthus altissima». Arnoldia 39 (2). http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/1072.pdf. Consultáu 'l 7 de febreru de 2010.
  5. Shah, Behula (Branu de 1997). «The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima». Arnoldia 57 (3). http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/472.pdf. Consultáu 'l 7 de febreru de 2010.
  6. Swingle, Walter T.. «The early European history and the botanical name of the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima». Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 6 (14).
  7. Dictionary of Botanical Epithets. Últimu accesu, 15-4-2008.
  8. 8,0 8,1 Shukun Chen, ed., «Ailanthus Desf.», Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae, 43(3), Beixín: Science Press, ISBN 7-03-005367-2
  9. 9,0 9,1 Zheng, Hao; wu, Yun; Ding, Jianqing; Binion, Denise; Fu, Weidong; Reardon, Richard. «Ailanthus altissima». Invasive Plants of Asian Origin Established in the United States and Their Natural Enemies, Volume 1. USDA Forest Service. Consultáu'l 7 de febreru de 2010. FHTET-2004-05
  10. Li, Hui-lin (1993). «Simaroubaceae», en Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwán: Flora of Taiwán, Volume 3: Hamamelidaceae-Umbelliferea, 2ª. ISBN 9757-9019-41-X.
  11. Pan, F.J.. «Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai». 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Consultáu'l 7 de febreru de 2010.
  12. Ailanthus altissima en PlantList
  13. «Ailanthus altissima». Real Xardín Botánicu: Proyeutu Anthos. Consultáu'l 26 de payares de 2009.

Enllaces esternos

Cymbidium Clarisse Austin 'Best Pink' Flowers 2000px.JPG Esta páxina forma parte del wikiproyeutu Botánica, un esfuerciu collaborativu col fin d'ameyorar y organizar tolos conteníos rellacionaos con esti tema. Visita la páxina d'alderique del proyeutu pa collaborar y facer entrugues o suxerencies.
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Ailanthus altissima: Brief Summary ( Asturian )

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Ailanthus altissima «Ailanto» redirixe equí. Pa la otra planta, ver Alnus viridis. Pa ver otros usos d'esti términu, Ailanto (dixebra).  src= A. altissima (detalle).  src= La corteza de A. altissima ye gris y llisa, pero faise rugosa y fisurada llonxitudinalmente nos árboles adultos  src= Flores de A. altissima  src= Granes inmadures de A. altissima.

Ailanthus altissima, el ailanto, árbol del cielu, árbol de los dioses o falsu zumaque, ye un árbol ornamental bien utilizáu en xardinos públicos nel sur d'Europa, orixinariu de China. De crecedera rápida, ye bien resistente a la contaminación.

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Uca aylant ( Azerbaijani )

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Uca aylant (lat. Ailanthus altissima)[1]aylant cinsinə aid bitki növü.[2] Azərbayacan şəraitində hündürlüyü 12-15 m (nadir hallarda 20 m.) m, diametri 60 sm olan, öz vətənində isə hündürlüyü 30 m-ə çatan ağacdır. Çətiri iri budaqlıdır, lakin iri yarpaqların çox olmasına görə sıxdır və kölgəlidir. Cavan budaqları açıq-qəhvəyi, yaşlı gövdəsinin rəngi isə açıq boz rəngdədir.

Yarpaq

Yarpaqları iri və mürəkkəbdir, uzunluğu 40-70 (90) sm-dir, tək lələkvaridir, ümumi saplaqda oturmuş 9-41 ədəd yarpaqcıqdan ibarətdir, xoşagəlməyən iyi vardır; yarpaqcıqların uzunluğu (4) 5-8 (13) sm, uzunsov-yumurtaşəkilli, və yaxud neştərvari yumurtaşəkillidir. Qaidəsinə doğru dəyirmi və ya çəpinə kəsilmiş, tam inkişaf dövründə çılpaq, kənarları nazik kirpikcikli, qaidə hissəsində, hər birində 1-2 (3-4) ədəd iri dişlidir.

Çiçək

Çiçək qrupu iri, süpürgəvari, kifayət qədər sıx olub, uzunluğu 20-30 sm-ə qədərdir. Çıçəkləri xırda, uzunluğu 2,5-3,5 mm, ikicinslidir və erkəkciklidir, xoşagəlməyən iyi vardır. Ləçəkləri 5-6 ədəd olub, xırdadır, yumurtaşəkilli, yaşılımtıl rəngli və tutqundur. Meyvə: Meyvəsi yastı qanadmeyvə, uzunluğu 3-4 sm, rombşəkilli formada və qanadın ortasında yerləşmiş bir toxumdan ibarətdir.

Çiçəkləməsi

May-(İyun).

Meyvə verməsi

(Avqust)-Sentyabr (Oktyabr). Azərbaycanda yayılması: Qədimdən Abşeronun hər yerində əkilir. Kür-Araz, SamurŞabran, Lənkəran, Alazan-Əyriçay oval., Kür, Naxçıvan, İsmayıllı və Xəzəryanı düz. rast gəlinir. Əsas yayılma nöqtələri: Bakı, Şamaxı, Ağsu, Kürdəmir, Göyçay, Ağdaş, Gəncə,Yevlax, Mingəçevir, Bərdə, Ağdam, Salyan, Sabirabad, Beyləqan, Naxçıvan və s.

Təsərrüfat əhəmiyyəti

Oduncağından mebel və müxtəlif xarrat məmulatlarının hazırlanmasında istifadə olunur. Qabıq və yarpaqları tibbi əhəmiyyətə malikdir. Yeni zoğlarından, çiçəklərindən və cavan qabığından alınan cövhər bəzi xəstəliklərdə istifadə olunur. Qabığındakı qətranlı şirəsi yağlı boyaların hazırlanmasında istifadə olunur.

İstinad

  • Tofiq Məmmədov, Elman İsgəndər, Tariyel Talıbov. Azərbaycanın nadir ağac və kol bitkiləri", Bakı: "Elm", 2014, 380 səh
  • Eldar Şükürov.İsmayıllı rayonu meşə bitkilərinin bələdçi kitabı, Bakı 2016

Mənbə

  1. Nurəddin Əliyev. Azərbaycanın dərman bitkiləri və fitoterapiya. Bakı, Elm, 1998.
  2. Elşad Qurbanov. Ali bitkilərin sistematikası, Bakı, 2009.
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Uca aylant: Brief Summary ( Azerbaijani )

provided by wikipedia AZ

Uca aylant (lat. Ailanthus altissima) — aylant cinsinə aid bitki növü. Azərbayacan şəraitində hündürlüyü 12-15 m (nadir hallarda 20 m.) m, diametri 60 sm olan, öz vətənində isə hündürlüyü 30 m-ə çatan ağacdır. Çətiri iri budaqlıdır, lakin iri yarpaqların çox olmasına görə sıxdır və kölgəlidir. Cavan budaqları açıq-qəhvəyi, yaşlı gövdəsinin rəngi isə açıq boz rəngdədir.

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Ailant ( Catalan; Valencian )

provided by wikipedia CA

L'ailant,[2] (Ailanthus altissima), conegut com a chouchun en mandarí estàndard (臭椿 chòuchūn), és un arbre caducifoli de la família de les simarubàcies. Té tota una sèrie de noms populars que en il·lustren unes característiques: vernís del Japó, arbre de carretera, arbre del cel, arbre pudent, canya de la pudor, cornisa, espantagitanos, fals vernís, hivernenc o mal arbre.[3] A Europa es considera com una de les 100 espècies invasores més dolentes,[4] i des del 2012 el seu cultiu i comercialització estan prohibits a Espanya. Ha estat inclosa al Catàleg espanyol d’espècies exòtiques invasores.[5]

És originari tant de Taiwan com del nord-est i el centre de la Xina. A diferència d'altres membres del gènere dels ailants, prefereix els climes temperats abans que els tropicals. Aquest arbre creix amb rapidesa i és capaç d'assolir una alçada de fins a quinze metres en vint-i-cinc anys. Tanmateix, és poc longeu i rarament viu més de cinquanta anys.

A la Xina, té una llarga història. Es menciona al diccionari Xinès més vell conservat i en diversos texts mèdics antics per la seva suposada qualitat de curar des de trastorns mentals a la calvície. Les arrels, les fulles i l'escorça s'utilitzen encara avui en dia en la medicina tradicional xinesa, principalment com a astringent. L'arbre ha crescut per tot Xina i a l'estranger, on ha esdevingut part de la cultura occidental com es pot observar en la novel·la A tree Grows in Brooklin de Betty Smith, on l'ailant és metafòricament el tema principal.

L'arbre va arribar a Europa des de la Xina per primer cop als 1740 i als Estats Units d'Amèrica el 1784. Va ser un dels primers arbres que es van portar des d'allí amb el moviment de la Chinoiserie. Inicialment era un arbre de jardí, que va començar a inquietar els jardiners amb els seus hàbits invasors, però no se li va donar importància. El segle XIX s'utilitzà àmpliament com a arbre de carrer. Des d'allí ha anat envaint i és que fora del seu hàbitat natural és considerada una espècie invasora capaç de produir estralls sobre les comunitats vegetals on s'estableix, a causa de la gran quantitat de llavors que poden generar els peus femenins, la seva capacitat de rebrot a través de les arrels, cosa que fa realment difícil d'eliminar, i la seva elevada taxa de creixement que produeixen una forta competència per a la llum. Per totes aquestes causes produeix una disminució en la biodiversitat constatada al Parc Natural de Collserola. De les 61 espècies invasores senyalades als espais naturals de Catalunya, junts amb la Cortaderia selloana és la més problemàtica.

A Austràlia, als EUA, a Nova Zelanda i diversos països del sud i de l'est d'Europa és catalogat com a nociu. I ha estat tan perjudicial per a certes poblacions que l'han arribat a anomenar col·loquialment «arbre de l'infern».

Morfologia

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Il·lustració botànica de les fulles, les flors i les sàmares d'un ailant, extreta de "Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada" de Britton i Brown (1913)

L'ailant és un arbre de mida mitjana que arriba a mesurar entre 17 i 27 metres d'alçada i 1 metre de diàmetre a l'altura del pit.[6] L'escorça és llisa, de color gris clar i a causa de l'acció de la llum solar es va esquerdant i va agafant amb un to més fosc i rogenc a mesura que l'arbre envelleix. Els branquillons són forts i suaus degut a la lleugera pubescència. Tenen un color vermellós tirant a castany. Es poden observar lenticel·les i diverses marques en forma de cor que deixen els pecíols de les fulles en caure.

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Detall de la marca que deixa la fulla en caure

Les gemmes són, igual que les branques, una mica pubescents, amb forma de cúpula, i es troben parcialment amagats darrere dels pecíols, excepte en l'època de dormició, quan s'observen perfectament a les marques deixades per les fulles caigudes.[7] Les branques són d'un to gris que varia de clar a fosc, suaus i amb lenticel·les que es transformen amb fissures a mesura que envelleixen. Tot l'arbre desprèn una forta olor que pot recordar al cacauet, l'anacard [8] o a l'anacard podrit.[9]

Les fulles són llargues, pinnaticompostes (tant parelles o senars) i estan ordenades alternadament al llarg de la tija. Fan de 30cm a 90cm de llargada i contenen de 10 a 41 folíols. Les fulles més grans es troben en els brots més joves i vigorosos. El raquis és rogenc o verd amb una base ampla. Els folíols són oblanceolats amb marges sencers I una mica asimètrics, de vegades en cada parella no es troba cada un dels folíols un davant de l'altre. Fan entre 5 i 18 cm de llarg i entre 2,5 i 5cm d'amplada, a la base s'observen dues o quatre dents, cada una conté una glàndula a la punta. S'aprimen cada cop més fins a arribar a la punta, molt prima.[7] L'anvers del folíol és verd fosc amb venes de color verd clar. En canvi, el revers és d'un color verd esblanqueït. Els pecíols fan de 5 a 12 mm. La base lobular i les glàndules el distingeixen d'espècies similars com el sumac.

Llavors immadures, fulles i flors d' A. altissima Llavors immadures, fulles i flors d' A. altissima
Llavors immadures, fulles i flors d' A. altissima

Les flors són petites i apareixen en grans panícules (de fins a 50cm de llargada) al final dels nous brots. Les flors individuals són groc-verdoses i es van tornant vermelloses. Tenen 5 pètals i 5 sèpals.[6][8] Els sèpals tenen forma de tasseta, són lobulars i estan units entre ells. Al seu torn, els pètals són valvats,(és a dir, estan tocant-se per les puntes però no se superposen ni estan enganxats) i blancs i pubescents a l'interior.[7][10][11] Apareixen des de mitjans d'abril, al sud, fins al Juliol, al nord. És dioeci, és a dir, les flors mascles i femelles neixen d'individus diferents. Els arbres mascles produeixen entre tres i quatre cops la quantitat de flors que produeixen les femelles, això fa que els arbres mascles en floració siguin més vistosos. A més a més, els arbres mascles desprenen una olor molt desagradable durant la floració per atraure els insectes pol·linitzadors. Les flors femenines contenen deu (o molt rarament cinc) estams estèrils (estamoides), amb anteres amb forma de cor. El pistil està fet de cinc carpels independents (no estan fusionats), contenint, cada un, un únic òvul. Els estils estan units fràgilment, acabant amb forma d'estrella a l'estigma.[7][10] Les flors masculines són similars a les femenines però no tenen pistil i els estams funcionen, cada un coronat amb una antera globular i un disc glandular verd (que produeix l'olor desagradable).[7] Les llavors nascudes de les flors femenines, són esfèriques i fan 5mm de diàmetre i cada una està encapsulada en una sàmara de 2,5 cm de llarg i un 1 cm d'ample. Apareixen del juliol a l'agost, però poden quedar-se a l'arbre fins a la primavera següent. La sàmara és allargada i cargolada per les puntes, això fa que giri mentre cau, que es dispersi més amb el vent[6][8] i floti per poder-se dispersar a grans distàncies per Hidrocòria.[12] Els arbres femella produeixen una enorme quantitat de llavors, aproximadament unes 30.000 per kilogram d'arbre.[6] La seva fecunditat es pot estimar sense danyar l'arbre, fent una mesura del dbh (diàmetre a l'altura del pit, de l'anglès diameter at breast height).[12]

Taxonomia

Les primeres definicions científiques de l'arbre es feren poc després que fos introduït a Europa per part del jesuïta francès Pierre Nicholas d'Incarville. Aquest havia enviat llavors des de Perking via Sibèria al seu amic botànic Bernard de Jussieu a la dècada dels 1740. Bernard de Jussieu va pensar que aquestes llavors eren de l'arbre de la laca xinès (Toxicodendron vernicifluum), molt semblant a l'ailant i molt important econòmicament a Europa, que ell havia pogut observar a la baixa regió de Yangtze. D'Incarville adjuntava una nota indicant això, cosa que causà molta confusió les següents dècades. El 1751 de Jussieu va plantar unes quantes llavors a França i envià la resta a Phillip Miller, superintendent al Chelsea Physic Garden i a Phillip C. Webb, propietari d'una botiga de plantes exòtiques de Busbridge, Anglaterra.[7]

La gran confusió amb el seu nom començà quan tres persones diferents el van descriure amb tres noms diferents. A París, Carl von Linné li donà el nom de Rhus succedanea quan popularment es coneixia com a grand vernis du Japon. A Londres fou anomenat per Miller Toxicodendron altissima. Per acabar, a Busbridge s'optà per encabir-lo en el sistema de classificació antic com a Rhus Sinese foliis alatis. Encara es conserven cartes dels anys 1750 entre Philip Miller i John Ellis, responsable del jardí de Webb a Busbridge, on es discuteix sobre nom. Per acabar-ho d'adobar, el 1782, Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart va classificar un exemplar de l'arbre que havia observat a Utrecht com a Rhus cacodendron.[7]

El tema es començà a aclarir el 1788 quan René Louiche Desfontaines observà les sàmares dels individus de París (encara etiquetats amb el nom de Rhus succedanea) i arribà a la conclusió que aquests no pertanyien als sumacs, és a dir, al gènere Rhus. Seguidament, publicà un article amb una descripció il·lustrada de l'arbre i li donà el nom de Ailanthus glandulosa, col·locant-lo així al mateix gènere que les espècies tropicals conegudes com A. integrifolia siris blancs o Ailanthus triphysa. El nom Ailant prové de la paraula ambonesa ailanto, que vol dir arbre celestial o arbre que puja cap al cel. [7][13] El cognom glandulosa, provinent de les glàndules de les fulles, es va mantenir així fins al 1957, que es considerà invàlid a causa d'homonímia a nivell d'espècie.[7] El nom actual ve donat per Walter T. Swingle que treballava pel Departament d'Indústria Agrícola dels Estats Units. Aquest decidí posar-li com li havia posat Desfontaines (Ailanthus altissima) i així es va quedar.[14] El nom científic altissima, en català el més alt, es donà per les grans alçades que l'arbre podia arribar. Hi ha llocs on se cita incorrectament amb el nom d'Ailanthus altissimus o glandulosus (en masculí), ja que en botànica s'acostuma a considerar els arbres femenins, igual que en el llatí clàssic.

Hi ha tres varietats biològiques de l'arbre:

  • A. altissima var. altissima, autòctona de la Xina continental
  • A. altissima var. tanakai, autòctona dels altiplans del nord de Taiwan. Es diferencia de l'altra varietat per la seva escorça groguenca, les fulles són més petites (de 45 a 60 cm de llargada i pocs folíols (13-25).[15][16][17] Està classificada com en perill d'extinció a la Llista vermella de la IUCN a causa de la destrucció del seu hàbitat per la construcció de plantacions industrials.[18]
  • A. altissima var. sutchuenensis, es diferencia perquè té les branques vermelloses.[15][16]

Hàbitat i distribució

L'A. altissima és autòcton de la Xina nord i central, Taiwan[19] i Corea del Nord.[20] A Taiwan està present la variant takanai.[18] A la Xina està present a totes les províncies exceptuant les de Gansu, Heilongjiang, Hainan, Jilin, Ningxia, Qinghai, Xinjiang i Tibet.[15]

L'arbre prefereix sòls humits, però tot i així pot adaptar-se a una gran varietat de condicions i nivells de pH. Aguanta les sequeres però no les inundacions. Tampoc pot viure en medis on hi hagi molta ombra.[6] A la Xina sovint es troba en sols on abunda la pedra calcària.[16] L'arbre es troba en un gran ventall de condicions climatològiques.[6] En el seu hàbitat natural es troba tant a grans altituds de Taiwan[18] com a les baixes de la Xina.[7] Als Estats Units es troba en les regions àrides frontereres de les grans planes, al sud dels Apalatxes, una zona molt humida, al sud de les Muntanyes Rocalloses i, per acabar, a la vall central de Califòrnia. Als indrets on fa molt fred i hi neva, els arbres normalment moren però tornen a rebrotar de les arrels.

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L'ailant creixent com a mala herba a Austràlia.

Com a planta exòtica

Les primeres introduccions de l'ailant a països estrangers al seu hàbitat natural foren a les zones del sud de Corea i Japó. És possible que l'arbre fos natiu d'aquestes zones, però la versió més acceptada és que l'arbre s'introduí fa molt temps.[21] Dins de la Xina també s'ha traslladat a regions on no era autòcton com Qinghai, Ningxia o Xinjiang.[16]

L'any 1784, no molt després de l'enviament de les llavors cap a Anglaterra per part de Jussieu, algunes de les llavors van ser reenviades cap als Estats Units per part de William Hamilton, un jardiner de Philadelphia. Tant a Europa com a Amèrica va esdevenir molt ràpidament una apreciada planta ornamental, sobretot com a arbre de carrer, i cap al 1840 ja estava disponible a quasi totes les botigues de jardineria.[7][13] L'arbre va ser portat separadament cap a Califòrnia als 1890 per part d'immigrants xinesos vinguts durant la febre de l'or de Califòrnia. S'ha escapat de tot cultiu on s'ha introduït, especialment als Estats Units.[19] Ha proliferat per tota Europa, incloent Alemanya,[22] Àustria, Suïssa, la República Txeca, Panònia (Europa Sud-est central, al voltant del Danubi, Eslovàquia i Hongria al sud dels Balcans) i la majoria de països mediterranis.[20] A Montenegro[23] i Albània[24][25] l'A. altissima es troba tant a zones rurals com a les ciutats. Tot i que al principi es va introduir com a planta ornamental, tardà molt poc a envair els ecosistemes natius afectant el seu equilibri i es convertí en espècie invasora molt difícil d'eliminar.[23] L'ailant també ha estat introduït a l'Argentina,[19] Austràlia (on ràpidament es va declarar mala herba, als estats de South Wales i Victoria),[26] New Zealand (on està a la llista de l'Acord Nacional contra els vegetals invasors i està classificada com a organisme no desitjat),[27] Orient mitjà i a alguns països del sud d'Àsia com Pakistan.[28]

Catalunya

A Catalunya s'ha detectat en massa al Parc de Collserola, on s'ha observat que causa una disminució significativa de diversitat d'espècies vegetals. A més a més causa una significativa disminució de la cobertura arbòria. També ha quedat demostrat que les espècies lianoides en surten beneficiades.[29] De les 61 plantes exòtiques considerades una amenaça ecològica o socioeconòmica en algun indret de Catalunya, l'ailant n'és el més problemàtic, seguit de l'herba de la Pampa [30] L'ailant es troba entre les espècies invasores a controlar i erradicar als Parcs de la Serralada de Marina i el Montnegre i el Corredor.[31]

Amèrica

A Amèrica del Nord, l'A. altissima es troba present des de Massachusetts a l'est, fins al sud-oest a Ontàrio, Iowa, Texas i al nord de Florida, al sud-oest fins a Iowa, i al sud fins a Texas. A la costa oest es troba des de Nou Mèxic fins a Califòrnia per l'oest i a l'estat de Washington cap al nord.[6][19] Al límit est de la seva gran extensió, creix en àrees urbanes, on fa molt temps va ser plantat com a arbre de carrer.[7][19] També creix molt extensament al llarg de les vies de tren. Per exemple, un estudi del 2003 a Carolina del Nord revelava que l'ailant es trobava a un 1,7% de tots els costats d'autopista i vies del tren de tot l'estat i que havia estat augmentant el seu domini a un 4,76% dels comtats a l'any.[32] Similarment, un altre estudi, dut a terme al sud de Virginia, va determinar que l'arbre estava creixent al 30% de la llargada del sistema interestatal d'autopistes.[33] A l'oest d'Amèrica del Nord és més comú a les muntanyes al voltant de pous i mines abandonades.[34][35]

Ecologia

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Una femella molt carregada de llavors a Valladolid, Espanya

L'ailant és una planta oportunista que brota a ple sol i àrees pertorbades ecològicament. S'escampa agressivament tant per llavors com per arrels, que rebroten ràpidament quan es tallen.[6] És considerat un intolerant de l'ombra i no pot competir en hàbitats de poca lluminositat,[36] tot i que de vegades es troba en boscos de poca llum, això és degut al fet que s'hi establí durant la formació del bosc.[6] Per altra banda, un estudi a un bosc vell de Tsuga de Nova York va arribar a la conclusió que l'ailant era capaç de competir i guanyar contra arbres nadius en clarianes fosques on només hi havia entre un 2% i un 15% del total de la llum del sol disponible. El mateix estudi caracteritzava l'arbre de fer ús de petites clarianes per arribar a la part superior amb llum del bosc.

L'arbre viu poc i creix molt ràpid.[37] En cap dels casos acostuma a sobrepassar els cinquanta anys.[6] L'ailant és un dels arbres que millor toleren la pol·lució, incloent el diòxid de sofre el qual absorbeix a les fulles. Pot aguantar pols de ciment i fums despresos a la producció de carbó. Així mateix, també aguanta l'exposició a l'ozó i s'han trobat casos amb grans quantitats de mercuri dins dels teixits de la planta.[19]

L'ailant s'ha utilitzat en diverses ocasions per repoblar àrees contaminades pels residus àcids del drenatge de mines i s'ha demostrat que l'arbre tolera nivells de pH de fins a 4.1 (acidesa semblant a la del suc de tomàquet). L'arbre pot aguantar nivells molt baixos de fòsfor i alts nivells de salinitat. La tolerància a la sequera és bastant alta gràcies a la capacitat d'emmagatzemar aigua al sistema d'arrels.[19] És freqüent trobar-lo en zones on pocs arbres poden sobreviure. Les arrels són suficientment fortes per trencar tubs i el clavegueram subterrani.[7] Al llarg de les autopistes és normal trobar zones on creixen molt poques plantes en excepció de l'ailant que hi creix en abundància. Això és degut a les toxines que produeix per monopolitzar el terreny i eliminar la competència.[19]

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Arbre femella creixent a la ciutat de Chicago, Illinois

L'ailant produeix una substància al·lelopàtica anomenada ailantona, la qual inhibeix el creixement d'altres plantes.[38] Els inhibidors són més potents a l'escorça i a les arrels, però també es troben a les fulles, fusta i llavors de la planta. Un estudi afirma que un extracte de l'escorça de les arrels inhibia la germinació del 50% d'una mostra de llavors de morritort (Lepidium sativum). El mateix estudi demostra que l'extracte funciona com a herbicida contra el morritort, el marxant gros (Amaranthus retroflexus), la soja borda (Abutilon theophrasti), la setaria (Setaria pumila), la panissola (Echinochloa crusgalli), els pèsols (Pisum sativum) i el blat de moro (Zea mays). Es va demostrar capaç de matar gairebé el 100% de les plàntules amb excepció de la soja borda, la qual va demostrar una mica de resistència.[39] Un altre experiment va demostrar que una dissolució en aigua d'un extracte de l'agent químic era letal o molt perjudicial per a 11 arbres de fusta dura americans i 34 coníferes, deixant la Fraxinus americana com a única planta de l'experiment no afectada negativament per l'ailantona.[40] L'agent químic no afecta però al mateix ailant, això indica que l'arbre té un mecanisme de defensa per evitar l'autointoxicació.[38] Així mateix s'ha demostrat un increment en la resistència d'altres plantes després d'una exposició prolongada al tòxic. Les poblacions sense exposició prèvia als químics són més sensibles a l'agent tòxic. Les llavors produïdes per les plantes exposades també han demostrat ser més resistents que les que no han estat exposades.[41]

L'arbre és una espècie de creixement extremadament ràpid i és possible que sigui l'arbre de creixement més ràpid de tot Nord-amèrica.[42] Té un creixement d'un a dos metres per any durant els primers anys de vida. L'ombra disminueix considerablement l'índex de creixement. Els arbres més vells, tot i que creixen més lentament, ho fan més ràpid que els altres arbres.

Al nord d'Europa l'arbre del cel no es va considerar naturalitzat a les ciutats fins després de la Segona Guerra Mundial. Això s'ha atribuït a la seva gran habilitat per colonitzar àrees amb edificis destruïts on altres plantes no creixen.[20] A més a més, el microclima més temperat que hi ha a les ciutats li ofereix a l'arbre un hàbitat fins i tot millor que les àrees rurals de la rodalia (es pensa que l'arbre necessita com a mínim una temperatura mitjana anual d'uns 8 graus per créixer en condicions òptimes, la qual cosa limita la seva extensió cap als països nòrdics i a altituds altes). Per exemple, un estudi dut a terme a Alemanya constatava que l'arbre creixia en un 92% de les àrees densament poblades de Berlín, en un 25% de la seva rodalia i només en un 3% en àrees completament fora de la ciutat.[20] Tot i així, aquest no és el cas d'altres àrees més càlides d'Europa en les que l'arbre té temperatura suficient per créixer. Per aquest motiu, ha colonitzat grans extensions naturals d'Hongria, per exemple, es considera una amenaça natural per la biodiversitat del Parc Nacional d'Aggtelek.[20]

Diverses espècies de lepidòpters utilitzen les fulles de l'ailant com a principal font de menjar, incloent la Actias selene i la Eurema hecabe. A Amèrica del Nord l'arbre és hoste del Atteva aurea, tot i que aquest Yponomeutidae és autòcton d'Amèrica Central i Sud Amèrica, i originalment utilitzava altres arbres més tropicals tipus el Simaroubaceae com a hostes.[43] Al seu ecosistema autòcton A. altissima està associat a almenys 32 espècies d'artròpodes i 13 espècies de fongs.[16]

Aquesta espècie invasora està molt controlada per terratinents i altres organitzacions les quals, en alguns casos, fan ús de programes d'erradicació de plagues per mantenir l'espècie a ratlla. Per exemple, la ciutat de Basilea a Suïssa té un programa d'erradicació de l'ailant.[20] Tot i així pot ser molt difícil de desfer-se'n. S'han provat diferents mètodes per via física, química, tèrmica o biològica tot i així l'opció més bona acostuma a ser una combinació compatible. Una opció és l'aplicació d'herbicides foliars o basals per matar els arbres crescuts i arrancant les plàntules per prevenir nous naixements.[44][nota 1] Al parc de Collserola s'ha provat l'erradicació amb una barreja específica d'herbicides que no afecta altres plantes, i resulta efectiva però és costosa perquè s'ha d'injectar a cada exemplar.[45]

Usos

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mascle de Samia cynthia de la col·lecció d'insectes de la Universitat Texas A&M

A més a més del seu ús com a planta ornamental, l'arbre també es pot usar per la seva fusta, propietats medicinals, o per a planta hoste per alimentar cucs de seda Samia cynthia, els quals produeixen seda més resistent i econòmica que els cucs de seda de la morera, però de menys qualitat des del punt de vista estètic, ja que no té la mateixa textura ni brillantor. A més a més no es pot tenyir. Aquest tipus de seda es coneix amb diversos noms d'entre els quals destaquen: la "seda d'eri" i la "seda de Shantung", l'últim dels quals deriva de província de Shandong a la Xina on es produeix seda d'aquest tipus. La seva producció es concentra principalment a la regió de Yantai d'aquesta província. La papallona del cuc també ha estat introduïda als Estats Units.[7]

La fusta de l'arbre, de color groc pàl·lid, densa, flexible i satinada s'usa per a la fabricació d'armaris.[46] També és de gran utilitat per la fabricació d'olles de vapor, molt importants a la cuina xinesa per coure mantou, pastes i arròs. La província de Zhejiang a l'est de la Xina és famosa per la seva producció d'aquestes olles de vapor.[7] És també una bona font de llenya, ja que es pot cremar poc després de tallar-la.[47] També s'utilitza per fer carbó per cuinar.[48] Tot i així hi ha l'inconvenient que quan s'asseca la fusta es retorça i es trenca degut a la textura desigual entre l'interior i l'exterior del tronc donada per el ràpid creixement de l'arbre. S'han desenvolupat tècniques d'assecatge per prevenir això i proporcionant una sortida comercial.[49]

Cultiu

L'arbre del cel és un arbre ornamental molt popular a la Xina i apreciat per la seva tolerància a les condicions adverses al creixement.[16] Durant un temps es va cultivar molt intensament a Europa i Nord-amèrica però la seva popularitat va caure en picat, especialment als Estats Units, majoritàriament degut a la pudor que desprenen els brots i la conducta de mala herba que té l'arbre. El problema de la pudor es va resoldre venent només arbres de gènere femení, ja que només els mascles desprenen l'olor.[13] El conegut horticultor americà i professor a la Universitat de Geòrgia Michael Dirr, narra l'encontre l'any 1982 amb un productor que no trobava compradors pels arbres. Seguidament escriu: "Tot i així a Europa es continua utilitzant l'arbre als jardins i la seva conducta no és tan invasiva com ho és a Amèrica". Al Regne Unit és especialment comú a les places, carrers i parcs de Londres. També es troba a jardins del sud del Regne Unit i d'Ànglia de l'Est. Al nord és quasi inexistent amb excepció del sud d'Escòcia on se'n troba algun. Tampoc es troba a Irlanda.[50] A Alemanya, l'arbre és molt comú en els jardins.[22] A l'oest d'Europa el cultiu ha esdevingut molt impopular perquè té una longevitat curta i el tronc es buida al cap de poc temps del naixement de l'arbre, deixant tots els arbres de més de 60 cm. d'altura molt inestables als cops de vent.[46]

Hi ha uns quants cultivars, però no s'acostumen a comercialitzar fora de la Xina:

  • Hongye – Aquest nom en xinès vol dir fulles vermelles. Aquesta varietat té unes fulles molt lluents i vermelles[51]
  • Mil caps[51]
  • Metro – Un cultivar mascle que adopta un hàbit menys invasor.[52]
  • Erythrocarpa – Els fruits són d'un vermell intens.[52]
  • Pendulifolia – Les fulles són molt més llargues i pengen solemnement.[52]

Medicina

Quasi totes les parts de l'ailant tenen alguna aplicació a la medicina tradicional xinesa. Una de les receptes més antigues, escrita a una obra del 732 aC, serveix per tractar malalties mentals. Els seus ingredients principals eren arrels triturades, orina de nois joves i douchi. Després de deixar-ho reposar un dia el líquid s'escorria i s'administrava al pacient durant uns quants dies.[7]

Una altra font del 684 aC, escrita durant la dinastia Ming al Compendi de Matèria Mèdica de Li Shizhen, descriu que quan s'ingereixen les fulles aquestes tenen un efecte somnífer, d'altra banda si s'apliquen externament poden ser extremadament efectives en el tractament de furóncols, èczemes i picors. Fins i tot el llibre inclou una recepta de fulles per tractar la calvície: El suc resultant d'aixafar fulles joves d'ailant, catalpa i presseguer.[7]

L'escorça seca és considerada un medicament oficial i està inclosa al matèria medica xinès modern com a chun bai pi (xinès: 椿白皮, pinyin: chūnbáipí), que es tradueix com a escorça blanca de primavera. Hi ha articles moderns que la tracten en molt de detall, descriuen els seus constituents químics i com identificar i usar el producte per fins terapèutics. Es recol·lecta tallant l'arbre a la tardor o a la primavera, extraient l'escorça i rascant-ne la capa exterior més dura, que es deixa assecar al sol. Posteriorment es banya en aigua i es torna a assecar. Finalment es talla a tires. Té propietats antipirètiques i astringents. S'usa principalment per tractar disenteria, hemorràgies intestinals, menorràgia i hematospèrmia. Només es recepta en quantitats d'entre 4 i 10 grams per evitar intoxicacions dels pacients. El compendi de Li té 18 receptes en les quals s'usa l'escorça. Tant químics asiàtics com europeus han trobat una justificació química del seu ús com a medicament, ja que conté una llarga llista de components químics que inclou quasina i saponina. L'ailantona, la substància al·leopàtica de l'arbre del cel, actua com agent antimalària.[53] Es pot trobar a la majoria de botigues especialitzades en medicina tradicional xinesa.[7] La tintura d'arrels i escorça pot ajudar en el tractament de palpitacions cardíaques, asma i epilèpsia.[10]

Les samares també s'usen a la medicina moderna xinesa sota el nom feng yan cao (xinès tradicional: 鳳眼草, xinès simplificat: 凤眼草, pinyin: fèngyǎncǎo), que vol dir "herba de l'ull de fènix. S'usen com a agent homeostàtic i per tractar l'hematospèrmia i pacients amb sang als excrements o l'orina. Ha estat provat clínicament efectiu en el tractament de tricomoniosi i la infecció vaginal causada pel protozou Trichomonas vaginalis.[7] A l'oest l'extracte de l'escorça de A. glandulosa (sinònim de l'arbre) s'usa com a remei en malalties com el càncer.[54]

Hi ha certa evidència, completament anecdòtica, que l'arbre podria ser lleugerament tòxic. Les olors que desprèn s'han associat molts cops a nàusees i mals de cap i dermatitis, tant en humans com cabres, que també desenvoluparen feblesa i paràlisi. Conté un irritant de quinona: 2,6-dimetoxibenzoquinona, i quassinoides (grup al qual la mateixa ailantona pertany) que podrien provocar aquests suposats efectes, tot i que es veu difícil que es reprodueixin d'aquesta manera en humans i cabres. En un experiment, una tintura dels brots i les fulles va causar nàusees, vòmits i relaxació muscular.[53]

L'ailant té unes potents propietats anti-anafilàctiques i anti-inflamatòries.[55]

Cultura

Xina

A més a més de tots els usos que se li donen a l'arbre del cel, també ha format part de la cultura xinesa des de fa segles i s'ha incorporat més recentment a la cultura occidental. S'ha trobat el nom de l'arbre al segon lloc d'una llista d'arbres dins l'Erya, el diccionari xinès més vell que es conserva, escrit el segle III aC. També se'l menciona al materia medica escrit durant la dinastia Tang, l'any 656 dC. Cadascuna l'anomena d'una manera diferent i encara hi ha obert el debat sobre quina forma s'hauria d'utilitzar. El nom adoptat actualment és chouchun (xinès: 臭椿, pinyin: chòuchūn), que vol dir "primavera pudorosa", aquesta forma és relativament nova. Prop del Riu Groc es coneix com a chunshu (xinès tradicional: 椿樹, xinès simplificat: 椿树, pinyin: chūnshù), que vol dir "arbre de primavera". El nom prové del fet que l'arbre és un dels últims en sortir de la hibernació i els seus primers brots indiquen la finalització completa de l'hivern.[7]

A la literatura xinesa l'ailant normalment s'usa en forma de metàfora, en la que l'arbre madur representa el pare i una soca un fill mimat. Això es fa servir de vegades per desitjar bona sort als pares d'un amic a una carta, on es podria escriure "desitjo que el teu ailant i la teva hemerocal·lis siguin feliços i forts", referint-se al pare com a ailant i a la mare com a hemerocal·lis. A més a més, es podria renyar un nen dient-li que és un "brot inútil d'una soca d'ailant", volent dir que el nen és un irresponsable. Això deriva de la literatura de Zhuangzi, un filòsof Taoista, que es referia a un arbre que havia brotat d'una soca com a no apte per la fusteria degut a la seva forma irregular. Més tard es va associar aquest arbre a l'ailant i es va aplicar la metàfora a un nen, que, com els brots de soca de l'arbre, no es desenvoluparà en un ésser humà adult digne si no segueix les tradicions i les normes.[56]

Estats Units

A A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1943), un llibre de Betty Smith, s'usa l'arbre del cel com a metàfora central, concretament la seva habilitat per sobreviure en condicions hostils. En aquella època, com avui en dia, l'ailant era molt comú a àrees urbanes.[13][57]

Descriu com a l'ailant normalment també se l'anomena pel seu malnom "arbre de l'infern" a causa de la seu creixement descontrolat, la seva gran invasivitat i les grans dificultats implicades en la seva eliminació.[57][58] A certes parts dels EUA, l'espècie se l'anomena "palmera de gueto" per la seva afinitat a créixer en barris amb condicions inhabitables o propietats mal mantingudes o abandonades.[59][60]

Fins al 26 de març de 2008, un arbre de l'espècie de 18,2 m. era una de les "obres mestres" del jardí d'escultures del Museu de Noguchi, al barri de Queens a Nova York. Quan l'escultor Isamu Noguchi va comprar el que seria el seu museu l'any 1975, va fer netejar la propietat i l'únic arbre que hi va deixar va ser l'ailant. Els seus treballadors solien dinar sota l'ombra de l'arbre amb el mateix escultor. "D'alguna manera el jardí d'escultures va ser dissenyat al voltant de l'arbre", afirmava un dels ajudants de Noguchi, Bonnie Rychlak, que, més tard va esdevenir el conservador del museu. El 2008 l'arbre estava morint i hi havia risc que caigués sobre l'edifici, que estava a punt de ser renovat. El museu va contractar els Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop, un grup d'artistes, perquè usessin la fusta per fer bancs, escultures i altres obres al voltant de l'edifici. Els anells de l'arbre foren comptats i es va revelar que l'arbre tenia 75 anys.[61]

Europa

L'artista i professor de belles arts per la Universitat d'Umeå (Suècia), Ingo Vetter, va adoptar la idea de "la palmera de gueto" i va instal·lar un ailant viu, importat de Detroit, a una exposició internacional d'art anomenada Ciutats encongint-se a l'Institut d'art contemporani Kunst-Werke a Berlín el 2004.[59][60]

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Notes

  1. Per veure una discussió sobre el tema més extensa, vegeu Ailanthus ailtissima al Manual de Jardineria a Wikibooks (anglès)

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Ailant: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

provided by wikipedia CA

L'ailant, (Ailanthus altissima), conegut com a chouchun en mandarí estàndard (臭椿 chòuchūn), és un arbre caducifoli de la família de les simarubàcies. Té tota una sèrie de noms populars que en il·lustren unes característiques: vernís del Japó, arbre de carretera, arbre del cel, arbre pudent, canya de la pudor, cornisa, espantagitanos, fals vernís, hivernenc o mal arbre. A Europa es considera com una de les 100 espècies invasores més dolentes, i des del 2012 el seu cultiu i comercialització estan prohibits a Espanya. Ha estat inclosa al Catàleg espanyol d’espècies exòtiques invasores.

És originari tant de Taiwan com del nord-est i el centre de la Xina. A diferència d'altres membres del gènere dels ailants, prefereix els climes temperats abans que els tropicals. Aquest arbre creix amb rapidesa i és capaç d'assolir una alçada de fins a quinze metres en vint-i-cinc anys. Tanmateix, és poc longeu i rarament viu més de cinquanta anys.

A la Xina, té una llarga història. Es menciona al diccionari Xinès més vell conservat i en diversos texts mèdics antics per la seva suposada qualitat de curar des de trastorns mentals a la calvície. Les arrels, les fulles i l'escorça s'utilitzen encara avui en dia en la medicina tradicional xinesa, principalment com a astringent. L'arbre ha crescut per tot Xina i a l'estranger, on ha esdevingut part de la cultura occidental com es pot observar en la novel·la A tree Grows in Brooklin de Betty Smith, on l'ailant és metafòricament el tema principal.

L'arbre va arribar a Europa des de la Xina per primer cop als 1740 i als Estats Units d'Amèrica el 1784. Va ser un dels primers arbres que es van portar des d'allí amb el moviment de la Chinoiserie. Inicialment era un arbre de jardí, que va començar a inquietar els jardiners amb els seus hàbits invasors, però no se li va donar importància. El segle XIX s'utilitzà àmpliament com a arbre de carrer. Des d'allí ha anat envaint i és que fora del seu hàbitat natural és considerada una espècie invasora capaç de produir estralls sobre les comunitats vegetals on s'estableix, a causa de la gran quantitat de llavors que poden generar els peus femenins, la seva capacitat de rebrot a través de les arrels, cosa que fa realment difícil d'eliminar, i la seva elevada taxa de creixement que produeixen una forta competència per a la llum. Per totes aquestes causes produeix una disminució en la biodiversitat constatada al Parc Natural de Collserola. De les 61 espècies invasores senyalades als espais naturals de Catalunya, junts amb la Cortaderia selloana és la més problemàtica.

A Austràlia, als EUA, a Nova Zelanda i diversos països del sud i de l'est d'Europa és catalogat com a nociu. I ha estat tan perjudicial per a certes poblacions que l'han arribat a anomenar col·loquialment «arbre de l'infern».

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Coeden y nefoedd ( Welsh )

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Planhigyn fasgwlaidd gyda dail cennog yw Coeden y nefoedd sy'n enw benywaidd. Mae'n perthyn i'r teulu Simaroubaceae. Yr enw gwyddonol (Lladin) yw Ailanthus altissima a'r enw Saesneg yw Tree-of-heaven.[1] Ceir enwau Cymraeg eraill ar y planhigyn hwn gan gynnwys Pren y Nef.

Mae ganddyn nhw briodweddau sy'n debyg i'r rhedynen ac maent yn heterosboraidd.

Gweler hefyd

Cyfeiriadau

  1. Gerddi Kew; adalwyd 21 Ionawr 2015
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Coeden y nefoedd: Brief Summary ( Welsh )

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Planhigyn fasgwlaidd gyda dail cennog yw Coeden y nefoedd sy'n enw benywaidd. Mae'n perthyn i'r teulu Simaroubaceae. Yr enw gwyddonol (Lladin) yw Ailanthus altissima a'r enw Saesneg yw Tree-of-heaven. Ceir enwau Cymraeg eraill ar y planhigyn hwn gan gynnwys Pren y Nef.

Mae ganddyn nhw briodweddau sy'n debyg i'r rhedynen ac maent yn heterosboraidd.

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Pajasan žláznatý ( Czech )

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Samčí květenství
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Samičí květenství
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Plody na samičí rostlině
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Kůra pajasanu žláznatého

Pajasan žláznatý (Ailanthus altissima) je druh opadavého listnatého stromu z čeledi simarubovitých, pocházející z Asie. V Česku je poměrně často pěstován jako okrasná dřevina a často zplaňuje, zejména v prostředí lidských sídel, například v oblastech rumišť, nebo dopravních staveb.

Rozšíření

Jeho domovským areálem je severovýchod až východ Číny a Korejský poloostrov. Odtud se postupně rozšířil do celého mírnéhosubtropického pásu nearktické a palearktické oblasti včetně oblasti indomalajské. A nyní se šíří i do severní Afriky, Střední a Jižní Ameriky, Austrálie, na Nový Zéland i Tichomořské ostrovy. Invazivně proniká zejména do travnatých a skalnatých oblastí, na lesní mýtiny i rumiště.

Na území dnešní České republiky byl prokazatelně vysazen v roce 1803 v Lednici na Moravě. V roce 2004 již byl evidován na 202 lokalitách převážně v teplých oblastech jižní Moravy a v Polabí v nadmořské výšce do 350 m n. m. Agresivně se prosazuje i v Národním parku Podyjí a v Chráněné krajinné oblasti Pálava.

Popis

Pajasan žláznatý je dvoudomý strom dorůstající do výšky až 25 m. Kmen má hladký, rovný a jeho průměr může být až 1 metr. Borka je šedě zbarvená a dlouze podélně pruhovaná. Koruna je široce vejčitá, řídce rozvětvená se spodními větvemi často převislými. Listy po rozdrcení nepříjemně páchnou po myšině, lístky mají na bázi žlázy, které toto nepříjemné aroma produkují. Jsou licho- nebo sudozpeřené, 5 až 13 jařmé, 30 až 100 cm dlouhé. Jejich celokrajné nebo jemně zubaté, vejčitě kopinaté lístky jsou 5 až 15 cm dlouhé a 2 až 4 cm široké, na podzim od vřetene listu opadávají. Listy po poranění produkují tekutinu, která může u citlivých jedinců vyvolat alergické reakce.

Samčí pětičetné květy jsou nápadné, skládají se z tyčinek a zakrnělého semeníku, jsou velmi aromatické a je jich asi třikrát více než samičích. Samičí žlutozelené květy, uspořádané do koncových lat dlouhých 10 až 40 cm, jsou drobnější, také pětičetné, obsahují semeník a tyčinky, které nejsou funkční a neprodukují pyl. Kvete v červnu až červenci a jeho pyl je silným alergenem. Plodem je protáhlá dvoukřídlá nažka, po dozrání šedohnědé barvy, obvykle na stromě setrvává až do jara. Jsou velice lehké, asi 30 000 ks váží 1 kg. Dřevo stromu je tvrdé, lehké, ohebné a dobře snáší sucho.

Rozmnožování

Semena brzy ztrácejí klíčivost, dokáží se však do daleka rozšířit větrem nebo po vodě. V prvém roce mohou semenáčky dorůst do výšky až 2 metrů, začínají plodit v 10. roce. V reakci na poškození vytváří dřevina intenzivní kořenové a pařezové výmladky, je světlomilná a nesnáší zastínění. Je krátkověká, po 30 až 50 letech usychá.

Ekologie

Jedná se o velice rychle rostoucí dřevinu, která je schopna kořeny i listy alelopaticky působit na okolí a tím omezovat růst okolní vegetace; vylučuje hlavně ailanthon, který způsobuje potíže růstu zhruba sedmdesáti druhů listnatých a jehličnatých stromů. Tyto látky produkují zejména mladí jedinci, kteří tak vyhrávají boj o světlo s ostatními dřevinami. Pajasany patří mezi 40 nejvíce invazních dřevin na světě. Nejlepší možné odstranění těchto mnohdy nežádoucích dřevin je hluboký řez a následné potírání pařezů herbicidy.

Význam

Pajasan žláznatý je velmi odolný vůči průmyslovým emisím a proto bývá vysazován jako rychle rostoucí dřevina do parků, měst i větrolamů. Díky své schopnosti růst na půdách vápenitých, nekultivovaných i podmáčených se vysazuje jako prvotní dřevina po rekultivaci.

Z jeho dřeva se dříve vyráběl nábytek, nyní se využívá jen pro stavební účely a na topení. Je ovšem třeba dbát na jeho stáří, protože trpí uhníváním kořenového systému. Stromy starší 35 let by se proto měly preventivně kácet, aby se předešlo tragédiím při neočekávaném pádu stromu.[1] Ve větrných polohách často trpí polomy.

V Asii se z něho vyrábějí homeopatika k potlačení malárie a úplavice. Jeho listy jsou hostitelem larev motýla martináče hedvábného (Samia cynthia), z jejichž kokonů kukel se získává hedvábí.

Taxonomie

Nejznámější variety pajasanu žláznatého:

  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. acubaefolia
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. erythrocarpa
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. hongye
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. metro
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. pendulifolia
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. sutchuanensis
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. tricolor

Odkazy

Reference

  1. Zlínští úředníci se zpovídají z loňského pádu stromu. Zabil dva chlapce, iDnes.cz, 31. 3. 2010, Milan Libiger, jš (Jiří Šťastný)

Externí odkazy

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Pajasan žláznatý: Brief Summary ( Czech )

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 src= Samčí květenství  src= Samičí květenství  src= Plody na samičí rostlině  src= Kůra pajasanu žláznatého

Pajasan žláznatý (Ailanthus altissima) je druh opadavého listnatého stromu z čeledi simarubovitých, pocházející z Asie. V Česku je poměrně často pěstován jako okrasná dřevina a často zplaňuje, zejména v prostředí lidských sídel, například v oblastech rumišť, nebo dopravních staveb.

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Skyrækker ( Danish )

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Skyrækker (Ailanthus altissima) er et stort, ofte flerstammet, løvfældende træ med en uregelmæssig, lys krone og svære, opstigende grene. Vigtigt skyrækker må ikke udplantes i Danmark, da den er på miljøstyrelsens liste over invasive arter.[1]

Beskrivelse

Barken er først rødbrun med lyse korkporer og store, grålige bladar. Senere bliver den mørkebrun med lyse, næsten hvide striber. Til sidst er den mørkegrå med lysere striber og enkelte skællede partier.

Knopperne er spredte og forbavsende små, ægformede og mere og mere røde hen mod løvspring. Løvspringet sker sent, men med højrøde blade. Bladene er ligefinnede med lancetformede, helrandede småblade. Oversiden er blank og mørkegrøn, men undersiden er lyst blågrøn og hårløs.

Blomsterne sidder samlet i hængende toppe. Han- og hunblomster sidder hver for sig. Frugterne er nødder med en skruet vinge. Farven kan være grøn, gul eller rød.

Rodnettet er hjerteformet og består af få, grove og kun lidt forgrenede hovedrødder, som ligger ret højt i jorden. Løvet lugter ubehageligt, når man knuser det. De talrige frø kan (især under varmere forhold end i Danmark) spire overalt og gør træet ukrudtsagtigt.
Højde x bredde og årlig tilvækst: 25 x 10 m (50 x 20 cm/år). Disse mål kan fx anvendes, når arten udplantes.

Voksested

Skyrækker vokser på varm, tør bund i lyse bjergskove i Japan og det centrale og sydlige Kina. Her vokser det sammen med bl.a. alm. hæg, djævletræ, fliget kranstop, haveaucuba, havehortensia, himalayaceder, hjertetræ, hønsebenstræ, Ilex crenata, japansk paradisæble, japansk zelkova, kakitræ, kinesisk ene, koreansk ædelgran, manchurisk kirsebær og papirmorbærtræ.

Træet er naturaliseret i Nordamerika og store dele af Sydeuropa.

Kilder

  1. ^ De invasive arter på mst.dk hentet 9. september 2019
  • Sten Porse: "Plantebeskrivelser", DCJ 2002 (CD-Rom).

Eksterne henvisninger

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Skyrækker: Brief Summary ( Danish )

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Skyrækker (Ailanthus altissima) er et stort, ofte flerstammet, løvfældende træ med en uregelmæssig, lys krone og svære, opstigende grene. Vigtigt skyrækker må ikke udplantes i Danmark, da den er på miljøstyrelsens liste over invasive arter.

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Götterbaum ( German )

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Weibliche Blüten
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Männlicher Blütenstand

Der Götterbaum (Ailanthus altissima) ist eine Laubbaum-Art der Gattung Ailanthus aus der Familie der Bittereschengewächse (Simaroubaceae).

Verbreitung

Ursprünglich ist der Götterbaum in China und im nördlichen Vietnam beheimatet.[1] Seit Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts wurde die Art in anderen Teilen Asiens sowie in Europa, Amerika, später in Afrika und Australien angepflanzt, wo sie als invasive Art gilt. Infolgedessen breitete sich der Götterbaum vermehrt aus, mittlerweile ist er wildwachsend weltweit in allen Gebieten mit gemäßigtem oder Mittelmeerklima vertreten.

Botanische Beschreibung

Wuchsform, Alter und Höhe

Der Götterbaum ist ein mittelgroßer, laubabwerfender Baum (Lebensform Phanerophyt) mit reich verzweigter und runder Krone, der in Mitteleuropa auf guten Standorten 27 bis 30 m (oder mehr) hoch werden kann. Im Mittelmeergebiet sowie auf nährstoffarmen, trockenen Standorten erreicht er meist nur Höhen von 18 bis 20 m.

Als Pionierbaum wird er meist weniger als 100 Jahre alt, allerdings sind auch deutlich ältere Bäume bekannt. Der älteste bekannte Götterbaum in Deutschland wuchs in einem Garten der Arminius-Apotheke in Bad Lippspringe in der Detmolder Straße 163. Der Baum erreichte einen Stammumfang von 1,40 m, eine Höhe von 35 m und ein Alter von 150 Jahren.

Der Götterbaum gilt als am schnellsten wachsender Baum in Europa. Der größte Höhenzuwachs erfolgt im Alter von 5 bis 10 Jahren. Nach 20 Jahren verlangsamt sich der Höhenzuwachs merklich. Keimlinge können auf günstigen Standorten im Jahr ihrer Keimung bereits 1–2 m hoch werden. Auf guten Standorten können 20-jährige Bäume bereits über 20 m hoch sein. Besonders stark ist das Höhenwachstum bei Sprossen, die vegetativ aus der Wurzel getrieben werden (Wurzelsprosse), oder bei Stockausschlag, der sich nach einer Störung des Stammes, z. B. infolge von Bekämpfungsversuchen, zahlreich bildet. Solche Sprosse können in einem Jahr bis zu 3 m lang werden.

Zweige, Stamm und Kronenaufbau

Junge Sprosse mit Blättern sind grünlich und kurz behaart. Ältere Zweige sind rötlich oder bräunlich und unbehaart. Der Stamm ist relativ glatt, hat eine graubraune und manchmal leicht rissige bis leicht furchige Borke, diese weist manchmal ein rautenförmiges Muster auf.

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Borke eines 5 cm dicken Götterbaumes
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Borke eines 10 cm dicken Götterbaumes

Das Wachstum der Sprosse wird nicht von der endständigen Knospe, sondern von darunter liegenden Seitenknospen fortgesetzt. Dieses sympodiale Wachstum führt zu einem unregelmäßigen Kronenaufbau. Typisch für den Götterbaum ist ein Wechsel im Verzweigungsmuster nach etwa 10–15 Jahren. Dann wird das weitere Wachstum von ein oder zwei nunmehr führenden Seitentrieben übernommen (monochasiales oder dichasiales Wachstum).

Blätter

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Blätter des Götterbaums

Die großen, wechselständigen und unpaarigen, gestielten Fiederblätter sind häufig 40 bis 90 Zentimeter lang. Besonders an jungen Wurzelsprossen oder Stammausschlägen können sie auch über einen Meter lang werden. Das größte bislang bekannte Blatt hatte eine Länge von 1,67 m (Kowarik & Säumel 2007). Die Rhachis und die Blattstiele sind grünlich bis rötlich gefärbt und fast kahl. Ein gestieltes Laubblatt wird von 20–30 (maximal 43) länglich-eiförmigen bis lanzettlichen, ganzrandigen und zugespitzten, leicht ledrigen Fiederblättchen gebildet, deren Anzahl stark variiert. An ihrem Grund weisen die fast sitzenden bis kurz gestielten und fast kahlen Blättchen 2–4 Drüsen auf, die oft an kleinen Zähnen oder Läppchen sitzen, welche die Blätter des Götterbaumes unverwechselbar machen und auch zu seinem Namen „Drüsiger Götterbaum“ geführt haben. Diese Drüsen sind Nektarien, die Zucker absondern und daher auch von Ameisen besucht werden. Die Blättchen sind bis 15 cm lang und bis 6 cm breit. Die Nervatur der Blättchen ist wechselnd gefiedert und etwas heller sowie oberseits etwas eingeprägt und unterseits etwas erhaben.

Die Blätter sind im Austrieb dunkelrot und erscheinen meistens erst im Mai. Der Laubfall im Herbst beginnt erst sehr spät. Die Herbstfärbung der Blätter ist gelblich.

Gerieben riechen frische Blätter unangenehm ranzig, nussig.

Blüten

Die Art ist oft zweihäusig getrenntgeschlechtig (diözisch), das heißt die männlichen und die weiblichen Blüten finden sich auf verschiedenen Bäumen, es gibt aber auch Bäume mit männlichen und weiblichen Blüten.[2] Eine gestielte Blüte mit doppelter Blütenhülle hat 5 längliche, basal feinhaarige, ausladende und etwas bootförmige, rundspitzige Kronblätter. Der becherförmige, grüne und fast kahle Kelch ist klein und gelappt, gezähnt. Männliche Blüten enthalten bis 10 freie Staubblätter. Die weißlichen Staubfäden sind an der Basis manchmal leicht haarig. Weibliche Blüten können zwar auch Staubblätter (Staminodien) enthalten, aber diese enthalten keinen Pollen, so dass es keine zweigeschlechtlichen Blüten gibt.[1] Die kleinen, gelblich-grünen Blüten sind rispenähnlich angeordnet, wobei der bis 30–60 cm lange, endständige und vielblütige, gestielte Blütenstand dem Typ eines doppelten Thyrsus entspricht. Männliche Blütenstände sind größer und weisen mehr Blüten als weibliche auf.[1] Der geflügelte, kurz gestielte Fruchtknoten der weiblichen Blüten ist oberständig, mit einem dicklichen Griffel mit gelappter, sternförmiger Narbe. Bei den männlichen Blüten fehlt der Stempel meist ganz. Bei den Blüten ist jeweils ein grüner, fleischiger und kahler Diskus vorhanden.

Die Blüten erscheinen in Mitteleuropa meist im Juli. Der Geruch ist kräftig, vor allem der männlichen Blüten, und wird oft als dem Spermageruch ähnlich beschrieben. Die Blüten werden von Honigbienen und anderen Insekten besucht. Der Honig des Götterbaumes hat ein sehr wohlschmeckendes, muskatellerartiges Aroma, auch wenn er zunächst nicht gut riecht. In frischem Zustand ist er von grünlicher bis bräunlicher Farbe und zähflüssiger Konsistenz; er kandiert fein und schmalzartig aus, hierbei verändert sich die Farbe des Honigs zu schmutzigem Graugrün.[3] Der Pollen des Götterbaumes stellt ein neues potentielles Allergen dar.[4]

Früchte

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Unreife Früchte des Götterbaums
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Einzelne Flügelnüsse (Merikarpien)

Nach der Blüte entwickeln sich im August bis September flache und beidseitig geflügelte, abgerundete bis spitze und manchmal etwas verdrehte, nicht öffnende, elliptische Flügelnüsse (Samara) mit einem zentralen, relativ flachem und rundlichem Samen. Die einzelnen Früchte (Merikarpien) stehen bis zu fünft in einer Spaltfrucht zusammen. Die Farbe der Früchte ist grün bis später rot und bei Reife bräunlich und trocken. Die mittlere Länge der Früchte beträgt 47 mm, die mittlere Breite 9 mm. Schon 3–5 Jahre alte Bäume können blühen und Früchte produzieren. An einem 8 m hohen Baum wurden 650 Fruchtstände mit 325.000 Einzelfrüchten gezählt. Die Früchte bleiben oft längere Zeit am Baum hängen.

Chromosomenzahl

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 80.[5]

Auch gibt es verschiedene Kultivare mit panaschierten Blättern.

Nutzung und Einführung nach Europa

Nutzung in China

In China werden die Blätter zur Fütterung der zu den Seidenspinnern zählenden Ailanthus- oder Götterbaumspinner (Samia cynthia) verwendet, die in Zuchten verwertbare Seide („Shantung-Seide“) produzieren. In den waldarmen Regionen am unteren Gelben Fluss gehört die Art zu den wichtigsten Nutzhölzern. Besonders geeignet ist es zur Herstellung der in der chinesischen Küche sehr wichtigen Dampfgarer. Rinde, zum Teil auch Wurzeln und Blätter, werden in der traditionellen chinesischen Medizin eingesetzt, dies ist seit der Tang-Dynastie belegt. Die Blätter besitzen dabei allerdings eine schwache Giftwirkung. Der Rinde wird eine kühlende und adstringierende Wirkung zugeschrieben. Besonders häufig wird sie bei Durchfallerkrankungen eingesetzt. Der Baum hat darüber hinaus eine kulturelle Bedeutung. Im nördlichen China, am Gelben Fluss wird er Frühlingsbaum (ch’un-shu) genannt. Der extrem späte Blattaustrieb des Baums war hier das Zeichen dafür, dass die Hungerzeit des Winters und zeitigen Frühjahrs zu Ende geht.[6]

Nutzung in Europa

Wo große Bestände des Götterbaums existieren, wird er zur Honiggewinnung genutzt. Der sehr würzige Götterbaumhonig ist eine lokale Spezialität. Eine forstliche Nutzung ist in Österreich vorgeschlagen worden, wird aber bisher nicht durchgeführt. Sie wäre aufgrund der Holzqualität möglich.[7]

Einführung nach Europa und Ausbreitung

Die ersten Pflanzen gelangten 1740 durch den Jesuiten Pierre Nicolas d'Incarville nach Paris. Sowohl die Verwendung als Zierpflanze als auch der Versuch, den Baum wirtschaftlich zu nutzen, trugen zu seiner Verbreitung bei. In Wien bemühte man sich, mit Hilfe dieses Baumes den Seidenspinner als Nutztier in Europa einzuführen und trug damit zu einer verwilderten Population in Wien bei. In Berlin wurde er bereits 1780 als Zierpflanze kultiviert. Wild wachsende Götterbäume sind heute in den Innenstädten der größeren deutschen Städte häufig; sie traten jedoch erst nach 1945 verstärkt auf Trümmerflächen auf. Der Invasionsbiologe Ingo Kowarik führt dies darauf zurück, dass vor 1945 offene Flächen verhältnismäßig selten waren und diese zu intensiv gepflegt wurden, um den Aufbau einer spontanen Population zu ermöglichen.

Der Götterbaum als Stadtgrün

Der Götterbaum ist relativ resistent gegen Salz, Trockenheit und Herbizide und toleriert den von urbanen Luftverunreinigungen ausgehenden Stress oft besser als viele andere Stadtbäume. Götterbäume benötigen eine Jahresmitteltemperatur von mindestens etwa +9 Grad Celsius und reagieren empfindlich auf Winterfröste. Aufgrund seines Status als invasive Pflanzenart sollte der Götterbaum nicht angepflanzt werden. Über den Umgang mit vorhandenen Populationen wird kontrovers diskutiert, es erscheint erforderlich, die weitere unkontrollierte Ausbreitung zu verhindern, da sie durch Verdrängung heimischer Arten die Biodiversität von Lebensräumen wie Magerrasen gefährdet.[8]

Der Götterbaum als Neophyt

 src=
Mittelreife Früchte von Ailanthus altissima

Der hemerochor nach Europa verbrachte Götterbaum wird zu den hundert problematischsten invasiven Arten in Europa gerechnet ("100 of the worst") (DAISIE).[9] Einmal etabliert, ist der Götterbaum nur mit großem Aufwand wieder zu entfernen, da er ungewöhnlich widerstandsfähig gegenüber Trockenheit, Schnitt und Herbiziden ist.[8] In einigen Staaten, wie zum Beispiel in Österreich und der Schweiz, wird der Götterbaum bereits aktiv an der Ausbreitung gehindert, so in Basel, wo er entlang des Rheinufers systematisch beseitigt wird. In Ungarn bedroht der Baum aufgrund der Ausbreitung die Lebensgemeinschaften des Mager- und Felsrasens. Die Art ist insbesondere dort problematisch, wo sie in Magerrasen und offene Wälder eindringt,[8] da sie für einen Anstieg des verfügbaren Stickstoffes durch leicht abbaubare Streu sorgt.[10] Auch die Macchie kann verdrängt werden, wie auf der italienischen Insel Procida im Golf von Neapel. Der Baum kann erhebliche Schäden an der Infrastruktur verursachen und im Mittelmeerraum den Aufwand bei der Pflege der antiken Stätten und der Straßen erhöhen.

Trotz seines Status unter den Top-100 der invasiven Pflanzenarten in Europa wurde der Götterbaum in Deutschland bisher relativ wenig beachtet, da seine Bestände noch weitgehend auf städtische Wärmeinseln beschränkt sind, so beispielsweise in Dresden und Berlin. Angesichts steigender Jahresmitteltemperaturen infolge der allgemeinen globalen Erwärmung wäre bei Ausbleiben von Gegenmaßnahmen eine Ausbreitung in das Umland möglich. Diese Ausbreitung ist beispielsweise bereits an den von Berlin ausgehenden Autobahnen zu beobachten.[8] Bisher ist die Art in Deutschland außerhalb der Städte selten und in auffallender Weise an Bahnlinien und große Straßen wie z. B. Autobahnen gebunden. Auch in Großstädten wie Berlin[11] und Wien[12] wird die im Stadtzentrum sehr häufige Art zum Stadtrand hin immer seltener (in Berlin von 92,2 % besetzter Rasterfelder auf 3,2 %). In Nordwestdeutschland war sie bis vor einem Jahrzehnt recht selten, vermutlich wegen zu geringer Wärmesumme während der Vegetationsperiode. So trat sie im Ruhrgebiet nur vereinzelt auf.[13] Für Nordamerika halten Albright u. a. eine deutliche Ausweitung der Verbreitung für sehr wahrscheinlich.[14]

Der Götterbaum wurde aufgrund seines Ausbreitungspotenzials und der Schäden in den Bereichen Biodiversität, Gesundheit bzw. Ökonomie in die Schwarze Liste der invasiven Neophyten der Schweiz aufgenommen.[15][16]

Der Götterbaum wurde am 25. Juli 2019 auf die Liste invasiver gebietsfremder Arten von unionsweiter Bedeutung gesetzt.[17] Damit verbunden ist unter anderem ein Handelsverbot in der Europäischen Union.[18]

Der Götterbaum als Nahrung für Pflanzenfresser

Aus dem indigenen Areal in China werden 46 Arthropoden, 16 pflanzenpathogene Pilzarten und ein Virus angegeben, die den Götterbaum attackieren.[19] Davon wurden die Rüsselkäferarten Eucryptorrhynchus brandti und Eucryptorrhynchus chinensis, die nur auf Götterbaum vorkommen, für eine Einführung in die USA zur biologischen Bekämpfung getestet (vgl. Abschnitt Bekämpfung). Der Götterbaum wird aber in den Regionen, in denen er vom Menschen eingeschleppt wurde, nur von wenigen Pflanzenfressern als Nahrung akzeptiert, dies wurde ursprünglich sogar als Vorteil für seine Anpflanzung gesehen und ist typisch für Neophyten.[1] In Nordamerika ist der Schmetterling Atteva aurea (früher: Atteva punctella) (Attevidae, Yponomeutoidea), der vorher an einer anderen Baumart der Familie in Florida heimisch war, auf den Götterbaum übergegangen und wird nun als „Ailanthus webworm“ bezeichnet.[20] Einzige in Europa auf die Art übergegangener Pflanzenfresser ist der Amerikanische Webebär (Hyphantria cunea), selbst eine neozoische Art.[1] Der zu den Pfauenspinnern gehörende Ailanthus-Spinner (Samia cynthia) ernährt sich von den Blättern des Götterbaums. Aus seinem Kokon lässt sich eine Seide produzieren, die haltbarer und preisgünstiger ist als die übliche Seide. Der Ailanthus-Spinner wurde in mehrere Stadtgebiete der östlichen USA sowie in Wien eingeführt, um eine Seidenindustrie zu begründen. Einführungszeitpunkt in Wien war 1856; seit 1924 wird der Ailanthus-Spinner in Österreich als Neozoon betrachtet. In seiner Verbreitung ist er jedoch an die Götterbäume und damit an überwärmte Stadtgebiete gebunden. Auch im Osten der USA findet man diesen Spinner nur in Stadtnähe.[1] Das Auftreten des Ailanthus-Spinners ist ein Beispiel, dass ein eingeführter und verbreiteter Neophyt auch seine Schadinsekten nach sich ziehen kann. Im Falle des Ailanthus-Spinners war an dessen Ausbreitung allerdings der Mensch sehr stark beteiligt.

Pflanzenpathogene Pilze der Gattung Verticillium verursachen beim Götterbaum die Pflanzenkrankheit Verticillium-Welke. Neben dem weit verbreiteten Verticillium dahliae wurde in absterbenden Götterbäumen in Europa und Nordamerika auch die neu beschriebene Art Verticillium nonalfalfae nachgewiesen, von dem einige Stämme wirtsspezifisch sind. Verticillium-Arten werden in den USA und in Österreich (hier im Versuchsstadium)[2] bereits als hoch wirksame Mykoherbizide gegen Götterbaum eingesetzt, ein Einsatz in der Schweiz wird erwogen.[21]

In der Umgebung von Götterbäumen wurde oft beobachtet, dass die Keimung anderer Pflanzenarten und das Bodenleben gehemmt erscheinen. Dafür wird, neben anderen sekundären Pflanzenstoffen, die allelopathisch wirkende Substanz Ailanthon verantwortlich gemacht; diese wird allerdings im Lauf der Zeit von Bodenbakterien abgebaut.[22]

Bekämpfung des Götterbaumes

Constán-Nava u. a. berichten, dass die Bekämpfung des Götterbaumes im Mittelmeerraum bereits hohe Kosten verursacht, da er nach dem Schnitt rasch wieder austreibt und dichte Bestände bildet. Als wirksamste Methode empfehlen sie nach Auswertung einer fünfjährigen Studie, die Bäume zu fällen und den Austrieb mit Glyphosat zu behandeln.[23] In Österreich bewirkten Verticillium-Präparate in Versuchen sehr hohe Mortalitätsraten und wirken besonders gut an flächigen Beständen, die durch Wurzelbrut entstanden und über die Wurzeln verbunden sind. Bei diesen ist mit – im Vergleich zum Ringeln geringem Aufwand – eine effektive und kostengünstige Bekämpfung möglich.[2] In Nordamerika wurde der spezialisierte Rüsselkäfer Eucryptorrhynchus brandti getestet, um den Götterbaum biologisch zu bekämpfen.[24] Die Larven der Art können in China Bäume durch Rindenfraß zum Absterben bringen. Sie bevorzugen allerdings klar beschädigte oder geschwächte Pflanzen.[25]

Einzelnachweise

  1. a b c d e f Ingo Kowarik, Ina Säumel: Biological Flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. In: Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 8, 2007, S. 207–237, doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2007.03.002.
  2. a b c Oliver Maschek, Erhard Halmschlager: Natural distribution of Verticillium wilt on invasive Ailanthus altissima in eastern Austria and its potential for biocontrol. In: Forest Pathology. 47(5), 2017, doi:10.1111/efp.12356.
  3. Josef Lipp et al.: Handbuch der Bienenkunde – Der Honig. 3., neubearb. Auflage, Ulmer, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-8001-7417-0, S. 18.
  4. M. Ballero, A. Ariu, P. G. Falagiani Piu: Allergy to Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) pollen. In: Allergy. 58, 2003, 532–533, doi:10.1034/j.1398-9995.2003.00172.x (open access).
  5. Erich Oberdorfer: Pflanzensoziologische Exkursionsflora für Deutschland und angrenzende Gebiete. 8. Auflage. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-8001-3131-5, S. 644.
  6. Shiu Ying Hu: Ailanthus. In: Arnoldia. 39(2), 1979, S. 29–50.
  7. Reinhard Brandner, Gerhard Schickhofer: Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima): enormous and wide potential neglected by the Western civilization. In: World Conference on timber engineering, 2010 Conference Proceedings. 2010, S. 1–7.
  8. a b c d Ingo Kowarik: Götterbäume. In: W. Nentwig (Hrsg.): Unheimliche Eroberer. Invasive Pflanzen und Tiere in Europa. Haupt, Bern 2011, S. 73–81.
  9. Species Factsheet Ailanthus altissima. In: Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE). Abgerufen am 10. Juli 2013.
  10. N. González-Muñoz, P. Castro-Díez, I. M. Parker: Differences in nitrogen use strategies between native and exotic tree species: predicting impacts on invaded ecosystems. In: Plant and Soil. 363(1-2), 2013, S. 319–329, doi:10.1007/s11104-012-1329-x.
  11. I. Kowarik, R. Böcker: Zur Verbreitung, Vergesellschaftung und Einbürgerung des Götterbaumes (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) in Mitteleuropa. In: Tuexenia. 4, 1984, S. 9–29.
  12. Wolfgang Punz, Martin Kober, Katrin Armeanu, Robert Kugler, Manfred Engenhardt, Ingeborg Schinninger, Helmuth Sieghardt, Rudolf Maier: Beiträge zur Ökophysiologie von Ailanthus altissima im Raum Wien. In: Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Österreich. 141, 2004, S. 1–11.
  13. R. Fuchs, I. Hetzel, G. H. Loos, P. Keil: Verwilderte Zier- und Nutzgehölze in naturnahen Wäldern des Ruhrgebietes. In: AFZ – Der Wald. 12/2006, S. 622–625.
  14. Thomas P. Albright, Hao Chen, Lijun Chen, Qinfeng Guo: The ecological niche and reciprocal prediction of the disjunct distribution of an invasive species: the example of Ailanthus altissima. In: Biol Invasions. 12, 2010, S. 2413–2427 (Abstract und Link zum Volltext).
  15. Bundesamt für Umwelt BAFU: Invasive gebietsfremde Arten. (admin.ch [abgerufen am 6. August 2019]).
  16. S. Buholzer, M. Nobis, N. Schoenenberger, S. Rometsch: Liste der gebietsfremden invasiven Pflanzen der Schweiz. Hrsg.: Infoflora. (infoflora.ch [abgerufen am 6. August 2019]).
  17. DURCHFÜHRUNGSVERORDNUNG (EU) 2019/1262 DER KOMMISSION vom 25. Juli 2019 zur Änderung der Durchführungsverordnung (EU) 2016/1141 zwecks Aktualisierung der Liste invasiver gebietsfremder Arten von EU-weiter Bedeutung. Abgerufen am 24. November 2019.
  18. Süddeutsche Zeitung: Experte: Ausbreitung des Götterbaums in Naturschutzgebieten. 26. September 2019, abgerufen am 24. November 2019.
  19. J. Q. Ding, Y. Wu, H. Zheng et al.: Assessing potential biological control of the invasive plant, tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima. In: Biocontrol Science and Technology. 16, 2006, 547–566, doi:10.1080/09583150500531909.
  20. John James Wilson, Jean-François Landry, Daniel H. Janzen et al.: Identity of the ailanthus webworm moth (Lepidoptera, Yponomeutidae), a complex of two species: evidence from DNA barcoding, morphology and ecology. In: ZooKeys. 46, 2006, 41–60, doi:10.3897/zookeys.46.406.
  21. Mélanie Siegrist, Ottmar Holdenrieder: Die Verticillium-Welke – eine Option zur Bekämpfung des Götterbaumes in der Schweiz? In: Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen. 167(5), 2016, 249-257, doi:10.3188/szf.2016.0249.
  22. Samantha Sasnow: Examination of the Soil Bacteria Responsible for the Decomposition of Ailanthone, an Inhibitory Chemical in Ailanthus altissima. In: DePaul Discoveries. 1(1), 2012, article 10, download.
  23. Soraya Constán-Nava, Andreu Bonet, Estrella Pastor, María José Lledó: Long-term control of the invasive tree Ailanthus altissima: Insights from Mediterranean protected forests. In: Forest Ecology and Management. 260(6), 2010, S. 1058–1064, doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.06.030.
  24. N. J. Herrick, T. J. McAvoy, A. L. Snyder, S. M. Salom, L. T. Kok: Host-range testing of Eucryptorrhynchus brandti (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a candidate for biological control of tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima. In: Environ Entomol. 41(1), 2012, S. 118–124, (PMID 22525066).
  25. T. J. McAvoy, S. M. Salom, B. Yu et al.: Occurrence and development of Eucryptorrhynchus brandti and E. chinensis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on Ailanthus altissima trees subjected to different levels of mechanical damage. In: Biocontrol Science and Technology. 24(1), 2014, 65–79, doi:10.1080/09583157.2013.847902.
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Götterbaum: Brief Summary ( German )

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 src= Weibliche Blüten  src= Männlicher Blütenstand

Der Götterbaum (Ailanthus altissima) ist eine Laubbaum-Art der Gattung Ailanthus aus der Familie der Bittereschengewächse (Simaroubaceae).

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Ailanthus altissima ( Sundanese )

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Ailanthus altissima atawa tangkal sawarga[2] nyaéta tangkal pituin ti Cina jeung Taiwan anu tumuwuh sarta galugurna kawilang gancang.[3][4] Ieu tangkal bisa tumuwuh nepi ka jangkungna lima welas méter na mangsa dua puluh lima taun.[3] Ku gancangna ngajangkungan ieu tangkal jadi margalantaran disebut tangkal sawarga, nganggap yén ieu tangkal terus tumuwuh nepi ka sawarga.[3] Sok sanajan ieu tangkal kasohor ku ngaran tangkal sawarga tapi watek ieu tangkal kontradiktif dina kanyataanana, anu mana ieu tangkal dianggap minangka hama atawa tutuwuhan nu ngaganngu.[3] Ieu tangkal watekna invasif alatan kamampuhna nu bedas pikeun tumuwuh kalawan gancang sarta tohaga, sarta bisa sirungan deui nepi ka ngabadagan deuina saupama geus dituar ogé.[3] Malah di pakotaan mah ieu tangkal téh bisa nyérédkeun lapisan aspal sarta ngaganggu pondasi wangunan.[3] Balukar tina polahna ieu tangkal, sawatara jalma nyebut ieu tangkal téh tangkal naraka.[3]

Di Cinana mah ieu tangkal téh loba dimangpaatkeun pikeun rupa-rupa tujuan.[3] Tingtur kulit kulawu geus dipaké pikeun nyageurkeun panyakit kayaning kabotakan sarta malaria, jeung deuih geus kabukti bisa ngalaunkeun keteg jajantung.[3] Ogé dipaké jang parab hileud sutra Samia cynthia, mangrupa hileud nu ngasilkeun sutra nu leuwih badag batan hileud sutra nu kakoncara Bombyx mori ngan kualitasna kurang hadé.[3] Daunna bisa diékstraksi jadi pawarna konéng sarta kulit kaina bisa dijadikeun ubar reungit alami.[3]

Ieu tangkal mimiti dibawa ti Cina ka Éropa taun 1740-an sarta dibawa ka Philadélphia di Amérika Sarikat taun 1784, jeung geus dipaké di pirang-pirang wewengkon minangka tangkal pangiuh jalan ti abad ka-19.[5][4] Habitat ieu tangkal biasa hirup di loba patempatan, kayaning gulma tina jujukutan, kamalir cai, parit, wates leuweung, rungkun jukut, pakebonan, kahutanan, daérah pakotaan, imah-imah teu kaurus, patempatan nu teu kaurus, aréa limbah, tungtung jalan sarta sisian jalur rél karéta api utamana di wewengkon nu iklimna sedeng jeung sub-tropis beueus sarta sub-tropis kawas di Australia.[6]

Pedaran

Nalika geus kolot, ieu tangkal jangkungna bisa nepi ka 24,4 méter,[7] ngabentuk watang tunggal atawa nyagak, sarta makuta ovoid anu rélatif muka di unggal watangna.[8] Kulit watang totol-totol cékas jeung kulawu kolot, mibanda galur motif anu boréas sarta tanpa aturan jeung deuih ieu tangkal téh kafragméntasi.[8] Kulit dahan warnana kulawu ngora sarta loba pori-pori hawaan, sedengkeun binih ngora warnana coklat semu konéng nepi ka keun héjo, kawilang tohaga, sarta biasana mah gundul.[8] Daun ieu tangkal piligenti, panjang dahan daunna 30 nepi ka 60 cm, buluan mun anu ngorana mah, dangdaunanna gampang ancur jeung mun dimana-mana ancur ieu daun téh ngaluarkeun bau nu matak melengseng piteugenaheun kana irung, saliwatan mah siga bau kacang.[9] Jumlah lambaran daunna aya 13 nepi ka 41 lambar, tangké pondok, lansét panjang, unggal lambaran daun panjangna 7,5 nepi ka 13 cm, rubak 1,5 nepi ka 5 cm, kaakumulasi kalawan 2 nepi ka 5 huntu di deukeut dadasar jerona.[9] Maléi badag, panjangna 15 nepi ka 25 cm, kembangna ogé loba anu panjangna kira 6 mm, semu héjo atawa konéng semu héjo, kalawan kongkolakna 5 lambar, 5 lambar kongkolak heureut.[9] Kembang jalu mibanda 10 benang sari anu bauna piteugenaheun kana irung. Kembang bikang mibanda 2 nepi ka 5 putik pajauh-jauh nu disakompétkeun ku puhuna.[9]

Sumebaran jeung habitat

Tangkal sawarga kaasup jenis tangkal miimah dua (dioecious), anu mana ieu tangkal téh antara jalu jeung bikang téh séjén tangkal, jeung deuih biasana mah tumuwuh di koloni gegek.[10] Sakumna tangkal anu nganjrek dina sakoloni éta téh boga jenis kelamin anu sarua.[10] Tangkal bikang boga poténsi ngasilkeun leuwih ti 300.000 binih dina sataunna nu ngajadikeun ieu tangkal bikang téh tangkal panyeméi anu produktif.[10] Tangkal-tangkal nu tumuwuh terus sumebar kalawan manjangkeun akarna nepi ka 15 méteran jauhna tina tangkal biang.[10] Tangkal anu kapotong atawa kacacag bisa ngaluarkeun losinan akar anyar.[10] Akar anyar éta salila dua taun mah bisa ngasilkeun binih anyar.[10] Anu ngajadikeun ieu tangkal minangka tangkal invasif nyaéta kamampuhna dina ngasilkeun bahan kimia allelopathic boh dina daunna, akarna, sarta kulit kaina, anu mata ieu zat allelopathic téh bisa ngawates sarta nyegah tumuwuhna pepelakan séjén.[10]

Tangkal sawarga bisa tumuwuh dimana karep, dimana waé tempat anu katojo panonpoé sarta subur taneuhna, deuih bisa tumuwuh di sapaparat walungan sarta di tengahing walunganana.[10] Ieu tangkal loba tumuwuh di kota, pon di pasisian leuweung, sisian jalan, sisian galur karéta api, sarta di leuwing nu muka.[10] Ngan ieu tangkal hésé tumuwuhna mun ditempat nu kaiuhan, misalna leuweung nu katutupan ku tangkal-tangkal baradag, da gancang tumuwuhna sotéh di leuwung anu geus coréncang, minangkana mah ngala untung tina ancurna leuweung, boh ancurna ku sasatoan, ku angin, atawa ku dibukbak.[10]

Kaguna

Unggal bagéan ieu tangkal bisa dimangpaatkeun, sok sanajan nu geus guyub dimangpaatkeun mah nyaéta kulitna, ngan mangkahadé yén ieu bagéan kulitna téh ngandung glikosida nu acan ditungtik sagemblengna.[10] Kulit watang jeung akarna mangrupa antispasmodik, astringén, pait, déprésan jantung, diurétik, émétik, ubat panurun harééng, rubefacient jeung vermifuge.[10] Jajamu pait anu pahang, digunakeun pikeun ngubaran malaria jeung muriang, ogé pikeun ngalaunkeun keteg jajantung sarta nyageurkeun sakalor.[10] Di Cina, kulit kaina mangrupa ubar nu kasohor pikeun ngubaran diséntri jeung masalah usus lianna. Dina hiji uji klinis, 81 ti 82 pasién cageur diséntrina saanggeus dibéré ieu jajamu.[10] Tingtur kulit akar geus ngahasil dipaké dina ngubaran jajantung nu ratug, asma, jeung sakalor.[10]

Tangkal sawarga mangrupa ubar pikeun asma, kanker, diaré, diséntri, disménoréa, disuria, éjakulasi dini, sakalor, érupsi ubar, muriang, gonoré, haematochezia, kaputihan, malaria, metrorrhagia, raheut, spasme, spermatorrhoea, sarta tumor na pinarep.[10] Kulit kai dipanén dina usum semi sarta digaringkeun pikeun dipaké engké. Daun, kulit watang, jeung akar diasupkeun kana ubar pikeun ngubaran bisul, arateul, jeung érupsi ubar.[10] Di Koréa mah kulit akar dipaké pikeun ngubaran batuk, lambung sarta usus.[10] Buahna dipaké pikeun ngubaran ngising getihan sarta diséntri.[10] Ogé geus dipaké pikeun ngubaran panyakit panon.[10] Ékstrak tina ieu tangkal miwatek baktérisida. Ieu tangkal ogé dipaké dina ngubaran homéopati pikeun kanker.[10]

Rujukan

  1. "Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle — The Plant List". www.theplantlist.org. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-27.
  2. "Ailanthus altissima (tree-of-heaven)". www.cabi.org. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-27.
  3. a b c d e f g h i j k "Oxford University Plants 400: Ailanthus altissima". herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-19.
  4. a b "Ailanthus altissima - Plant Finder". www.missouribotanicalgarden.org. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-19.
  5. Xu, Jun-Ping (2016-11-25). Cancer Inhibitors from Chinese Natural Medicines. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4987-8766-6.
  6. "Ailanthus altissima". keyserver.lucidcentral.org. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-19.
  7. "tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima Sapindales: Simaroubaceae". www.invasive.org. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-26.
  8. a b c "Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima)". www.illinoiswildflowers.info. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-26.
  9. a b c d "Ailanthus altissima". hort.purdue.edu. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-26.
  10. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u "Tree-of-Heaven". Penn State Extension. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-27.
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Ailanthus altissima ( Lombard )

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Ol Ailanthus altissima specie de la faméa di Simaroubaceae, lè öna pianta de sólèt mia piö ólta de 20 - 25 mèter, che la é da l'Cina e l' crès uramai selvàdega suèrtöt in di sità e 'n di periferée.

Fòie

Lónghe fina a 70 ghèi, i è facie da dò file de - 14 foiuline piö ön ótra foiulina 'n pónta.

I foiuline i è lónghe 6 - 8 ghèi, i gh'à öna bèla pónta gösa, strècia e lónga; al picanèl 'nvéce i è 'mpó piö a öf e i gh'à öna quacch dècc o mèi öna quach capète. Quando i nas i è mia pròpe érde ma i è ach 'mpó mèse róse.

I fòie i ghe sömèa 'mpó a chèle de la Juglans nigra.

Fiùr

Ol Ailanthus altissima l'è diòico, cioè 'l gh'à di fiùr dóma maschìi sö öna pianta e di fiùr dóma feminìi sö ön ótra pianta ; gh'è ün Ailanthus masch e ön Ailanthus fómna.

L'infiurescènsa l'è öna panòchia portada 'n sima a i ram, facia da tace fiurelì bianch, che i pröföma o i spösa (a segónda di göscc de chèi che i a usma). I fiorés tra Zögn e Löi.

Fröcc

I fröcc i è di sàmare, che i gh'è sömèa 'mpó a chèle de i Acer, lónghe da 3 a 6 ghèi con ü grè de somésa pròpe 'n del mès.

De tègn d'öcc

L'Ailanthus l'è considerada öna spécie pericolusa e 'nvasiva, desà che la crès, despertöt e a la svèlta, fina a 2 méter l'an. De spès se la èt crès in di mür, 'n banda a i arnèle (marciapé) e 'nfina 'n banda a i binare del tréno. Isè la ghe ria a faga la guèra a i spéce di nòste bande e a ciapàn ol pòst.

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Ailanthus altissima: Brief Summary ( Lombard )

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Ol Ailanthus altissima specie de la faméa di Simaroubaceae, lè öna pianta de sólèt mia piö ólta de 20 - 25 mèter, che la é da l'Cina e l' crès uramai selvàdega suèrtöt in di sità e 'n di periferée.

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Ailanthus altissima: Brief Summary ( Sundanese )

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Ailanthus altissima atawa tangkal sawarga nyaéta tangkal pituin ti Cina jeung Taiwan anu tumuwuh sarta galugurna kawilang gancang. Ieu tangkal bisa tumuwuh nepi ka jangkungna lima welas méter na mangsa dua puluh lima taun. Ku gancangna ngajangkungan ieu tangkal jadi margalantaran disebut tangkal sawarga, nganggap yén ieu tangkal terus tumuwuh nepi ka sawarga. Sok sanajan ieu tangkal kasohor ku ngaran tangkal sawarga tapi watek ieu tangkal kontradiktif dina kanyataanana, anu mana ieu tangkal dianggap minangka hama atawa tutuwuhan nu ngaganngu. Ieu tangkal watekna invasif alatan kamampuhna nu bedas pikeun tumuwuh kalawan gancang sarta tohaga, sarta bisa sirungan deui nepi ka ngabadagan deuina saupama geus dituar ogé. Malah di pakotaan mah ieu tangkal téh bisa nyérédkeun lapisan aspal sarta ngaganggu pondasi wangunan. Balukar tina polahna ieu tangkal, sawatara jalma nyebut ieu tangkal téh tangkal naraka.

Di Cinana mah ieu tangkal téh loba dimangpaatkeun pikeun rupa-rupa tujuan. Tingtur kulit kulawu geus dipaké pikeun nyageurkeun panyakit kayaning kabotakan sarta malaria, jeung deuih geus kabukti bisa ngalaunkeun keteg jajantung. Ogé dipaké jang parab hileud sutra Samia cynthia, mangrupa hileud nu ngasilkeun sutra nu leuwih badag batan hileud sutra nu kakoncara Bombyx mori ngan kualitasna kurang hadé. Daunna bisa diékstraksi jadi pawarna konéng sarta kulit kaina bisa dijadikeun ubar reungit alami.

Ieu tangkal mimiti dibawa ti Cina ka Éropa taun 1740-an sarta dibawa ka Philadélphia di Amérika Sarikat taun 1784, jeung geus dipaké di pirang-pirang wewengkon minangka tangkal pangiuh jalan ti abad ka-19. Habitat ieu tangkal biasa hirup di loba patempatan, kayaning gulma tina jujukutan, kamalir cai, parit, wates leuweung, rungkun jukut, pakebonan, kahutanan, daérah pakotaan, imah-imah teu kaurus, patempatan nu teu kaurus, aréa limbah, tungtung jalan sarta sisian jalur rél karéta api utamana di wewengkon nu iklimna sedeng jeung sub-tropis beueus sarta sub-tropis kawas di Australia.

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Billey niau ( Manx )

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Ta'n billey niau (Ailanthus altissima) ny villey 'sy ghenus Ailanthus. T'eh dooghyssagh da'n Çheen as yn Taiwaan. T'eh gaase dy tappee dys wheesh as 15m, agh t'eh giare-heillagh, as cha nel eh tannaghtyn bio harrish 50 bleeantyn dy cadjin.

Dymmyrk sleih y billey dys yn Oarpey myr billey jesheenagh. Agh er coontey ny stholeyn bunneydagh, t'eh aaghobbey dy jeean, as ta soar breinn echey. T'eh lhiettal co-hirreyderyn liorish stooghyn kemmigagh co-asseeagh as skeaylley dy tappee. T'eh coontit myr sarkyl jeeyllagh ayns ymmodee çheeraghyn.


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Cazzipocchio ( Neapolitan )

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'O Cazzipocchio (arbero) è na pianta ca se trova pè tutte lo meridione d'Italia. Lu nomme scientifico è Ailanthus Altissima de la specia Ailanthus de genere Simaroubaceae. L'origgine è dell'Asia e dell'Australia ma se trova pè tutta l'Europa. E' na pianta servatica che spanna le radeche fine a trenta metre e fa dammaggio a li piante paisane. Pò crescere fine a 25 metre aveta e tene nu sviluppo veloce. Spisse s'ausa pè fermà ò terreno e pò frisco.

È canosciuto pure c'o nomme e "arbero d'ò Paraviso".

Vide pure

  • Noc vòmmëchë: 'A specie Ailanthus altissima scritta a la manera lazziale-cuminese.
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Cazzipocchio: Brief Summary ( Neapolitan )

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Varianti esistenti: Wikipedia's W.svg Cazzipocchio (Napulitano) - Wikipedia's W.svg X (Abbruzzese) - Wikipedia's W.svg X (Calavrese) - Wikipedia's W.svg Noc vòmmëchë (Lazziale) - Wikipedia's W.svg X (Mulisane) - Wikipedia's W.svg X (Pugliese) - Wikipedia's W.svg X (Lucano)

'O Cazzipocchio (arbero) è na pianta ca se trova pè tutte lo meridione d'Italia. Lu nomme scientifico è Ailanthus Altissima de la specia Ailanthus de genere Simaroubaceae. L'origgine è dell'Asia e dell'Australia ma se trova pè tutta l'Europa. E' na pianta servatica che spanna le radeche fine a trenta metre e fa dammaggio a li piante paisane. Pò crescere fine a 25 metre aveta e tene nu sviluppo veloce. Spisse s'ausa pè fermà ò terreno e pò frisco.

È canosciuto pure c'o nomme e "arbero d'ò Paraviso".

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Dara girdîgaran ( Kurdish )

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 src=
Dara girdîgaran (Ailanthus altissima)
 src=
Kulîlka dara girdîgaran

Dara girdîgaran (Ailanthus altissima) cinseke darên famîleya dartehlokan (Simaroubaceae) e. Welatê wê Çîn û Viyetnam e, ji wir belavbûye. Di nîvê sedsala 18em de li Asya, Ewropa û Awistraliyayê belavbûye.

Ji avhewaya hinekê germ hez dike. Ji bo baxçevaniyê û sûdwergirtina ji darên wê tê çandin. Bêhna wê bi xweşî gelekan naçe. Belgên wê vîtamîna C dihewîne, qalikên wê tehlokî ne. Di bijîşkiya gelêrî de, çaya wê bo vartoyîbûnê (îshel) tê pêşniyarkirin.

Wêje

  • Ingo Kowarik: Biologische Invasionen - Neophyten und Neozoen in Mitteleuropa. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2003. ISBN 3-8001-3924-3 (almanî)
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. In: Ingo Kowarik, Ina Säumel: Biological Flora of Central Europe. In: Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. Amsterdam 8.2007,4, 207-237.
  • Mario Ludwig, Harald Gebhard, Herbert W. Ludwig, Susanne Schmidt-Fischer: Neue Tiere & Pflanzen in der heimischen Natur - Einwandernde Arten erkennen und bestimmen. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, München 2000. ISBN 3-405-15776-5 (almanî)

Girêdan

Commons Li Wikimedia Commons medyayên di warê Dara girdîgaran de hene.
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Dara girdîgaran: Brief Summary ( Kurdish )

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 src= Dara girdîgaran (Ailanthus altissima)  src= Kulîlka dara girdîgaran

Dara girdîgaran (Ailanthus altissima) cinseke darên famîleya dartehlokan (Simaroubaceae) e. Welatê wê Çîn û Viyetnam e, ji wir belavbûye. Di nîvê sedsala 18em de li Asya, Ewropa û Awistraliyayê belavbûye.

Ji avhewaya hinekê germ hez dike. Ji bo baxçevaniyê û sûdwergirtina ji darên wê tê çandin. Bêhna wê bi xweşî gelekan naçe. Belgên wê vîtamîna C dihewîne, qalikên wê tehlokî ne. Di bijîşkiya gelêrî de, çaya wê bo vartoyîbûnê (îshel) tê pêşniyarkirin.

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Αείλανθος ο υψηλότατος ( Greek, Modern (1453-) )

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Η Ailanthus altissima (Αείλανθος η υψηλότατη) είναι ένα φυλλοβόλο δέντρο της οικογένειας Simarubaceae (Σιμαρουβίδες) γνωστό στα ελληνικά με τις ονομασίες βρωμοκαρυδιά, βρωμόδεντρο, βρωμούσα. Είναι ιθαγενές της βόρειας και κεντρικής Κίνας. Αντίθετα από άλλα είδη του γένους Ailanthus (Αείλανθος), απαντάται συνήθως σε εύκρατα κλίματα αντί σε τροπικά. Αναπτύσσεται γρήγορα και μπορεί να φθάσει το ύψος των 15 μέτρων σε 25 χρόνια. Η διάρκεια ζωής του είναι σχετικά σύντομη και σπανίως υπερβαίνει τα 50 χρόνια, αν και έχουν αναφερθεί περιπτώσεις ατόμων, τα οποία έζησαν περισσότερο από 100 χρόνια.

Ιστορία

Στην Κίνα το δέντρο αυτό έχει μακρά και πλούσια ιστορία. Γίνεται αναφορά σ’ αυτό, στο παλαιότερο δείγμα κινέζικου λεξικού και απαριθμείται σε αμέτρητα κινεζικά ιατρικά κείμενα για την υποτιθέμενη ικανότητά του να θεραπεύει ασθένειες που κυμαίνονται από ψυχικές ασθένειες μέχρι αλωπεκία. Οι ρίζες, τα φύλλα και ο φλοιός του δέντρου χρησιμοποιούνται ακόμα και σήμερα στην παραδοσιακή κινεζική ιατρική, κυρίως ως στυπτικό, ενώ η ρητίνη του ως θυμίαμα στους Ινδουϊστικούς ναούς. Έχει καλλιεργηθεί σε μεγάλο βαθμό τόσο στην Κίνα όσο και αλλού ως φυτό ξενιστής για τον σκώρο (Samia cynthia) που χρησιμοποιείται για την παραγωγή μεταξιού.

Εισαγωγή σε άλλες ηπείρους

Στην Ευρώπη εισήχθη για πρώτη φορά από την Κίνα γύρω στο 1740 [1] και πλέον έχει εγκλιματισθεί σε αρκετές από αυτές[2].Περιλαμβάνεται στον Κατάλογο Ειδών Ενδιαφέροντος του Κανονισμού 1143/2014 της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης [3].Στις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες εισήχθη το 1784. Η A. altissima εισήχθη από την Κίνα στην Ινδία όπου χρησιμοποιήθηκε σε αναδασώσεις και ως καλλωπιστικό σε δρόμους. Στο Ιράν χρησιμοποιήθηκε σε φυτεύσεις για τη δημιουργία ζωνών πρασίνου γύρω από πόλεις, καθώς και σε ημι-άγονες περιοχές.[4]

Ήταν ένα από τα πρώτα δέντρα που καλλιεργήθηκαν στη Δύση, σε μια εποχή που η ευρωπαϊκή τέχνη επηρεαζόταν από τα κινέζικα πρότυπα και θεωρήθηκε αρχικά ως δείγμα για έναν όμορφο κήπο. Παρόλα αυτά, ο ενθουσιασμός υποχώρησε αμέσως όταν οι κηπουροί είδαν ότι έβγαζε συνέχεια παραφυάδες και είχε αποκρουστική οσμή. Παρά το γεγονός αυτό, χρησιμοποιήθηκε ευρέως ως ένα δέντρο για τους δρόμους των πόλεων κατά ένα μεγάλο μέρος του 19ου αιώνα. Το 1840 το φυτό ήταν ήδη αρκετά διαδεδομένο στις Η.Π.Α. ως καλλωπιστικό και ήταν διαθέσιμο σε φυτώρια. Στην Ελλάδα καλλιεργήθηκε για πρώτη φορά στον Εθνικό Κήπο (τότε Βασιλικό Κήπο) από τον Βασιλιά Όθωνα.

Περιγραφή

Είναι δίοικο φυλλοβόλο δέντρο (υπάρχουν δηλαδή αρσενικά και θηλυκά δέντρα). Μπορεί να φτάσει τα 30 μέτρα σε ύψος. Ο κορμός του, έχει φλοιό λείο, φαιού χρώματος και μπορεί να φτάσει το ένα μέτρο σε διάμετρο. Οι νεαροί βλαστοί έχουν καφεκόκκινο χρώμα. Τα φύλλα είναι σύνθετα, πτεροειδή με μεγάλο μήκος (έως 90 εκατοστά) αποτελούμενα από 11-25 αντίθετα διαταγμένα φυλλάρια. Κάθε φυλλάριο διαθέτει μια, μέχρι μερικές αδενώδεις τρίχες. Τα άνθη του είναι μονογενή (αρσενικά ή θηλυκά), μικρά σε μέγεθος, με κιτρινωπό χρώμα και σχηματίζουν πυκνές ταξιανθίες (φόβες). Τα αρσενικά άνθη έχουν χαρακτηριστική, δυσάρεστη οσμή. Ο καρπός του είναι μονόσπερμος, πτερυγιοφόρος (σαμάρα), εξαιρετικά ελαφρύς και διασπείρεται με τη βοήθεια του ανέμου (ανεμοχωρία).

Οικολογία

Η A. altissima ευδοκιμεί σε περιοχές με εύκρατο και ημι-τροπικό κλίμα, αλλά όχι σε υγρές βροχερές τροπικές περιοχές καθώς τα αρτίβλαστά του δεν μπορούν να επιβιώσουν. Η μέση ετήσια βροχόπτωση στις περιοχές που εξαπλώνεται, κυμαίνεται από 400-1400 mm ετησίως, μπορεί να αντέξει ωστόσο πολύμηνες περιόδους ξηρασίας. Προτμά μέσες ετήσιες θερμοκρασίες μεταξύ 7-18°C, αλλά ανέχεται επίσης ισχυρούς παγετούς και μπορεί να επιβιώσει σε απολύτως ελάχιστες θερμοκρασίες έως -35°C. Η A. altissima είναι ένα εξαιρετθικά ενδιαφέρον παράδειγμα φυτικού εισβολές εκτός της φυσικής κλιματικής του ζώνη. Είναι ιθαγενής σε υποτροπικές και θερμές εύκρατες περιοχές, αλλά μπορεί να εισβάλει σε περιοχές των οποίων το κλίμα κυμαίνεται από εύκρατο ψυχρό έως τροπικό [5][6].

Αναπτύσσεται καλύτερα σε χαλαρά, πορώδη εδάφη, αλλά μπορεί να αναπτυχθεί επίσης σε ποικιλία εδαφών από αμμώδη ή πηλώδη έως ξηρά ασβεστολιθικά και αβαθή εδάφη. Το υψομετρικό εύρος εξάπλωσής του κυμαίνεται από τα 20-2400 m [7].

Ο αείλανθος είναι καιροσκοπικό φυτό που ευδοκιμεί σε πλήρη ήλιο και διαταραγμένες περιοχές. Εξαπλώνεται επιθετικά, τόσο από τους σπόρους του, που η ελαφριά κατασκευή που διαθέτουν, τους επιτρέπει να μεταφέρονται με τον άνεμο σε μεγάλες αποστάσεις, όσο και με μοσχεύματα. Αναπτύσσεται με ταχείς ρυθμούς σε σύντομο χρονικό διάστημα ακόμη και σε συνθήκες χαμηλού φωτισμού, ανταγωνιζόμενος επιτυχώς τα αυτόχθονα δέντρα. Είναι πολύ ανθεκτικό στην ατμοσφαιρική, χημική και σωματιδιακή ρύπανση, συμπεριλαμβανομένου του διοξειδίου του θείου, το οποίο απορροφά στα φύλλα του. Μπορεί να αντέξει τη σκόνη τσιμέντου, τις αναθυμιάσεις λιθανθρακόπισσας, καθώς και την έκθεση στο όζον. Επιπλέον, υψηλές συγκεντρώσεις υδραργύρου έχουν βρεθεί στους ιστούς του.

Ο αείλανθος έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί για την αποκατάσταση περιοχών, πρώην ορυχείων κι έχει αποδειχθεί ότι ανέχεται επίπεδα pH μέχρι 4,1. Μπορεί να αντέξει πολύ χαμηλά επίπεδα φωσφόρου και υψηλά επίπεδα αλατότητας. Βρίσκεται συχνά σε περιοχές όπου λίγα δέντρα μπορούν να επιβιώσουν. Παράγει τοξικές ουσίες (κουασσινοειδή) που παρεμποδίζουν την ανάπτυξη άλλων φυτών, ένα φαινόμενο γνωστό ως «αλληλοπάθεια». Η αντοχή του δέντρου στην ξηρασία, οφείλεται στην ικανότητα του να αποθηκεύει αποτελεσματικά το νερό στο ριζικό του σύστημα, το οποίο είναι πολύ επιθετικό και μπορεί να προκαλέσει καταστροφές σε θεμέλια και υπόγειες σωληνώσεις, όπως αποχετεύσεις, σωλήνες ύδρευσης ή καλώδια τηλεφώνου και παροχής ηλεκτρικού ρεύματος.

Σύνδεσμοι

Αναφορές

  1. Hu SY, 1979. Ailanthus. Arnoldia, 39(2):29-50.
  2. Kowarik I, Säumel I, 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 8(4):207-237. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/14338319
  3. «List of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern - Environment - European Commission». ec.europa.eu. Ανακτήθηκε στις 28 Ιανουαρίου 2020.
  4. Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Delhi, India: International Book Distributors
  5. Cronk QCB, Fuller JL, 1995. Plant invaders: the threat to natural ecosystems. London, UK; Chapman & Hall Ltd, xiv + 241 pp.
  6. Kowarik I, Säumel I, 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 8(4):207-237. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/14338319
  7. «Home». CABI.org (στα Αγγλικά). Ανακτήθηκε στις 28 Ιανουαρίου 2020.
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Αείλανθος ο υψηλότατος: Brief Summary ( Greek, Modern (1453-) )

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Η Ailanthus altissima (Αείλανθος η υψηλότατη) είναι ένα φυλλοβόλο δέντρο της οικογένειας Simarubaceae (Σιμαρουβίδες) γνωστό στα ελληνικά με τις ονομασίες βρωμοκαρυδιά, βρωμόδεντρο, βρωμούσα. Είναι ιθαγενές της βόρειας και κεντρικής Κίνας. Αντίθετα από άλλα είδη του γένους Ailanthus (Αείλανθος), απαντάται συνήθως σε εύκρατα κλίματα αντί σε τροπικά. Αναπτύσσεται γρήγορα και μπορεί να φθάσει το ύψος των 15 μέτρων σε 25 χρόνια. Η διάρκεια ζωής του είναι σχετικά σύντομη και σπανίως υπερβαίνει τα 50 χρόνια, αν και έχουν αναφερθεί περιπτώσεις ατόμων, τα οποία έζησαν περισσότερο από 100 χρόνια.

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महारुख ( Marathi )

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महारुख
species of plant
Götterbaum (Ailanthus altissima).jpg
Ailanthus altissima
माध्यमे अपभारण करा
Wikispecies-logo.svg Wikispeciesप्रकार टॅक्सॉन Taxonomyसाम्राज्यPlantaeSubkingdomViridiplantaeInfrakingdomStreptophytaSuperdivisionEmbryophytaDivisionTracheophytaSubdivisionSpermatophytinaOrderSapindalesFamilySimaroubaceaeGenusAilanthusSpeciesAilanthus altissimaTaxon author Walter Tennyson Swingle Edit this on Wikidata अधिकार नियंत्रण Blue pencil.svg
 src=
महारुख

ही भारतात उगवणारी एक आयुर्वेदिक औषधी वनस्पती आहे.हा एक मोठा वृक्ष आहे.हा उंच वाढणारा मोठा वृक्ष आहे.[१]

उपयोग

याच्या लाकडापासून घरासाठी फाटे ,मायली ,टेबल,खुर्च्या ,कपाट,दरवाजे-खिडक्या तयार करतात. लहान फांद्या जाळण्यासाठी वापरात

रचना

झाड दिसायला सुंदर असते . म्हणून काही लोक घरासमोर ,शेतात लावतात .

गुणधर्म

महारुख याची साल कडू असते . "महारोग "((कुष्ठरोग )झाल्यास महारुखची साल कुटून तशीच कच्ची ,त्यात खडीसाखर व जिरे टाकून खातात.

संदर्भ आणि नोंदी

  1. ^ बंग, डॉ . राणी (१६ जानेवारी १९९९). गोईंण. मुंबई: ग्रंथाली.
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महारुख: Brief Summary ( Marathi )

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ही भारतात उगवणारी एक आयुर्वेदिक औषधी वनस्पती आहे.हा एक मोठा वृक्ष आहे.हा उंच वाढणारा मोठा वृक्ष आहे.

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Ailanthus altissima

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Ailanthus altissima /ˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsɪmə/,[3] commonly known as tree of heaven, ailanthus, varnish tree, or in Chinese as chouchun (Chinese: 臭椿; pinyin: chòuchūn), is a deciduous tree in the family Simaroubaceae.[1] It is native to northeast and central China, and Taiwan. Unlike other members of the genus Ailanthus, it is found in temperate climates rather than the tropics.

The tree grows rapidly, and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres (49 ft) in 25 years. While the species rarely lives more than 50 years, some specimens exceed 100 years of age.[4] Its suckering ability allows this tree to clone itself indefinitely.[5] It is considered a noxious weed and vigorous invasive species,[1] and one of the worst invasive plant species in Europe and North America.[6] In 21st-century North America, the invasiveness of the species has been compounded by its harboring of the also destructive and invasive spotted lanternfly.[7][8]

Description

Botanical drawing of the leaves, flowers, and samaras from Britton and Brown's 1913 Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada

Ailanthus altissima is a medium-sized tree that reaches heights between 17 and 27 m (56 and 89 ft) with a diameter at breast height of about 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[9] The bark is smooth and light grey, often becoming somewhat rougher with light tan fissures as the tree ages. The twigs are stout, smooth to lightly pubescent, and reddish or chestnut in color. They have lenticels and heart-shaped leaf scars (i.e., a scar left on the twig after a leaf falls) with many bundle scars (i.e., small marks where the veins of the leaf once connected to the tree) around the edges. The buds are finely pubescent, dome-shaped, and partially hidden behind the petiole, though they are completely visible in the dormant season at the sinuses of the leaf scars.[10] The branches are light to dark gray in color, smooth, lustrous, and contain raised lenticels that become fissures with age. The ends of the branches become pendulous. All parts of the plant have a distinguishing strong odor that is often likened to peanuts, cashews,[11] or rotting cashews.[12]

The leaves are large, odd- or even-pinnately compound on the stem. They range in size from 30 to 90 centimetres (1 to 3 ft) in length and contain 10–41 leaflets organised in pairs, with the largest leaves found on vigorous young sprouts. When they emerge in the spring, the leaves are bronze, then quickly turn from medium to dark green as they grow.[13] The rachis is light to reddish-green with a swollen base. The leaflets are ovate-lanceolate with entire margins, somewhat asymmetric and occasionally not directly opposite to each other. Each leaflet is 5–18 cm (2–7 in) long and 2.5–5 cm (1–2 in) wide. They have a long, tapering end, while the bases have two to four teeth, each containing one or more glands at the tip.[10] The leaflets' upper sides are dark green in color with light green veins, while the undersides are a more whitish green. The petioles are 5–12 millimetres (0.2–0.5 in) long.[11] The lobed bases and glands distinguish it from similar sumac species.

Bark and flowers of A. altissima
Immature seeds on a female tree.
Tree of Heaven resprouting even after herbicide use to restore Red Butte Creek in Salt Lake City

The flowers are small and appear in large panicles up to 50 cm (20 in) in length at the end of new shoots. The individual flowers are yellowish green to reddish in color, each with five petals and sepals.[9][11] The sepals are cup-shaped, lobed and united while the petals are valvate (i.e., they meet at the edges without overlapping), white and hairy towards the inside.[10][14][15] They appear from mid-April in the south of its range to July in the north. A. altissima is dioecious, with male and female flowers being borne on different individuals. Male trees produce three to four times as many flowers as the females, making the male flowers more conspicuous. Furthermore, the male plants emit a foul-smelling odor while flowering to attract pollinating insects. Female flowers contain 10 (or rarely five through abortion) sterile stamens (stamenoids) with heart-shaped anthers. The pistil is made up of five free carpels (i.e., they are not fused), each containing a single ovule. Their styles are united and slender with star-shaped stigmata.[10][14] The male flowers are similar in appearance, but they lack a pistil and the stamens do function, each being topped with a globular anther and a glandular green disc.[10] The fruits grow in clusters; similar to the ash tree (Fraxinus excelsior), the fruits ripen to a bright reddish-brown color in September.[16] A fruit cluster may contain hundreds of seeds.[6] The seeds borne on the female trees are 5 mm (0.2 in) in diameter and each is encapsulated in a samara that is 2.5 cm (1 in) long and 1 cm (0.4 in) broad, appearing July through August, but can persist on the tree until the next spring. The samara is large and twisted at the tips, making it spin as it falls, assisting wind dispersal,[9][11] and aiding buoyancy for long-distance dispersal through hydrochory.[17] Primary wind dispersal and secondary water dispersal are usually positively correlated in A. altissima, since most morphological characteristics of samaras affect both dispersal modes in the same way – except for the width of the samaras, which in contrast affects both types of dispersal in opposing ways, allowing differentiation in the dispersal strategies of this tree.[18] The females can produce huge numbers of seeds, normally around 30,000 per kg,[9] and fecundity can be estimated nondestructively through measurements of diameter at chest height.[17]

History

In China, the tree of heaven has a long and rich history. It was mentioned in the oldest extant Chinese dictionary and listed in many Chinese medical texts for its purported curative ability. The roots, leaves, and bark are used in traditional Chinese medicine, primarily as an astringent. The tree has been grown extensively both in China and abroad as a host plant for the ailanthus silkmoth, a moth involved in silk production.[1] Ailanthus has become a part of Western culture, as well, with the tree serving as the central metaphor and subject matter of the best-selling American novel A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith.

The tree was first brought from China to Europe in the 1740s and to the United States in 1784. It was one of the first trees brought west during a time when chinoiserie was dominating European arts and was initially hailed as a beautiful garden specimen. However, enthusiasm soon waned after gardeners became familiar with its suckering habits and its foul odor. Despite this, it was used extensively as a street tree during much of the 19th century. Outside Europe and the United States, the plant has been spread to many other areas beyond its native range, and is considered internationally as a noxious weed.[1] In many countries, it is an invasive species due to its ability both to colonize disturbed areas quickly and to suppress competition with allelopathic chemicals.[1] The tree also resprouts vigorously when cut, making its eradication difficult and time-consuming. This has led to the tree being called "tree of hell" among gardeners and conservationists.[19]

Taxonomy

The first scientific descriptions of the tree of heaven were made shortly after it was introduced to Europe by French Jesuit Pierre Nicholas d'Incarville, who had sent seeds from Peking via Siberia to his botanist friend Bernard de Jussieu in the 1740s. The seeds sent by d'Incarville were thought to be from the economically important and similar looking Chinese varnish tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum), which he had observed in the lower Yangtze region, rather than the tree of heaven. D'Incarville attached a note indicating this, which caused much taxonomic confusion over the next few decades. In 1751, Jussieu planted a few seeds in France and sent others on to Philip Miller, the superintendent at the Chelsea Physic Garden, and to Philip C. Webb, the owner of an exotic plant garden in Busbridge, England.[10]

Confusion in naming began when the tree was described by all three men with three different names. In Paris, Linnaeus gave the plant the name Rhus succedanea, while it was known commonly as grand vernis du Japon. In London, the specimens were named by Miller as Toxicodendron altissima, and in Busbridge, it was dubbed in the old classification system as Rhus Sinese foliis alatis. Records exist from the 1750s of disputes over the proper name between Philip Miller and John Ellis, curator of Webb's garden in Busbridge. Rather than the issue being resolved, more names soon appeared for the plant: Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart observed a specimen in Utrecht in 1782 and named it Rhus cacodendron.[10]

Light was shed on the taxonomic status of Ailanthus in 1788 when René Louiche Desfontaines observed the samaras of the Paris specimens, which were still labelled Rhus succedanea, and came to the conclusion that the plant was not a sumac. He published an article with an illustrated description and gave it the name Ailanthus glandulosa, placing it in the same genus as the tropical species then known as A. integrifolia (white siris, now A. triphysa). The name is derived from the Ambonese word ailanto, meaning "heaven-tree" or "tree reaching for the sky".[10][20] The specific glandulosa, referring to the glands on the leaves, persisted until as late as 1957, but it was ultimately made invalid as a later homonym at the species level.[10] The current species name comes from Walter T. Swingle, who was employed by the United States Department of Plant Industry. He decided to transfer Miller's older specific name into the genus of Desfontaines, resulting in the accepted name Ailanthus altissima.[21] Altissima is Latin for "tallest",[22] and refers to the sizes the tree can reach. The plant is sometimes incorrectly cited with the specific epithet in the masculine (glandulosus or altissimus), which is incorrect since botanical, like Classical Latin, treats most tree names as feminine.

The three varieties of A. altissima are:

  • Ailanthus altissima var. altissima, which is the type variety and is native to mainland China
  • Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai, which is endemic to northern Taiwan highlands: It differs from the type in having yellowish bark, odd-pinnate leaves that are also shorter on average at 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24 in) long with only 13–25 scythe-like leaflets.[23][24][25] It is listed as endangered in the IUCN Red List of threatened species due to loss of habitat for building and industrial plantations.[26]
  • Ailanthus altissima var. sutchuenensis, which differs in having red branchlets[23][24]

Distribution and habitat

Ailanthus altissima is native to northern and central China,[1] Taiwan[27] and northern Korea.[28] It was historically widely distributed, and the fossil record indicates clearly that it was present in North America as recently as the middle Miocene.[29] In Taiwan it is present as var. takanai.[26] In China it is native to every province except Gansu, Heilongjiang, Hainan, Jilin, Ningxia, Qinghai, Xinjiang. It is also not found in Tibet.[23] It has been introduced in many regions across the world, and is now found on every continent except Antarctica.[1][19]

The tree prefers moist and loamy soils but is adaptable to a very wide range of soil conditions and pH values. It is drought-hardy, but not tolerant of flooding. It also does not tolerate deep shade.[9] In China, it is often found in limestone-rich areas.[24] The tree of heaven is found within a wide range of climatic conditions.[9] In its native range, it is found at high altitudes in Taiwan[26] and lower ones in mainland China.[10] These are virtually found anywhere in the U.S., but especially in arid regions bordering the Great Plains, very wet regions in the southern Appalachians, cold areas of the lower Rocky Mountains, and throughout much of the California Central Valley, forming dense thickets that displace native plants.[1] Prolonged cold and snow cover cause dieback, although the trees resprout from the roots.[9]

As an exotic plant

Ailanthus altissima growing in Australia.

The earliest introductions of A. altissima to countries outside of its native range were to the southern areas of Korea and to Japan. The tree may be native to these areas, but the tree is generally agreed to be a very early introduction.[30] Within China, it has also been naturalized beyond its native range in areas such as Qinghai, Ningxia, and Xinjiang.[24]

In 1784, not long after Jussieu had sent seeds to England, some were forwarded to the United States by William Hamilton, a gardener in Philadelphia. In both Europe and America, it quickly became a favoured ornamental, especially as a street tree, and by 1840, it was available in most nurseries.[10][20] The tree was separately brought to California in the 1890s by Chinese immigrants who came during the California Gold Rush. It has escaped cultivation in all areas where it was introduced, but most extensively in the United States.[27] It has naturalized across much of Europe, including Germany,[31] Austria, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, the Pannonian region (i.e. southeastern Central Europe around the Danube River basin from Austria, Slovakia, and Hungary south to the Balkan ranges) and most countries of the Mediterranean Basin.[28] In Montenegro[32] and Albania[33][34] A. altissima is widespread in both rural and urban areas, and while in the first it was introduced as an ornamental plant, it very soon invaded native ecosystems with disastrous results and became an invasive species.[32] Ailanthus has also been introduced to Argentina,[27] Australia (where it is a declared weed in New South Wales and Victoria),[35] New Zealand (where it is listed under the National Pest Plant Accord and is classed an "unwanted organism"),[36] the Middle East, and in some countries in South Asia such as Pakistan.[37] In South Africa, it is listed as an invasive species that must be controlled, or removed and destroyed.[38]

In North America, A. altissima is present from Massachusetts in the east, west to southern Ontario, southwest to Iowa, south to Texas, and east to the north of Florida. In the west, it is found from New Mexico west to California and north to Washington.[9][27] In the east of its range, it grows most extensively in disturbed areas of cities, where it was long ago present as a planted street tree.[10][27] It also grows along roads and railways. For example, a 2003 study in North Carolina found the tree of heaven was present on 1.7% of all highway and railroad edges in the state, and had been expanding its range at the rate of 4.76% counties per year.[39] Similarly, another study conducted in southwestern Virginia determined that the tree of heaven is thriving along roughly 30% of the state's interstate highway system length or mileage.[40] It sometimes enters undisturbed areas, as well, and competes with native plants.[27] In western North America, it is most common in mountainous areas around old dwellings and abandoned mining operations.[41][42] It is classified as a noxious or invasive plant on National Forest System lands and in many states[43] because its prolific seed production, high germination rate, and capacity to regrow from roots and root fragments enable A. altissima[44] to out-compete native species. For this reason, control measures on public lands[45] and private property[46] are advised where A. altissima has naturalized.

Ecology

A female bearing a heavy load of seeds in Valladolid, Spain

The tree of heaven is an opportunistic plant that thrives in full sun and disturbed areas. It spreads aggressively both by seeds and vegetatively by root sprouts, re-sprouting rapidly after being cut.[1][9] It is considered a shade-intolerant tree and cannot compete in low-light situations,[47] though it is sometimes found competing with hardwoods, but such competition rather indicates it was present at the time the stand was established.[9] On the other hand, a study in an old-growth hemlock-hardwood forest in New York found that Ailanthus was capable of competing successfully with native trees in canopy gaps where only 2-15% of full sun was available. The same study characterised the tree as using a "gap-obligate" strategy to reach the forest canopy, meaning it grows rapidly during a very short period rather than growing slowly over a long period.[48] It is a short lived tree in any location and rarely lives more than 50 years.[9] Ailanthus is among the most pollution-tolerant of tree species, including sulfur dioxide, which it absorbs in its leaves. It can withstand cement dust and fumes from coal tar operations, as well as resist ozone exposure relatively well. Furthermore, high concentrations of mercury have been found built up in tissues of the plant.[27]

Ailanthus has been used to re-vegetate areas where acid mine drainage has occurred and it has been shown to tolerate pH levels as low as 4.1 (approximately that of tomato juice). It can withstand very low phosphorus levels and high salinity levels. The drought-tolerance of the tree is strong due to its ability to effectively store water in its root system.[27] It is frequently found in areas where few trees can survive. The roots are also aggressive enough to cause damage to subterranean sewers and pipes.[10] Along highways, it often forms dense thickets in which few other tree species are present, largely due to the toxins it produces to prevent competition.[27] The roots are poisonous to people.[49]

Female tree growing in Chicago, Illinois

Ailanthus produces an allelopathic chemical called ailanthone, which inhibits the growth of other plants.[50] The inhibitors are strongest in the bark and roots, but are also present in the leaves, wood and seeds of the plant. One study showed that a crude extract of the root bark inhibited 50% of a sample of garden cress (Lepidium sativum) seeds from germinating. The same study tested the extract as an herbicide on garden cress, redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti), yellow bristlegrass (Setaria pumila), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli), pea (Pisum sativum cv. Sugar Snap), and maize (Zea mays cv. Silver Queen). It proved able to kill nearly 100% of seedlings with the exception of velvetleaf, which showed some resistance.[51] Another experiment showed a water extract of the chemical was either lethal or highly damaging to 11 North American hardwoods and 34 conifers, with the white ash (Fraxinus americana) being the only plant not adversely affected.[52] The chemical does not, however, affect the tree of heaven's own seedlings, indicating that A. altissima has a defence mechanism to prevent autotoxicity.[50] Resistance in various plant species has been shown to increase with exposure. Populations without prior exposure to the chemicals are most susceptible to them. Seeds produced from exposed plants have also been shown to be more resistant than their unexposed counterparts.[53]

Leaves in autumn

The tree of heaven is a very rapidly growing tree, possibly the fastest growing tree in North America.[43] Growth of one to two metres (3 ft 3 in to 6 ft 7 in) per year for the first four years is considered normal. Shade considerably hampers growth rates. Older trees, while growing much slower, still do so faster than other trees. Studies found that Californian trees grew faster than their East Coast counterparts, and American trees in general grew faster than Chinese ones.[43]

In northern Europe the tree of heaven was not considered naturalised in cities until after the Second World War. This has been attributed to the tree's ability to colonize areas of rubble of destroyed buildings where most other plants would not grow.[28] In addition, the warmer microclimate in cities offers a more suitable habitat than the surrounding rural areas; it is thought that the tree requires a mean annual temperature of 8 °C (46 °F) to grow well, which limits its spread in more northern and higher altitude areas. For example, one study in Germany found the tree of heaven growing in 92% of densely populated areas of Berlin, 25% of its suburbs and only 3% of areas outside the city altogether.[28] In other areas of Europe this is not the case as climates are mild enough for the tree to flourish. It has colonized natural areas in Hungary, for example, and is considered a threat to biodiversity at that country's Aggtelek National Park.[28]

Several species of Lepidoptera use the leaves of Ailanthus as food, including the Indian moon moth (Actias selene) and the common grass yellow (Eurema hecabe). In North America the tree is the host plant for the ailanthus webworm (Atteva aurea), though this ermine moth is native to Central and South America and originally used other members of the mostly tropical Simaroubaceae as its hosts.[54] In the US, it has been found to host the brown marmorated stink bug and the Asiatic shot-hole borer.[19] The spotted lanternfly (L. delicatula), relies on the metabolites of A. altissima for the completion of its life cycle and the pervasiveness of A. altissima is seen as a driving factor in L. delicatula's invasive spread outside of China.[55][56] In its native range A. altissima is associated with at least 32 species of arthropods and 13 species of fungi.[24]

In North America, the leaves of ailanthus are sometimes attacked by Aculops ailanthii, a mite in the family Eriophyidae. Leaves infested by the mite begin to curl and become glossy, reducing their ability to function. Therefore, this species has been proposed as a possible biocontrol for ailanthus in the Americas.[57] Research from September 2020 indicates a verticillium wilt, caused by Verticillium nonalfalfae, may function as a biological control for A. altissima,[58] with the weevil Eucryptorrhynchus brandti serving as a vector.[59]

Due to the tree of heaven's weedy habit, landowners and other organisations often resort to various methods of control to keep its populations in check. For example, the city of Basel in Switzerland has an eradication program for the tree.[28] It can be very difficult to eradicate, however. Means of eradication can be physical, thermal, managerial, biological or chemical. A combination of several of these can be most effective, though they must of course be compatible. All have some positive and negative aspects, but the most effective regimen is generally a mixture of chemical and physical control. It involves the application of foliar or basal herbicides to kill existing trees, while either hand pulling or mowing seedlings to prevent new growth.[60][note 1]

Uses

A male ailanthus silkmoth from the Texas A&M University insect collection

In addition to its use as an ornamental plant, the tree of heaven is also used for its wood and as a host plant to feed silkworms of the moth Samia cynthia, which produces silk that is stronger and cheaper than mulberry silk, although with inferior gloss and texture.[1] It is also unable to take dye. This type of silk is known under various names: "pongee", "eri silk", and "Shantung silk", the last name being derived from Shandong in China where this silk is often produced. Its production is particularly well known in the Yantai region of that province. The moth has also been introduced in the United States.[10]

The pale yellow, close-grained, and satiny wood of ailanthus has been used in cabinet work.[1][61] It is flexible and well-suited to the manufacture of kitchen steamers, which are important in Chinese cuisine for cooking mantou, pastries, and rice. Zhejiang in eastern China is most famous for producing these steamers.[10] The plant is also considered a good source of firewood across much of its range, as it is moderately hard and heavy, yet readily available.[62] The wood is also used to make charcoal for culinary purposes.[63] However, there are problems with using the wood as lumber; because the trees exhibit rapid growth for the first few years, the trunk has uneven texture between the inner and outer wood, which can cause the wood to twist or crack during drying. Techniques have been developed for drying the wood so as to prevent this cracking, allowing it to be commercially harvested. Although the live tree tends to have very flexible wood, the wood is quite hard once properly dried.[64]

Cultivation

Tree of heaven is a popular ornamental tree in China and valued for its tolerance of difficult growing conditions.[24] It was once very popular in cultivation in both Europe and North America, but this popularity dropped, especially in the United States, due to the disagreeable odor of its blossoms and the weediness of its habit. The problem of odor was previously avoided by only selling pistillate plants since only males produce the smell, but a higher seed production also results.[20] Michael Dirr, a noted American horticulturalist and professor at the University of Georgia, reported meeting, in 1982, a grower who could not find any buyers. He further writes (his emphasis):

For most landscaping conditions, it has no value as there are too many trees of superior quality; for impossible conditions this tree has a place; selection could be made for good habit, strong wood and better foliage which would make the tree more satisfactory; I once talked with an architect who tried to buy Ailanthus for use along polluted highways but could not find an adequate supply [...]

— Michael A. Dirr, Manual of Woody Landscape Plants[65]

In Europe, however, the tree is still used in the garden to some degree as its habit is generally not as invasive as it is in America. In the United Kingdom it is especially common in London squares, streets, and parks, though it is also frequently found in gardens of southern England and East Anglia. It becomes rare in the north, occurring only infrequently in southern Scotland. It is also rare in Ireland.[66] In Germany the tree is commonly planted in gardens.[31] The tree has furthermore become unpopular in cultivation in the west because it is short-lived and that the trunk soon becomes hollow, making trees more than two feet in diameter unstable in high winds.[61]

A few cultivars exist, but they are not often sold outside of China and probably not at all in North America:

  • 'Hongye' – The name is Chinese and means "red leaves". As the name implies it has attractive vivid red foliage[67]
  • 'Thousand Leaders'[67]
  • 'Metro' – A male cultivar with a tighter crown than usual and a less weedy habit[68]
  • 'Erythrocarpa' – The fruits are a striking red[68]
  • 'Pendulifolia' – Leaves are much longer and hang elegantly[68]

Traditional medicine

Nearly every part of A. altissima has had various uses in Chinese traditional medicine,[10] although there is no high-quality clinical evidence that it has an effect on any disease.

A tincture of the root bark was thought useful by American herbalists in the 19th century.[14] It contains phytochemicals, such as quassin and saponin, and ailanthone.[69] The plant may be mildly toxic.[1] The noxious odours have been associated with nausea and headaches, and with contact dermatitis reported in both humans and sheep, which developed weakness and paralysis. It contains a quinone irritant, 2,6-dimethoxybenzoquinone, as well as quassinoids.[69]

Culture

China

In addition to the tree of heaven's various uses, it has also been a part of Chinese culture for many centuries and has more recently attained a similar status in the west. Within the oldest extant Chinese dictionary, the Erya, written in the 3rd century BCE, the tree of heaven is mentioned second among a list of trees. It was mentioned again in a materia medica compiled during the Tang dynasty in 656 CE. Each work favoured a different character, however, and there is still some debate in the Chinese botanical community as to which character should be used. The current name, chouchun (Chinese: 臭椿; pinyin: chòuchūn), means "stinking tree", and is a relatively new appellation. People living near the lower Yellow River know it by the name chunshu (simplified Chinese: 椿树; traditional Chinese: 椿樹; pinyin: chūnshù), meaning "spring tree". The name stems from the fact that A. altissima is one of the last trees to come out of dormancy, and as such its leaves coming out would indicate that winter was truly over.[10]

In Chinese literature, ailanthus is often used for two rather extreme metaphors, with a mature tree representing a father and a stump being a spoiled child. This manifests itself occasionally when expressing best wishes to a friend's father and mother in a letter, where one can write "wishing your ailanthus and daylily are strong and happy", with ailanthus metaphorically referring to the father and daylily to the mother. Furthermore, one can scold a child by calling him a "good-for-nothing ailanthus stump sprout", meaning the child is irresponsible. This derives from the literature of Zhuangzi, a Taoist philosopher, who referred to a tree that had developed from a sprout at the stump and was thus unsuitable for carpentry due to its irregular shape. Later scholars associated this tree with ailanthus and applied the metaphor to children who, like stump sprouts of the tree, will not develop into a worthwhile human being if they don't follow rules or traditions.[70]

United States

The 1943 book A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith uses the tree of heaven as its central metaphor, using it as an analogy for the ability to thrive in a difficult environment. At that time as well as now, ailanthus was common in neglected urban areas.[20][71] She writes:

There's a tree that grows in Brooklyn. Some people call it the Tree of Heaven. No matter where its seed falls, it makes a tree which struggles to reach the sky. It grows in boarded up lots and out of neglected rubbish heaps. It grows up out of cellar gratings. It is the only tree that grows out of cement. It grows lushly...survives without sun, water, and seemingly earth. It would be considered beautiful except that there are too many of it.

— A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, Introduction

In William Faulkner's novel, Sanctuary, a "heaven-tree" stands outside the Jefferson jail, where Lee Goodwin and a "negro murderer" are incarcerated. The tree is associated with the black prisoner's despair in the face of his impending execution and the spirituals that he sings in chorus with other black people who keep a sort of vigil in the street below:

...they sang spirituals while white people slowed and stopped in the leafed darkness that was almost summer, to listen to those who were sure to die and him who was already dead singing about heaven and being tired; or perhaps in the interval between songs a rich, sourceless voice coming out of the high darkness where the ragged shadow of the heaven-tree which snooded the street lamp at the corner fretted and mourned: "Fo days mo! Den dey ghy stroy de bes ba'yton singer in nawth Mississippi!"[72] Upon the barred and slitted wall the splotched shadow of the heaven-tree shuddered and pulsed monstrously in scarce any wind; rich and sad, the singing fell behind.[73]

In the 2013 book Teardown: Memoir of a Vanishing City by Gordon Young, the tree is referenced in a description of the Carriage Town neighborhood in Flint, Michigan.

Festive Victorian-era homes in various stages of restoration battled for supremacy with boarded-up firetraps and overgrown lots landscaped with weeds, garbage, and "ghetto palms," a particularly hardy invasive species known more formally as Ailanthus altissima, or the tree of heaven, perhaps because only God can kill the things. Around the corner, business was brisk at a drug house where residents and customers alike weren't above casually taking a piss in the driveway.[74]

Ailanthus is also sometimes counter-nicknamed "tree from hell" due to its prolific invasiveness and the difficulty in eradicating it.[71][75] In certain parts of the United States, the species has been nicknamed the "ghetto palm" because of its propensity for growing in the inhospitable conditions of urban areas, or on abandoned and poorly maintained properties, such as in war-torn Afghanistan.[76][77]

Until 26 March 2008, a 60-foot-tall (18 m) member of the species was a prominent "centerpiece" of the sculpture garden at the Noguchi Museum in the Astoria section in the borough of Queens in New York City. The tree had been spared by the sculptor Isamu Noguchi when in 1975 he bought the building which would become the museum and cleaned up its back lot. The tree was the only one he left in the yard, and the staff would eat lunch with Noguchi under it. "[I]n a sense, the sculpture garden was designed around the tree", said a former aide to Noguchi, Bonnie Rychlak, who later became the museum curator. By 2008, the old tree was found to be dying and in danger of crashing into the building, which was about to undergo a major renovation. The museum hired the Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop, an artists' collective, to use the wood to create benches, sculptures and other amenities in and around the building. The tree's rings were counted, revealing its age to be 75, and museum officials hoped it would regenerate from a sucker.[78]

Europe

Ingo Vetter, a German artist and professor of fine arts at Umeå University in Sweden, was influenced by the idea of the "ghetto palm" and installed a living ailanthus tree taken from Detroit for an international art show called Shrinking Cities at the Kunst-Werke Institute for Contemporary Art in Berlin in 2004.[76][77]

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ For a more thorough discussion, see the entry for Ailanthus altissima in the Wikimanual of Gardening at Wikibooks.

References

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  43. ^ a b c Howard, Janet L. (2010). "Ailanthus altissima". Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service (USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Retrieved 24 June 2018.
  44. ^ 'Tree-of-heaven's prolific seed production adds to its invasive potential', 2 August 2017, Penn State News [1]
  45. ^ 'Tree-of-Heaven', USDA (PDF)
  46. ^ 'Tree-of-Heaven an Exotic Invasive Plant Fact Sheet', May 15, 2014, Ecological Landscape Alliance
  47. ^ Grime, J. P. (9 October 1965). "Shade Tolerance in Flowering Plants". Nature. 208 (5006): 161–163. Bibcode:1965Natur.208..161G. doi:10.1038/208161a0. S2CID 43191167.
  48. ^ Knapp, Liza B.; Canham, Charles D. (October–December 2000). "Invasion of an old-growth forest in New York by Ailanthus altissima: sapling growth and recruitment in canopy gaps". Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 127 (4): 307–315. doi:10.2307/3088649. JSTOR 3088649.
  49. ^ Little, Elbert L. (1980). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Eastern Region. New York: Knopf. p. 540. ISBN 0-394-50760-6.
  50. ^ a b Heisy, Rod M. (February 1996). "Identification of an allelopathic compound from Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae) and characterization of its herbicidal activity". American Journal of Botany. 83 (2): 192–200. doi:10.2307/2445938. JSTOR 2445938.
  51. ^ Heisy, Rod M. (May 1990). "Allelopathic and Herbicidal Effects of Extracts from Tree of Heaven". American Journal of Botany. 77 (5): 662–670. doi:10.2307/2444812. JSTOR 2444812.
  52. ^ Mergen, Francois (September 1959). "A toxic principle in the leaves of Ailanthus". Botanical Gazette. 121 (1): 32–36. doi:10.1086/336038. JSTOR 2473114. S2CID 84989561.
  53. ^ Lawrence, Jeffrey G.; Alison Colwell; Owen Sexton (July 1991). "The ecological impact of allelopathy in Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae)". American Journal of Botany. 78 (7): 948–958. doi:10.2307/2445173. JSTOR 2445173.
  54. ^ Barnes, Jeffrey K. (2 June 2005). "Ailanthus webworm moth". University of Arkansas Arthropod Museum Notes. University of Arkansas. Archived from the original on 18 June 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
  55. ^ "EPPO PRA". EPPO PRA. 30 September 2016. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
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  58. ^ Brooks, Rachel K.; Wickert, Kristen L.; Baudoin, Anton; Kasson, Matt T.; Salom, Scott (1 September 2020). "Field-inoculated Ailanthus altissima stands reveal the biological control potential of Verticillium nonalfalfae in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States". Biological Control. 148: 104–298. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104298. ISSN 1049-9644.
  59. ^ Snyder, A. L.; Salom, S. M.; Kok, L. T.; Griffin, G. J.; Davis, D. D. (9 August 2012). "Assessing Eucryptorrhynchus brandti (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) as a potential carrier for Verticillium nonalfalfae (Phyllachorales) from infected Ailanthus altissima". Biocontrol Science and Technology. 22 (9): 1005–1019. doi:10.1080/09583157.2012.707639. S2CID 85601294. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
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Ailanthus altissima: Brief Summary

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Ailanthus altissima /eɪˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsɪmə/, commonly known as tree of heaven, ailanthus, varnish tree, or in Chinese as chouchun (Chinese: 臭椿; pinyin: chòuchūn), is a deciduous tree in the family Simaroubaceae. It is native to northeast and central China, and Taiwan. Unlike other members of the genus Ailanthus, it is found in temperate climates rather than the tropics.

The tree grows rapidly, and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres (49 ft) in 25 years. While the species rarely lives more than 50 years, some specimens exceed 100 years of age. Its suckering ability allows this tree to clone itself indefinitely. It is considered a noxious weed and vigorous invasive species, and one of the worst invasive plant species in Europe and North America. In 21st-century North America, the invasiveness of the species has been compounded by its harboring of the also destructive and invasive spotted lanternfly.

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Ailanthus altissima ( Spanish; Castilian )

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A. altissima (detalle).
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La corteza de A. altissima es gris y lisa, pero se hace rugosa y fisurada longitudinalmente en los árboles adultos
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Flores de A. altissima
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Semillas inmaduras de A. altissima.

Ailanthus altissima, el ailanto, árbol del cielo, árbol de los dioses, malhuele o falso zumaque, es un árbol ornamental muy utilizado en jardines públicos en el sur de Europa, originario de China. De crecimiento rápido, es muy resistente a la contaminación.

Descripción

Alcanza una talla de 17 hasta 27 metros. Puede llegar a vivir de 40 a 50 años. Es de hoja caduca.

El tronco es de corteza gris y agrietado, con tonos castaños en ejemplares de mayor edad. Posee hojas compuestas de ocho pares de foliolos, largamente pecioladas; desprenden el olor desagradable que caracteriza a esta especie. El fruto es una sámara que se dispersa de forma muy eficiente; manteniéndose muchas veces en al árbol cuando ha perdido ya toda la hoja, en espera de ráfagas de viento.

Se introdujo desde China a mediados del siglo XVIII, por su crecimiento rápido, y siguiendo la moda china de la época, con la intención de repoblar los montes, sin embargo, la mala calidad de la madera y sus desfavorables características hicieron fracasar el proyecto.

Es un buen colonizador de espacios degradados (solares, descampados), creciendo incluso entre el balasto del tendido ferroviario.

Especie invasora

En España, y otras muchas áreas como Australia, Estados Unidos o el sur de Europa, se ha convertido en una especie silvestre invasora por su rápido crecimiento y su capacidad para prosperar en cualquier lugar, formando densas arboledas en los márgenes de las carreteras. Debido a su potencial colonizador y constituir una amenaza grave para las especies autóctonas, los hábitats o los ecosistemas, esta especie ha sido incluida en el Catálogo Español de Especies Exóticas Invasoras, regulado por el Real Decreto 630/2013, de 2 de agosto, estando prohibida en España su introducción en el medio natural, posesión, transporte, tráfico y comercio.[2]

Las características bioecológicas de la especie la convierten en altamente invasora: es resistente a la contaminación y a gran parte de inclemencias ambientales, produce una enorme cantidad de frutos cada año, y tiene una gran capacidad de rebrote. Además, afecta de forma directa a la organización y al funcionamiento del ecosistema en el que se instaura, ya que reduce la cobertura vegetal del estrato herbáceo por la proyección de sombra y la liberación de sustancias alelopáticas a través de sus raíces, incrementa la cobertura del estrato arbóreo, reduce la biodiversidad y la riqueza de especies e incrementa la dominancia en favor de sí mismo.

Usos

Principios activos: contiene glucósidos, resina, esencia acre, taninos, mucílagos.[3]

Indicaciones: es astringente, antihelmíntico, antidiarréico, rubefaciente, emético. Debe actuarse con prudencia en su empleo por vía interna, ya que una dosis excesiva tiene en primer lugar un efecto purgante y después emético.[3]

Otros usos: las hojas se utilizan para fabricación de papel y como colorante amarillo para la lana.[3]​ Sus hojas sirven de alimento a un tipo de gusano de seda (Samia cynthia).

Taxonomía

Las primeras descripciones científicas del ailanto se hicieron poco después de que se introdujo en Europa por el jesuita francés Pierre Nicholas d'Incarville. D' Incarville había enviado semillas desde Pekín a través de Siberia a su amigo el botánico Bernard de Jussieu en la década de 1740. Se creyó que las semillas enviadas por d'Incarville eran de un árbol parecido y de gran importancia económica, el Toxicodendron vernicifluum, que había observado en la región del bajo Yangtsé, más que del ailanto. D' Incarville adjuntó una nota que indicaba esto, lo que causó gran confusión taxonómica en los siguientes decenios. En 1751, Jussieu plantó algunas semillas en Francia y envió a otras a Philip Miller, el superintendente del Chelsea Physic Garden, y a Philip C. Webb, el dueño de un jardín de plantas exóticas en Busbridge, Inglaterra.[4]

La confusión en el nombre comenzó cuando el árbol fue descrito por los tres hombres con tres nombres diferentes. En París, Linneo dio a la planta el nombre de Rhus succedanea, mientras que popularmente era conocido como grand vernis du Japon. En Londres, las muestras fueron llamadas por Miller Toxicodendron altissima y en Busbridge fue llamado en el antiguo sistema de clasificación como Rhus Sinese foliis alatis. Hay registros existentes de la década de 1750 de disputas sobre el nombre adecuado entre Philip Miller y John Ellis, curador del jardín de Webb en Busbridge. Más que resolver la cuestión, pronto aparecieron más nombres para la planta: Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart observó una muestra en Utrecht en 1782 y la llamó Rhus cacodendron.[4]

La cuestión fue aclarada un poco en 1788 cuando René Louiche Desfontaines observó las sámaras de los especímenes de París, que todavía hayan sido etiquetados como Rhus succedanea, y llegó a la conclusión de que la planta no era un zumaque. Publicó un artículo con una descripción ilustrada y le dio el nombre de Ailanthus glandulosa, colocándolo en el mismo género que las especies tropicales entonces conocidas como A. integrifolia (hoy, A. triphysa). El nombre se deriva de la palabra ambonesa Ailanto, que significa "árbol de cielo" o "árbol que alcanza el cielo".[4][5]​ Le dio como nombre específico glandulosa en referencia a las glándulas en las hojas; ese nombre perduró hasta fecha tan tardía como 1957, pero al final resultó inválido por un homónimo tardío a nivel de especie.[4]​ El nombre de la especie actual proviene de Walter T. Swingle que fue contratado por el Departamento de Estados Unidos de Industria de Plantas. Decidió transferir el nombre específico más antiguo de Miller al género de Desfontaines, dando como resultado el nombre hoy aceptado de Ailanthus altissima.[6]Altissima es la expresión en latín que quiere decir "el más alto",[7]​ y se refiere a las alturas que el árbol puede alcanzar. A veces a esta planta se le llama, incorrectamente, con el epíteto específico en la forma masculina (glandulosus o altissimus), pero no es correcto porque los botánicos, como en el latín clásico, tratan a la mayoría de los nombres de árboles en femenino.

Variedades

Hay tres variedades de A. altissima:

  • Ailanthus altissima var. altissima, que es la variedad tipo y es originaria de China continental.
  • Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai, que es un endemismo de las tierras altas del norte de Taiwán. Difiere del tipo en que tiene una corteza amarillenta, hojas extrañamente pinnadas que también son de promedio más cortas con 45-60 cm de largo con solo 13–25 fascículos parecidos a una hoz.[8][9][10]​ Está incluido en la Lista Roja de la UICN de especies amenazadas debido a la pérdida de hábitat por la construcción y las plantaciones industriales.[11]
  • A. altissima var. sutchuenensis, que se diferencia en que tiene ramillas rojas.[8][9]
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Un ejemplar femenino de A. altissima con una intensa carga de semillas maduras.
Sinonimia
  • Ailanthus cacodendron (Ehrh.) Schinz & Thell.
  • Ailanthus erythrocarpa Carrière
  • Ailanthus giraldii Dode
  • Ailanthus giraldii var. duclouxii Dode
  • Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. erythocarpa (Carrière) Mouill.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. erythocarpa (Carrière) C.K.Schneid.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. rubra Dippel
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. spinosa M. Vilm. & Bois
  • Ailanthus guangxiensis S.L.Mo
  • Ailanthus japonica K.Koch
  • Ailanthus japonica Dippel
  • Ailanthus peregrina (Buc'hoz) F.A.Barkley
  • Ailanthus pongelion J.F.Gmel.
  • Ailanthus procera Salisb.
  • Ailanthus rhodoptera F.Muell.
  • Ailanthus sinensis Dum.Cours.
  • Ailanthus sutchuensis Dode
  • Ailanthus vilmoriniana Dode
  • Ailanthus vilmoriniana var. henanensis J.Y.Chen & L.Y.Jin
  • Albonia peregrina Buc'hoz
  • Choerospondias auriculata D.Chandra
  • Pongelion cacodendron (Ehrh.) Farw.
  • Rhus cacodendron Ehrh.
  • Toxicodendron altissimum Mill.
var. altissima
  • Pongelion glandulosum (Desf.) Pierre
var. sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder & E.H.Wilson
  • Ailanthus cacodendron var. sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder & E.H. Wilson
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder
  • Ailanthus sutchuenensis Dode
var. tanakae (Hayata) Kaneh. & Sasaki
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. tanakae Hayata[12]

Nombres comunes

  • Español: ailanto, ailanto glanduloso, arcacia, barniz del Japón, gandul de carretera, malhuele, noguera loca, oilanto, árbol de la China, árbol del cielo, árbol del Japón, árbol de los dioses, zumaque del Japón, zumaque falso.[13]

Plagas

Una especie de Lepidoptera nativa de América, Atteva aurea, ha encontrado en el árbol del cielo un hospedero alternativo, causando grandes daños por herbivoría en algunos ejemplares.

 src=
Árbol del cielo afectado por Atteva aurea

Referencias

  1. «Www.gbif.org». www.gbif.org (en inglés). Consultado el 29 de diciembre de 2018.
  2. «Real Decreto 630/2013, de 2 de agosto, por el que se regula el Catálogo español de especies exóticas invasoras.». Boletín Oficial del Estado.
  3. a b c «Ailanthus altissima». Plantas útiles: Linneo. Archivado desde el original el 1 de diciembre de 2009. Consultado el 13 de octubre de 2009.
  4. a b c d Hu, Shiu-ying (marzo de 1979). «Ailanthus altissima» (PDF). Arnoldia 39 (2): 29-50. Consultado el 7 de febrero de 2010.
  5. Shah, Behula (Verano de 1997). «The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima» (PDF). Arnoldia 57 (3): 21-27. Consultado el 7 de febrero de 2010.
  6. Swingle, Walter T. (1916). «The early European history and the botanical name of the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima». Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 6 (14): 490-498.
  7. «Dictionary of Botanical Epithets. Último acceso, 15-4-2008.». www.winternet.com. Consultado el 14 de agosto de 2010.
  8. a b Huang, Chenjiu (1997). «Ailanthus Desf.». En Shukun Chen, ed. Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae. 43(3). Pekín: Science Press. pp. 1-5. ISBN 7-03-005367-2.
  9. a b Zheng, Hao; wu, Yun; Ding, Jianqing; Binion, Denise; Fu, Weidong; Reardon, Richard (septiembre de 2004). «Ailanthus altissima» (PDF). Invasive Plants of Asian Origin Established in the United States and Their Natural Enemies, Volume 1. USDA Forest Service. Archivado desde el original el 28 de septiembre de 2006. Consultado el 7 de febrero de 2010. FHTET-2004-05
  10. Li, Hui-lin (1993). «Simaroubaceae». En Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. Flora of Taiwan, Volume 3: Hamamelidaceae-Umbelliferea (2.ª edición). ISBN 9757-9019-41-X |isbn= incorrecto (ayuda). Consultado el 7 de febrero de 2010.
  11. Pan, F.J. (1998). «Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai». 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Consultado el 7 de febrero de 2010.
  12. Ailanthus altissima en PlantList
  13. «Ailanthus altissima». Real Jardín Botánico: Proyecto Anthos. Consultado el 26 de noviembre de 2009.

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Ailanthus altissima: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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 src= A. altissima (detalle).  src= La corteza de A. altissima es gris y lisa, pero se hace rugosa y fisurada longitudinalmente en los árboles adultos  src= Flores de A. altissima  src= Semillas inmaduras de A. altissima.

Ailanthus altissima, el ailanto, árbol del cielo, árbol de los dioses, malhuele o falso zumaque, es un árbol ornamental muy utilizado en jardines públicos en el sur de Europa, originario de China. De crecimiento rápido, es muy resistente a la contaminación.

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Ailanto ( Basque )

provided by wikipedia EU
 src=
Alianto gaztea.
 src=
Hostoak.
 src=
Samarak (fruituak).

Ailantoa (Ailanthus altissima) Ailanthus generoko zuhaitza da. Txinan du jatorria baina Europa hegoaldeko lorategietan arrunta da, azkar hasten baita eta kutsadurari aurre egiten baitio. Europan landare inbaditzailetzat hartzen da[1], Euskal Herrian barne.

Ezaugarriak

Zuhaitz hostoerorkorra da eta 17 eta 27 metro arteko altuera hartzen du. 40 edo 50 urte har ditzake. Enbor grisa dauka, zahartzen denean marroia, eta arrakala ugari izaten ditu. Hostoak luzeak eta peziolatuak dira eta kiratsa darie.

Samara (fruitua) ondo sakabanatzen da haizearekin. Zuhaitzak fruitu ugari sortzen ditu eta berehala ernetzen dira. Hazten dihoan heinean itzala egiten die inguruko landareei eta sustraietatik sustantzia alelopatikoak askatzen ditu ingurukoen hazkuntza oztopatuz. Honegatik guztiagatik landare inbaditzailetzat jotzen da.

Erabilerak

Printzipio aktibo ugari ditu (glukosidoak, erretsina, taninoak, muzilagoak...) eta idorreria eta gonbitolarria eragiten du, horregatik kontuz erabili behar da.

Hostoak papera egiteko erabil daitezke. Artileari kolore horia emateko ere erabiltzen dira hostoak.

Izurria

Atteva aurea lepidopteroak kalte handiak eragiten dizkio.

Taxonomia

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.)

Etimologia

Ailanthus: Moluka uhartediko zuhaitz batek ematen dio izena generoari, "zeruko zuhaitza" esan nahi du.

altissima: latinezko epitetoa "garaiena" dela ean nahi du.[2]

Barietateak
Sinonimia
  • Ailanthus cacodendron (Ehrh.) Schinz & Thell.
  • Ailanthus erythrocarpa Carrière
  • Ailanthus giraldii Dode
  • Ailanthus giraldii var. duclouxii Dode
  • Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. erythocarpa (Carrière) Mouill.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. erythocarpa (Carrière) C.K.Schneid.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. rubra Dippel
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. spinosa M. Vilm. & Bois
  • Ailanthus guangxiensis S.L.Mo
  • Ailanthus japonica K.Koch
  • Ailanthus japonica Dippel
  • Ailanthus peregrina (Buc'hoz) F.A.Barkley
  • Ailanthus pongelion J.F.Gmel.
  • Ailanthus procera Salisb.
  • Ailanthus rhodoptera F.Muell.
  • Ailanthus sinensis Dum.Cours.
  • Ailanthus sutchuensis Dode
  • Ailanthus vilmoriniana Dode
  • Ailanthus vilmoriniana var. henanensis J.Y.Chen & L.Y.Jin
  • Albonia peregrina Buc'hoz
  • Choerospondias auriculata D.Chandra
  • Pongelion cacodendron (Ehrh.) Farw.
  • Rhus cacodendron Ehrh.
  • Toxicodendron altissimum Mill.
var. altissima
  • Pongelion glandulosum (Desf.) Pierre
var. sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder & E.H.Wilson
  • Ailanthus cacodendron var. sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder & E.H. Wilson
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. sutchuenensis (Dode) Rehder
  • Ailanthus sutchuenensis Dode
var. tanakae (Hayata) Kaneh. & Sasaki
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. tanakae Hayata[3]

Ikus, gainera

Erreferentziak

(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
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Ailanto: Brief Summary ( Basque )

provided by wikipedia EU
 src= Alianto gaztea.  src= Hostoak.  src= Samarak (fruituak).

Ailantoa (Ailanthus altissima) Ailanthus generoko zuhaitza da. Txinan du jatorria baina Europa hegoaldeko lorategietan arrunta da, azkar hasten baita eta kutsadurari aurre egiten baitio. Europan landare inbaditzailetzat hartzen da, Euskal Herrian barne.

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Jumaltenpuu ( Finnish )

provided by wikipedia FI

Jumaltenpuu eli jumalainpuu eli haisujumaltenpuu[1] (Ailanthus altissima) on koristekasvinakin käytetty puu.

Ulkonäkö ja koko

 src=
Jumaltenpuun kukinto

Jumaltenpuun kaarna on sileä, tummanharmaa. Lehdet kasvavat pareittain ja niissä on nuolimaiset lehdykät, joiden alapinta on lähes valkea, yläpinta kiiltävän tummanvihreä. Lehtisuonet erottuvat selvästi vaaleampina. Lehden pituus on 30–90 cm. Lehtien muodon perusteella kasvin voi sekoittaa saksanpähkinään, jalopähkinöihin tai sumakkeihin, mutta kukinto on helpoo tuntomerkki. Kukat kasvavat vaaleankeltaisina terttuina; itse kukat ovat pieniä mutta kukinto voi olla 50 cm pitkä. Yksi puu voi tuottaa vuodessa 300 000 siementä.

Kasvin kaikissa osissa on sille ominainen, tympeä tuoksu jota on kuvattu mätänevien maapähkinöiden hajuna.[2]

Jumaltenpuu voi kasvaa jopa 15–25 metriä korkeaksi. Se elää yleensä alle 50 vuotta, mutta jos sen kaataa, se vesoo voimakkaasti mikä vaikeuttaa lajin hävittämistä sellaisilta kasvupaikoilta, mihin sitä ei haluta.

Levinneisyys

Jumaltenpuu kasvaa luonnonvaraisena Taiwanilla ja Kiinan pohjois- ja keskiosissa. Se on tuotu Eurooppaan jo 1740-luvulla. Toisin kuin muut Ailanthus-lajit, se ei ole trooppisen vaan lauhkean vyöhykkeen kasvi. Nykyisin se leviää tietyissa Australian ja Yhdysvaltojen osissa niin valtoimenaan, että sitä pidetään pahanlaatuisena rikkaruohona. Sen juuret voivat aiheuttaa tuhoja rakenteille ja viemäriputkistoille.

Käyttö

Jumaltenpuun lehtiä ja siemeniä on käytetty kiinalaisessa lääketieteessä. Yhdysvalloissa puuainesta on käytetty myös polttopuuna ja rakennusmateriaalina.[3]

Lähteet

  1. Tran Minh, M. & Laaka-Lindberg, S. & Junikka, L. (toim.): Lomakasvio, s. 214. Multikustannus, 2007. ISBN 978-952-468-124-7.
  2. Farm Science Review: Landowners can offer roadblocks to invasive plants’ spread
  3. Zipcodezoo

Aiheesta muualla

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Jumaltenpuu: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

provided by wikipedia FI

Jumaltenpuu eli jumalainpuu eli haisujumaltenpuu (Ailanthus altissima) on koristekasvinakin käytetty puu.

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Ailanthus altissima ( French )

provided by wikipedia FR

Ailanthus altissima, en français Ailante glanduleux, Ailante, Faux vernis du Japon, Frêne puant ou Vernis de Chine, est une espèce d'arbres à feuilles caduques de la famille des Simaroubaceae. Il possède de grandes feuilles composées, une écorce lisse et grise et a pour fruits des samares. Il est natif à la fois du nord-est et du centre de la Chine et de Taïwan et présent davantage dans la forêt tempérée que dans la forêt subtropicale d’Extrême-Orient. Cette espèce pousse vite, elle est capable d'atteindre une hauteur de 15 mètres en 25 ans. Elle a une durée de vie courte et vit rarement plus de 50 ans, mais peut cependant poursuivre son existence bien au-delà grâce à son pouvoir drageonnant particulièrement développé.

L'Ailante glanduleux a été introduit, comme arbre d'ornement ou pour l'élevage du Bombyx de l'ailante pour la production de soie, dans la majeure partie des climats tempérés à subtropicaux, et il est considéré comme l'une des plantes les plus envahissantes au XXIe siècle en Australie, aux États-Unis, en Nouvelle-Zélande et dans plusieurs pays d'Europe méridionale et orientale.

Appellations

Ailanthus altissima est souvent simplement nommé en français « Ailante ». L'orthographe « Ailanthe », peut également être trouvée, mais l’origine de ce nom ne le justifie pas[2]. Selon le code de la nomenclature, le « h » de son nom scientifique doit par contre être préservé pour respecter le choix de son auteur, même s'il n'a pas de fondement[3]. L'arbre porte également d'autres noms communs en français et dans d'autres langues.

En français

L'espèce est également appelée « Ailante glanduleux », « Faux vernis du Japon »[4], « Frêne puant » ou encore « Vernis de Chine ». Le nom « Faux Vernis du Japon »[5] est du à la ressemblance de ses feuilles avec celles du « vrai » Vernis du Japon (Toxicodendron vernicifluum)[6], et « Frêne puant » est justifié du fait de sa relative ressemblance avec le frêne et de son odeur nauséabonde[7].

En chinois

Dans le plus ancien dictionnaire chinois existant, Er ya, datant du IIIe siècle av. J.-C., l'Ailante glanduleux figure en deuxième position dans une liste d'arbres. Il est mentionné de nouveau dans un dictionnaire médical datant de la dynastie Tang, en 656 apr. J.-C.. Les deux le dénomment de façon différente et il y a toujours un débat dans la communauté chinoise sur le nom qui doit être utilisé. Le nom actuel, chouchun (chinois : 臭椿 ; pinyin : chòuchūn), signifie « printemps puant » et est une appellation relativement nouvelle. Les personnes vivant près de la partie basse du fleuve Jaune le dénomment chunshu (chinois : 椿树 ; pinyin : chūnshù), ce qui signifie « arbre de printemps ». Cela provient du fait qu’A. altissima est l'un des derniers arbres à sortir de la dormance au printemps et c'est pourquoi l'apparition de ses feuilles est censée assurer que l'hiver est bien révolu[8].

Autres langues

Ailanthus altissima est nommé « Arbre du Paradis » dans plusieurs langues : en anglais : Tree-of-Heaven[4], en allemand Götterbaum (Arbre des dieux) et en espagnol Arbol del cielo[1]. Du fait de sa rapide croissance il est aussi appelé « monte-aux-cieux » en portugais (arvore-do-céu), et en flamand, hemelboom, « arbre du ciel »[9]. C'est une plante invasive capable d'occuper le moindre espace laissé libre, ce qui lui vaut le surnom de ghetto palm tree, « palmier du ghetto », à Détroit, aux États-Unis[9].

Taxonomie

Les premières descriptions scientifiques de l'Ailante glanduleux sont faites peu de temps après son introduction en Europe par le jésuite français Pierre Nicolas Le Chéron d'Incarville. D'Incarville envoie des graines de cette espèce depuis Pékin via la Sibérie à son ami botaniste Bernard de Jussieu à partir de 1743[10]. D'Incarville pense alors que les graines envoyées provenaient d'une espèce d'arbre importante économiquement et à l'allure similaire, Toxicodendron vernicifluum, qu'il avait pu observer dans la région du bas Yangzi, plutôt qu'à l'Ailante glanduleux. D'Incarville joint une note en ce sens, causant beaucoup de confusion taxonomique au cours des décennies suivantes. Quelques-unes de ces graines sont semées en France[10] en 1743, puis les années suivantes alors que d'autres lots sont expédiés en 1751 à Philip Miller, le directeur général du jardin botanique de Chelsea et à Philip C. Webb, le propriétaire d'un jardin de plantes exotiques à Busbridge, en Angleterre[8].

La confusion dans la dénomination commence quand l'arbre est décrit par les trois hommes avec trois noms différents. À Paris, alors qu'il est appelé communément « Grand vernis du Japon », Carl von Linné lui donne le nom de Rhus succedanea (Rhus succedanea L. étant considéré depuis comme synonyme de Toxicodendron succedaneum, une autre espèce). À Londres, Miller nomme ses spécimens Toxicodendron altissima et à Busbridge un ancien système de classification choisi Rhus Sinese foliis alatis. Des documents, à partir des années 1750, montrent les différends entre Philip Miller et John Ellis, conservateur du jardin de Webb à Busbridge, sur le nom approprié. Avant que la question ne soit réglée, d'autres noms apparaissent rapidement pour la plante : ainsi Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart observe un spécimen à Utrecht en 1782 et lui donne le nom de Rhus cacodendron[8].

La lumière est faite sur le statut taxonomique d'A. altissima en 1788 lorsque René Desfontaines observe les samares des spécimens de Paris qui sont encore marqués Rhus succedanea. Il en vient à la conclusion que le plant n'est pas un sumac. Il publie un article avec une description illustrée et lui donne le nom de Ailanthus glandulosa, le plaçant dans le même genre que les espèces tropicales alors connues sous le nom d’A. integrifolia (maintenant Ailanthus triphysa). Le nom est dérivé du mot de la langue de l'île d'Ambon Ailanto signifiant « arbre qui monte vers le ciel »[8],[11]. L'épithète spécifique glandulosa, faisant référence aux glandes présentes sur les feuilles, persiste jusqu'en 1957 mais est finalement invalidée plus tard par un homonyme[8]. La combinaison actuelle est due à Walter T. Swingle, un employé de l’United States Department of Plant Industry. Ce dernier transfère l'espèce Toxicodendron altissima, décrite par Miller, dans le genre de Desfontaines, créant ainsi le nom accepté de Ailanthus altissima[12]. Altissima signifie en latin « le plus haut » et fait référence à la taille que l'arbre peut atteindre. La plante est parfois incorrectement citée avec l'épithète spécifique au masculin (glandulosus ou altissimus), usage incorrect en botanique, comme en latin classique, la plupart des noms d'arbres étant féminins.

Deux variétés d’A. altissima sont reconnues à côté de la variété type :

  • Ailanthus altissima var. sutchuanensis (Dode) Rehd. & Wils., 1917 (Synonyme : Ailanthus sutchuanensis Dode), originaire de Chine et du Vietnam ;
  • Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai (Hayata) Kanehira & Sasaki, 1936 (Synonyme : Ailanthus glandulosa var. tanakai Hayata)[1] qui est endémique des hauts-plateaux du nord de Taïwan. Il diffère de la première variété par son écorce jaunâtre, ses feuilles pennées impaires plus courtes, faisant en moyenne de 45 à 60 cm de longueur avec seulement 13 à 25 folioles en forme de faux[13],[14],[15].

Paradoxalement, cette dernière variété est classée « en danger » (EN) sur la Liste rouge de l'UICN des espèces menacées en raison de la perte de son habitat transformé en chantiers de construction et en plantations industrielles[16].

Description

Appareil végétatif

A. altissima est un arbre de taille moyenne qui atteint une hauteur de 17 à 27 mètres avec un diamètre à hauteur de poitrine d'homme d'environ 1 mètre[17]. L'écorce est lisse, gris clair, devenant souvent un peu plus rêche avec les fissures de couleur ocre pâle lorsque l'arbre vieillit. Les rameaux, robustes, lisses à légèrement pubescents, sont rougeâtres ou marron. Ils portent des lenticelles ainsi que des cicatrices foliaires (cicatrices laissées sur le rameau après la chute des feuilles) en forme de cœur. Les bourgeons sont finement pubescents, en forme de dôme, et partiellement cachés derrière le pétiole, mais ils sont bien visibles pendant la période de dormance au-dessus des cicatrices foliaires[8]. Les branches sont gris pâle à gris foncé, lisses, brillantes et portent des lenticelles boursouflées qui se transforment en fissures avec l'âge. Les extrémités des branches sont pendantes. Toutes les parties de la plante dégagent une odeur forte qui est souvent comparée à celle du tabac ou bien d'arachides, ou de noix de cajou, pourries[18].

Les feuilles sont caduques, grandes, alternes, imparipennées, d'odeur désagréable au froissement[5]. Elles mesurent de 30 à 90 cm de longueur et portent de 11 à 41 folioles disposées par paires, les plus grandes feuilles se trouvant sur les jeunes pousses les plus vigoureuses. Le pétiole est vert clair à rougeâtre avec une base renflée. Les folioles sont lancéolées, à bords lisses, un peu asymétriques et parfois ne sont pas directement en face les unes des autres. Elles mesurent de 5 à 18 cm de long et 2,5 à 5 cm de large. Elles ont une extrémité effilée tandis que la base porte de deux à quatre dents, chacune d'entre elles ayant une ou plusieurs glandes à son extrémité[8]. La face supérieure est vert foncé avec des nervures plus claires, tandis que la face inférieure est d'un vert plus blanchâtre. Les pétioles font de 5 à 12 mm de long[18]. Les lobes des bases et les glandes le distinguent de certaines espèces assez similaires de sumacs.

Appareil reproducteur

Gravure ancienne en noir et blanc de feuilles, fleurs et samares.
Planche des feuilles, fleurs et samares selon Britton et Brown's dans Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada (1913).

Les fleurs sont petites et groupées en grandes panicules pouvant atteindre jusqu'à 50 cm de longueur situées à l'extrémité des nouvelles pousses. Les fleurs sont d'un vert jaunâtre à rougeâtre, chacune ayant cinq pétales et sépales[17],[18]. Les sépales sont en forme de coupe, lobés et soudés tandis que les pétales sont jointifs (leurs bords se touchent sans se chevaucher), blancs et velus à l'intérieur[8],[19],[20]. Les fleurs apparaissent de la mi-avril dans le sud de son aire de répartition jusqu'en juillet dans le Nord. A. altissima est le plus souvent un arbre dioïque[5], les fleurs mâles et femelles étant portées par des arbres différents. Les arbres mâles produisent trois à quatre fois plus de fleurs que les femelles, ce qui les rend plus attractifs. Mais les plants mâles émettent une odeur nauséabonde plus forte lorsqu'ils sont en fleurs, attirant ainsi davantage les insectes pollinisateurs. Les fleurs femelles possèdent dix (ou plus rarement cinq) étamines stériles (staminodes) à anthères en forme de cœur. Le pistil est composé de cinq carpelles libres (c'est-à-dire qu'ils ne sont pas fusionnés), contenant chacun un seul ovule. Leurs styles sont unis et minces avec des stigmates en forme d'étoile[8],[19]. Les fleurs mâles sont semblables en apparence, mais elles sont dépourvues de pistil et leurs étamines sont fonctionnelles, chacune d'entre elles étant surmontée d'une anthère globuleuse et d'un disque vert porteur de glandes[8]. Les graines ovoïdes, portées par les arbres femelles, font 5 mm de diamètre et sont encapsulées individuellement dans une samare qui mesure 2,5 cm de long et 1 cm de large, brune ou rougeâtre, bien visible en juillet-août et persistant le plus souvent sur l'arbre jusqu'au printemps suivant. La samare est tordue à l'extrémité ce qui en fait une vrille lorsqu'elle tombe ce qui aide à sa dispersion par le vent[17],[18]. Les arbres femelles peuvent produire d'énormes quantités de graines, normalement environ 30 000 par kilogramme d'arbre[17].

Confusions fréquentes

Sumac vinaigrier

L'Ailante glanduleux est souvent confondu avec le Sumac vinaigrier (Rhus typhina)[21],[22],[8],[23], surtout quand les arbres sont jeunes, car leurs feuillages sont très semblables et ce sont des plantes envahissantes qui colonisent toutes deux les talus et bords de routes[23]. En revanche, une fois adultes, alors qu'un Sumac ne dépasse guère cinq mètres[21], l'Ailante peut mesurer plus de vingt mètres de hauteur et leurs fructifications sont bien différentes[22]. Cette confusion entre les deux espèces a pu faire accuser à tort l'Ailante glanduleux d'être toxique[8].

Autres espèces

Une confusion est également possible avec l'Acajou de Chine (Toona sinensis), dont l'écorce est rugueuse une fois le tronc assez développé et les feuilles une odeur d'oignon[24], mais aussi avec le Vernis du Japon (Toxicodendron vernicifluum)[3], ou encore certains jeunes noyers comme le Noyer noir (Juglans nigra), le Noyer cendré (Juglans cinerea) et le Noyer du Japon (Juglans ailantifolia). Ces espèces appartenant à des familles différentes se trouvent assez fréquemment plantées comme arbres d'ornement dans les pays tempérés, et sont parfois naturalisées[24]. Parmi les espèces indigènes en Europe, l'Ailante glanduleux peut être confondu dans une moindre mesure avec le Frêne élevé (Fraxinus excelsior), qui se distingue par ses bourgeons noirs et ses feuilles imparipennées à 6 paires de folioles au maximum[23].

Biologie

Photographie en couleurs de la partie supérieure d'une tige d'un plant femelle portant des graines.
Plant femelle possédant un grand nombre de graines (Valladolid, Espagne).

Cet Ailanthus se propage activement à la fois par graines, par tronçons de racines et par drageons, ceux-ci poussant rapidement après que l'arbre a été coupé[8]. Il est souvent considéré comme un arbre ne supportant pas l'ombre et ne pouvant pas entrer en concurrence avec d'autres espèces en cas de faible luminosité[25]. S'il apparaît cependant parfois dans de telles situations, c'est plutôt parce qu'il était présent au moment où les autres plants ont été mis en place[17]. Toutefois, lors d'une étude dans une forêt de vieux peuplements de pruches à New York, les recherches ont montré qu’Ailanthus était capable de concurrencer avec succès les espèces indigènes dans les trouées qui recevaient seulement 2 à 15 % du plein soleil. La même étude a caractérisé l'arbre en utilisant le terme de gap-obligate ce qui signifie que, pour atteindre le couvert forestier, il se développe rapidement sur une très courte période[26]. C'est un arbre qui a une durée de vie courte, dépassant rarement 50 ans (il peut cependant poursuivre son existence bien au-delà grâce à son pouvoir drageonnant particulièrement développé)[3]. Ailanthus altissima est parmi les arbres les plus tolérants à la pollution, supportant par exemple les vapeurs de dioxyde de soufre qu'il absorbe dans ses feuilles. Il résiste à la poussière de ciment et aux fumées provenant de l'exploitation du goudron de houille et supporte assez bien l'exposition à l'ozone. Des concentrations élevées en mercure ont été relevées dans les tissus de la plante[27].

L'espèce a été utilisée pour reboiser des zones de drainage minier acide, car elle tolère des pH aussi bas que 4,1 (environ celui du jus de tomate)[27]. Elle peut supporter des teneurs très faibles en phosphore et un niveau élevé de salinité. Elle est tolérante à la sécheresse en raison de son aptitude à stocker de l'eau dans son système radiculaire[27], et peut donc être implantée fréquemment dans les zones où seulement quelques espèces d'arbres peuvent survivre.

Photographie en couleurs présentant en gros plan des samares fusiformes, de couleur brun clair.
Samares.

A. altissima produit une substance chimique allélopathique appelée ailanthone qui inhibe la croissance de nombreuses autres plantes[28]. La concentration en cet inhibiteur est la plus forte dans l'écorce et les racines, mais l'ailanthone est aussi présente dans les feuilles, le bois et les graines de la plante. Une étude[29] a montré qu'un extrait brut d'écorce de racines inhibait la germination de 50 % d'un échantillon de cresson (Lepidium sativum). La même étude a testé l'extrait comme herbicide sur du cresson, de l'Amarante réfléchie (Amaranthus retroflexus), l'Abutilon d'Avicenne (Abutilon theophrasti), la Sétaire glauque (Setaria glauca), le Panic pied-de-coq (Echinochloa crus-galli), le pois (Pisum sativum var. Sugar Snap) et le maïs (Zea mays var. Silver Queen). Il s'est avéré capable de tuer près de 100 % des semis à l'exception de ceux de l'Abutilon qui ont montré une certaine résistance. Une autre expérience[30] a montré qu'un extrait aqueux de cette substance chimique était soit mortel, soit très préjudiciable pour onze espèces de feuillus et 34 de conifères d'Amérique du Nord, seul le Frêne blanc (Fraxinus americana) n'étant pas affecté. Le produit, cependant, n'affecte pas les semis d’Ailanthus, ce qui prouve que A. altissima possède un mécanisme de défense pour empêcher une autotoxicité[28]. La résistance de différentes espèces végétales augmente avec l'exposition, les populations sans exposition antérieure étant plus sensibles, et les graines produites par des plantes qui ont déjà été exposées à l'Ailante glanduleux sont plus résistantes que leurs homologues non exposées[31].

A. altissima est un arbre à croissance très rapide et c'est peut-être l'arbre à la croissance la plus rapide d'Amérique du Nord[32]. Une croissance de un à deux mètres par an pendant les quatre premières années est normale. L'ombre entrave considérablement son taux de croissance. Les arbres plus âgés, même s'ils croissent beaucoup plus lentement, continuent de le faire plus rapidement que nombre d'autres espèces. Des études ont démontré que les arbres de Californie grandissaient plus rapidement que leurs homologues de la côte Est et que les arbres d'Amérique en général grandissaient plus vite que ceux de Chine[32].

Écologie

Cet arbre se rencontre fréquemment sur des sols plutôt secs de l’étage collinéen (altitude inférieure à 1 000 m), mais il trouve toutefois son optimum de développement sur des sols plutôt riches en bases et en azote avec un pH neutre à légèrement acide. Il se rencontre soit en milieux naturels tels que les ripisylves, trouées forestières, forêts claires et sèches (garrigues) et les pelouses, soit en milieu anthropisé tels que les friches industrielles, les terrains vagues, etc., d’où il peut ensuite se propager dans les milieux naturels environnants. L’Ailante glanduleux est classiquement décrit comme une espèce pionnière, profitant des catastrophes naturelles en forêt (tempêtes, insectes défoliateurs, etc.) pour proliférer[3].

Plusieurs espèces de lépidoptères utilisent les feuilles d'Ailante glanduleux pour se nourrir. C'est le cas notamment des espèces de papillons Actias selene et Eurema hecabe. En Amérique du Nord, cet arbre est la plante hôte d'Atteva aurea, mais ce papillon est originaire d'Amérique centrale et du Sud et, à l'origine, utilisait comme hôte d'autres membres de la famille des Simaroubaceae, essentiellement des espèces tropicales[33]. Dans son aire d'origine, A. altissima est associé à au moins 32 espèces d'arthropodes et 13 espèces de champignons[14]. L’Ailante glanduleux semble bien résister à des maladies cryptogamiques[3].

Distribution et habitat

Photographie en couleurs de deux ailantes au centre d'un paysage semi-aride.
De jeunes Ailantes glanduleux dans un paysage d'Arménie.

A. altissima est originaire du nord et du centre de la Chine, de Taïwan[27] et du nord de la Corée[34]. À Taïwan, il n'existe que sous la variété takanai[16]. En Chine, l'arbre se trouve naturellement dans toutes les provinces sauf le Gansu, le Heilongjiang, le Hainan, le Jilin, le Níngxià, le Qinghai, le Xinjiang et le Tibet[13]. Il a cependant été naturalisé au-delà de son aire d'origine dans des régions comme le Qinghai, le Níngxià et le Xinjiang[14].

C'est une plante opportuniste qui se complaît en plein soleil et dans les friches, préférant les sols humides et argileux mais pouvant s'adapter à une très large gamme de conditions de sol et de valeurs de pH. Cet arbre est résistant à la sécheresse (il a été utilisé pour lutter contre l'érosion autour de la mer Noire et dans les régions montagneuses du Maroc[35]), mais il ne tolère ni les inondations ni l'ombre épaisse[17] (toutefois, les drageons supportent bien mieux l'ombre puisqu'ils sont physiologiquement et nutritionnellement reliés à l'arbre-mère). En Chine, il pousse également sur des sols calcaires[14]. Il pousse dans un large éventail de conditions climatiques[17]. Dans son aire de répartition naturelle, l'arbre se trouve aussi bien sur les hauts plateaux de Taïwan[16] que dans les plaines de la Chine continentale[8]. Aux États-Unis, il est présent dans les régions assez sèches bordant les Grandes Plaines, les régions très humides du sud des Appalaches et les zones froides au pied des montagnes Rocheuses. Le froid prolongé et la neige provoquent son dépérissement mais l'arbre repousse du pied[17].

Dans le nord de l'Europe, A. altissima n'a été considéré comme s'étant naturalisé dans les villes qu'après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Cela est dû à la capacité de l'arbre à coloniser des zones de décombres où la plupart des autres plantes ne se développent pas[36]. En outre, le microclimat plus chaud dans les villes offre un habitat plus approprié que les zones rurales environnantes. Par exemple, une étude en Allemagne trouve l'espèce présente dans 92 % des zones densément peuplées de Berlin, dans 25 % de la banlieue et seulement dans 3 % dans les zones situées hors de la ville[36]. Ce n'est pas le cas dans d'autres régions d'Europe où le climat est assez doux pour que l'arbre puisse se développer.

En Amérique du Nord, A. altissima est présent sur la côte est depuis le Massachusetts jusqu'au sud de l'Ontario, du sud-ouest de l'Iowa et du sud du Texas au nord de la Floride. Sur la côte ouest, il est réparti de l'ouest du Nouveau-Mexique à la Californie et à l'État de Washington[17],[27]. Dans l'est de son aire de répartition, il pousse surtout dans les zones perturbées des villes, où il a été longtemps présent dans les rues arborées[8],[27]. Il se développe également le long des routes et des chemins de fer. Dans l'ouest de l'Amérique du Nord, il est surtout présent dans les régions montagneuses autour des anciennes habitations et des mines abandonnées[37],[38].

Espèce envahissante

Photographie en couleurs d'un ailante poussant au pied d'une porte de garage, sur un sol artificialisé.
Ailante glanduleux poussant spontanément devant la porte d'un garage.
Photographie en couleurs présentant les abords boisés d'une voie ferroviaire.
Après son introduction comme arbre ornemental, l'Ailante glanduleux (comme la renouée du Japon) s'est notamment diffusé le long des voies ferrées ou des routes : ici les arbres en boule, à feuillage vert clair, devant le pont à gauche et à droite, en concurrence avec le Sumac vinaigrier (à gauche) qui se distingue par ses fructifications rouges en fuseau et un port plus étalé (Pays de Galles, 2009).
Photographie en couleurs de la façade d'un bâtiment sur lequel pousse, à mi-hauteur, un jeune ailante.
Jeune Ailante glanduleux ayant pris racine en hauteur sur un mur de béton à Manosque (France).
Photographie en couleurs, en plongée, d'un terrain aride empli d'ailantes.
Une plante envahissante... ici en Australie. Propagation par graines.

Dans certains pays, l'Ailante glanduleux est devenu une espèce envahissante en raison de sa capacité à coloniser rapidement des zones perturbées et à entraver la croissance et la régénération des espèces indigènes par effets allélopathiques.

Il est considéré comme une des plantes les plus invasives en Australie, aux États-Unis, en Nouvelle-Zélande et dans plusieurs pays d'Europe méridionale et orientale.

Il a par exemple colonisé des zones naturelles en Hongrie, et est considéré comme une menace pour la biodiversité du parc national d'Aggtelek classé au patrimoine mondial de l'humanité depuis 1995[36].

Depuis 2019, cette espèce est inscrite dans la liste des espèces exotiques envahissantes préoccupantes pour l’Union européenne[39]. Cela signifie que cette espèce ne peut pas être importée, cultivée, transportée, commercialisée, plantée, ou libérée intentionnellement dans la nature, et ce nulle part dans l’Union européenne[40].

Dans les années 2010 en Europe occidentale, il est présent notamment en Allemagne, Belgique[note 1], France (forêt des Landes, forêt domaniale de la Coubre, côtes méditerranéennes, forêt de Fontainebleau, Marquenterre[41]...) et Grande-Bretagne.

Aux États-Unis, par exemple, une étude réalisée en 2003 en Caroline du Nord trouve qu'il est présent sur 1,7 % des bordures de voies de chemin de fer et de route et qu'il étend son territoire de 4,76 % par an[42]. Une autre étude menée dans le sud-ouest de la Virginie a déterminé qu'il est présent sur environ 30 % des routes principales de l'état[43]. Il envahit parfois les zones non restructurées et entre en concurrence avec les plantes indigènes[27].

L'arbre repousse aussi vigoureusement quand on le coupe, ce qui rend son élimination difficile et longue. De plus, il produit de nombreuses graines (jusqu'à 300 000 par pied et par an[44]). Dans de nombreuses régions françaises, il a acquis le surnom ironique de « Frêne puant »[7].

Conséquences

Ses racines sont également suffisamment agressives pour causer des dommages aux réseaux d'égouts souterrains et aux canalisations enterrées[8]. Le long des autoroutes, cet arbre forme souvent des fourrés denses où seules quelques autres espèces d'arbres sont présentes, ce en grande partie à cause des toxines qu'il produit qui empêchent la concurrence[27].

Une étude française de 2011[45] laisse penser que la strate herbacée du sous-bois est « nettement plus pauvre et composée d’espèces plus banales sous A. altissima que sous les autres espèces d’arbres et que la composition floristique est sensiblement différente[45]. En outre, la densité de drageons d’A. altissima dans les aires d’inventaires est significativement négativement corrélée avec la richesse floristique ». Les impacts croisés de la compétition interspécifique et les propriétés allélopathiques d’A. altissima pourraient expliquer ce double phénomène. A. altissima est donc bien une menace pour la biodiversité de la forêt de Fontainebleau et peut-être d'autres forêts urbaines ou péri-urbaines[45].

Mesures d'éradication

En raison de la possibilité de l'espèce de devenir envahissante et nuisible, les propriétaires fonciers et d'autres organisations ont souvent recours à diverses méthodes pour maintenir sa population sous contrôle. Par exemple, la ville de Bâle en Suisse dispose d'un programme d'éradication[36]. Les moyens d'éradication peuvent être physiques, thermiques, mécaniques, biologiques ou chimiques. Une combinaison de plusieurs d'entre eux peut être plus efficace, mais ils doivent bien sûr être compatibles. Tous ont des aspects positifs et négatifs, mais le traitement le plus efficace est généralement l'utilisation d'un mélange de produits chimiques et le contrôle physique. Il consiste dans l'application d'herbicides foliaires ou racinaires afin de tuer les arbres existants, associée à une extraction à la main ou à la tonte des semis en vue de prévenir la croissance de nouveaux individus[46],[note 2].

Méthodes physiques

photographie d'un bas-côté d'une route.
De nombreux rejets repartent des racines après un débroussaillage.

Les germinations de l'année et les jeunes individus peuvent être facilement arrachés après une période de pluie, il faut cependant faire attention à retirer l'ensemble des racines pour éviter la repousse. La coupe est par contre très peu efficace si elle est réalisée sans suivi, l'Ailante glanduleux repoussant vigoureusement. Pour les arbres les plus âgés, il est possible d'utiliser la méthode du cerclage qui consiste à détruire l'écorce et le cambium tout autour de la tige. Enfin, il est possible de brûler à l'aide d'un engin tel qu'une lampe à souder la base des troncs des jeunes arbres. Cependant, cette technique n'est pas souhaitable, car l'appareil racinaire n'ayant pas brûlé, l'Ailante glanduleux peut toujours repartir, et cette technique est un risque pour la biodiversité du milieu[3].

Méthodes biologiques

Les méthodes biologiques ne sont pas très efficaces. En effet, la consommation par les animaux sauvages est encore largement inconnue, seuls quelques insectes mangent les feuilles et les tiges de l’Ailante glanduleux ; leur utilisation à des fins de lutte biologique n’est en 2009 pas envisageable dans la mesure où aucune expérience n’a été réalisée. Les animaux introduits pour lutter contre l’Ailante préfèrent d'ailleurs consommer d’autres espèces plus appétantes. De plus, les caractéristiques physiologiques de l’Ailante glanduleux et en particulier sa vitesse de croissance font qu’il n’est pas envisageable de compter sur son élimination par une compétition avec d’autres espèces autochtones[3].

Cependant, en 2008, en Pennsylvanie, un flétrissement sur certains Ailantes glanduleux a été observé. Plus de 8000 Ailantes glanduleux de la région sont morts de cette « nouvelle » maladie. Le champignon Verticillium albo-atrum a été identifié comme agent potentiel, responsable de la jaunissure ou verticilliose[47].

Méthodes chimiques

L’avantage de ces méthodes est qu’elles agissent également sur les racines, si un herbicide systémique est utilisé. La meilleure époque de traitement est la pleine période de croissance, lorsque les feuilles sont totalement étalées et qu’elles synthétisent de nombreux composés qui sont entreposés dans les racines. Cette période s’étale de mi-juin à mi-août. Les différents herbicides susceptibles d’être utilisés ont comme substances actives le glyphosate, le sulfosate ou le triclopyr[3].

L'Ailante glanduleux et l'Homme

Histoire

L'Ailante glanduleux était cultivé intensivement au XIXe siècle en Chine et à l'étranger comme plante-hôte pour le Bombyx de l'ailante, un papillon de nuit utilisé pour la production d'une soie peu raffinée mais résistante appelée notamment ailantine[9].

Les premières introductions de A. altissima dans des pays situés hors de son aire d'origine ont été faites dans les zones sud de la Corée ainsi que vers le Japon, au cours de la période historique récente[48]. Il se pourrait toutefois que l'arbre soit originaire de ces régions, mais il est généralement admis que l'arbre y a été introduit de façon très précoce[49]. En Chine même, il a également été naturalisé au-delà de son aire d'origine dans des régions comme le Qinghai, le Níngxià et le Xinjiang[14].

Il a été introduit de Chine en Europe par l'intermédiaire de Chéron d'Incarville qui, en 1743, fit parvenir par caravane les premières graines de cet arbre en provenance de la région de Pékin jusqu'à Paris[10].

Il fut l'un des premiers arbres importés en Occident à une époque où les chinoiseries dominaient les arts européens, et a d'abord été considéré comme un sujet magnifique pour les jardins. Toutefois, l'enthousiasme a vite diminué lorsque les jardiniers ont pris conscience de sa tendance à donner des drageons et de son odeur nauséabonde. Malgré cela, il a été largement utilisé comme un arbre de rue pendant une bonne partie du XIXe siècle. En dehors de l'Europe et des États-Unis, l'espèce a été mise en place dans de nombreuses autres régions au-delà de son aire d'origine.

En 1784, quelques graines ont été transmises aux États-Unis à William Hamilton, un jardinier de Philadelphie. En Europe et en Amérique, A. altissima est rapidement devenu un arbre d'ornement apprécié, en particulier en bordure de rue, et en 1840, il était disponible dans la plupart des pépinières[8],[11]. L'arbre a été introduit séparément en Californie dans les années 1890 par des immigrants chinois venus pendant la ruée vers l'or en Californie. Il a échappé à tout contrôle de culture dans toutes les régions où il a été introduit, surtout aux États-Unis[27]. Il s'est naturalisé dans presque toute l'Europe, comme en Europe occidentale où il est présent en Grande-Bretagne, Belgique, France (forêt de Fontainebleau, Marquenterre, côtes méditerranéennes[41]) et Allemagne[34], Autriche, Suisse, en Pannonie (sud de l'Europe depuis l'Italie et la Hongrie jusqu'en Bosnie-Herzégovine) et dans la plupart des pays du bassin méditerranéen[36]. L'Ailante a également été introduit en Argentine[27], en Australie (où il a été classé comme espèce envahissante en Nouvelle-Galles du Sud et au Victoria)[50], en Nouvelle-Zélande (où il est répertorié par l'Accord national de lutte antiparasitaire des végétaux comme plante « indésirable »[51]), au Moyen-Orient et dans certains pays d'Asie du Sud tels que le Pakistan[52].

Utilisations

Arbre d'ornement

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Dans le cimetière du Père Lachaise à Paris, l'avenue autrefois plantée de ces arbres.
Photographie en couleurs d'un ailante glanduleux occupant l'ensemble de l'image, devant un bâtiment urbain.
Ailante glanduleux adulte, pied femelle planté en ville, portant des graines immatures.
Photographie en couleurs d'un ailante glanduleux de grande circonférence, mesuré par un humain huit fois plus petit.
Un Ailante glanduleux particulièrement âgé, planté dans un parc privé en Belgique.

L'Ailante glanduleux est un arbre d'ornement apprécié en Chine et exploité pour sa tolérance à des conditions de croissance difficiles[14].

En Europe, après sa découverte, il est la « coqueluche des jardins à la mode ». Le baron Haussmann l'utilise intensément comme arbre d’alignement[9]. Populaire en Europe et en Amérique du Nord au XIXe siècle, sa popularité a chuté par la suite, en particulier aux États-Unis, en raison de ses tendances envahissantes et colonisatrices, mais également l'odeur désagréable de ses fleurs. La plantation d'individus femelle, ne dégageant pas d'odeur, règle ce problème[11]. Michael Dirr, un célèbre horticulteur américain et professeur à l'Université de Géorgie, rapporte en 1982 les propos d'un pépiniériste n'ayant pas pu trouver d'acheteurs pour ses plants :

« Dans la plupart des aménagements paysagers, il n'a pas de valeur car il y a beaucoup trop d'espèces d'arbres de qualité supérieure, sauf à le faire pousser dans des conditions impossibles. Il faudrait faire une sélection pour ne garder que ceux ayant un port élégant, un bois solide et un feuillage attrayant, ce qui rendrait l'arbre plus intéressant ; j'ai parlé une fois avec un architecte qui voulait acheter des Ailantes pour les utiliser le long de routes polluées, mais il n'a pas pu trouver d'approvisionnement suffisant […]
Michael A. Dirr ;
Manuel des plantes ornementales ligneuses[53] »

En Europe, cependant, l'arbre reste encore un peu utilisé dans les jardins car il n'est généralement pas aussi envahissant qu'en Amérique. Au Royaume-Uni, sa présence est particulièrement courante dans les squares, les rues et les parcs de Londres, mais également dans les jardins du sud et de l'est de l'Angleterre. Il devient peu fréquent dans le nord, se trouvant rarement dans le sud de l'Écosse. Il est également presque absent en Irlande[54]. En Allemagne, il se voit souvent planté dans les jardins[34]. Au cours des années, l'arbre a peu à peu perdu sa popularité en Occident car il a une durée de vie courte et le tronc devient vite creux ; ceci rend les arbres de plus de cinquante centimètres de diamètre instables par vents violents[55].

Quelques cultivars existent, mais ils ne sont pas souvent vendus à l'extérieur de la Chine :

  • ‘Hongye’, dont le nom est chinois et signifie « feuilles rouges », pour l'attrayant feuillage rouge vif[56] ;
  • ‘Thousand Leaders’[56] ;
  • ‘Metro’, cultivar mâle avec une couronne plus resserrée que de coutume et une moindre tendance à être envahissant[57] ;
  • ‘Erythrocarpa’, aux fruits d'un rouge vif[57] ;
  • ‘Pendulifolia’, aux feuilles beaucoup plus longues et pendant élégamment[57].

Bois

Le bois jaune pâle, à grain fin et satiné de cette espèce a été utilisé en ébénisterie[55]. Il est souple et bien adapté à la fabrication de cocottes à vapeur utilisées dans la cuisine chinoise pour la cuisson des mantous, des pâtisseries et du riz. La province de Zhejiang en Chine orientale est la plus célèbre pour la production de ces cocottes[8]. Bien que son pouvoir calorique soit mauvais, il est également considéré comme une bonne source de bois de chauffage dans une grande partie de son domaine car, même s'il est lourd et modérément dur, il est facilement accessible[56].

Son utilisation comme bois d'œuvre pose cependant des problèmes. Parce que sa croissance est rapide pendant les premières années, le tronc a une texture inégale entre parties intérieure et extérieure, ce qui fait que le bois puisse se tordre ou se fendre au séchage. Des techniques de séchage ont été développées pour éviter cette fissuration, lui permettant d'être exploité commercialement. Bien que les arbres vivants aient tendance à être très flexibles, le bois est très dur une fois bien séché[57].

Le bois d’A. altissima est hétérogène, jaune verdâtre, sans aubier distinct, ressemblant beaucoup au frêne, mais plus tendre et plus léger. Les cernes sont distincts, le grain est plutôt grossier et le fil est droit. Les zones poreuses sont assez larges et sont constituées de 3 à 4 rangées de gros vaisseaux. Les rayons ligneux sont épais et visibles à l’œil nu en section transversale. Ils forment une petite maillure en coupe radiale (sur quartier). La masse volumique moyenne est de 550 à 650 kg/m3 à 12%. Le retrait total est plutôt faible et le bois est peu nerveux. Le bois n'est pas durable et l'aubier est susceptible d'être attaqué par le lyctus. Enfin il est bien moins résistant que le frêne du point de vue mécanique, il est notamment plus fissile et plus sensible aux chocs. Il peut donc servir de substitut au frêne dans les cas qui n'exigent pas de hautes performances mécaniques[58].

Lutte contre l’érosion

En lien avec le développement du chemin de fer, il a été planté abondamment pour retenir les talus et lutter contre l’érosion. Ceci explique sa prolifération aujourd’hui dans les gares et zones de triage[9].

Usages médicinaux

Les racines, les feuilles et l'écorce sont encore utilisées au XXIe siècle dans la médecine chinoise traditionnelle, principalement comme astringent[8].

Une des plus anciennes recettes, enregistrée dans un ouvrage datant de 732 apr. J.-C., était employée dans le traitement de la maladie mentale. Elle utilisait un mélange de racines d'Ailante glanduleux hachées, d'urine de jeunes garçons et de haricots noirs fermentés. Après avoir laissé reposer pendant une journée, le liquide était filtré puis donné à boire au patient pendant plusieurs jours[8].

Une autre source datant de 684 apr. J.-C., à l'époque de la dynastie Tang et inscrite dans le Compendium de Médecine de Li Shizhen, stipule que l'absorption de feuilles provoque incohérence et somnolence, tandis qu'une application externe permet de traiter efficacement les furoncles, les abcès et le prurit. Une autre recette enregistrée par Li utilise les feuilles pour traiter la calvitie. La formule demande de broyer ensemble de jeunes feuilles d'Ailante glanduleux, de Catalpa et de Pêcher, et d'appliquer le liquide obtenu sur le cuir chevelu pour stimuler la croissance des cheveux[8].

L'écorce séchée est encore considérée comme un médicament et est répertoriée dans la pharmacopée chinoise moderne sous le nom de chun bai pi (chinois : 椿白皮 ; pinyin : chūnbáipí), ce qui signifie « écorce blanche de toona »[59]. Des travaux récents, en 2001, traitent en détail de ce sujet, discutant des constituants chimiques, de l'identification du produit et de ses utilisations pharmaceutiques. L'écorce est préparée après abattage de l'arbre à l'automne ou au printemps, décortication, grattage des parties les plus dures des parties les plus externes. Celles-ci sont ensuite séchées au soleil, mises à tremper dans de l'eau, partiellement ré-séchées dans un panier et, enfin, coupées en lanières. Elle est censée avoir des propriétés antipyrétiques et astringentes et devoir être principalement utilisée pour traiter les dysenteries, les rectorragies, les ménorragies et l'éjaculation spontanée. Il est prévu d'utiliser des quantités comprises entre 4 et 10 grammes afin de ne pas empoisonner les patients. Le compendium de Li donne 18 recettes faisant appel à l'utilisation de l'écorce. Des chimistes asiatiques et européens ont trouvé une justification à son utilisation médicale, cette écorce contenant une grande variété de produits chimiques actifs comme la quassine et des saponines, ainsi que de l'ailanthone, le produit chimique allélopathique de cet arbre, qui est un antipaludéen[60]. L'écorce est disponible dans la plupart des magasins spécialisés dans la médecine traditionnelle chinoise[8]. Une teinture d'écorce de racine a été utilisée avec succès dans le traitement des palpitations, de l'asthme et de l'épilepsie[19].

Les samares sont également utilisées dans la médecine chinoise moderne sous le nom de feng yan cao (chinois : 凤眼草 ; pinyin : fèngyǎncǎo), ce qui signifie « œil de palmier ». Elles sont utilisées comme agent hémostatique, dans l'éjaculation spontanée et pour le traitement des rectorragies et des hématuries. Leur efficacité pour traiter la trichomonase, l'infection vaginale causée par le protozoaire Trichomonas vaginalis a été prouvée cliniquement[8]. En Occident, un extrait d'écorce vendu sous le synonyme d’A. glandulosa est parfois utilisé en phytothérapie pour le traitement de différentes affections, dont le cancer[61].

Des preuves anecdotiques suggèrent la légère toxicité de la plante. Les odeurs nauséabondes sont associées à des nausées et des maux de tête, ainsi qu'à une dermite de contact signalée à la fois chez des humains et des moutons, qui développent également une faiblesse et une paralysie. La plante contient en effet une quinone irritante, la 2,6-diméthoxybenzo quinone, ainsi que des quassinoïdes (comme l'ailanthone) pouvant provoquer de tels effets. Mais il reste difficile, voire impossible, de reproduire ces symptômes chez les humains et les chèvres. Lors d'une expérimentation médicale, une teinture à base de fleurs et de feuilles a provoqué des nausées, des vomissements et un relâchement musculaire[60].

Soie

Gravure en couleurs présentant le bombyx de l'ailante sur la plante.
Bombyx de l'ailante : deux papillons adultes et une chenille sur une feuille d'Ailante.

L'Ailante glanduleux est l'hôte d'un papillon, le bombyx de l'ailante, dont la chenille se nourrit de ses feuilles. Le cocon de celle-ci est utilisé en Chine pour produire une soie peu raffinée, mais résistante, prisée en Asie pour les vêtements de travail[62]. « Un linge grossier de couleur grise supportant parfaitement le lavage » comme la décrit François-Xavier Dentrecolles missionnaire en Chine à la fin du XVIIIe siècle[9]. Cette soie, qui ne peut être teinte, reste connue sous les noms de « ailantine »[3], « soie pongée » ou « soie de Shantung »[8] ; ce dernier nom est dérivé de la province de Shandong en Chine, où elle est souvent produite, notamment dans la région de Yantai[8].

Le papillon est introduit aux États-Unis[8] et en Europe. Dès 1856 des milliers d'arbres sont plantés, les ailanteraies gagnent la vallée du Rhône, les Cévennes, et le nord de l'Italie[9], extension qui bénéficie de la catastrophe causée par la maladie des vers à soie[63],[62]. L'ailantine ne connait pas alors en Europe le succès escompté, car le brin moins fin ne peut servir qu'à la fabrication de tissus de qualité inférieure ; de plus, les chenilles sont consommées par les oiseaux et autres prédateurs[3]. La reprise du commerce du coton après la guerre de Sécession et l'invention de la viscose sont aussi les facteurs qui signent l'arrêt de la production de l'ailantine[9].

Symbolique et motif littéraire

En plus de ses diverses utilisations matérielles, l'Ailante glanduleux fait partie de la culture chinoise depuis des siècles et a obtenu depuis le XXe siècle un statut similaire en Occident.

Chine

Dans la littérature chinoise, l'Ailante glanduleux est souvent utilisé pour deux métaphores assez différentes : l'arbre mature représentant un père, le rejet un enfant gâté. Ainsi, il est possible de présenter ses vœux aux parents d'un ami en écrivant « souhaitant à votre Ailante et votre hémérocalle santé et bonheur », l'Ailante étant une allusion au père et l'hémérocalle à la mère. En outre, un enfant peut être grondé en l'appelant « rejet d'Ailante bon à rien » ce qui signifie que l'enfant est « mal élevé ». Cela découle de l'œuvre littéraire de Tchouang-tseu, un philosophe taoïste, qui parlait d'un arbre qui s'était développé à partir d'une souche et était impropre à la menuiserie en raison de sa forme irrégulière. Plus tard, les spécialistes du philosophe ont associé cet arbre à l'Ailante glanduleux et appliqué la métaphore aux enfants qui, comme les rejets de souche de l'arbre, ne deviendront pas des adultes respectables s'ils ne suivent pas les règles ou les traditions de la communauté[64]. « Inutile, libre, grand, généreux » Tchouang-tseu évoquait ces traits de l’ailante (樗) pour illustrer sa philosophie Tao[65].

États-Unis

En 1943, un livre de Betty Smith A Tree Grows in Brooklyn utilise l'Ailante glanduleux comme métaphore centrale, en utilisant sa capacité à prospérer dans un environnement difficile. Aux XXe et XXIe siècles, A. altissima est un arbre commun dans les friches urbaines[11],[61] :

« Il y a un arbre qui pousse à Brooklyn. Certaines personnes l'appellent l'arbre du ciel. Peu importe où la graine tombe, elle donne un arbre qui s'efforce d'atteindre le ciel. Elle pousse dans les friches clôturées de planches et les tas d'ordures abandonnés. Elle sort des grilles de caves. C'est le seul arbre qui pousse dans le ciment. Il devient luxuriant... survit sans soleil, sans eau et, apparemment, sans terre. Il serait beau, s'il n'y en avait pas trop. »

Betty Smith, Le Lys de Brooklyn, 1943, Introduction.

L'Ailante glanduleux est aussi parfois surnommé « l'arbre de l'enfer » en raison de son caractère envahissant et de la difficulté à l'éradiquer[61],[66]. Dans certaines régions des États-Unis, l'espèce se voit surnommée le « palmier des ghettos » (the ghetto palm) en raison de sa propension à pousser dans les conditions inhospitalières comme celles rencontrées dans les zones urbaines et dans les propriétés abandonnées ou mal entretenues[67],[68].

Jusqu'au 26 mars 2008, un arbre de 18 m de haut était l'une des pièces maîtresses du jardin de sculptures du Musée Noguchi dans le quartier du Queens à New York. L'arbre est épargné par le sculpteur Isamu Noguchi quand, en 1975, il achète le bâtiment (qui deviendra en 1985 le musée) et nettoie l'arrière du bâtiment. L'arbre est alors le seul restant dans la cour et le personnel avait l'habitude de venir déjeuner dessous avec Noguchi. « Dans un certain sens, le jardin de sculptures a été conçu autour de l'arbre » a expliqué un jour un ancien assistant de Noguchi, Bonnie Rychlak, qui est devenu plus tard le conservateur du musée. En 2008, le vieil arbre dépérit et menace de s'écraser sur le bâtiment qui est sur le point de subir une rénovation majeure. Le musée charge le Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop, un collectif d'artistes, d'utiliser le bois pour faire des bancs, sculptures et autres installations dans et autour du bâtiment. Les cernes de l'arbre sont alors comptées et son âge estimé à 75 ans. Les responsables du musée espérent un temps une possible repousse à partir du pied[69].

Europe

A. altissima, malgré ses nombreux défauts (odeur désagréable de son feuillage froissé, bois cassant sans valeur, fort pouvoir allergisant de sa sève, et un miel fabriqué à partir de son nectar qui sent l’urine de chat), est devenu un élément du paysage arboré européen[3].

Ingo Vetter, un artiste allemand, professeur des beaux-arts à l'Université d'Umeå en Suède, influencé par l'image de « palmier des ghettos » de l'arbre, en a importé un vivant venant de Détroit pour une foire internationale d'art appelée Shrinking Cities à l'Institut d'art contemporain Kunst-Werke à Berlin en 2004[67],[68].

Notes et références

Notes

  1. Une circulaire du Service public de Wallonie interdit sa plantation sur le territoire de la Région wallonne depuis le 1er janvier 2013.
  2. (en) Pour une discussion plus approfondie sur le sujet, voir la page en anglais.

Références

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  62. a et b Guy Landry, « Plaidoyer pour l’Ailante », L'Estuarien, no 57,‎ 2016, p. 10 (lire en ligne [PDF], consulté le 17 novembre 2020).
  63. Gilles Clément, Éloge des vagabondes : Herbes, arbres et fleurs à la conquête du monde, éditions Robert Laffont, 2014, 142 p. (lire en ligne), p. 35-36.
  64. (en) Hu Shiu-ying, « Ailanthus altissima », Arnoldia, vol. 39, no 2,‎ mars 1979, p. 29–50 (lire en ligne [PDF], consulté le 30 mai 2007).
  65. « AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA », sur Éditions B42 (consulté le 8 juillet 2021)
  66. (en) Charles Fergus, Trees of New England : a Natural History, Guildford, Falcon, 2005 (ISBN 0-7627-3795-6), p. 289.
  67. a et b (en) Lisa M. Collins, « Ghetto Palm », Metro Times Detroit,‎ 10 décembre 2003 (lire en ligne, consulté le 7 février 2010).
  68. a et b (en) Walter Wasacz, « Big Ideas for Shrinking Cities », Model D,‎ 30 janvier 2007 (lire en ligne, consulté le 7 février 2010).
  69. (en-US) Glenn Collins, « A Tree That Survived a Sculptor’s Chisel Is Chopped Down », The New York Times,‎ 27 mars 2008 (ISSN , lire en ligne, consulté le 27 octobre 2020)

Voir aussi

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Ailanthus altissima: Brief Summary ( French )

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Ailanthus altissima, en français Ailante glanduleux, Ailante, Faux vernis du Japon, Frêne puant ou Vernis de Chine, est une espèce d'arbres à feuilles caduques de la famille des Simaroubaceae. Il possède de grandes feuilles composées, une écorce lisse et grise et a pour fruits des samares. Il est natif à la fois du nord-est et du centre de la Chine et de Taïwan et présent davantage dans la forêt tempérée que dans la forêt subtropicale d’Extrême-Orient. Cette espèce pousse vite, elle est capable d'atteindre une hauteur de 15 mètres en 25 ans. Elle a une durée de vie courte et vit rarement plus de 50 ans, mais peut cependant poursuivre son existence bien au-delà grâce à son pouvoir drageonnant particulièrement développé.

L'Ailante glanduleux a été introduit, comme arbre d'ornement ou pour l'élevage du Bombyx de l'ailante pour la production de soie, dans la majeure partie des climats tempérés à subtropicaux, et il est considéré comme l'une des plantes les plus envahissantes au XXIe siècle en Australie, aux États-Unis, en Nouvelle-Zélande et dans plusieurs pays d'Europe méridionale et orientale.

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Crann neimhe ( Irish )

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Crann duillsilteach a fhásann go tapa suas go 20-30 m ar airde. Dúchasach don tSín, agus plandaítear é go forleathan mar mhaisiúchán, mar scáth, is chun an ithir a chobhsú. Na duilleoga cleiteach le 13-25 duilleoigín fiaclach (le 2-4 fhiacail), iad dearg nuair a bhíonn siad óg. Na bláthanna i gcrobhaingí móra, réaltach scothghlas/bán le boladh láidir. Sciathán fadaithe ar na torthaí.

 src=
Tá an t-alt seo bunaithe ar ábhar as Fréamh an Eolais, ciclipéid eolaíochta agus teicneolaíochta leis an Ollamh Matthew Hussey, foilsithe ag Coiscéim sa bhliain 2011. Tá comhluadar na Vicipéide go mór faoi chomaoin acu beirt as ucht cead a thabhairt an t-ábhar ón leabhar a roinnt linn go léir.
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Is síol é an t-alt seo. Cuir leis, chun cuidiú leis an Vicipéid.
Má tá alt níos forbartha le fáil i dteanga eile, is féidir leat aistriúchán Gaeilge a dhéanamh.


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Árbore do ceo ( Galician )

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A árbore do ceo (Ailanthus altissima, ailanto) é unha árbore simurabácea. Nativa do norte da China, introduciuse en Europa a partir de 1751 como ornamento en parques e xardíns. É unha árbore de crecemento rápido resistente á contaminación adaptándose a todo tipo de temperaturas; en zonas con temperaturas semellantes ao seu hábitat natural (como en Galicia), convértese nunha especie invasora que despraza ás especies nativas. É unha planta tóxica, que mesmo pode causar alteracións na pel, pero ao tempo hai investigacións para a empregar contra certos tipos de cancro.

Descrición

É unha árbore de talle medio.Pode acadar unha altura de 25–35 m, con pólas esparexidas bota moitos rebentos, ás veces a máis de 100 m. Pode chegar a vivir de 40 a 50 anos.

O toro ten unha casca cinsenta e lisa, con tons pardos e tornándose gretada en exemplares máis vellos.

Os rebentos son rexos, lisos e lixeiramente pubescentes e de cor parda avermellada. Teñen lenticelas. Os botóns ou xemas son algo pubescentes, en forma de cúpula e parcialmente agochados tralos pecíolos, polo que son completamente visíbeis no inverno.[1] As pólas son de cor cinsenta, lisas e lustrosas con lenticelas que se tornan fendas cos anos. O extremo das pólas están algo penduradas. Todas as partes da planta botan un cheiro característico que lembra ao dos cacahuetes, algo desagradábel.[2]

As follas caen no outono despois de se virar amarelentas. Botan o mesmo cheiro desagradábel que é moi característico da especie. Son compostas, pinnadas e alternas, longas (40–80 cm) con 10-41 folíolos organizados en parellas e pecioladas. O pedúnculo é verde encarnado claro cunha base inchada. Os folíolos son ovados lanceolados co bordo enteiro, cada un de 5 a 18 cm de longo e 2.5 a 5 de largo. Teñen a punta afiada mentres as bases teñen de 2 a 4 dentes, contendo unha ou máis glándulas na punta. A face superior é de cor verde escuro con veas verde claras, mentres a parte de abaixo é dun verde máis abrancazado. Os pecíolos miden de 5 a 12 mm

As flores son miúdas e aparecen en panículas grandes que chegan aos 50 cm de longo nos extremos dos rebentos novos. As flores individuais son amarelas verdosas tirando a avermelladas, cada unha con cinco pétalos e sépalos. Aparecen a mediados de abril no sur de Europa e en xullo nas zonas máis ao norte. A. altissima é unha planta unisexual, con flores masculinas e femininas en diferentes individuos. Os pés masculinos producen de 3 a 4 máis flores ca os femininos. Ademais os machos botan durante a floración un fedor especial para atraer os insectos e favorecer a polinización. As flores femininas soen ter dez estames estériles (estamenoides) con anteras ácorazonadas. O pistilo componse de cinco carpelos non fusionados, contendo cadanseu óvulo independente. Os estilos fican unidos e teñen forma estrelada.[1] As flores masculinas aseméllanse aparentemente, mais carecen obviamente de pistilo e estames, porén remátanse cunha antera globular e un disco verde glandular.[1] A semente das femias mide uns 5 mm de diámetro e fica encapsulada nunha sámara de 2,5 cm de longo e 1 cm de largo, aparecendo entre xullo e agosto, porén pode ficar na árbore até a primavera seguinte. A sámara é grande e algo torta nas puntas o que facilita o espallamento das sementes polo vento e pola auga. As femias poden producir gran cantidade de sementes, normalmente arredor das 30.000 por pé.

 src=
Sementes inmaduras nun exemplar feminino.

Propiedades

Principios activos: contén glicósidos, resina, esencia acre, taninos, mucilaxes.[3]

Indicacións: é adstrinxente, antihelmíntica, antidiarreica, rubefacente, emética. Cómpre actuar con prudencia no seu uso por vía interna, pois unha dose excesiva ten en primeiro lugar un efecto purgante e despois emético.[3]

Outros usos: as follas empréganse para a fabricación de papel e como corante amarelo da lá.[3]

Taxonomía e historia

 src=
A. altissima (detalle).
 src=
A casca da árbore do ceo é cinsenta e lisa, mais se torna áspera e gretada lonxitudinalmente nas árbores adultas
 src=
Flores de A. altissima

As primeiras descricións científicas da árbore do ceo fixéronse pouco despois da súa introdución en Europa polo xesuíta francés Pierre Nicholas d'Incarville. D' Incarville enviara sementes dende Pequín a través da Siberia a seu amigo o botánico Bernard de Jussieu na década de 1740. Creuse que as sementes enviadas por d'Incarville eran dunha árbore semellante e de grande importancia económica, a Toxicodendron vernicifluum, que ollara na rexión do baixo Yangtzé. D' Incarville engadiu unha nota que indicaba isto, o que causou gran confusión taxonómica nos decenios a seguir. En 1751, Jussieu plantou algunhas sementes en Francia e enviou outras a Philip Miller, o superintendente do xardín: Chelsea Physic Garden, e a Philip C. Webb , o dono dun xardín de plantas exóticas en Busbridge, Inglaterra.[1]

A confusión no nome comezou cando a árbore foi descrita polos tres homes con tres nomes diferentes. En París, Carl von Linné deulle á planta o nome de Rhus succedanea (pensando que era un sumagre), mentres que popularmente era coñecida coma grand vernis du Japon. En Londres, as mostras foron chamadas por Miller Toxicodendron altissima e en Busbridge foi chamada no antigo sistema de clasificación como Rhus Sinese foliis alatis. Hai rexistros existentes da década de 1750 de disputas sobre o nome axeitado entre Philip Miller e John Ellis, curador do xardín de Webb en Busbridge. Máis que arranxar a cuestión, logo apareceron máis nomes para a planta: Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart ollou unha mostra en Utrecht en 1782 chamándoa Rhus cacodendron.[1]

A cuestión aclarouse un chisco en 1788 cando René Louiche Desfontaines ollou as sámaras dos espécimes de París, que áinda foran etiquetados como Rhus succedanea, e chegou á conclusión que a planta non era un sumagre (xénero Rhus). Publicou un artigo cunha descrición ilustrada e deulle o nome de Ailanthus glandulosa, colocándoo no mesmo xénero das especies tropicais entón coñecidas como A. integrifolia (hoxe, A. triphysa). O nome deriva da palabra ambonesa ailanto, que significa precisamente árbore do ceo ou árbore que acada o ceo.[1][4] Deulle o nome específico de glandulosa en referencia ás glándulas nas follas; ese nome perdurou até datas recentes, 1957, mais finalmente resultou inválido por un homónimo tardío a nivel de especie.[1] O nome da especie actual provén de Walter T. Swingle que foi contratado polo Departamento dos Estados Unidos de Industria de Plantas. Decidiu transferir o nome específico máis antigo de Miller ao xénero de Desfontaines, dando como resultado o nome hoxe aceptado de Ailanthus altissima.[5] Altissima é a expresión en latín que quere dicir "o máis alto",[6] e se refire ás alturas que a árbore pode acadar. Ás veces a esta planta chámaselle, incorrectamente, co epíteto específico na forma masculina (glandulosus ou altissimus), mais non é correcto porque os botánicos, como no latín clásico ou o galego, tratan á maioría dos nomes das árbores en feminino.

Variedades

Hai tres variedades de A. altissima:

  • Ailanthus altissima var. altissima, a variedade tipo orixinaria da China continental.
  • Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai, un endemismo das terras altas do norte de Taiwan. Difire do tipo en que ten unha casca amarelenta, follas pinnadas que tamén acostuman ser máis curtas con 45–60 cm de longo con só 13–25 fascículos semellantes a unha fouce.[7][8][9] Está incluída na Listaxe Vermella da UICN de especies ameazadas por mor á perda de hábitat pola construción e as plantacións industriais.[10]
  • A. altissima var. sutchuenensis, que se diferenza en que ten ramiñas vermellas.[7][8]
 src=
Un exemplar feminino de A. altissima cunha intensa carga de sementes maduras, en Valladolid, España.

Distribución e ecoloxía

En moitas partes do mundo coma en Australia, nos Estados Unidos ou o sur de Europa asilvestrouse, converténdose en invasora polo seu rápido crecemento e a súa capacidade para prosperar en calquera lugar, formando densos arboredos nos beirados das estradas. Medra en zonas non colonizadas por outras especies; non é unha árbore forestal. Por mor do seu potencial colonizador e constituír unha ameaza grave para as especies autóctonas, os hábitats ou os ecosistemas, foi catalogada no Catálogo Español de Especies exóticas Invasoras, aprobado polo Real Decreto 1628/2011, do 14 de novembro, estando prohibida en España a súa introdución no medio natural, pertenza, transporte, tráfico e comercio.

Introduciuse da China a mediados do século XVIII, polo seu rápido crecemento, e seguindo a moda chinesa da época, coa intención de reforestar montes, porén, a má calidade da madeira fixeron fracasar o proxecto.

Porén a árbore do ceo é unha boa colonizadora de espazos degradados.

Galicia

A planta necesita certa humidade edáfica polo que en Galicia xa ocupa grandes zonas do sur do país, especialmente na provincia de Ourense, pola súa apetencia polos climas máis termófilos. En Galicia a primeira cita como naturalizada é de 1986.[11] Aparece puntualmente en diferentes zonas do país, agás nas proximidades da cidade de Ourense, onde é abundante. A área potencialmente invasíbel parece ser a dos vales termófilos de Ourense, aínda que existe unha zona de Ferrol onde a especie se desenvolve coma invasora. Tamén está presente nalgúns puntos de Santiago, Betanzos, Quiroga, Ponteareas, e na cidade de Lugo.

Os mecanismos de control non son doados. O control mecánico é practicamente imposíbel.

Sinonimia

Notas

  1. 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 Hu, Shiu-ying (1979). "Ailanthus altissima" (PDF). Arnoldia 39 (2): 29–50. Consultado o 7-2-2010.
  2. Davies, Rob (17 de setembro de 2006). "The toxic Tree of Heaven threatens England's green and pleasant land". The Observer. Consultado o 21 de agosto de 2010.
  3. 3,0 3,1 3,2 "Ailanthus altissima". Plantas útiles: Linneo. Arquivado dende o orixinal o 01 de decembro de 2009. Consultado o 13 de outubro de 2009.
  4. Shah, Behula (1997). "The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima" (PDF). Arnoldia 57 (3): 21–27. Consultado o 2010-02-07.
  5. Swingle, Walter T. (1916). "The early European history and the botanical name of the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima". Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 6 (14): 490–498.
  6. Dictionary of Botanical Epithets. Último acceso, 15-4-2008.
  7. 7,0 7,1 Huang, Chenjiu (1997). Shukun Chen, ed. Ailanthus Desf. Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae. 43(3) (Pequín: Science Press). pp. 1–5. ISBN 7-03-005367-2.
  8. 8,0 8,1 Zheng, Hao; wu, Yun; Ding, Jianqing; Binion, Denise; Fu, Weidong; Reardon, Richard (2004). "Ailanthus altissima" (PDF). Invasive Plants of Asian Origin Established in the United States and Their Natural Enemies, Volume 1. USDA Forest Service. Arquivado dende o orixinal (PDF) o 28-09-2006. Consultado o 7-2-2010. FHTET-2004-05
  9. Li, Hui-lin (1993). "Simaroubaceae". En Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan. Flora of Taiwan, Volume 3: Hamamelidaceae-Umbelliferea (2.ª ed.). ISBN 957901941X.
  10. Pan, F.J. (1998). "Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai". 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Consultado o 7-2-2010.
  11. "Flora invasora de Galicia. Ailanto". cmatv.xunta.gal. Consultado o 2020-01-11.

Véxase tamén

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Árbore do ceo: Brief Summary ( Galician )

provided by wikipedia gl Galician

A árbore do ceo (Ailanthus altissima, ailanto) é unha árbore simurabácea. Nativa do norte da China, introduciuse en Europa a partir de 1751 como ornamento en parques e xardíns. É unha árbore de crecemento rápido resistente á contaminación adaptándose a todo tipo de temperaturas; en zonas con temperaturas semellantes ao seu hábitat natural (como en Galicia), convértese nunha especie invasora que despraza ás especies nativas. É unha planta tóxica, que mesmo pode causar alteracións na pel, pero ao tempo hai investigacións para a empregar contra certos tipos de cancro.

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Žljezdasti pajasen ( Croatian )

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Žljezdasti pajasen (bogač, rajsko stablo, kiselo drvo, božje drvo, jelš, smrdelj, pajasen; Ailanthus altissima), listopadno drvo iz porodice gorkuničevke (Simaroubaceae), jedno od sedam priznatih vrsta u rodu Ailanthus. Porijeklom je iz sjeverne Kine a u Europu je ujvezen 1751 godine, gdje se ova invazivna vrsta smatra agresivnom i opasnom jer pogubno djeluje na domaću floru zbog toksina iz listova i izlučevina korijena koje otežavaju rast brojnim drugim biljnim vrstama. Danas je raširenio po svim kontinentima, osim Antarktike- ima ga čak i na jadranskim otocima.

Opis

Biljka je dvodomna (muško i žensko stablo) a razmnožava se i nespolno tjeranjem izdanaka iz korijena.

Kiselo drvo naraste do 30 ili 40 metara visine. Razgranato je, kora debla je siva sa uzdužnim bijelim prugama, listovi su dugi 40 - 60 cm a peteljka 7 - 13 cm. Cvjetovi sitni i neugledni, žučkaste boje. Muški cvjetovi imaju 10 prašnika koji vonjaju na mačju mokraču. Otrovom ailantonom koji se nalazi u kori i lišću inhibira rast drugih biljaka u blizini.[1]

 src=
Listovi pajasena

Svojstva i uporaba

Koristi se u tradicionalnoj kineskoj medicini. Može se koristiti i za proizvodnju grubljih vrsta svile (šantung). Svi su dijelovi biljke ljekoviti od, kore i listova do plodova. Može se koristiti i kao prirodni insekticid i repelent. Dobro je gorivo drvo. Medonosna je biljka.[2]

Spriječavanje širenja

Kao najbolja metoda spominje se korištenje herbicida glifozata (trgovačko ime Roundup), no kako se radi o izrazito toksičnoj i kancerogenoj supstanci štetnoj za okoliš isti je bolje ne koristiti. U Americi se eksperimentira sa pokušajem biološke kontrole ove invazivne vrste (uz pomoć insekta Eucryptorrhynchus brandti).

Podvrste

 src=
Plodovi pajasena

Sinonimi

  • Ailanthus altissima var. altissima
  • Ailanthus altissima var. erythrocarpa (Carrière) Rehder
  • Ailanthus altissima f. erythrocarpa (Carrière) Rehder
  • Ailanthus altissima var. leucoxyla B.C.Ding & T.B.Chao
  • Ailanthus altissima var. microphylla B.C.Ding & T.B.Chao
  • Ailanthus altissima var. pendulifolia (Dippel) Rehder
  • Ailanthus altissima f. pendulifolia (Dippel) Rehder
  • Ailanthus altissima var. ramosissima B.C.Ding & T.B.Chao
  • Ailanthus altissima f. rubra (H.Jaeger) Geerinck
  • Ailanthus cacodendron (Ehrh.) Schinz & Thell.
  • Ailanthus erythrocarpa Carrière
  • Ailanthus esquirolii H.Lév.
  • Ailanthus giraldii Dode
  • Ailanthus giraldii var. duclouxii Dode
  • Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. erythocarpa (Carrière) Mouill.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. erythocarpa (Carrière) C.K.Schneid.
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. pendulifolia Dippel
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. pendulifolia (Dippel) Carrière ex Rehder
  • Ailanthus glandulosa f. rubra (H.Jaeger) Dippel
  • Ailanthus glandulosa var. spinosa M.Vilm. & Bois
  • Ailanthus japonica K.Koch
  • Ailanthus japonica Dippel
  • Ailanthus peregrina (Buc'hoz) F.A.Barkley
  • Ailanthus pongelion J.F.Gmel.
  • Ailanthus procera Salisb.
  • Ailanthus rhodoptera F.Muell.
  • Ailanthus rubra H.Jaeger
  • Ailanthus sinensis Dum.Cours.
  • Ailanthus vilmoriniana Dode
  • Ailanthus vilmoriniana var. henanensis J.Y.Chen & L.Y.Jin
  • Albonia peregrina Buc'hoz
  • Choerospondias auriculata D.Chandra
  • Pongelion cacodendron (Ehrh.) Farw.
  • Pongelion glandulosum (Desf.) Pierre
  • Pongelion vilmorinianum (Dode) Tiegh.
  • Rhus cacodendron Ehrh.
  • Rhus sinensis Houtt.
  • Toxicodendron altissimum Mill.

Dodatna literatura

Izvori

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Žljezdasti pajasen: Brief Summary ( Croatian )

provided by wikipedia hr Croatian

Žljezdasti pajasen (bogač, rajsko stablo, kiselo drvo, božje drvo, jelš, smrdelj, pajasen; Ailanthus altissima), listopadno drvo iz porodice gorkuničevke (Simaroubaceae), jedno od sedam priznatih vrsta u rodu Ailanthus. Porijeklom je iz sjeverne Kine a u Europu je ujvezen 1751 godine, gdje se ova invazivna vrsta smatra agresivnom i opasnom jer pogubno djeluje na domaću floru zbog toksina iz listova i izlučevina korijena koje otežavaju rast brojnim drugim biljnim vrstama. Danas je raširenio po svim kontinentima, osim Antarktike- ima ga čak i na jadranskim otocima.

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Wysoka pajasla ( Upper Sorbian )

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Wysoka pajasla (Ailanthus altissima, syn.: A. cacodendron, A. peregrina, A. glandulosa, Rhus cacodendron, Toxicodendron altissimum) je štom ze swójby simarubowych rostlinow (Simaroubaceae).

Wopis

Wysoka pajasla je štom, kotryž docpěwa wysokosć wot 25 m.

Króna je čumpata.

Łopjena

Měnjate łopjena su njeporowje pjerite a schódne a docpěwaja dołhosć wot 40 hač do 70 (90) cm. Jich hłowny rjepik je čerwjenojty. 11 hač do 19 pjerjow docpěwa dołhosć wot něhdźe 5 hač do 15 cm, je dołhojće-owalne, hładkokromne, na hornim boku błyšćace ćmowozelene, na delnim boku blědźiše. Wone při rozrybowanju njepřijomnje ćahnu.

Kćenja

Kćěje w juliju. Nažołć běłe, njenahladnje małke kćenja su muske abo dwusplažne a steja w wjelekćenjowych, 15 hač 20 cm dołhich, čumpaće rozhałuzowanych, nakónčnych pakićach a jara sylnje wonja.

Płody

Płód ma jazyčkojte křidleška a je žołty abo čerwjenkojty a docpěwa dołhosć wot 3 hač do 5 cm. Symjenja jeho centrumje leža.

Stejnišćo

Wona rosće jako wozdobny štom w parkach a załožkach. Preferuje čumpate, za wodu přepušćate, na prawym měrje wutkate, často wapnite pódy.

Rozšěrjenje

Wužiwanje

Žórła

  • Bruno P. Kremer: Steinbachs Naturführer Bäume & Sträucher, ISBN 978-3-8001-5934-5 (němsce)
  • Spohn, Aichele, Golte-Bechtle, Spohn: Was blüht denn da? Kosmos Naturführer (2008), ISBN 978-3-440-11379-0, strona 428 (němsce)
  • Brankačk, Jurij: Wobrazowy słownik hornjoserbskich rostlinskich mjenow na CD ROM. Rěčny centrum WITAJ, wudaće za serbske šule. Budyšin 2005.
  • Kubát, K. (Hlavní editor): Klíč ke květeně České republiky. Academia, Praha (2002)
  • Lajnert, Jan: Rostlinske mjena. Serbske. Němske. Łaćanske. Rjadowane po přirodnym systemje. Volk und Wissen Volkseigener Verlag Berlin (1954)
  • Rězak, Filip: Němsko-serbski wšowědny słownik hornjołužiskeje rěče. Donnerhak, Budyšin (1920)
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Wysoka pajasla: Brief Summary ( Upper Sorbian )

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Wysoka pajasla (Ailanthus altissima, syn.: A. cacodendron, A. peregrina, A. glandulosa, Rhus cacodendron, Toxicodendron altissimum) je štom ze swójby simarubowych rostlinow (Simaroubaceae).

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Ailanthus altissima ( Italian )

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Ailanthus altissima, in italiano ailanto o anche albero del paradiso, è un albero deciduo appartenente alla famiglia delle Simarubacee[1]. È nativo della Cina sud-orientale e centrale e delle Molucche[2][3] ed è naturalizzato in Italia e in altri paesi europei, oltre che in diversi paesi asiatici, negli Stati Uniti d'America, in Sudafrica, Australia e Nuova Zelanda[4]. Diversamente da altre specie del genere Ailanthus, è infatti amante dei climi temperati anziché di quelli tropicali.

L'albero cresce rapidamente: ogni anno un metro in altezza e 1,5 cm in diametro, raggiungendo a maturità circa 25 metri[3]; da questa tendenza a diventare alto in breve tempo è derivato il nome "albero del paradiso". È poco longevo, superando raramente i 50 anni di vita ed eccezionalmente il secolo di vita. Nonostante ciò, la sua straordinaria capacità di generare polloni consente alla pianta di replicare sé stessa per tempi assai più lunghi[5].

L'ailanto ha dunque tutte le caratteristiche delle specie pioniere, ossia le prime a colonizzare ambienti senza vita, a causa di fattori umani o naturali: spiccata resistenza alla luce intensa, accrescimento rapido, longevità limitata, precoce raggiungimento della maturità e quindi della produzione di semi, disseminazione anemofora, riproduzione vegetativa tramite polloni, capacità di prosperare in condizioni avverse, anche in suoli poco profondi e poveri di sostanze nutritive[3].

Nome

Il nome scientifico del genere, Ailanthus, deriva dal Malese ailant o aillanitol, ossia "albero che raggiunge il cielo"[6]; la presenza dell'"h", assente nel nome malese, è dovuta a una sovrapposizione del termine greco άνθος (ánthos) che significa "fiore".

Il nome della specie, altissima, fa riferimento alla grande velocità con cui quest'albero si sviluppa in altezza.

Il nome italiano "albero del paradiso", come già accennato, fa riferimento alla grande velocità di crescita in altezza, interpretata quasi come una fretta di raggiungere il cielo.

Diffusione e usi

L'ailanto è stato diffuso fuori dalla Cina principalmente per tre motivi: per il suo valore come albero ornamentale, per la produzione di una seta ricavata dal suo fitofago Samia cynthia, per la sua capacità di consolidare scarpate e crescere su terreni dove altri alberi non riuscirebbero ad attecchire. Se questi sono gli usi che sono all'origine della sua attuale grande diffusione, quest'albero è nondimeno utilizzato anche per la produzione di miele e per estrarre principi medicinali.

Usi ornamentali

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L'aspetto decorativo dei frutti in estate

L'ailanto fu importato in Europa per la prima volta nel 1740 e negli Stati Uniti nel 1784, in un'epoca in cui il gusto per le cosiddette cineserie influenzava notevolmente il senso estetico in Europa, ed erano perciò apprezzate essenze che ricordavano paesaggi orientali. L'ailanto venne allora largamente impiegato per le alberature stradali e di parchi durante gran parte del XIX secolo. Oltre per l'aspetto, la scelta di questo albero era motivata anche dalla sua crescita rapida, che assicura in poco tempo ombra lungo le strade[7] e dalla sua capacità di prosperare in ambienti degradati, con terreni sterili e atmosfera inquinata, comuni purtroppo in molte città[8]; a questo proposito è nota la sua efficienza nell'assorbimento di sostanze nocive, come il diossido di azoto, l'ozono e le polveri sottili[9].

Ancor oggi è possibile vedere, come testimonianza dell'uso ornamentale di questa specie, grandi ailanti in viali, parchi e giardini[10].

Il valore decorativo dell'albero è dovuto all'aspetto maestoso e alle lunghissime foglie composte, ma anche ai grappoli di frutti, samare dotate di grandi ali che durante l'estate assumono sfumature che vanno dal giallo all'arancione e al rosso acceso, che poi permangono sino all'autunno, quando l'effetto cromatico dei frutti si unisce a quello dell'ingiallimento delle foglie. La fioritura primaverile passa invece inosservata, dato che i fiori sono piccoli e verdastri[11].

Varietà ornamentali

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Ailanthus altissima var. Erythrocarpa

Esistono alcune varietà coltivate dell'ailanto:

  • Ailanthus altissima var. Hongyea - ha decorative foglie rosso vivo[12]
  • Ailanthus altissima var. Tsubaki - dalle mille teste[12];
  • Ailanthus altissima var. Xiaoye - cultivar maschio con una chioma più densa rispetto alla varietà botanica[13];
  • Ailanthus altissima var. Erythrocarpa - con frutto rosso acceso[13];
  • Ailanthus altissima var. Pendulifolia- con foglie ancor più lunghe della varietà botanica ed elegantemente pendenti[13].

Usi medicinali

In Cina, l'ailanto ha una lunga e ricca storia come pianta medicinale. È citato nel più antico dizionario cinese conosciuto e menzionato in innumerevoli testi di medicina cinesi per la sua asserita efficacia nel curare mali che vanno dalle malattie mentali alla perdita dei capelli.

Nella moderna medicina cinese sono usate le radici, le foglie e la corteccia, principalmente come astringenti, e il frutto, una samara, che ha varie applicazioni: è usato come agente emostatico, per trattare l'enuresi notturna e il problema del sangue nelle feci o nelle urine. Clinicamente, è stato anche dimostrato che tratta la trichomoniasi[14].

Produzione di seta

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Il bombice dell'ailanto

L'albero è stato estesamente coltivato, inizialmente in Cina e poi anche in altri paesi per l'allevamento della Samia cynthia (bombice dell'ailanto), il bruco di una falena impiegata per la produzione di una particolare seta; i paesi in cui si introdusse questo uso furono soprattutto l'Italia, dal 1854, e l'Austria[3], Bosnia e Romania. Il motivo dell'introduzione in Europa del bombice dell'ailanto in sostituzione del baco da seta è legato al fatto che, in quegli anni, la bachicoltura era in profonda crisi a causa della pebrina, malattia causata da un mesozoo.

L'allevamento del bombice dell'ailanto durò solo una quindicina d'anni, cioè fino a quando Louis Pasteur, tra il 1865 e il 1870, non trovò un rimedio per contrastare la pebrina. La gelso-bachicoltura si diffuse allora nuovamente e l'allevamento dei bombici dell'ailanto venne abbandonato[15].

Nelle regioni italiane dove esisteva l'allevamento del bombice, la falena sfuggita agli allevamenti si è naturalizzata e continua a vivere sugli ailanti a loro volta naturalizzati.

Consolidamento di terreni scoscesi

Sempre per la sua adattabilità e per la sua grande velocità di crescita, e crescendo bene anche in situazioni difficili, l'ailanto si dimostrò prezioso per il consolidamento di terreni franosi e sterili e perciò venne largamente impiegato[16]. Tipico è l'utilizzo per consolidare scarpate ferroviarie o stradali, che consente alla specie di diffondersi se i terreni circostanti sono incolti, al di là delle intenzioni iniziali (si veda la sezione "Il problema del controllo della diffusione della specie").

Miele di ailanto

Dall'ailanto le api ottengono un apprezzato e raro miele monoflora (miele di ailanto), con un aroma fruttato che lo rende adatto all'utilizzo in macedonie. In particolare, l'aroma è intensamente profumato di frutti con connotazione tropicale quali la pesca, l'uva moscata e il litchi, ma ricorda anche il fico, il alla pesca, lo yogurt con pesca e mango, lo spumante, lo sciroppo di fiori di sambuco[17].

Viene prodotto in primavera, subito dopo il miele di acacia e in contemporanea con quello di tiglio; il nettare di ailanto, in situazioni climatiche particolari, è raccolto dalle api insieme a quelli di tiglio e di acacia, cosicché i mieli risultanti hanno caratteristiche aromatiche da esso influenzate[18]. Quando è presente in un miele millefiori primaverile, vi aggiunge una nota molto gradevole[19].

Valore simbolico

Nel film di Elia Kazan Un albero cresce a Brooklyn, tratto dall'omonimo romanzo di Betty Smith, il protagonista vegetale è proprio un ailanto, che spunta nel povero cortile di un quartiere di New York[20][21]. Nel libro e nel film, l'ailanto è la metafora centrale, per la sua capacità di prosperare in un ambiente ostile, come gli abitanti dei quartieri poveri. L'albero, una rarità nel duro ambiente urbano, è amato dalla giovane protagonista del libro e del film, che rimane profondamente turbata quando l'albero viene potato spietatamente, fino a farlo morire. Il padre la rassicura che ricrescerà e alla fine lo fa davvero, diventando un simbolo di speranza e perseveranza. Si legge nell'introduzione del libro: C'è un albero che cresce a Brooklyn. Alcuni lo chiamano l'albero del paradiso. Non importa dove cade il seme, dà un albero che si sforza di raggiungere il cielo. Cresce in un terreno incolto recintato con assi e cumuli di immondizia abbandonati. Esce dai cancelli della cantina. È l'unico albero che cresce nel cemento. Cresce rigoglioso... sopravvive senza sole, senza acqua e, apparentemente, senza terra[22].

Il taoista Zhuāngzǐ utilizza l'ailanto come metafora per descrivere la filosofia del Tao: "inutile, gratuito, grande, generoso". Queste stesse caratteristiche sono quelle che vengono rimproverate agli esemplari di questa specie nei paesi occidentali. Il rifiuto dell'ailanto in occidente, anche quando non procura danni, rappresenta per alcuni l'incapacità di accogliere l'apparizione di una forma di vita spontanea e la volontà di imporre da parte dell'uomo il controllo assoluto sullo spazio urbano[23].

Il problema del controllo della diffusione della specie

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Invasione da parte di A. altissima lungo le rive del fiume Garonna

Naturalizzazione

L'ailanto si diffonde spontaneamente nei terreni incolti, quando non è soggetto alla concorrenza di specie autoctone, quindi specialmente lungo le strade e le ferrovie, in cui l'azione dell'uomo limita l'accrescimento delle piante indigene[7]. Sfuggendo alle coltivazioni, si diffuse quindi come specie naturalizzata in ambienti degradati e difficili per altri alberi, grazie anche alla straordinaria capacità pollonifera. La naturalizzazione dell'ailanto interessa le seguenti aree:

Invasività

Il grande entusiasmo iniziale per la notevole resistenza dell'ailanto calò quando si rilevò che l'ailanto spesso può comportarsi da specie infestante, grazie alla sua capacità di colonizzare rapidamente aree degradate. L'invasività è accentuata dal fatto che le radici producono una sostanza, l'ailanthone, di tipo allelopatico, ossia capace di inibire la crescita e lo sviluppo di piante concorrenti vicine; naturalmente l'ailanto non è l'unica specie a produrre sostanze allelopatiche: altri esempi sono lo juglone del noce nero, l'amigdalina dal pesco e la florizina dal melo. È questo uno dei motivi principali che consente a questa specie di crescere in popolamenti puri.

In Australia, negli Stati Uniti d'America, in Nuova Zelanda e in numerosi Paesi dell'Europa meridionale e dell'Europa orientale, è considerata una specie molto infestante e quindi nociva per gli ambienti naturali. La sua eradicazione è difficile, perché l'albero ricaccia vigorosamente se tagliato.

Esemplare è il caso dell'Isola di Montecristo, nell'Arcipelago Toscano. In quest'ambiente, secoli fa è stata introdotta dall'uomo la capra selvatica, che non ha nell'isola nemici naturali. Le esigenze alimentari della capra selvatica (e non la presenza dell'ailanto) ostacolavano il rinnovamento della vegetazione autoctona; in particolare, dato che questo animale si ciba delle ghiande e delle giovani piante del leccio, la presenza di questo pregiato albero mediterraneo stava diminuendo in modo preoccupante, a vantaggio dell'ailanto, meno gradito alla capra. La vegetazione di Montecristo si avviava ad essere dominata dall'ailanto, che anche in questo caso mostrava la sua resistenza a condizioni avverse. Nel 2009 l'Unione Europea finanziò un progetto di recupero ambientale, che comprendeva tra gli scopi principali la lotta all'ailanto. Il progetto è terminato con successo nel giugno del 2014[24].

La lotta contro l'ailanto è necessaria quando entra in competizione con piante autoctone.

Descrizione

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Disegno botanico delle foglie, fiori e samara da Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada di Britton e Addison Brown, 1913
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Corteccia di A. altissima: inizialmente grigia, col tempo diventa ruvida e soggetta a screpolature.
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Foglia vista di scorcio
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Esemplare che cresce ai margini di un bosco: negli ambienti boschivi intatti l'ailanto generalmente non pone problemi di invasività, preferendo terreni ruderali[7][25].

L'ailanto è un albero di medie dimensioni che raggiunge altezze di 17–27 m e un diametro, all'altezza del petto, di 1 m[26]. È notevole la sua velocità di accrescimento: il primo anno di vita riesce a raggiungere già uno o due metri di altezza[27], mentre due anni bastano a formare una pianta lignificata, alta diversi metri.

È una pianta tendenzialmente dioica, ossia con esemplari che producono solo fiori maschili ed esemplari che ne producono solo di femminili. Il dioicismo dell'ailanto non è esclusivo: si possono incontrare anche alcuni individui monoici[28]

Corteccia e legno

La corteccia è liscia, grigio chiaro; con l'avanzare dell'età dell'albero, spesso diviene ruvida, con screpolature marrone chiaro. Gli steli sono diritti, lisci poiché ricoperti superficialmente da peluria, e rossicci o castani nella colorazione. La corteccia ha lenticelle come anche cicatrici a forma di cuore delle foglie (cioè un segno lasciato sul ramo quando una foglia cade) con molti fasci di cicatrici (ovvero piccoli segni dove le venature delle foglie erano unite all'albero) intorno ai bordi. Le gemme hanno una fine pubescenza, forma a cupola e sono parzialmente nascoste dal picciolo, sebbene siano completamente visibili nella stagione latente nelle cavità delle cicatrici delle foglie. I rami hanno un colore che va dal grigio chiaro allo scuro, sono lisci, lucenti e hanno lenticelle in rilievo che diventano fessure con la crescita dell'albero. Le estremità dei rami diventano pendenti.

Il suo legno ha un valore molto modesto come materiale da costruzione, sia per robustezza, sia per durata; è adatto invece alla produzione di cellulosa[8] ed è un buon combustibile, producendo fiamme chiare e lasciando poca cenere[29].

Foglie

Le foglie sono composte, imparipennate, opposte. Esse variano per dimensione dai 30 ai 90 cm in lunghezza e contengono 10-41 foglioline organizzate in coppie, con le foglie più larghe poste sui giovani germogli vigorosi. Il rachide è di colore verde-rossiccio chiaro con la base rigonfia. Le foglioline sono ovate-lanceolate con margini lisci, abbastanza asimmetriche e talvolta non direttamente opposte l'una all'altra. Ogni fogliolina è lunga dai 5 ai 18 cm e larga dai 2,5 ai 5 cm. Hanno l'estremità affusolata mentre le basi hanno da due a quattro denti, ognuno contenente una o più ghiandole sulla punta[30]. I lati superiori delle foglioline sono di colore verde scuro con venature verde chiaro, mentre i lati inferiori sono verde biancastro. I piccioli sono lunghi dai 5 ai 12 mm. Le basi lobate e le ghiandole la distinguono dal sommacco, specie che, pur appartenendo ad un'altra famiglia botanica, presenta un aspetto per alcuni versi simile.

Odore

Le foglie, se vengono sfregate, emanano un marcato odore amarognolo, botanicamente definito "crategino" ossia simile a quello dei fiori del biancospino, considerato piacevole nei testi più datati[31] e spesso considerato sgradevole nei testi più recenti[32].

Non a tutti è gradito, inoltre, l'odore dei fiori degli esemplari maschili[33], ossia degli alberi che non portano frutto. Questo diverso giudizio sull'odore dei fiori maschili è all'origine dei due nomi con i quali l'ailanto è conosciuto in Cina: in Mandarino standard è noto come chouchun (Cinese: 臭椿S, chòuchūnP), cioè albero dall'odore sgradevole, mentre nelle regioni attraversate dal corso inferiore del Fiume Giallo l'albero è chiamato chunshu (Cinese: 椿树S, chūnshùP), che significa albero della primavera, dato che l'ailanto, essendo uno degli ultimi alberi a rompere la dormienza in primavera, indica che il clima della bella stagione è ormai stabile[34]. Nell'uso ornamentale, il problema dell'odore dei fiori maschili si aggira facilmente piantando solo esemplari femminili.

La parte corticale delle radici contiene una sostanza aromatica di odore simile a quello della vaniglia; per questo motivo la resina estratta dalla radice era un tempo usata per profumare gli ambienti, ponendola sopra ad un ferro caldo[35].

Radici

La radice è fittonante e solo successivamente l'apparato radicale si estende notevolmente in superficie, donando alla pianta una notevole capacità di resistere in ambienti particolarmente secchi o a periodi di prolungata siccità[3]. Già ricordato sopra l'uso della resina estratta dalle radici per profumare gli ambienti.

Fiori

I fiori sono piccoli e si presentano in grandi infiorescenze che raggiungono la lunghezza massima di 50 cm fino all'ultimo nuovo germoglio. I fiori solitari variano in colore dal verde giallognolo al rossiccio, ognuno con cinque petali e sepali. I sepali sono a forma di tazza, lobati e uniti mentre i petali sono valvari (si toccano ai bordi senza sovrapporsi), bianchi e pelosi verso l'interno[30].

Frutti e semi

I frutti, anch'essi raccolti in grappoli penduli; sono samare con seme posto al centro di un'ala ritorta, caratteristica che la rende efficace nel volo planato, utile a diffondere la specie. Come già ricordato, i grappoli di frutti rimangono vistosamente colorati di giallo, arancio e rosso durante tutta l'estate, conferendo all'albero un aspetto particolarmente decorativo[11]. I semi si diffondono per disseminazione anemofora, ossia tramite il vento, grazie all'ala del frutto.

Galleria d'immagini

Note

  1. ^ Ailanthus altissima, su cabi.org, CABI, 6 novembre 2018. URL consultato il 13 luglio 2019.
  2. ^ Nei testi l'origine cinese è sempre riportata, mentre solo in alcuni sono citate le Molucche; il nome scientifico, però, deriva dal dialetto malese parlato in queste isole.
  3. ^ a b c d e Tommaso Sitzia, Ecologia e Gestione dei Boschi di Neoformazione nel Paesaggio del Trentino, Provincia autonoma di Trento. Servizio foreste e fauna, 2009 ( riquadro 25 - p. 206.).
  4. ^ a b Ingo Kowarik, Ina Säumel, Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, in Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics, gennaio 2007
  5. ^ Cf. Collin, Pascal e Dumas, Yann, Que savons-nous de l'ailante (Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle)? [What do we know about A. altissima?], in Revue forestière française, vol. 61, n. 2, 2009, pp. 117–130. Essi osservano che: « [...] Mais comme le fait remarquer Kowarik (2007), sa reproduction végétative le rend en quelque sorte très longévif, le premier individu introduit aux États-Unis en 1784 étant toujours présent grâce à ses drageons»
  6. ^ Sito "Acta plantarum", scheda Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle.
  7. ^ a b c Sandro Pignatti, Flora d'Italia, vol. 2 (p. 56), edizione Edagricole, 1997. ISBN 88-206-2311-0.
  8. ^ a b Guida pratica agli alberi ed arbusti in Italia, Selezione dal reader Digest, 1982, capitolo Ailanto. ISBN 88-7045-067-8.
  9. ^ Regione Toscana, Piano regionale per la qualità dell'aria ambiente.. Nel documento, l'uso ornamentale di quest'albero è comunque vietato per la sua invasività.
  10. ^ Luigi Fenaroli, Alberi, Giunti Editore, 2004, p. 41; ISBN 9788809035409.
  11. ^ a b Ailanto, Albero del Paradiso, su http://www.parcocurone.it/.
  12. ^ a b ; Potential New Ornamental Plants from China (PDF) (archiviato dall'url originale il 25 giugno 2010).
  13. ^ a b c ; Selecting and Planting Landscape Trees (PDF) (archiviato dall'url originale il 14 aprile 2008).
  14. ^ [1]
  15. ^ Sito Gaia - Biella, pagina Ailanto..
  16. ^ La Sericultura. Rivista universale dei progressi dell'industria serica (Google libri, p. 131).
  17. ^ Lucia Piana, I mieli italiani: schede descrittive di alcuni dei principali mieli uniflorali, capitolo [2].
  18. ^ Massimo Fabio, Export e tutela dei prodotti agroalimentari del Made in Italy, su books.google.it, IPSOA, 2015, ISBN 9788821754722..
  19. ^ Proprietà e benefici Miele di Ailanto, su vitamineproteine.com.
  20. ^ A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1945), su brianrxm.com.
  21. ^ Corriere della sera..
  22. ^ Betty Smith, Un albero cresce a Brooklyn, 1943, Introduzione.
  23. ^ Simon Boudvin, Ailanthus altissima, une monographie située de l’ailante, Éditions B42, 2021 ( introduzione.). ISBN 978-2490077434
  24. ^ Montecristo 2010, su montecristo2010.it. URL consultato il 12 ottobre 2013 (archiviato dall'url originale il 16 maggio 2017).
  25. ^ Sito dell'Oasi WWF del Caloggio, pagina Ailanthus altissima. (compresa nota).
  26. ^ James H. Miller, Yawney, Harry W., Ailanthus altissima, su Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, Volume 2, United States Department of Forestry, 1965, revised December 1990. URL consultato il 29 maggio 2007.
  27. ^ Gruppo di Lavoro Specie Esotiche della Regione Piemonte (a cura del), 2013. Scheda monografica Ailanthus altissima (PDF).. Regione Piemonte, Torino. Ultimo aggiornamento: febbraio 2016.
  28. ^ Liborio Daniele Festa, Alberi: Guida illustrata di 80 specie europee, Libraria Editrice, 2010 (p. 34). ISBN 9788883378638.
  29. ^ Ailanto - Ailanthus altissima, su giardinaggio.it.
  30. ^ a b Shiu-ying Hu, Ailanthus altissima (PDF), in Arnoldia, vol. 39, n. 2, marzo 1979, pp. 29–50. URL consultato il 30 maggio 2007.
  31. ^ F. Delpino, Odori soavi, in Atti della Società italiana di scienze naturali, Società italiana di scienze naturali, pp. 193-194.
  32. ^ Rob Davies, The toxic Tree of Heaven threatens England's green and pleasant land, su guardian.co.uk, The Observer, Sunday 17 September 2006. URL consultato il 21 agosto 2010.
  33. ^ Lorena Lombroso, Il libro completo degli alberi, Edizioni Gribaudo, 2011 (p. 142). ISBN 9788858003732.
  34. ^ Shiu Ying Hu, Ailanthus (PDF).
  35. ^ Ailanto, in Dizionario delle scienze naturali, vol. 1, Firenze, Batellie filgi.

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Ailanthus altissima: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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Ailanthus altissima, in italiano ailanto o anche albero del paradiso, è un albero deciduo appartenente alla famiglia delle Simarubacee. È nativo della Cina sud-orientale e centrale e delle Molucche ed è naturalizzato in Italia e in altri paesi europei, oltre che in diversi paesi asiatici, negli Stati Uniti d'America, in Sudafrica, Australia e Nuova Zelanda. Diversamente da altre specie del genere Ailanthus, è infatti amante dei climi temperati anziché di quelli tropicali.

L'albero cresce rapidamente: ogni anno un metro in altezza e 1,5 cm in diametro, raggiungendo a maturità circa 25 metri; da questa tendenza a diventare alto in breve tempo è derivato il nome "albero del paradiso". È poco longevo, superando raramente i 50 anni di vita ed eccezionalmente il secolo di vita. Nonostante ciò, la sua straordinaria capacità di generare polloni consente alla pianta di replicare sé stessa per tempi assai più lunghi.

L'ailanto ha dunque tutte le caratteristiche delle specie pioniere, ossia le prime a colonizzare ambienti senza vita, a causa di fattori umani o naturali: spiccata resistenza alla luce intensa, accrescimento rapido, longevità limitata, precoce raggiungimento della maturità e quindi della produzione di semi, disseminazione anemofora, riproduzione vegetativa tramite polloni, capacità di prosperare in condizioni avverse, anche in suoli poco profondi e poveri di sostanze nutritive.

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Aukštasis ailantas ( Lithuanian )

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Aukštasis ailantas (lot. Ailanthus altissima, angl. tree of heaven, vok. Götterbäum) – simarubinių (Simaroubaceae) šeimai priklausanti medžių rūšis. Natūraliai auga šiaurės rytų ir centrinėje Kinijoje bei Taivane. Introdukuotas Europoje, Australijoje, Naujojoje Zelandijoje, JAV.

Aukštasis ailantas – greitai augantis, lapus metantis, 17-27 m aukščio medis. Kamieno skersmuo ­­~1 m. Lapai sudėtiniai, 30-90 cm ilgio, su 10-41 lapeliu. Lapeliai kiaušiniški, priešiniai 5-18 cm ilgio, 2,5-5 cm pločio. Žiedai smulkūs, auga ant 50 cm ilgio šakelių, gelsvi, sudaryti iš 5 vainiklapių.

Vikiteka

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Augstais ailants ( Latvian )

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Augstais ailants (Ailanthus altissima), tiek saukts arī par debesu koku vai dievkoku) ir lapu koks no rūgtkoku dzimtas. Tā dabiskais augšanas reģions ir Taivāna un ziemeļaustrumu un centrālā Ķīna. Atšķirībā no citām ailantu ģints sugām, augstais ailants spēj aug ne tikai tropos, bet arī teritorijās, kur pastāv gadalaiki, līdz ar to mainīga temperatūra. Augstais ailants aug ātri un ir spējīgs 25 gadu laikā izaugt pat 15 metru augsts. Šie koki parasti neaug ilgāk par 50 gadiem.

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Hemelboom ( Dutch; Flemish )

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Zie artikel Zie De hemelboom voor het gelijknamige stripverhaal.

De hemelboom (Ailanthus altissima) is een boom uit de hemelboomfamilie (Simaroubaceae). Het is een zogenaamde wachtkamersoort. De hoogte is ongeveer 25 m.

De hemelboom wordt beschouwd als een invasieve uitheemse plantensoort wegens grote concurrentie met inheemse soorten, snelle groei en verspreiding en omdat deze soort allelopatische chemicaliën bevat, dat wil zeggen: deze soort scheidt chemicaliën af die het gedrag, gezondheid, groei en fysiologie van andere planten en van insecten kan beïnvloeden. Daarnaast kan deze soort straatverharding opdrukken en beschadigen[1].

Beschrijving

Kroon

De kroon is een hoge, losse, onregelmatige koepel met stevige, bochtige, opwaarts groeiende takken aan een rechte stam. De boomschors is glad, grijsbruin tot zwart en heeft witte verticale strepen. Bij het ouder worden, krijgt de schors een meer donkergrijze kleur en wordt deze ruwer.

Twijgen en bladeren

De boom heeft stevige twijgen met een oranjebruine kleur. Daaraan zitten kleine, eivormige knoppen. Met het volwassen worden, veranderen de knoppen van roodbruin tot scharlakenrood. De hemelboom heeft samengestelde bladeren van 30–60 cm lang. Er zijn vijf tot tweeëntwintig paar deelblaadjes. Elk deelblaadje is smal, eirond en toegespitst. De lengte is 7–15 cm en er zijn een tot drie grote tandringen aan de voet van het blad. Daar zit tevens een klier. De bladsteel is rood en heeft een lengte van 7–15 cm. Als de bladeren verschijnen, zijn ze dieprood van kleur; later worden ze groen van boven en bleek aan de onderzijde.

Bloemen

De boom heeft kleine, groenachtige bloemen die in grote pluimen hangen. Mannelijke en vrouwelijke bloemen bevinden zich vaak op verschillende bomen.

Vruchten

De vruchten van de hemelboom bestaan uit gedraaide vleugels met een zaad in het centrum. De vruchten zijn circa 4 cm lang. De vleugels hangen in een grote tros van 30 × 30 cm en rijpen van geelgroen tot helder oranjerood.

Vindplaats

De plant komt van oorsprong uit China. De soort wordt veel aangeplant in parken en tuinen en langs straten voor schaduw en om de sierwaarde. Als exoot komt de hemelboom voor in Zuid- en Midden-Europa. De laatste jaren is deze soort ook in Nederland in opmars.

Zie ook

Externe links

Wikimedia Commons Mediabestanden die bij dit onderwerp horen, zijn te vinden op de pagina Ailanthus altissima op Wikimedia Commons.
Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
  1. de Groot, C. & J. Oldenburger (september 2011) De bestrijding van invasieve uitheemse plantensoorten. Wageningen
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Hemelboom: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De hemelboom (Ailanthus altissima) is een boom uit de hemelboomfamilie (Simaroubaceae). Het is een zogenaamde wachtkamersoort. De hoogte is ongeveer 25 m.

De hemelboom wordt beschouwd als een invasieve uitheemse plantensoort wegens grote concurrentie met inheemse soorten, snelle groei en verspreiding en omdat deze soort allelopatische chemicaliën bevat, dat wil zeggen: deze soort scheidt chemicaliën af die het gedrag, gezondheid, groei en fysiologie van andere planten en van insecten kan beïnvloeden. Daarnaast kan deze soort straatverharding opdrukken en beschadigen.

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Gudetre ( Norwegian )

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Gudetre (Ailanthus altissima) er et løvfellende tre i bittervedfamilien. Det er en av de få artene i denne familien som finnes utenom tropene.

Det blir opptil 20 m høyt. Stammen er rett og sylindrisk med kraftige, opprette greiner som danner en høy, kuppelformet krone. Rotskudd er vanlige. Barken er glatt og grå og har hos eldre trær ofte et mønster av krumme striper. Bladene er spredte, finnete og 30–60 cm lange. Det er 13–27 småblad; de er helrandete, men har 1–3 tenner på hver side av basis. Bladene har en ubehagelig lukt når de knuses.

Treet er som regel særbu, og hannblomstene sitter i store, tette, grønnlige klaser. Fruktene sitter i klaser på opptil 30 cm. De deler seg i enkeltfrukter med vinge som er 4 cm lange og 1 cm brede.

Gudetre vokser naturlig kun i nordlige og sentrale Kina, men er vanlig plantet i parker og langs gater i alle tempererte og subtropiske strøk. I Norge finnes det enkelte steder langs kysten i sør. Gudetre blir lett naturalisert og kan utkonkurrere den opprinnelige vegetasjonen. Arten sprer seg hurtig både med frø og vegetativt, og treet skiller ut et allelopatisk stoff som forgifter andre planter. Det betraktes derfor som en skadelig invaderende art i Europa, Nord-Amerika og andre steder.

Åmene til gudetrepåfuglspinner (Samia cynthia) lever på gudetre, og sommerfuglen er blitt introdusert sammen med treslaget rundt om i verden.

Galleri

Litteratur

Eksterne lenker

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Gudetre: Brief Summary ( Norwegian )

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Gudetre (Ailanthus altissima) er et løvfellende tre i bittervedfamilien. Det er en av de få artene i denne familien som finnes utenom tropene.

Det blir opptil 20 m høyt. Stammen er rett og sylindrisk med kraftige, opprette greiner som danner en høy, kuppelformet krone. Rotskudd er vanlige. Barken er glatt og grå og har hos eldre trær ofte et mønster av krumme striper. Bladene er spredte, finnete og 30–60 cm lange. Det er 13–27 småblad; de er helrandete, men har 1–3 tenner på hver side av basis. Bladene har en ubehagelig lukt når de knuses.

Treet er som regel særbu, og hannblomstene sitter i store, tette, grønnlige klaser. Fruktene sitter i klaser på opptil 30 cm. De deler seg i enkeltfrukter med vinge som er 4 cm lange og 1 cm brede.

Gudetre vokser naturlig kun i nordlige og sentrale Kina, men er vanlig plantet i parker og langs gater i alle tempererte og subtropiske strøk. I Norge finnes det enkelte steder langs kysten i sør. Gudetre blir lett naturalisert og kan utkonkurrere den opprinnelige vegetasjonen. Arten sprer seg hurtig både med frø og vegetativt, og treet skiller ut et allelopatisk stoff som forgifter andre planter. Det betraktes derfor som en skadelig invaderende art i Europa, Nord-Amerika og andre steder.

Åmene til gudetrepåfuglspinner (Samia cynthia) lever på gudetre, og sommerfuglen er blitt introdusert sammen med treslaget rundt om i verden.

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Ailanthus altissima ( Pms )

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Drapò piemontèis.png Vos an lenga piemontèisa Për amprende a dovré 'l sistema dle parlà locaj ch'a varda sì.

Costo artìcol a l'é mach në sbòss. Da finì.

Distribussion

Da finì.

Notissie

Da finì.

Arferiment bibliogràfich për chi a veul fé dj'arserche pì ancreuse

  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle
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Ailanthus altissima: Brief Summary ( Pms )

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Costo artìcol a l'é mach në sbòss. Da finì.

Distribussion

Da finì.

Notissie

Da finì.

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Bożodrzew gruczołowaty ( Polish )

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Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Wikisłownik Hasło w Wikisłowniku

Bożodrzew gruczołowaty, znany również jako ajlant gruczołowaty, bożodrzew gruczołkowaty lub bożodrzew chiński (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) – gatunek roślin z rodziny biegunecznikowatych (Simarubaceae). Roślina pochodzi z Chin, ale pierwsze egzemplarze sprowadzono do Europy już w 1751 r. Obecnie rozpowszechniona zarówno w Europie jak i Ameryce Północnej. W Polsce dość często uprawiana, szczególnie w zachodniej części kraju.

Drzewo zaliczane do gatunków inwazyjnych, szkodliwych dla rodzimych gatunków flory.

 src=
Pokrój
 src=
Kora
 src=
Kwiatostan

Morfologia

Pokrój
Okazałe drzewo, szybko rosnące (szczególnie w młodości, na dobrych stanowiskach do 2 m rocznie) dorastające w Polsce do 30 m. Na starszych pniach korowina charakterystycznie spękana. Jednoroczne pędy bardzo grube (grubsze niż u jesionu), młode gęsto, delikatnie omszone, żółtawe z bardzo dużymi śladami liściowymi. Wierzchołki jednorocznych pędów tępo zakończone. Bożodrzew łatwo wydaje odrosty korzeniowe, szczególnie po mechanicznym uszkodzeniu korzeni, co wykorzystuje się przy wegetatywnym rozmnażaniu z sadzonek korzeniowych.
Liście
Ulistnienie skrętoległe, liście bardzo duże, dorastające do 80 cm długości (u odmian do ponad 1 m), nieparzystopierzastozłożone z 15 – 25 jajowatolancetowatych listków. Listki do 12 cm dł., z wierzchu ciemnozielone, od spodu sinoniebieskawe, wierzchołek mocno wyciągnięty. U podstawy każdego listka znajdują się 2 lub 4 (rzadziej) ząbki z gruczołkami nieprzyjemnie pachnącymi po roztarciu.
Kwiaty
Jedno- i obupłciowe, zebrane w gęste wiechowate kwiatostany do 30 cm długości. Kielich pięciodziałkowy, korona z pięcioma żołtawobiałymi płatkami, pręcików 10 a w kwiatach obupłciowych zazwyczaj 5, słupków 4-6.
Owoce
Wąskie skrzydlaki do 4 cm długości z centralnie umieszczonym orzeszkiem. Początkowo jasnozielonkawe, w sierpniu przybierające efektownie czerwonopurpurowe zabarwienie. Owoce długo utrzymują się na roślinie.

Zastosowanie

  • Surowiec zielarski: kora, pozyskiwana z młodych dwuletnich gałązek i owoce.
    • Zawartość: niewielkie ilości alkaloidów, do 12% garbników, saponiny, simarubina, związki kumarynowe i gorycze (m.in.: ajlantyna).
    • Działanie: W Chinach kora, w miarę możności świeża, posiadająca silne właściwości bakteriobójcze i bakteriostatyczne, stosowana jest wewnętrznie w postaci odwaru, do leczenia ciężkich i uporczywych biegunek, oraz jako środek wymiotny. Ten sam odwar jest specyfikiem przy pomocy którego zwalcza się tasiemce i glisty – pasożyty przewodu pokarmowego. Poza tym także stosuje się go jako specyfik przeciwgorączkowy, przeciwskurczowy i zwalniający akcję serca. Dalej – w leczeniu malarii, astmy, kołatania serca i czerwonki.
    • Owoce stosuje się jako środek pomocniczy w leczeniu nieregularnego miesiączkowania, zbyt obfitych krwawień menstruacyjnych oraz żylaków odbytu.
    • W medycynie ludowej narodów Azji Środkowej wywarem z liści bożodrzewu leczy się wrzody. Ajlantem nie wolno się leczyć na własną rękę, ale zawsze za wiedzą i zgodą lekarza
  • Roślina ozdobna: odmiany:
     src=
    A. altissima 'Aucubaefolia'
    • 'Erythrocarpa' – odm. czerwonoowocowa, o jaskrawoczerwonych, bardzo kontrastowych skrzydlakach.
    • 'Pendulifolia' – odm. zwisłolistna. Tworzy bardzo długie, opadające w dół liście.
    • 'Aucubaefolia' – odm. o żółto nakrapianych liściach.
    • 'Hongye' – odm. o liściach czerwonych[2].
  • Drewno: wykorzystywane w meblarstwie i przy produkcji papieru.
  • Liście: podobnie jak morwa wykorzystywane w hodowli jedwabników.
  • Sok żywiczny: stosowany do produkcji pokostów.

Stan prawny

Bożodrzew gruczołowaty uznawany jest w Polsce za gatunek inwazyjny, groźny dla rodzimej przyrody. Jego wprowadzanie do środowiska lub przemieszczanie w środowisku przyrodniczym jest zabronione przez ustawę o ochronie przyrody z 2004 roku. Od 2012 roku także jego import, posiadanie, prowadzenie hodowli, rozmnażanie i sprzedaż wymagają specjalnego pozwolenia Generalnego Dyrektora Ochrony Środowiska. Nieprzestrzeganie wymienionych ograniczeń według ustawy o ochronie przyrody jest wykroczeniem podlegającym karze aresztu lub grzywny pieniężnej[3][4].

Uprawa

Najlepiej rośnie na żyznych, głębokich i wilgotnych glebach o odczynie zasadowym, bogatych w związki wapnia (nie znosi gleby o odczynie kwaśnym oraz podmokłych i zalewanych okresowo ziem). Najlepiej rośnie w lekkim półcieniu lub w miejscu nasłonecznionym. W warunkach Europy Środkowej gatunek jest całkowicie odporny na mróz (strefa mrozoodporności 6b), niemniej jednak młode okazy i jednoroczne pędy zimą mogą przemarzać[5].

Przypisy

  1. Stevens P.F.: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (ang.). 2001–. [dostęp 2010-02-02].
  2. Dirr, Michael A.; Zhang, Donglin (2004). "Potential New Ornamental Plants from China" (PDF). Southern Nursery Association Research Conference: 607-609.
  3. Tekst ustawy z dnia 16 kwietnia 2004 r. o ochronie przyrody (Dz.U. z 2018 r. poz. 1614)
  4. Tekst rozporządzenia z dnia 9 września 2011 r. w sprawie listy roślin i zwierząt gatunków obcych, które w przypadku uwolnienia do środowiska przyrodniczego mogą zagrozić gatunkom rodzimym lub siedliskom przyrodniczym (Dz.U. z 2011 r. nr 210, poz. 1260)
  5. Agnieszka Mike-Jeziorska: Bożodrzew gruczołowaty (pol.). 2013. [dostęp 2013-04-29].

Bibliografia

  1. Andrzej Sarwa, Wielki leksykon roślin leczniczych, Warszawa 2002
  2. Zbigniew Podbielkowski: Słownik roślin użytkowych. Warszawa: PWRiL, 1989. ISBN 83-09-00256-4.
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Bożodrzew gruczołowaty: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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Bożodrzew gruczołowaty, znany również jako ajlant gruczołowaty, bożodrzew gruczołkowaty lub bożodrzew chiński (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) – gatunek roślin z rodziny biegunecznikowatych (Simarubaceae). Roślina pochodzi z Chin, ale pierwsze egzemplarze sprowadzono do Europy już w 1751 r. Obecnie rozpowszechniona zarówno w Europie jak i Ameryce Północnej. W Polsce dość często uprawiana, szczególnie w zachodniej części kraju.

Drzewo zaliczane do gatunków inwazyjnych, szkodliwych dla rodzimych gatunków flory.

 src= Pokrój  src= Kora  src= Kwiatostan
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Árvore-do-céu ( Portuguese )

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Árvore-do-céu, Ailanto ou Espanta-lobos (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle; Simaroubaceae) é uma planta ornamental de porte magnífico, que pode crescer até 35 m e também possui uma casca aromática no seu tronco. As folhas são alternas e irregular ou regulamente pinadas. É muito conhecida pelas suas flores pequenas amareladas ou esverdeadas, que aparecem em forma de cachos.

A Árvore-do-céu é uma planta nativa do norte da China. Foi introduzida na Europa em 1751 por um padre jesuíta francês que a trouxe de Nanquim para a Inglaterra.

Devido ao seu crescimento rápido e alta tolerância a factores adversos como a pobreza do solo e a poluição, é considerada uma espécie invasora em regiões de clima temperado, nomeadamente na Europa e América do Norte.

Ver também

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Árvore-do-céu: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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Árvore-do-céu, Ailanto ou Espanta-lobos (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle; Simaroubaceae) é uma planta ornamental de porte magnífico, que pode crescer até 35 m e também possui uma casca aromática no seu tronco. As folhas são alternas e irregular ou regulamente pinadas. É muito conhecida pelas suas flores pequenas amareladas ou esverdeadas, que aparecem em forma de cachos.

A Árvore-do-céu é uma planta nativa do norte da China. Foi introduzida na Europa em 1751 por um padre jesuíta francês que a trouxe de Nanquim para a Inglaterra.

Devido ao seu crescimento rápido e alta tolerância a factores adversos como a pobreza do solo e a poluição, é considerada uma espécie invasora em regiões de clima temperado, nomeadamente na Europa e América do Norte.

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Cenușer ( Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan )

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Cenușerul sau cenușarul (Ailanthus altissima) denumit și fals oțetar, arbore puturos, este un arbore ornamental exotic, cu câteva varietăți cunoscute, din familia simarubacee, originar din China și Coreea, introdus în Europa în secolul al XVIII, foarte răspândit în Câmpia Română. Are o tulpină înaltă de 15–30 m, cu o coroana largă. Trăiește 50 de ani. Scoarța este netedă, strălucitoare, cu frunze compuse lungi ca ale salcâmului, care emană un miros neplăcut când sunt strivite. Înflorește în mai-iunie cu flori mici, galbene-verzui, cu miros neplăcut, îngrămădite în panicule compuse. Fructele sunt samare roșii, cu sămânța aripată. Cenușerul drajonează foarte puternic, vegetează bine în climat cald și uscat; rezistă la fum și gaze, dar suferă de geruri. Este utilizat în lucrări de ameliorare a terenurilor degradate și la fixarea coastelor în regiunile uscate, ca arbore ornamental, iar frunzele și scoarța au întrebuințări medicinale (vermifug).

Bibliografie

Commons
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Cenușer: Brief Summary ( Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan )

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Cenușerul sau cenușarul (Ailanthus altissima) denumit și fals oțetar, arbore puturos, este un arbore ornamental exotic, cu câteva varietăți cunoscute, din familia simarubacee, originar din China și Coreea, introdus în Europa în secolul al XVIII, foarte răspândit în Câmpia Română. Are o tulpină înaltă de 15–30 m, cu o coroana largă. Trăiește 50 de ani. Scoarța este netedă, strălucitoare, cu frunze compuse lungi ca ale salcâmului, care emană un miros neplăcut când sunt strivite. Înflorește în mai-iunie cu flori mici, galbene-verzui, cu miros neplăcut, îngrămădite în panicule compuse. Fructele sunt samare roșii, cu sămânța aripată. Cenușerul drajonează foarte puternic, vegetează bine în climat cald și uscat; rezistă la fum și gaze, dar suferă de geruri. Este utilizat în lucrări de ameliorare a terenurilor degradate și la fixarea coastelor în regiunile uscate, ca arbore ornamental, iar frunzele și scoarța au întrebuințări medicinale (vermifug).

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Pajaseň žliazkatý ( Slovak )

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Pajaseň žliazkatý (staršie: pajaseň cudzí alebo pajaseň žľaznatý; lat. Ailanthus altissima) je druh opadavého listnatého stromu z čeľade simarubovitých, pochádzajúci z Ázie.

Rozšírenie

Jeho domovským areálom je severovýchod až východ Číny a Kórejský polostrov. Odtiaľ sa postupne rozšíril do celého miernehosubtropického pásu nearktickej a palearktickej oblasti vrátane oblasti indomalajskej. A teraz sa šíri aj do severnej Afriky, Strednej a Južnej Ameriky, Austrálie, na Nový Zéland aj Tichomorské ostrovy. Invazívne preniká najmä do trávnatých a skalnatých oblastí, na lesné čistiny aj rumovisko.

Na území Česka bol preukázateľne vysadený v roku 1803 v Lednici na Morave. V roku 2004 už bol evidovaný na 202 lokalitách prevažne v teplých oblastiach južnej Moravy a v Polabí v nadmorskej výške do 350 m n. m.. Agresívne sa presadzuje aj v Národnom parku Podyjí a v Chránenej krajinnej oblasti Pálava.

Opis

Pajaseň žliazkatý je dvojdomý strom dorastajúci do výšky až 25 m. Kmeň má hladký, rovný a jeho priemer je až 1 meter. Borka je sivo sfarbená a dlho pozdĺžne pruhovaná. Koruna je široko vajcovitá, riedko rozvetvená so spodnými vetvami často previsnutými. Listy po rozdrvení nepríjemne páchnu po myšine, lístky majú na báze žľazy, ktoré túto nepríjemnú arómu produkujú. Sú nepárno alebo párno zložené, 30 až 100 cm dlhé. Ich celokrajné alebo jemne zubaté, vajcovito kopijovité lístky sú 5 až 15 cm dlhé a 2 až 4 cm široké, na jeseň od vretena listu opadávajú. Listy po poranení produkujú tekutinu, ktorá môže u citlivých jedincov vyvolať alergické reakcie.

Samčie päťpočetné kvety sú nápadné, skladajú sa z tyčiniek a zakrpateného semenníka, sú veľmi aromatické a je ich asi trikrát viac ako samičích. Samičie žltozelené kvety, usporiadané do koncových metlín dlhých 10 až 40 cm, sú drobnejšie, tiež päťpočetné, obsahujú semenník a tyčinky, ktoré nie sú funkčné a neprodukujú peľ. Kvitne v júni a jeho peľ je silným alergénom. Plodom je pretiahnutá dvojkrídlová nažka, po dozretí šedohnedej farby, obvykle na strome zotrváva až do jari. Sú veľmi ľahké, asi 30 000 ks váži 1 kg. Drevo stromu je tvrdé, ľahké, ohybné a dobre znáša sucho.

Rozmnožovanie

Semená čoskoro strácajú klíčivosť, dokážu sa však do ďaleka rozšíriť vetrom alebo po vode. V prvom roku môžu semenáčiky dorásť do výšky až 2 metrov, začínajú plodiť v 10 roku. V reakcii na poškodenie vytvára drevina intenzívne koreňové a pňové výmladky, je svetlomilná a neznáša zatienenie. Je krátkoveká, po 30 až 50 rokoch usychá.

Ekológia

Ide o veľmi rýchlo rastúcu drevinu, ktorá je schopná koreňmi aj listami alelopaticky pôsobiť na okolie, a tým obmedzuje rast okolitej vegetácie, vylučuje hlavne ailanton, ktorý spôsobuje ťažkosti rastu približne sedemdesiatich druhov listnatých a ihličnatých stromov. Tieto látky produkujú najmä mladí jedinci, ktorí tak vyhrávajú boj o svetlo s ostatnými drevinami. Pajaseň patrí medzi 40 najviac inváznych drevín na svete. Najlepšie možné odstránenie týchto mnohokrát nežiaducich drevín je hlboký rez a následné potláčanie pňov herbicídmi.

Význam

Pajaseň žľaznatý je veľmi odolný voči priemyselným emisiám a preto sa vysádzali ako rýchlo rastúce dreviny do parkov, miest, vetrolamov a vďaka svojej schopnosti rásť na pôdach vápnitých, nepestovaných aj podmáčaných sa vysádzajú ako prvotné dreviny po rekultivácii. Z jeho dreva sa vyrábal nábytok, teraz sa využíva len na stavebné účely a na kúrenie.

Je však potrebné dbať na jeho vek, pretože trpí uhnívaním koreňového systému. Stromy staršie ako 35 rokov by sa preto mali preventívne rúbať, aby nemohlo dôjsť opätovne k smrteľnej tragédii pri neočakávanom páde stromu.

V Ázii sa z neho vyrábajú homeopatiká na potlačenie malárie a úplavice, a sú tam jeho listy hostiteľom lariev motýľa Samia cynthia), z ktorých zámotkov sa získava prírodný hodváb.

Taxonómia

Najznámejšie variety:

  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. Acubaefolia
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. Erythrocarpa
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. Hongye
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. Metro
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. Pendulifolia
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. Sutchuanensis
  • Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle var. Tricolor

Galéria

Iné projekty

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Pajaseň žliazkatý: Brief Summary ( Slovak )

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Pajaseň žliazkatý (staršie: pajaseň cudzí alebo pajaseň žľaznatý; lat. Ailanthus altissima) je druh opadavého listnatého stromu z čeľade simarubovitých, pochádzajúci z Ázie.

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Veliki pajesen ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Veliki pajesen (znanstveno ime Ailanthus altissima), znan tudi kot visoki pajesen, navadni pajesen, ailant oz. božje drevo, je drevo, ki izvira iz Kitajske.[1]

Veliki pajesen zraste do 25 metrov visoko (v 20 letih zraste ok. 15 metrov visoko). Oblikuje široko krošnjo in se občasno pojavlja tudi kot večdebelno drevo. Najraje ima sončne lege z blago klimo. Mladi poganjki so rdečerjave barve in na otip žametni. Lubje je sivorjavo s svetlimi progami, pozneje podolžno razpokano. Listi so do 60 cm dolgi in imajo neprijeten intenziven vonj.[2] Listje odpade z drevesa razmeroma pozno. Drevo cveti julija in avgusta.[1] Njegova semena so krilata, podobno kot pri jesenu. Semena in lubje so strupeni. Lubje ima močni odvajalni učinek, drevesni sok močno draži kožo.[2]

Je zelo odporna drevesna vrsta: izkazal se je za odpornejšega na saje, prašne delce in druge oblike onesnaževanja v urbanem okolju kot je to za drevesa običajno.[3][4]

Veliki pajesen so v Evropo prinesli kot okrasno drevo za parkovne nasade,[5] vendar se je nato presenetljivo hitro samostojno razširil po celem kontinentu.[3]

Sklici in opombe

  1. 1,0 1,1 Oleg Polunin, Flowers of Europe, Oxford, 1997, s. 229. (COBISS)
  2. 2,0 2,1 Hans-Dieter Warda, Das grosse Buch der Garten- und Landschaftsgehölze, Bad Zwischenahn, 2002, s. 42, 43. (COBISS)
  3. 3,0 3,1 Ladislav Mucina, Georg Grabherr, Thomas Ellmauer, Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs. Teil 1, Anthropogene Vegetation, Jena, 1993, s. 228. (COBISS)
  4. Michael A. Dirr, Manual of woody landscape plants : their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses, Champaign, 1998, s. 80. (COBISS)
  5. Konrad Lauber, Gerhart Wagner, Flora Helvetica, Bern, 2001, s. 714. (COBISS)
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Veliki pajesen: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

provided by wikipedia SL

Veliki pajesen (znanstveno ime Ailanthus altissima), znan tudi kot visoki pajesen, navadni pajesen, ailant oz. božje drevo, je drevo, ki izvira iz Kitajske.

Veliki pajesen zraste do 25 metrov visoko (v 20 letih zraste ok. 15 metrov visoko). Oblikuje široko krošnjo in se občasno pojavlja tudi kot večdebelno drevo. Najraje ima sončne lege z blago klimo. Mladi poganjki so rdečerjave barve in na otip žametni. Lubje je sivorjavo s svetlimi progami, pozneje podolžno razpokano. Listi so do 60 cm dolgi in imajo neprijeten intenziven vonj. Listje odpade z drevesa razmeroma pozno. Drevo cveti julija in avgusta. Njegova semena so krilata, podobno kot pri jesenu. Semena in lubje so strupeni. Lubje ima močni odvajalni učinek, drevesni sok močno draži kožo.

Je zelo odporna drevesna vrsta: izkazal se je za odpornejšega na saje, prašne delce in druge oblike onesnaževanja v urbanem okolju kot je to za drevesa običajno.

Veliki pajesen so v Evropo prinesli kot okrasno drevo za parkovne nasade, vendar se je nato presenetljivo hitro samostojno razširil po celem kontinentu.

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Gudaträd ( Swedish )

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Gudaträd (Ailanthus altissima) är ett träd i familjen bittervedsväxter som vilt förekommer i nordöstra och centrala Kina. Det är ett lövfällande träd som kan bli upp till 25 meter högt, i undantagsfall upp till 35 meter. Stammen kan nå ett omfång på 1 meter, någon gång så mycket som 1,5 meter.

Trädets bark är slät och ljusgrå medan bladskaften är rödaktiga eller rödbruna. Gudaträdet har stora löv; vanligen 30-60 cm, men så stora som 1 meter förekommer på unga skott, och som är uppbyggda av 11-33 småblad. Varje småblad har en till tre taggar på varje sida nära basen, vilket särskiljer dem från arter i släktet sumaker (Rhus).

 src=
Frön

Blomman är liten och gulgrön och bildar klasar som kan vara upp till 30 centimeter långa. Gudaträdet är tvåbyggare (har skilda hon- och hanindivider). Fröet är 5 millimeter i diameter och är utrustat med 4 centimeter långa och 1 centimeter breda vingar (som en lönnäsa). Dessa vingar är vridna vilket får fröet att snurra när det faller till marken. Ett träd kan producera mer än 300 000 frön under ett år. Alla delar av trädet har en obehaglig doft.

Gudaträdet liknar vissa arter i släktet sumaker, som rönnsumak. Ett närmare studium av löven visar dock på skillnader. Gudaträdet blir dessutom mycket högre än alla arter av sumak.

Gudaträdet kan avge en allelopatisk vätska som heter ailanthone och som hindrar andra växters tillväxt. Denna vätska är starkast i barken och rötterna men återfinns även i bladen, träet och fröna. I en studie visade det sig att extrakt från trädets bark hämmade 50% av frön från smörgåskrasse från att gro. Man testade även att använda denna vätska som ogräsmedel och det visade sig att det kunde döda nästan 100% av de flesta plantor i studien.[1]

Källor

  1. ^ - Studie över gudaträdets allelopatiska förmåga
Rödklöver.png Denna växtartikel saknar väsentlig information. Du kan hjälpa till genom att tillföra sådan.
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Gudaträd: Brief Summary ( Swedish )

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Gudaträd (Ailanthus altissima) är ett träd i familjen bittervedsväxter som vilt förekommer i nordöstra och centrala Kina. Det är ett lövfällande träd som kan bli upp till 25 meter högt, i undantagsfall upp till 35 meter. Stammen kan nå ett omfång på 1 meter, någon gång så mycket som 1,5 meter.

Trädets bark är slät och ljusgrå medan bladskaften är rödaktiga eller rödbruna. Gudaträdet har stora löv; vanligen 30-60 cm, men så stora som 1 meter förekommer på unga skott, och som är uppbyggda av 11-33 småblad. Varje småblad har en till tre taggar på varje sida nära basen, vilket särskiljer dem från arter i släktet sumaker (Rhus).

 src= Frön

Blomman är liten och gulgrön och bildar klasar som kan vara upp till 30 centimeter långa. Gudaträdet är tvåbyggare (har skilda hon- och hanindivider). Fröet är 5 millimeter i diameter och är utrustat med 4 centimeter långa och 1 centimeter breda vingar (som en lönnäsa). Dessa vingar är vridna vilket får fröet att snurra när det faller till marken. Ett träd kan producera mer än 300 000 frön under ett år. Alla delar av trädet har en obehaglig doft.

Gudaträdet liknar vissa arter i släktet sumaker, som rönnsumak. Ett närmare studium av löven visar dock på skillnader. Gudaträdet blir dessutom mycket högre än alla arter av sumak.

Gudaträdet kan avge en allelopatisk vätska som heter ailanthone och som hindrar andra växters tillväxt. Denna vätska är starkast i barken och rötterna men återfinns även i bladen, träet och fröna. I en studie visade det sig att extrakt från trädets bark hämmade 50% av frön från smörgåskrasse från att gro. Man testade även att använda denna vätska som ogräsmedel och det visade sig att det kunde döda nästan 100% av de flesta plantor i studien.

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Kokar ağaç ( Turkish )

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Kokar ağaç (Ailanthus altissima), Simaroubaceae familyasından Mayıs-Haziran ayları arasında yeşilimsi sarı renkli çiçekler açan, kötü kokulu bir ağaç türü. Vatanı Uzakdoğu'dur. Buradan Avrupa ve Anadolu'ya yayılmıştır.

Morfoloji

Yaprakları bileşik, 15-40 yaprakçıktan meydana gelir. Çiçekler büyük bir salkım halinde toplanmışlardır. Taç ve çanak yaprakları 5 parçalıdır. Erkek ve dişi çiçekler farklı ağaçlarda bulunur. Meyveleri önce yeşil, olgunlaştıktan sonra kırmızı renklidir.

Kullanımı

Yapraklar reçine, tanen ve C vitamini; gövde kabuğu tanen ve acı maddeler ihtiva eder. İshal ve dizanteride, çayı kabız edici olarak kullanılır.

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Kokar ağaç: Brief Summary ( Turkish )

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Kokar ağaç (Ailanthus altissima), Simaroubaceae familyasından Mayıs-Haziran ayları arasında yeşilimsi sarı renkli çiçekler açan, kötü kokulu bir ağaç türü. Vatanı Uzakdoğu'dur. Buradan Avrupa ve Anadolu'ya yayılmıştır.

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Айлант найвищий ( Ukrainian )

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У Вікіпедії є статті про інші значення цього терміна: Айлант високий (значення).
AilanthusAltissimaFlower2.jpg

Айла́нт найви́щий (Ailanthus altissima) — вид дерев з роду айлант родини симарубових.

Назви

Назва походить від ailanto, що на одному з індонезійських діалектів означає «дерево богів»[2].

Синоніми:

Народні назви рослини: чумак, галаус, рай-дерево, темноцвітник, китайський ясен[3].

Поширення

Батьківщиною айланта найвищого є Китай[4], де дерево здавна культивується для розведення айлантового шовкопряда.

Культивується в Європі і Північній Америці як озеленювальна і декоративна рослина. В 1751 році завезений на Північний Кавказ, в Астрахань і Крим. Звичайний у містах південних областей України, використовується для озеленення Олешківських пісків.

Дерево невимогливе до ґрунту і посухи. Утворює рясні хащі. У багатьох місцях здичавіло, утворює зарості вздовж доріг, по ярах, біля занедбаних будівель.

У Криму, особливо на Південному березі Криму, завдяки своєму специфічному запаху не має природних ворогів і витісняє місцеві види.

Опис

Дерево швидко росте, досягаючи висоти 20-30 м, однорічна поросль може досягати висоти 3 м.

Листки складні, непарно- або парноперисті, завдовжки до 60 см. (у молодих дерев — до 1 м). При деформації видають специфічний неприємний запах. Серцевина стовбура пориста і м'яка.

Квітки одностатеві, у волотистих суцвіттях завдовжки до 20 см. Плідкрилатка. Насіння отруйне.

Примітки


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Айлант найвищий: Brief Summary ( Ukrainian )

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У Вікіпедії є статті про інші значення цього терміна: Айлант високий (значення). AilanthusAltissimaFlower2.jpg

Айла́нт найви́щий (Ailanthus altissima) — вид дерев з роду айлант родини симарубових.

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Xú xuân ( Vietnamese )

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Xin xem các mục từ có tên tương tự ở Xuân (cây)

Xú xuân (danh pháp khoa học: Ailanthus altissima, /ˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsɪmə/[2]), còn gọi là thanh thất núi cao, càng hom cao, phượng nhỡn thảo[3], là một loài cây rụng lá trong họ Thanh thất (Simaroubaceae). Nó gốc ở miền trung và đông bắc Trung Quốc, cũng như Đài Loan. Không như các loài khác của chi Ailanthus, nó được tìm thấy ở vùng ôn đới nhiều hơn nhiệt đới. Nó có thể đạt chiều cao 15 mét (49 ft) trong 25 năm. Loài này có vòng đời ngắn và hiếm cá thể nào sống quá 50 năm.

Hình ảnh

Chú thích

  1. ^ “The Plant List”.
  2. ^ The Oxford English Dictionary (ấn bản 2). Oxford University Press. 1989.
  3. ^ “Ailanthus altissima”. Truy cập 13 tháng 2 năm 2015.

Tham khảo

  • The Oxford English Dictionary (ấn bản 2). Oxford University Press. 1989.
  • Miller, James H. (1990). “Ailanthus altissima”. Trong Russell M. Burns and Barbara H. Honkala (eds.). Silvics of North America, Volume 2: hardwoods. Agriculture Handbooks, 654. USDA Forest Service. ISBN 0-16-029260-3. Bản gốc lưu trữ ngày 22 tháng 1 năm 2010. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010. AH654
  • Hu, Shiu-ying (tháng 3 năm 1979). Ailanthus altissima (PDF). Arnoldia 39 (2): 29–50. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |month= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Miller, James H. (2003). “Tree-of-heaven”. Nonnative invasive plants of southern forests: a field guide for identification and control. USDA Forest Service. Truy cập ngày 29 tháng 11 năm 2011. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-062
  • Kaproth, Matthew A.; James B. McGraw (tháng 10 năm 2008). “Seed Viability and Dispersal of the Wind-Dispersed Invasive Ailanthus altissima in Aqueous Environments”. Forest Science 54 (5): 490–496. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |month= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Felter, Harvey Wickes; John Uri Lloyd (1898). Ailanthus.—Ailanthus.”. King's American Dispensatory (ấn bản 18). Henriette's Herbal Homepage. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp) A 2-volumes modern facsimileis published by Eclectic Medical Publications.
  • Ronse De Craene, Louis P.; Elspeth Haston (tháng 8 năm 2006). “The systematic relationships of glucosinolate-producing plants and related families: a cladistic investigation based on morphological and molecular characters”. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 151 (4): 453–494. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2006.00580.x. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |month= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Swingle, Walter T. (1916). “The early European history and the botanical name of the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima”. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 6 (14): 490–498.
  • Huang, Chenjiu (1997). “Ailanthus Desf.”. Trong Shukun Chen. Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae 43 (3). Beijing: Science Press. tr. 1–5. ISBN 7-03-005367-2.
  • Zheng, Hao; wu, Yun; Ding, Jianqing; Binion, Denise; Fu, Weidong; Reardon, Richard (tháng 9 năm 2004). “Ailanthus altissima” (PDF). Invasive Plants of Asian Origin Established in the United States and Their Natural Enemies, Volume 1. USDA Forest Service. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp) FHTET-2004-05
  • Li, Hui-lin (1993). “Simaroubaceae”. Trong Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan. Flora of Taiwan, Volume 3: Hamamelidaceae-Umbelliferea (ấn bản 2). ISBN 957-9019-41-X. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Pan, F.J. (1998). “Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai”. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Dictionary of Botanical Epithets. Last accessed ngày 15 tháng 4 năm 2008.
  • Hoshovsky, Marc C. (1988). “Element Stewardship Abstract for Ailanthus altissima” (PDF). Arlington, Virginia: The Nature Conservancy. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • (tiếng Đức) Schmeil, Otto; Fitschen, Jost; Seybold, Siegmund (2006). Flora von Deutschland, 93. Auflage. Wiebelsheim: Quelle & Meyer Verlag. tr. 42. ISBN 3-494-01413-2. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Little Jr., Elbert L. (1979). Checklist of United States Trees (Native and Naturalized). Agriculture Handbooks 541. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. tr. 375. OCLC 6553978. AH541
  • Shah, Behula (Summer 1997). “The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima (PDF). Arnoldia 57 (3): 21–27. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • (tiếng Đức) Kowarik, Ingo (2003). Biologische Invasionen - Neophyten und Neozoen in Mitteleuropa. Stuttgart: Verlag Eugen Ulmer. ISBN 3-8001-3924-3.
  • Australian Weeds Committee. “Weed Identification - Tree-of-heaven”. Weed Identification & Information. National Weeds Strategy. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
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  • Shafiq, Muhammad; Nizami, M. I. (1986). “Growth Behaviour of Different Plants under Gullied Area of Pothwar Plateau”. The Pakistan Journal of Forestry 36 (1): 9–15. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Merriam, Robert W. (October–December 2003). “The Abundance, Distribution and Edge Associations of Six Non-Indigenous, Harmful Plants across North Carolina”. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 130 (4): 283–291. JSTOR 3557546. doi:10.2307/3557546.
  • Stipes, R.J. (1995). “A tree grows in Virginia [abstract]”. Virginia Journal of Science (Proceedings of the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science) 46 (2): 105.
  • Munz, Philip Alexander; David D. Keck (1973) [1959-1968]. A California Flora and Supplement. Berkeley: University of California Press. tr. 993. ISBN 0-520-02405-2. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • McClintock, Elizabeth. “Ailanthus altissima”. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Grime, J. P. (ngày 9 tháng 10 năm 1965). “Shade Tolerance in Flowering Plants”. Nature 208 (5006): 161–163. doi:10.1038/208161a0.
  • Knapp, Liza B.; Canham, Charles D. (October–December, 2000). “Invasion of an Old-Growth Forest in New York by Ailanthus altissima: Sapling Growth and Recruitment in Canopy Gaps”. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 127 (4): 307–315. JSTOR 3088649. doi:10.2307/3088649. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp); Kiểm tra giá trị ngày tháng trong: |date= (trợ giúp)
  • Heisy, Rod M. (tháng 2 năm 1996). “Identification of an Allelopathic Compound from Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae) and Characterization of its Herbicidal Activity”. American Journal of Botany 83 (2): 192–200. JSTOR 2445938. doi:10.2307/2445938. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |month= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Heisy, Rod M. (tháng 5 năm 1990). “Allelopathic and Herbicidal Effects of Extracts from Tree of Heaven”. American Journal of Botany 77 (5): 662–670. JSTOR 2444812. doi:10.2307/2444812. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |month= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Mergen, Francois (tháng 9 năm 1959). “A Toxic Principle in the Leaves of Ailanthus”. Botanical Gazette 121 (1): 32–36. JSTOR 2473114. doi:10.1086/336038. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |month= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Lawrence, Jeffrey G.; Alison Colwell & Owen Sexton (tháng 7 năm 1991). “The Ecological Impact of Allelopathy in Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae)”. American Journal of Botany 78 (7): 948–958. JSTOR 2445173. doi:10.2307/2445173. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |month= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Howard, Janet L. (2004). “Ailanthus altissima”. Fire Effects Information System. USDA Forest Service. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Barnes, Jeffrey K. (ngày 2 tháng 6 năm 2005). “Ailanthus webworm moth”. University of Arkansas Arthropod Museum Notes. University of Arkansas. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Swearingen, Jil M.; Phillip D. Pannill (2009). “Fact Sheet: Tree-of-heaven” (PDF). Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Duke, James A. (1983). “Ailanthus altissima”. Handbook of Energy Crops. Purdue University Center for New Crops & Plant Products. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Gill, Barbara (2004). “Ailanthus”. WoodSampler. Woodworker's Website Association. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Dirr, Michael A. (1998) [1975]. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants . Champaign, Illinois: Stipes. tr. 80. ISBN 0-87563-795-7. Bảo trì CS1: Văn bản dư (link)
  • Mitchell, Alan (1974). Trees of Britain & Northern Europe. London: Harper Collins. tr. 310–311. ISBN 0-00-219213-6.
  • Keeler, Harriet L. (1900). “Simaroubàceae—Ailanthus family”. Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them. New York: Charles Scriber's Sons. tr. 36–40. ISBN 0-87338-838-0. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Dirr, Michael A.; Zhang, Donglin (2004). Potential New Ornamental Plants from China (PDF). 49th Annual Southern Nursery Association Research Conference. tr. 607–609. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Kuhns, Mike; Larry Rupp (tháng 7 năm 2001). “Selecting and Planting Landscape Trees” (PDF). Utah State University Cooperative Extension. tr. 19. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |coauthors= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
  • Hartwell, Jonathan L. (1971). “Plants used against cancer. A survey”. Lloydia 34 (2): 205–255. PMID 4938826. This is installment 9 in a multiple part paper, published collectively as a book (Quarterman Publications, ISBN 0-88000-130-5, Bioactive Plants (series), 2) in 1982.
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  • “Penn State Scientists: Tree of Heaven Really Isn't” (Thông cáo báo chí). Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. Ngày 14 tháng 6 năm 1999. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Fergus, Charles (2005). Trees of New England: a Natural History. Guildford: Falcon. tr. 289. ISBN 0-7627-3795-6.
  • Collins, Lisa M. (ngày 10 tháng 12 năm 2003). “Ghetto Palm”. Metro Times Detroit. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.
  • Collins, Glen (ngày 27 tháng 3 năm 2008). “A Tree That Survived a Sculptor's Chisel Is Chopped Down”. The New York Times. Truy cập ngày 6 tháng 3 năm 2012.
  • Wasacz, Walter (ngày 30 tháng 1 năm 2007). “Big Ideas for Shrinking Cities”. Model D. Bản gốc lưu trữ ngày 3 tháng 1 năm 2010. Truy cập ngày 7 tháng 2 năm 2010.

Liên kết ngoài

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Xú xuân: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

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Xin xem các mục từ có tên tương tự ở Xuân (cây)

Xú xuân (danh pháp khoa học: Ailanthus altissima, /ˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsɪmə/), còn gọi là thanh thất núi cao, càng hom cao, phượng nhỡn thảo, là một loài cây rụng lá trong họ Thanh thất (Simaroubaceae). Nó gốc ở miền trung và đông bắc Trung Quốc, cũng như Đài Loan. Không như các loài khác của chi Ailanthus, nó được tìm thấy ở vùng ôn đới nhiều hơn nhiệt đới. Nó có thể đạt chiều cao 15 mét (49 ft) trong 25 năm. Loài này có vòng đời ngắn và hiếm cá thể nào sống quá 50 năm.

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Айлант высочайший ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
Царство: Растения
Подцарство: Зелёные растения
Отдел: Цветковые
Надпорядок: Rosanae
Семейство: Симарубовые
Род: Айлант
Вид: Айлант высочайший
Международное научное название

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle (1916)

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ITIS 28827NCBI 23810EOL 5614169GRIN t:2072IPNI 813521-1TPL kew-2626815

Айла́нт высоча́йший (лат. Ailánthus altíssima) — дерево; вид рода Айлант семейства Симарубовые.

Распространение и среда обитания

Родиной айланта высочайшего является Китай, где дерево издавна культивируется для разведения айлантового шелкопряда.

Культивируется в Европе и Северной Америке в качестве озеленительного и декоративного растения. В Россию завезён в 1751 году, растёт на Северном Кавказе, в Ростове-на-Дону, Астрахани и Волгограде, где сильно подмерзает зимой, хорошо чувствует себя в Ростовской области, Краснодарском крае, где зиму переносит легче. Обычен в городах южных областей Украины, используется для озеленения Алешковских песков.

Дерево нетребовательно к почве и засухоустойчиво. Образует обильные корневые отпрыски. Во многих местах одичало, образует заросли вдоль дорог, по оврагам, у заброшенных строений.

Вредоносность

В Крыму, особенно на южном берегу, айлант высочайший благодаря своей способности к образованию корневых отпрысков и тому, что из-за его специфического запаха у него нет природных врагов, образует густые заросли и вытесняет местные виды.

Включён в список регулируемых некарантинных вредных организмов на территории Российской Федерации Перечня карантинных объектов[2].

Ботаническое описание

 src=
Ботаническая иллюстрация из книги American medicinal plants : an illustrated and descriptive guide to the American plants used as homopathic remedies : their history, preparation, chemistry, and physiological effects, 1887

Дерево быстро растёт, достигая высоты 20—30 м[3], за что в англоязычных странах получило прозвище Дерево небес (англ. Tree of Heaven).

Листья очерёдные сложные, непарноперистые, длиной до 60 см, а у поросли до 1 м, похожи на листья пальм, поэтому в США его иногда называют пальмой гетто (англ. ghetto palm). При растирании источают неприятный специфический аромат.

Цветки однополые душистые, в конечных метельчатых соцветиях длиной до 20 см.

Плодкрылатка. Семена ядовиты[источник не указан 1346 дней]

Названия

Название происходит от ailanto, что на одном из индонезийских диалектов значит «дерево богов»[4].

Народные названия растения — «китайский ясень»[5], «китайская бузина»[6], «уксусное дерево», «вонючка», «чумак», «рай-дерево», «божье дерево».

Хозяйственное значение и применение

Айлант высочайший содержит горькое вещество айлантин. В плодах до 60 % жирного масла. Эссенция из молодых побегов, цветков и молодой коры или тинктура из зрелых плодов применяется в гомеопатии и в тибетской медицине[5].[7]

Листья служат кормом айлантового шелкопряда[5].

Ботаническая классификация

Синонимы

По данным The Plant List на 2013 год, в синонимику вида входят[8]:

Примечания

  1. Об условности указания класса двудольных в качестве вышестоящего таксона для описываемой в данной статье группы растений см. раздел «Системы APG» статьи «Двудольные».
  2. Приказ от 29 декабря 2014 года № 501 по Министерству сельского хозяйства Российской Федерации «Об утверждении Перечня карантинных объектов»
  3. Однолетняя поросль может достигать высоты 3 м.
  4. Ailanthus: dictionary on Plants and Trees, Ailanthus, Derived from ailanto, tree of the gods,Simaroubaceae family, also known as ghetto palms or poverty trees, genus of the qua … Архивировано 11 декабря 2007 года.
  5. 1 2 3 Энциклопедический словарь лекарственных, эфирномасличных и ядовитых растений / Сост. Г. С. Оголевец. — М.: Сельхозгиз, 1951. — С. 10. — 584 с.
  6. Возможно, по специфическому запаху при цветении, похожему на запах бузины, или по образуемым молодой порослью айланта зарослям.
  7. Айлант высочайший : лекарственное растение, применение, отзывы, полезные свойства, противопоказания (неопр.). lektrava.ru. Проверено 31 июля 2017.
  8. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is an accepted name (англ.). The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Missouri Botanical Garden (2013).
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Айлант высочайший: Brief Summary ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию

Айла́нт высоча́йший (лат. Ailánthus altíssima) — дерево; вид рода Айлант семейства Симарубовые.

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臭椿 ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科
Confusion grey.svg 提示:本条目的主题不是香椿
二名法 Ailanthus altissima
(Mill.) Swingle

臭椿学名Ailanthus altissima [1])原名拼音chū注音ㄕㄨ),又名大眼桐、姑姑翅、臭桐,属于苦木科,是一种落叶树。它原产于东亚北部与中部。与臭椿属其他成员不同,它生长在气候温和的地带而不是热带地区。这种树木生长迅速,适应环境能力强,可以在25年内达到15米(50英尺)的高度。然而此物种寿命较短,极少生存超过50年。

在中国,臭椿历史悠久且分布广泛。它在现存最古老的中文词典中就被提及。由于传说可以治疗从精神疾病到秃顶的各种病症,它也在无数中文医学文献中被列出。其根、叶及树皮至今仍在中医中,主要作为一种收敛剂使用。这种树作为樗蚕(参与丝绸生产的一种蛾)的一种寄生植物,已被广泛种植于中国及其他国家。臭椿也已成为了西方文化的一部分,美国贝蒂·史密斯所著的个人最畅销的小说《布鲁克林有棵树》的主要象征及主题即为这种树。

此树在18世纪40年代从中国传至欧洲, 在1784年传至美国。在中国风统治着欧洲艺术的时期,它是首批传至欧洲的树种之一,最初是作为一种美丽的花园样本而受到欢迎。然而在园艺家熟悉了其吸枝习性与难闻的气味之后,这种热情便很快减弱。尽管如此,它仍在19世纪广泛用作行道树。除欧洲和美国之外,这种植物已传播到很多超出其原分布地的其他地区。由于它会迅速移植至受干扰区并抑制植物与化感物质之间的竞争,它在其中许多地区变成了入侵物种。在澳大利亚美国新西兰和几个南欧东欧的国家,它被视为一种有害的杂草。砍伐后,这种树还会茁壮地再次发芽,因此将其根除十分困难而且非常费时。

特征

 src=
叶、花及翅果的植物学绘图,来自布里顿布朗1913年出版的Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada

臭椿是一种中型树木,高度在17至27米(56至90英尺)之间,胸高处直径能成长到1米左右(40英寸)。[2]树皮光滑,呈浅灰色,但由于树的年龄,常常会出现淡褐色裂缝,使树皮变得有点粗糙。细枝坚实,光滑但稍有软毛,色彩为略带红色或栗色。 这些细枝拥有皮孔和心形的叶痕(即叶落后留在细枝上的痕迹),叶痕边界周围有许多维管束痕(即叶脉曾连接至树处的小分界线)。花蕾长着精细的茸毛,为圆顶状,部分藏在叶柄后,但休眠季节,它们在可在叶痕弯缺处完全可见。[3]树枝为浅灰至深灰色,平滑,有光泽;随年龄增长,树枝上凸起的皮孔变成了裂缝。树枝末端下垂。植物所有部分都有一种与众不同的的强烈气味,这种气味常被比作腐烂的花生或腰果的气味。[4]

片较大,为奇数或偶数羽状复叶,交替排列于叶柄之上。它们的长度在30至90厘米(1至3英尺)之间,包括10至41片成对分布的小叶,最大的叶片发现于强健的新梢上。叶轴为浅绿至带红的绿色,其基部膨大。小叶卵状披针形,边缘完整,叶片不完全对称,有时相互之间不直接对生。每片小叶为5至18厘米(2至7英寸)长,2.5至5厘米(1至2英寸)宽,末端为长锥形,而基部有两至四个细齿,每一个都在末梢处有一个或更多腺。[3]小叶的上端颜色为深绿,叶脉浅绿,而下端是带白色的绿色。叶柄为5至12毫米(0.2至0.5英尺)长。[4]浅裂的基部与腺与相似的漆树不同,可据此区分。

 src=
 src=
臭椿的树皮与花
 src=
雌树上未成熟的种子

较小,以大型圆锥花序出现,长度最大达到50厘米(20英寸),出现于新芽末端。单独的花朵有从黄绿色至略带红色的颜色,每朵有五片花瓣花萼[2][4]花萼为杯状,浅裂并连生,而花瓣为镊合状(即在边缘处接触但不重叠),白色,有朝向内部的绒毛。[3][5][6]臭椿在南方最早于四月中旬开花,在北方则不晚于六月。臭椿是雌雄异体的,雄花与雌花长在不同个体上。雄树产生多于雌树四倍的花,这使雄花更显眼。此外,雄性的植物会在开花吸引授粉的昆虫时放出一种难闻的气味。雌花包括十枚(偶尔会因发育不全而只有五枚)不育雄蕊花药为心形。雌蕊由五片分离的心皮组成,每一片包含一个单独的胚珠。其花柱结合起来,外形细长,柱头为星形。[3][5]雄花外观与此相似,当然,它们没有雌蕊,而雄蕊是有用的,每一枚顶端都有球状的花药和一个含腺的绿色花盘。[3]种子长在雌树上,直径5毫米,每一个都包在2.5厘米(1英寸)长,1厘米(0.4英寸)宽的翅果内,在六至八月显露出来,但通常在下一个春天之前都会留在树上。翅果的尖端扭曲,这使其落下时会旋转,促进风的散播。[2][4]雌性可以产生大量种子,通常树的每千克有30,000个(每磅14,000个)。[2]

分类及命名

臭椿它由法国耶稣会汤执中(Pierre Nicolas d'Incarville)引进到欧洲之后被首次简短地描述,18世纪40年代,汤执中将树种从北京经由西伯利亚寄给了他的植物学家朋友伯纳·德·裕苏(Bernard de Jussieu)。由于汤执中在长江下游地区观察过漆树Toxicodendron vernicifluum),它附加说明指出了他寄去的树种是这种外貌相似的、有重要经济意义的树种,而不是臭椿。这造成了分类学接下来几十年的混乱。1751年,裕苏在法国种植了一些种子,并把其他的寄给了切尔西药用植物园的管理员,菲利普·米勒,以及英格兰巴士布里奇的一座外来植物园的所有者,菲利普·C·韦伯。[3]

三个人用三种不同名称对此树加以描述,最先造成了此树名称的混乱。在巴黎,林奈把这种植物叫做Rhus succedanea,而当时它被广泛称作grand vernis du Japon。在伦敦,这些标本被米勒命名为Toxicodendron altissima,在巴士布里奇它被以旧分类系统命名为Rhus Sinese foliis alatis。现存有来自18世纪50年代的记录,记载了菲利普·米勒,和韦伯的植物园的管理者,约翰·埃里斯之间关于合适名称的争论。可是,结果没有决定,更多的名称却很快出现了:雅克布·弗雷德里希·埃尔哈特于1782年观察了乌得勒支的标本并把它命名为Rhus cacodendron[3]

臭椿属的分类情形在1788年变得清晰,当时雷内·路易士·德斯方坦观察了仍被标作Rhus succedanea的巴黎标本的翅果,得出它不属于漆树属的结论。他公开发表了一篇有文章,附带插图地描述了这种树木,并给了它一个Ailanthus glandulosa的名字,将它和当时叫做A. integrifolia(白合欢树,现在叫做毛叶楠臭椿,学名:A. triphysa)的热带树木分到同一属中。此名来源于安汶语单词ailanto,意思是“天国之树”或“触及天空的树”。[7][3]种加词glandulosa,是关于叶片上的腺。这个种名持续到了1957年,但终于因为之后在物种级出现了同音词而无效。[3]现在的种名来源于美国种植业部雇用的沃尔特·T·斯温格。他决定结合米勒的旧种名和方坦的属名, 最终接受学名Ailanthus altissima[8]Altissima拉丁语的“最高”,[9]昰形容树可以达到的高度。此树的种名glandulosus or altissimus)有时被错误地列作阳性,而植物学,和古典拉丁语一样,将大多数的树作为阴性。

臭椿有三个变种

  • 臭椿(原变种)( A. altissima var. altissima):原产于中国大陆的原变种。
  • 台湾臭椿( A. altissima var. tanakai):台湾北部高地特有。它和树皮带黄色的种类不同,奇数羽状的叶片也平均较短,为45至60厘米(18至24英寸)长,只有13至25片镰状小叶。[10][11][12]IUCN紅色名錄中,它被列为受威胁物种中的瀕危物種,因为建筑与工业建设使他们的栖息地丧失。[13]
  • 大果臭椿(A. altissima var. sutchuenensis):不同之处是拥有红色的小枝。[10][11]

分布与栖息地

臭椿原产于东亚中国北部和中部、台湾[14]朝鲜[15]台湾主要生长takanai变种[13]。在中国,除甘肃黑龙江海南吉林宁夏青海新疆西藏外的都是原产地。[10]

此树偏好潮湿肥沃的土壤,但却适应极大范围的土壤条件和pH值。它耐旱,但不能抗涝。它也不能在阴暗处生长。[2]在中国,臭椿常生长在石灰岩地区[11]。臭椿可以在广泛的气候条件下生存。[2]在其原产地,台湾的高海拔处,[13]和中国大陆海拔较低处都能寻其踪迹[3]在美国,靠近大平原处的干旱区域、阿巴拉契亚山脉南部非常潮湿的区域和下层落基山脉寒冷的区域,都有其生长。长时期的寒冷和雪的覆盖造成顶梢枯死,但这些树却能从根部重新发芽。[2]

作为外来植物

臭椿最早的引进,是到朝鲜半岛南部和日本。这种树有可能也原产于这些地方,但通常认为其是很早期的引进。[16]即使在中国本身,它也曾在超出原产地的地方如青海宁夏新疆被归化。[11]

在1784年,裕苏将种子寄至英格兰后不久,一些又被一名费城园艺家,威廉·汉密尔顿转寄至美国。在欧洲和美国,它都很快成为了受青睐的观赏植物,尤其是作为行道树;1840年之前,大多苗圃中都有此植物。[3][7]19世纪90年代,在加利福尼亚淘金潮期间到来的中国移民将此树分别带到加利福尼亚。它在其引进的所有地区都已免于耕种,而在美国范围最广。[14]它在欧洲大部分地区都已归化,包括在德国[17]奥地利瑞士潘诺尼亚地区(即从意大利匈牙利南至波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那的东南欧)和地中海盆地的大部分国家。[15]臭椿也被引进至了阿根廷[14] 澳大利亚(在新南威尔士和维多利亚它是公告的杂草)、[18]新西兰(它被列于国家有害植物协定,被评级为“不需要的生物”)[19]、中东和南亚的一些国家如巴基斯坦[20]

北美,臭椿存在于东边的马萨诸塞州,西至安大略省南部,西南至艾奥瓦州,南至德克萨斯州,东至佛罗里达州北部。在西海岸它分布在新墨西哥州,西至加利福尼亚州,北至华盛顿州[2][14]在其分布地东部的城市的受干扰区,其生长最为广泛,因为很早之前它是作为行道树使用的。[3][14]它也会沿着道路和铁路生长。例如,2003年在北卡罗来纳州的研究发现臭椿在此州存在于1.7%的公路和铁路边缘,而且每年扩大的分布范围达到4.76%比例的县。[21]相似地,另一次研究实施于弗吉尼亚西南部,确定了臭椿正沿着此州的州际公路系统的大约30%的长度或里程繁盛着。[22]它有时也进入未被干扰的区域,并与本地植物竞争。[14]在北美西部,它在多山地区最为普遍,环绕着老旧寓所和遗弃的采矿作业地点。[23][24]

生态学

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拥有大量种子的雌株,位于西班牙巴利亚多利德

臭椿是一种投机性的植物,繁盛与阳光充足和受干扰的地区。臭椿攻击性地延伸,既依靠种子传播,植物性地也依靠根萌芽。被砍伐后,它可以迅速地再次发芽。[2]通常认为是一种不喜阴的树种,无法在阴暗环境中竞争,[25]虽然有时发现它与阔叶树竞争,但这样的竞争多是只存在于不得不生长于某个地方的时候。[2]另一方面,在一个纽约的古老铁杉-阔叶树森林的研究中发现,在植物冠窗下,臭椿有能力成功地与当地植物竞争,那里只有全部阳光的2到15%可以透入。同样的研究说明,为了达到林冠,臭椿似乎一定需要缝隙,也就是说,它在短时间内迅速地生长,而不是长时间地缓慢地生长。[26]在任何地方其寿命都不长,很少有生长超过50年的。[2]臭椿是树种中最耐污染的之一,包括二氧化硫污染,它可以用叶吸收。臭椿可以承受水泥的灰尘和煤焦油产生的烟雾,也可以相对较好地对抗臭氧暴露。更甚者, 已经发现它的植物组织里集结了高浓度的[14]

臭椿已被用于重新种植在酸性矿水排水发生的地区,并显示它可以忍耐低至4.1的pH值(近乎番茄汁的酸度)。它可以忍受非常低的水平和高的盐水平。由于拥有在根系统中有效储水的能力,此树种的耐旱度非常强。[14]很少有树生存的地方也常见它的踪迹。根也非常具攻击性,可以对地下管道造成伤害。[3]它们常沿着干道组成密林,由于有为防止竞争而产生的毒素,这些密林中很少有其他树种存在。[14]

臭椿会制造一种化感物质,叫做臭椿苦酮,会禁止其他植物的生长。[27]这种禁止物质在树皮和根部最为强劲,但也存在于植物的叶、树干和种子中。一项研究显示,其根皮一种天然的提取物禁止了50%的水芹(Lepidium sativum)种子样本的发芽。这个研究也测试了这种提取物作为水芹、反枝苋 (Amaranthus retroflexus)、苘麻 (Abutilon theophrastii)、金色狗尾草 (Setaria glauca)、稗草 (Echinochloa crusgalli)、豌豆 (Pisum sativum cv. Sugar Snap)和玉米 (Zea mays cv. Silver Queen)的除草剂的表现。它被证实可以杀死除苘麻之外几乎100%的幼苗,而苘麻表现出一些抵抗。[28]另一个实验显示,这种化学物质的水提取物对于11种北美的阔叶树和34种针叶树或致命或有着高度的伤害,但白蜡木(Fraxinus americana)是唯一的未被不利影响的植物。[29]然而,这种化学物质不影响臭椿自己的幼苗,这显示臭椿有一套防御结构来抵御自毒作用[27]多种植物物种在暴露下已经显示出抵抗的增强。没有优先暴露的族群最易受它们影响。暴露植物产生的种子也比没有暴露的同类显示出更有抵抗力。[30]

臭椿的生长非常迅速,甚至可能是全北美生长最快的。[31]在初始的四年里,每年生长一至两米是很正常的。阴暗处会减缓生长率。较年迈的树,虽然生长的缓慢得多,但仍比其他树种快得多。研究发现加利福尼亚的树只长得比东岸的同更快,而美国的树只又比中国的生长更快。[31]

北欧,直到第二次世界大战之后臭椿才被认为是在城市中引进了。这是由于臭椿可以占领毁坏的建筑碎片遍布的区域,而其他植物大多不会生长在那。[15]另外,城市中较温暖的微气候比起周围的乡村区域,是一个更合适的栖息地。例如,德国的一项研究发现臭椿生长在柏林72%的人口密度高的地区,25%的郊区和3%的城市外的地区。[15]在欧洲的其他地方并不如此,因为气候足够温和,到处都足以让树木繁盛了。例如,臭椿已经占领了匈牙利的自然区域,并被认为是威胁到了该国的阿格泰莱克国家公园的生物多样性。[15]

少数几种的鳞翅目昆虫会以臭椿叶为食,例如长尾水青蛾 (Actias selene)和宽边黄粉蝶 (Eurema hecabe)。在北美该树是樗草地螟蛾 (Atteva punctella)的寄主植物,尽管这种巢蛾原产于中美洲南美洲,并且本来是以大多生长在热带的苦木科植物作为寄主的。[32]而在臭椿的原产地,它是和32种的节肢动物和13种的真菌有着联系的。[11]

由于臭椿有着杂草一样的习性,土地所有者和一些组织常常求助于多种抑制办法来减缓其族群生长。例如,瑞士的巴塞尔就有一个针对此树的消灭计划。[15]然而要根除是非常困难的。运用物理、热力、管理、生物或化学的消灭手段都存在。这些手段的一部分结合起来也许最有效,但它们必须能够共存。它们都有积极与负面的作用,而通常最有效的是物理和化学控制的结合。这就需要运用茎叶与根部除草剂来杀灭存在的树只,同时也要手工摘除或刈割幼苗来防止新的生长。[33][34]

用途

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德州A&M大学昆虫收藏中的一只雄性蓖麻蚕

除了用作装饰植物,臭椿可做木材,也拥有药物效用,还可以作为一种叫做蓖麻蚕的寄主植物,使得生产的比起桑树所产的更强韧,成本也更低廉,只是光泽和质感要稍差一些。这种丝绸也不可以染。它也被称为茧绸或者山东丝,后一个名字是因为这种丝绸常被生产于中国的山东省。茧绸在此省的烟台地区特别有名。这种蛾也被引进至了美国。[3]

臭椿的木材是稻子似的白黄色,有着缎子似的手感,已用于制造家具。[35]它易于弯曲,很适合制造厨房的蒸笼,蒸笼是中国菜中重要的蒸馒头、糕点和米饭的工具。中国东部的浙江省做这些蒸笼最是出名。[3]在很多分布范围,它也被看做是一种好的木柴材料,虽然有些硬与重,但是可以轻易得到。[36]然而,用臭椿木来做家具有一些问题。因为在头几年这种树生长很迅速,以致树干内部和外部的质地是不一样的,这造成木材会在晒干时扭曲或是断裂。人们已经想出出一些手段来防止它们晒干时断裂,使得其可以商业丰收了。虽然活者的树常常有很可塑的木材,但一旦合适地晒干之后可能变得相当硬。[37]

栽培

臭椿在中国是一种广泛运用的装饰树,其价值在于它容许较困难的生长环境。[11]曾经一度也在欧洲和北美盛行过,但后来,尤其在美国,热潮衰败了下来,这是由于其花簇不讨人喜欢的气味,和其杂草似的习性。由于只有雄性会产生气味,通过只卖雌蕊的植物可以提前防止气味的问题,但是种子的生产亦会导致此问题。[7]在1982年,迈克尔·迪尔,一位有名的美国乔治亚大学的园艺学家与教授,报告说发现了一个找不到购主的种植者。他进一步写道(强调说):

“ 在大多景观美化条件下,臭椿几乎没什么价值,因为有太多优质的树可以栽培;但在极其困难的条件下这种树有一些生存空间;人们可以为了其良好的习性,强壮的木质和较好的绿叶而选择臭椿,它的这几方面都会使这种树还比较令人满意;我曾经和一个想要买臭椿的建筑师交谈过,他想将其用于受污染的公路两旁,却苦于找不到充分的支持[...] ” —— 迈克尔·A.迪尔, Manual of Woody Landscape Plants[38]

然而,在欧洲,臭椿仍然有时在花园中使用,因为其习性通常没有在美国那样的扩散性。在英国,臭椿尤其常见于伦敦的广场上和公园里,但也常可在南英格兰和东安格利亚的花园。而在北部就很罕见了,只有在南苏格兰少有可见。在爱尔兰也非常稀有。[39]德国这种树皮普遍种于花园。[17]这种树的栽培在西部变得远没有那么普遍,因为其寿命很短,树干很快会变为空心,使得半径在两英尺以上的树在大风下很不牢固。[35]

臭椿存在少量的栽培种,但在中国以外很少有售,在北美可能就完全没有卖:

  • ‘红叶臭椿’ – 如名字所示,其有引人入胜的鲜艳的红叶。[40]
  • ‘千头椿’[40]
  • ‘小叶臭椿’ – 一种雄性栽培种,树冠比通常的更浓密,习性没有那么似草。[41]
  • ‘红果臭椿’ – 其果实是引人注目的红色。[41]
  • ‘垂叶臭椿’ – 树叶悬挂优雅,形态修长。[41]

药用

臭椿的几乎每一个部分都于中医中有所应用。公元732年一部文献中记录的最老的药方之一,是用于治疗精神疾病的。此药方用到了斩碎的根部原料、年轻男孩的尿液豆豉。静置一天之后滤去液体,然后在几天的疗程中给病人服用。[3]

另一个公元684年唐朝期间的,记录在李时珍的《本草纲目》中的资料来源中记录,当内服树叶时,会使人语无伦次并感到困乏,但外用时可以有效地疖、脓疮和发痒症状。而李时珍记录的另一个药方用叶来治疗秃头。这个配方需要需要一起碾碎臭椿、梓木树的嫩叶,然后得到液体来敷在头皮上以刺激头发的生长。[3]

然而,干燥的树皮仍然是一种成药,并在现代中国中药学中称为“椿白皮”。现在的工作详细地研究它,讨论其化学成分、如何鉴别产品与其制药的用途。在春季或秋季砍伐,剥下树皮,然后丢弃最硬的和最外部的部分,之后再晒干,用水浸泡,将部分用篮子装着重新晒干,最终切为长条。树皮据说有降温和收敛剂的性质,主要用于治疗痢疾、肠出血月经过多症遗精。其总量被规定在仅仅4到10克之间,以避免病人中毒。李时珍的本草纲目中有18种需要臭椿树皮的药方。亚洲和欧洲的化学家找到了一些其药用的原因,它包括许多活跃的化学物质,包括苦木素皂苷,而臭椿的化感物质,臭椿苦酮,是一种已知的抗疟药.[42]它在许多经销中药的商店里都可见到。[3]处的根皮一种酊已成功用于治疗心悸、哮喘癫痫[5]

臭椿的翅果也用于现代中药,叫做“凤眼草”。它们用作止血剂、治疗遗精和粪便或尿液中带血的病人。临床显示也可以治疗滴虫病,一种原生动物造成的阴道传染病“阴道毛滴虫”。[3]在西方,一种以异名A. glandulosa销售的树皮榨取物有时用作草药,来治疗包括的多种疾病。[43]

轶闻证据显示这种植物可能有些许毒性。有害的气味可能造成恶心和头疼,还有人类和绵羊都出现过的接触性皮炎,绵羊更发展出虚弱和瘫痪的症状。臭椿包含一种苯醌刺激物,2,6-二甲氧苯醌,以及活跃的苦木苦味素(臭椿苦酮也是其中一种),这些可以解释这种影响,然而,这些物质也被证实很难甚至不可能在人类或山羊体内繁殖。在一次尝试试验中,一种花和叶中的酊造成了恶心,呕吐和肌肉松弛的症状。[42]

文化

中国

除了臭椿多样的用途,很多世纪以来,它都是中国文化的一部分,最近也在西方达到了一个相似的地位。在现存最古老的字典,在公元前3世纪撰写的《尔雅》中,臭椿写作“樗”(读音为“出”),并在树木清单中列在第二的位置。

但由于树臭椿形散乱,材质疏松,不堪使用,偏偏叶子上还有散发臭味的腺体,因而这种树木也被看作是一种“恶木”,只配用来烧柴,或是用于制作木砖,放在墙根以隔绝潮湿之气。臭椿也在中国最早的诗歌总集《诗经》中出现过,被用来比兴,象征着时运不济。其诗曰:

“ 我行其野,蔽芾其樗。婚姻之故,言就尔居。尔不我畜,复我邦家。 ” —— 《诗经·小雅》

在一部公元656年的唐朝时期汇编的一部中药学著作中又再次提及臭椿。然而,每部著作所描述的特性却并不相同,现在中国植物学界也仍然存在一些争议,关于应该采纳哪一个描述。现在的名称,“臭椿”是一个比较新的名字。住在靠近黄河下游的人们将其称作“椿树”。这个名字是源自臭椿是最晚结束休眠的树木之一的事实,因此当其叶片长出时,就指出冬天真的结束了。[3]

中国文学中,臭椿常用于一个极端的象征,用他的树桩来比喻一个惯坏了的孩子。人们可以把一个孩子叫做“一无是处的臭椿的树桩发的芽”,意思是这个孩子很不可靠。这起源于道家哲人庄子的著作,他提到一种树,从树状处的芽发展起来,因此形状不规则,完全不适合于做木工。后来学者认为此树与臭椿有关,从此运用它象征一个像此树的树状桩的芽一样,如果不遵守规则和传统,就不可能发展成会一个有价值的人。[3]

另外,被大多数世俗之人定性为废物的臭椿树,在唐宋之际时常被文人用来自谦。唐朝诗人白居易就有诗云:

“ 香檀文桂苦雕镌,生理何曾得自全。知我无材老樗否,一枝不损尽天年。 ” —— 《林下樗》

美国

贝蒂·史密斯于1943年出版的《布鲁克林有棵树》使用臭椿作为其中心象征,以它来类比在逆境中茁壮的能力。那时和现在一样,臭椿在不起眼的城市角落很常见。[7][44]她写道:

“ 在纽约的布鲁克林,长着一种树,有人称之为天堂树。不管它的种子落到什么地方,都会长出一棵树来,向着天空,努力生长。这树长在四周围满木篱的空场子里,或是从无人留意的垃圾堆里钻出来。它从地窖的格子窗里伸出来。它也是唯一能在水泥地里长出来的树。它长得很茂盛……没有阳光和水也能生存,甚至似乎不需要泥土。如果不是哪个地方它太多了,人们总会认为它很美。 ” —— 《布鲁克林有棵树》, 介绍


由于臭椿非常多产,导致其有很强的入侵性,并且根除十分困难,臭椿有时有个相反的绰号叫“地狱树",[44][45]在美国的几个地方,这个物种有个绰号叫"ghetto palm",因为它有在城市不讨喜的条件下,或在废弃的、维护糟糕的不动产上生长的习性。[46][47]

直到2008年3月26日为止,在位于纽约皇后区野口勇博物馆的雕塑公园中,一颗18米高的臭椿一直是一个绝佳的 "中心装饰品。这棵树是雕塑家野口勇留下的,在1975年他买下了这座建筑,要把它变成一座博物馆,并清理了其后院。他只在院子里留下了这一棵树,员工会和他在这棵树下吃午餐。 "有一种感觉,雕塑公园似乎是围绕这棵树设计的",野口勇的一个前助手,邦妮·里奇拉克,这样说,她后来变成了博物馆的馆长。2008年之前,人们发现这棵老树快死了,而且有倒向建筑的危险,而这座建筑也快需要大整修了。博物馆雇佣了一个艺术家组织,底特律天堂树木工店,来把木材做成建筑周围的长凳、雕塑和其他设施。他们数了这棵树的年轮,显示其年龄是75岁,而博物馆希望它可以通过吸枝再生。[48]

欧洲

英果·费特尔,一个瑞典优密欧大学的德国艺术家和美术教授,受"ghetto palm"这个绰号的影响而萌发创意。2004年,他从底特律带回了一株活臭椿,把它放在一个在柏林KW当代艺术研究所进行的、称为“收缩城市”的国际艺术展上展示。[46][47]

注释与参考资料

  1. ^ 发音[eɪˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsɪmə]The Oxford English Dictionary 2nd, Oxford University Press, 1989
  2. ^ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 Miller, James H.; Yawney, Harry W. Ailanthus altissima. Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, Volume 2. United States Department of Forestry. 1965, revised December 1990 [2007-05-29]. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助); 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
  3. ^ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 Hu, Shiu-ying. Ailanthus altissima (PDF). Arnoldia. 1979年3月, 39 (2): 29–50 [2007-05-30].
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Miller, James H. Tree-of-heaven. Nonnative invasive plants of southern forests: a field guide for identification and control. Invasive.org. 2003 [2007-05-29].
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Felter, Harvey Wickes; John Uri Lloyd. Ailanthus.—Ailanthus.. King's American Dispensatory. Henriette's Herbal Homepage. 1898 [2007-07-07]. 引文使用过时参数coauthor (帮助)
  6. ^ Ronse De Craene, Louis P.; Elspeth haston. The systematic relationships of glucosinolate-producing plants and related families: a cladistic investigation based on morphological and molecular characters. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 2006年8月, 151 (4): 453–494. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2006.00580.x. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Shah, Behula. The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima (PDF). Arnoldia. 1997年夏, 57 (3): 21–27 [2007-05-29]. 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
  8. ^ Swingle, Walter T. The early European history and the botanical name of the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 1916, 6 (14): 409–498.
  9. ^ Dictionary of Botanical Epithets. Last accessed April 15, 2008.
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Huang, Chenjiu. Ailanthus Desf.. (编) Shukun Chen. Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae 43(3). Beijing: Science Press: pp. 1–5. 1997. ISBN 7-03-005367-2. 引文格式1维护:冗余文本 (link)
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Zheng, Hao; wu, Yun; Ding, Jianqing; Binion, Denise; Fu, Weidong; Reardon, Richard. Ailanthus altissima (PDF). Invasive Plants of Asian Origin Established in the United States and Their Natural Enemies, Volume 1. USDA Forest Service. September 2004 [2007-06-06]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-27). 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  12. ^ Li, Hui-lin. Simaroubaceae. Flora of Taiwan, Volume 3, 2nd Edition. 1993 [2007-05-29]. (原始内容存档于2007-03-11).
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Pan, F.J. Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 1998 [2007-05-29].
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 Hoshovsky, Marc C. Element Stewardship Abstract for Ailanthus altissima (PDF). Arlington, Virginia: The Nature Conservancy. 1988 [2007-06-05]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2006-12-31).
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 (德文) Kowarik, Ingo. Biologische Invasionen - Neophyten und Neozoen in Mitteleuropa. Stuttgart: Verlag Eugen Ulmer. 2003. ISBN 3-8001-3924-3.
  16. ^ Little Jr., Elbert L. Checklist of United States Trees (Native and Naturalized). Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 1979: 375. OCLC 6553978.
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 (德文) Schmeil, Otto; Fitschen, Jost; Seybold, Siegmund. Flora von Deutschland, 93. Auflage. Wiebelsheim: Quelle & Meyer Verlag. 2006: 42. ISBN 3-494-01413-2. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  18. ^ Australian Weeds Committee. Weed Identification - Tree-of-heaven. National Weeds Strategy. [2007-07-18]. (原始内容存档于2007-09-02).
  19. ^ Tree of heaven. Biosecurity New Zealand. [2009-01-13]. (原始内容存档于2010-05-21).
  20. ^ Shafiq, Muhammad; Nizami, M. I. Growth Behaviour of Different Plants under Gullied Area of Pothwar Plateau. The Pakistan Journal of Forestry. 1986, 36 (1): 9–15. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  21. ^ Merriam, Robert W. The Abundance, Distribution and Edge Associations of Six Non-Indigenous, Harmful Plants across North Carolina. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. October–December 2003, 130 (4): 283–291. doi:10.2307/3557546.
  22. ^ Stipes, R.J. A tree grows in Virginia. Virginia Journal of Science. 1995, 46: 105.
  23. ^ Munz, P.A.; Keck, D.D. A California Flora and Supplement. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1973 [1959]. OCLC 5662509. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  24. ^ McClintock, Elizabeth. Ailanthus altissima. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press. [2007-07-16].
  25. ^ Grime, J. P. Shade Tolerance in Flowering Plants. Nature. October 9, 1965, 208: 161–163. doi:10.1038/208161a0.
  26. ^ Knapp, Liza B.; Canham, Charles D. Invasion of an Old-Growth Forest in New York by Ailanthus altissima: Sapling Growth and Recruitment in Canopy Gaps. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. October–December 2000, 127 (4): 307–315. doi:10.2307/3088649. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 Heisy, Rod M. Identification of an Allelopathic Compound from Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae) and Characterization of its Herbicidal Activity. American Journal of Botany. February 1996, 83 (2): 192–200. doi:10.2307/2445938.
  28. ^ Heisy, Rod M. Allelopathic and Herbicidal Effects of Extracts from Tree of Heaven. American Journal of Botany. May 1990, 77 (5): 662–670. doi:10.2307/2444812.
  29. ^ Mergen, Francois. A Toxic Principle in the Leaves of Ailanthus. Botanical Gazette. September 1959, 121 (1): 32–36 [2007-07-17]. doi:10.1086/336038.
  30. ^ Lawrence, Jeffrey G.; Colwell, Alison; Sexton, Owen. The Ecological Impact of Allelopathy in Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae). American Journal of Botany. July 1991, 78 (7): 948–958. doi:10.2307/2445173. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 Howard, Janet L. Ailanthus altissima. Fire Effects Information System. USDA Forest Service. 2004 [2007-07-14].
  32. ^ Barnes, Jeffrey K. Ailanthus webworm moth. University of Arkansas Arthropod Museum Notes. University of Arkansas. June 2, 2005 [2007-06-20]. (原始内容存档于2007年9月2日).
  33. ^ Swearingen, Jil M.; Pannill, Phillip. Tree-of-heaven. Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. 2006. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  34. ^ For a more thorough discussion, see the entry for Ailanthus ailtissima in the Wikimanual of Gardening at Wikibooks.
  35. ^ 35.0 35.1 Keeler, Harriet L. Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them. New York: Charles Scriber's Sons. 1900: 36–40.
  36. ^ Duke, James A. Ailanthus altissima. Handbook of Energy Crops. Purdue University Center for New Crops & Plant Products. 1983 [2007-07-09].
  37. ^ Gill, Barbara. Ailanthus. Woodworker's Website Association. 2004 [2007-07-08].
  38. ^ Dirr, Michael A. Ailanthus. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants revised. Champaign, Illinois: Stipes. 1998: 80 [1975]. ISBN 0-87563-795-7.
  39. ^ Mitchell, Alan. Trees of Britain & Northern Europe. London: Harper Collins. 1974: 310–311. ISBN 0-00-219213-6.
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 Dirr, Michael A.; Zhang, Donglin. Potential New Ornamental Plants from China (PDF). Southern Nursery Association Research Conference: 607–609. 2004 [2007-06-06]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2010-06-25). 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  41. ^ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Kuhns, Mike; Rupp, Larry. Selecting and Planting Landscape Trees (PDF). Utah State University extension: 19. July 200 [2007-07-07]. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助); 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
  42. ^ 42.0 42.1 Burrows, George Edward; Ronald J. Tyrl. Toxic Plants of North America. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 2001: 1242. ISBN 0-8138-2266-1. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
  43. ^ Hartwell, Jonathan L. Plants used against cancer. A survey. Lloydia (Lloyd Library And Museum). 1969, 32 (3): 247–296. ISSN 0024-5461.
  44. ^ 44.0 44.1 Penn State Scientists: Tree of Heaven Really Isn't (新闻稿). Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 1999-06-14 [2007-07-07].
  45. ^ Fergus, Charles. Trees of New England: a Natural History. Guildford: Falcon. 2005: 289. ISBN 0-7627-3795-6.
  46. ^ 46.0 46.1 Collins, Lisa M. Ghetto Palm. Metro Times Detroit. December 10, 2003 [2007-07-07].
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 Wasacz, Walter. Big Ideas for Shrinking Cities. Model D. January 30, 2007 [2007-07-07].
  48. ^ Collins, Glen, "A Tree That Survived a Sculptor's Chisel Is Chopped Down", article, The New York Times, p B3, with additional pictures on p B1, March 27, 2008

外部链接

 src= 维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源:臭椿  src= 维基物种中的分类信息:臭椿
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臭椿: Brief Summary ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科

臭椿(学名:Ailanthus altissima )原名樗(拼音:chū,注音:ㄕㄨ),又名大眼桐、姑姑翅、臭桐,属于苦木科,是一种落叶树。它原产于东亚北部与中部。与臭椿属其他成员不同,它生长在气候温和的地带而不是热带地区。这种树木生长迅速,适应环境能力强,可以在25年内达到15米(50英尺)的高度。然而此物种寿命较短,极少生存超过50年。

在中国,臭椿历史悠久且分布广泛。它在现存最古老的中文词典中就被提及。由于传说可以治疗从精神疾病到秃顶的各种病症,它也在无数中文医学文献中被列出。其根、叶及树皮至今仍在中医中,主要作为一种收敛剂使用。这种树作为樗蚕(参与丝绸生产的一种蛾)的一种寄生植物,已被广泛种植于中国及其他国家。臭椿也已成为了西方文化的一部分,美国贝蒂·史密斯所著的个人最畅销的小说《布鲁克林有棵树》的主要象征及主题即为这种树。

此树在18世纪40年代从中国传至欧洲, 在1784年传至美国。在中国风统治着欧洲艺术的时期,它是首批传至欧洲的树种之一,最初是作为一种美丽的花园样本而受到欢迎。然而在园艺家熟悉了其吸枝习性与难闻的气味之后,这种热情便很快减弱。尽管如此,它仍在19世纪广泛用作行道树。除欧洲和美国之外,这种植物已传播到很多超出其原分布地的其他地区。由于它会迅速移植至受干扰区并抑制植物与化感物质之间的竞争,它在其中许多地区变成了入侵物种。在澳大利亚美国新西兰和几个南欧东欧的国家,它被视为一种有害的杂草。砍伐后,这种树还会茁壮地再次发芽,因此将其根除十分困难而且非常费时。

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ニワウルシ ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語
ニワウルシ/シンジュ ニワウルシの成木 分類(APG III) : 植物界 Plantae : 被子植物門 Magnoliophyta : 双子葉植物綱 Magnoliopsida : ムクロジ目 Sapindales : ニガキ科 Simaroubaceae : ニワウルシ属 Ailanthus : ニワウルシ A. altissima 学名 Ailanthus altissima
(Mill.) Swingle 和名 庭漆、神樹 英名 Tree of Heaven
 src=
果実

ニワウルシ(庭漆、Ailanthus altissima)は、ニガキ科落葉高木。別名、シンジュ(神樹)。和名に「ウルシ」がついているが、ウルシウルシ科)とは全くの別種。ウルシのようにかぶれる心配はない。

特徴[編集]

  • 原産は中国北中部。日本には明治初期に渡来した。樹高は10~20m。は大型の羽状複葉互生する。雌雄異株で、に緑白色の小花を多数円錐状につける。果実に熟し、披針形で中央に種子がある。
  • シンジュサン食樹としても知られ、シンジュサンでの養蚕目的に栽培されたことも各地に野生化する原因となった。近年では道端などに広く野生化しており、日本同様に導入されたアメリカなどでは問題化している。
  • ニワウルシの名称はウルシに似ているが、かぶれないので庭に植えられることから。シンジュは英語名称の"Tree of Heaven(ツリー・オブ・ヘヴン:天国の木)"、ドイツ語名称のGötterbaum(ゲッターバウム:神の木)の和訳による。

利用[編集]

生長が早く、庭木街路樹、器具材などに用いられる。

中国では根皮や樹皮を樗白皮(ちょはくひ)の名で解熱止瀉止血駆虫などに用いる。

参考文献[編集]

  • 多田多恵子 『身近な草木の実とタネハンドブック』 文一総合出版ISBN 978-4-8299-1075-7。

関連項目[編集]

 src= ウィキスピーシーズにニワウルシに関する情報があります。  src= ウィキメディア・コモンズには、ニワウルシに関連するカテゴリがあります。

外部リンク[編集]

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wikipedia 日本語

ニワウルシ: Brief Summary ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語
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ニワウルシ(庭漆、Ailanthus altissima)は、ニガキ科落葉高木。別名、シンジュ(神樹)。和名に「ウルシ」がついているが、ウルシウルシ科)とは全くの別種。ウルシのようにかぶれる心配はない。

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wikipedia 日本語

가죽나무 ( Korean )

provided by wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

가죽나무(학명: Ailanthus altissima, 영어: tree of heaven)는 무환자나무목의 낙엽 활엽교목이다.

이름과 어원

가중나무라고도 한다. 19세기 김병연의 시 중에서는 ‘가승목(假僧木)’으로 차자 표기한 것도 보인다.

한국어 ‘가죽나무’의 옛 형태 중 가장 오래된 문헌 기록은 《훈몽자회》(1527)의 ‘개듀ᇰ나모’이다. 이것이 여러 차례의 발음 변화를 거쳐 ‘가죽나무’가 되었다.

어린 잎순을 먹을 수 있는 참죽나무와 구분하기 위해 ‘가짜 대나무’란 뜻으로 가죽나무가 되었다는 설이 있다. 하지만 ‘참죽나무’의 고유어 표기가 남아있는 18세기 이전 문헌이 없고 현대에도 참죽나무를 ‘가죽나무’라 부르는 지방이 있어 이 설을 확인하기 어렵다.

분포

한국, 몽골, 중국, 일본, 유럽 등지에 분포하며, 다른 나무가 잘 자라지 못하는 도시나 척박한 땅에서도 잘 크는 튼튼한 교목이다. 매끄러운 회갈색 껍질을 가지며 원산지는 중국이지만 한국과 다른 나라에 도입되었다.

특징

줄기는 밋밋하게 자라고 성장이 바르다. 지름 50cm, 높이 27m 정도이고 나무껍질이 회갈색이다. 잎표면은 녹색이고 뒷면은 연한 녹색으로 털이 없다. 꽃은 단성화로 원추꽃차례를 이루며 6월에 백록색의 작은 꽃이 핀다. 열매는 적갈색으로 프로펠러처럼 생긴 날개 가운데 1개의 종자가 들어 있다.

이용

목재는 가구재·기구재·농기구재로 쓰고, 잎은 가죽나무누에의 사료가 된다. 한방에서는 열매를 이질·치질 등에 사용한다. 민간에서는 이질·혈변·위궤양에 뿌리를 진하게 달여 먹는다.

외부 링크

Heckert GNU white.svgCc.logo.circle.svg 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다.
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가죽나무: Brief Summary ( Korean )

provided by wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

가죽나무(학명: Ailanthus altissima, 영어: tree of heaven)는 무환자나무목의 낙엽 활엽교목이다.

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cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia 작가 및 편집자