This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g., [18,28,83]).
Glossy buckthorn grows as a multistemmed shrub or single-stemmed small tree up to 23 feet (7 m) tall [21,28,60,83]. Trees produce stout, erect branches [9]. Leaves are deciduous, simple, and generally arranged alternately. Blades are dark-green and shiny above, measure 2 to 3 inches (5-8 cm) long, and are about half as wide. Margins are entire to slightly wavy [9,28,83]. Studies in European habitats suggest that plant age and site conditions can affect glossy buckthorn's appearance. While common as a multistemmed shrub when young, glossy buckthorn develops into a small tree with age. In the shade, shrub forms are sparse and leaves are larger, thinner, and less rigid than those in the sun [31]. Glossy buckthorn flowers are small (diameter <6 mm), inconspicuous, and occur singly or in clusters of 2 to 8. The 2- to 3-seeded, berrylike drupe fruits occur in small clusters [9,28,83]. As of 2008, descriptions of the glossy buckthorn root systems were generally lacking, although its shallow root system has been described as "extensive" (Fagan, personal observation cited in [20]).
Native plants that resemble glossy buckthorn include alderleaf buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolia) and lanceleaf buckthorn (R. lanceolata) [15].
Glossy buckthorn is a nonnative species common throughout southeastern Canada and the northeastern United States. Populations are less common in western and central states and provinces including Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. In the United States, glossy buckthorn's southern limits are West Virginia, Tennessee, Illinois, and Iowa [28,89]. Plants Database provides a map of glossy buckthorn's North American distribution.
Introduction(s): Glossy buckthorn is native to Europe, northern Africa, and central Asia [64]. The first known North American collection occurred in 1898 in London, Ontario [27]. Spread of glossy buckthorn in North America was likely facilitated through ornamental and rehabilitation plantings. In New England and the Midwest, glossy buckthorn was planted as an ornamental and used for wildlife habitat improvement [95]. In an article published in 1963, glossy buckthorn was suggested for ornamental use in the southern Great Plains [44]. In a Nevada roadside vegetation guide published in 1963, glossy buckthorn was noted as a species that would "prove useful in time" [84]. Glossy buckthorn was also recommended for use in field break plantings in a 1993 publication from Minnesota [78]. However, the sale of nonnative buckthorns (glossy buckthorn and Rhamnus spp.) is now banned in Minnesota and Illinois [15].
Local North American distributions: In North America, glossy buckthorn has been described as "widely naturalized", "rather local", and "locally well established" from Nova Scotia to southern Manitoba and from Minnesota to New Jersey [3,65,75,83]. In the 1950 Gray's Manual of Botany, glossy buckthorn was described as "recently and rapidly spreading" and "likely to become obnoxious" [22]. In the 1982 New England Flora, glossy buckthorn was considered uncommon but described as "rapidly spreading" [80]. In Tennessee, glossy buckthorn was first reported in 1974 from Marion County [51]. Along the Middle Loup River in Sherman County, Nebraska, glossy buckthorn was "thoroughly established" as of 1999 [76]. In 1996 Colorado flora, glossy buckthorn populations were noted on slopes above the Boulder Creek floodplain [94].
Local distribution changes: The spread of glossy buckthorn has been documented in parts of southeastern Canada and the midwestern and northeastern United States. Often initial establishment occurred in urban and/or disturbed areas. Spread rates and abundance generally increased over time.
Noncultivated glossy buckthorn plants were first collected from the southern Ontario cities of London, Ottawa, and Guelph in 1898, 1899, and 1906, respectively. By 1930, glossy buckthorn occurred up to 25 miles (40 km) from these urban areas, but by 1950, occurred up to 93 miles (150 km) from the first collection sites. In the early 1990s, glossy buckthorn primarily occurred in native communities near urban areas, but its rate of spread into other native and agricultural areas has increased. In some areas, glossy buckthorn comprises more than 90% of the vegetative biomass over several acres. Glossy buckthorn dominates the Leitrim fen near Ottawa and the Sifton bog near London [5].
In a period of 20 years, glossy buckthorn has "overrun" about 30% of the 2,500-acre (1,000 ha) Cedarburg bog in Wisconsin (Reinartz University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Field Station 2001 as cited in [15]). Through a review of the available literature, Taft and Solecki [86] found reports of a well-established glossy buckthorn population in Cook County, Illinois, in 1912. By 1955, glossy buckthorn occurred in 5 northeastern Illinois counties and by 1978, occurred in 18 counties [86]. Glossy buckthorn was first collected from Michigan in 1934, where it has been more recently described as "locally aggressive" and as a "serious pest" in bogs, fens, and disturbed damp areas [92]. The first glossy buckthorn collection from Ohio was made in Lake County in 1927 by a botanist who noted it was "becoming well established". Researchers speculated that European starlings, introduced into northeastern Ohio in 1921, may have been instrumental in the dispersal and spread of glossy buckthorn. As of 1977, glossy buckthorn in Ohio was still distributed primarily in the northeastern portion of the state [42]. Based on the study of 11 early successional sites in southeastern New Hampshire, glossy buckthorn occurrence was positively correlated with the abundance of agricultural fields and other disturbed lands (R²=0.176, P=0.057) [45]. In eastern white pine (Pinus strobus)-dominated stands in southeastern New Hampshire, researchers estimated that glossy buckthorn had established about 36 years earlier and spread as an "advancing front" at a rate of about 20 to 22 feet (6.2-6.7 m)/year. Spread rate was significantly slower in the time soon after establishment (1.1 feet (0.35 m/year)) than in the later stages (P=0.004). In southeastern New Hampshire, canopy openness was positively related to the basal area of glossy buckthorn (P<0.001) [26,27].
Glossy buckthorn occurs on moist to wet sites in mixed woodlands, thickets, sphagnum bogs, and on roadsides, lake shores, ditches, and streambanks across its range [18,28,80,83,92].
Continental climates predominate in glossy buckthorn's southeastern Canadian and northeastern US habitats. Farrar [21] indicates that glossy buckthorn is tolerant to USDA hardiness zone 2, which may reach temperatures of -50 °F (-58 °C) or lower. While glossy buckthorn may be "most aggressive" on wet sites, it occurs on "drier" sites as well [15]. It occurs in permanently moist wetlands, in shallow soils over rocks where moisture collects temporarily, and on sandy sites with high water tables [81]. In glossy buckthorn's native European habitats, moderately dry soils are tolerated, but glossy buckthorn is more characteristic of moister soils [31]. In its native habitats, glossy buckthorn occupies nearly any soil texture and is recommended for revegetation of waterlogged clay soils that are low in nutrients and humus [13]. However, plants likely will not survive permanently waterlogged conditions [31]. In eastern Massachusetts, glossy buckthorn dominated the shrub layer of red maple-silver maple-swamp white oak floodplain woodlands with silty loam soils where the pH ranged from 4.5 to 5.5 [47]. In Ottawa, glossy buckthorn occurs on moist to mesic acid, neutral, or alkaline soils as well as low-nutrient wetlands and fens [5].
Glossy buckthorn grew tallest and most rapidly where depth to the water table was intermediate and water table fluctuations were lowest on a mined peat bog in Delafield, Wisconsin. Site 1, mined in the 1960s, had more vegetation cover than sites 2 and 3, which were mined in the 1980s. Glossy buckthorn growth rates were lowest at site 2, where depth to the water table was intermediate. Growth rates were highest at site 1, which had the lowest water table fluctuations [96].
Glossy buckthorn growth as related to water table characteristics in a mined Wisconsin peat bog [96] Year Average height increase (cm) for the growing season Average growth rate (g/g/yr) Average depth to water table (cm) Average water table fluctuation (cm)Site 1
1986 34.1 1.5 23.1 26 1987 24.1 0.80 37.2 32Site 2
1986 22.3 1.0 17.8 44 1987 7.1 0.36 22.5 67Site 3
1986 30.4 1.3 23.9 37 1987 21.6 0.98 24.5 68Impacts: Many North American studies have shown that glossy buckthorn dominance can negatively affect native species richness, simplify vegetation structure, disrupt food webs, and delay succession [12]. However, in native Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forests of northeastern Germany, there was a significant (P<0.001) positive relationship between the occurrence of glossy buckthorn and species richness. Forests with glossy buckthorn had significantly more threatened vascular species (P<0.05), threatened bryophyte species (P<0.001), and total woody species (P<0.001), as well as nonnative species (P<0.01) [52].
In its nonnative US and Canadian range, glossy buckthorn is often referred to as a "problem" species. In 2004, the eastern region of the Forest Service ranked glossy buckthorn as "highly invasive" due to its potential or known invasion of natural habitats and "replacement" of native species [88]. In Vermont, a 1998 report characterized glossy buckthorn as "highly invasive" and noted it was displacing native plants on local and widespread scales [91]. In a survey of The Nature Conservancy staff, glossy buckthorn was identified as a "serious threat" to multiple sites or large geographical areas [11]. In the Leitrum Albion Road wetlands in Canada's Ottawa-Carleton area, glossy buckthorn has been referred to as a "menace" [19]. Glossy buckthorn made the top 10 list of priority nonnative invasive plants in southern Canada considered to have a "major impact" on native vegetation [8].
While most studies have focused on glossy buckthorn's impact on native vegetation, there are other potential impacts on agricultural crops, birds, insects, succession, and fire ecology. Glossy buckthorn is an alternate host for the fungus that causes oat rust disease [14] and for alfalfa mosaic virus (Marani and Giunchedi 1976 as cited in [81]). A study conducted by Milwaukee's Zoological Society found that common buckthorn and glossy buckthorn supported fewer arthropods than did 11 species of native trees and shrubs [15]. In an abandoned horse paddock in New England where glossy buckthorn dominated to the near exclusion of any understory species, the loss of the herbaceous understory led to changes in moisture, temperature, humidity, and light on the site, altering grasshopper, mouse, vole, and snake habitats. Dense glossy buckthorn stands also decreased the recruitment of native shrubs and the diversity of bird foods [12]. One researcher suggested that "timely high-quality native food (was) replaced by easily accessible junk food"; glossy buckthorn was referred to as junk food because of its laxative effect, which may be a net energy loss (MacDougall, Land Manager for Essex County Greenbelt in Massachusetts, as cited in [12]).
Allelopathic potential probably does not play a part in glossy buckthorn's negative impacts. In laboratory experiments, glossy buckthorn root and leaf extracts did not inhibit germination and stimulated seedling growth of the test species. Researchers cautioned, however, that field conditions could produce results different from the laboratory setting [53].
Long growth periods and densely packed glossy buckthorn stems are often suggested as partly responsible for glossy buckthorn's replacement or exclusion of native species. Glossy buckthorn may have a competitive advantage, since it leafs out earlier and retains leaves longer than most associated native species [74]. Glossy buckthorn is described as "having a serious impact on the ecology of our Midwestern forests". Dense glossy buckthorn thickets shade native tree species, decreasing tree seedling establishment, and early leaf production by glossy buckthorn restricts the light available to native spring ephemerals (McDougall, USDA/FS forester for the Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, personal communication cited in [10]). However, not all research has shown a negative relationship between glossy buckthorn and native vegetation. When the composition of 58 wetlands in southeastern Ontario was studied, researchers found no evidence that nonnative wetlands species, including glossy buckthorn, excluded native species. Native species richness and nonnative species richness were positively correlated, and nonnative species were no more likely than native species to be dominant. This study, however, involved only a single year of study and did not evaluate change over time [40].
In some wetland habitats, glossy buckthorn threatens the persistence of rare or threatened species. In Ottawa, glossy buckthorn occurs in low-nutrient wetlands such as fens and shores where many rare and endangered species are concentrated [5]. Since the arrival and spread of glossy buckthorn in the Gavin bog of Illinois, abundance of endangered highbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) and sensitive-listed bog birches (Betula pumila) has decreased [86].
Several studies have shown that glossy buckthorn can negatively affect native herbaceous cover, total species richness, and overstory recruitment. In eastern white pine stands on southeastern New Hampshire old fields, high glossy buckthorn basal area was associated with low woody seedling density (P<0.001), low herbaceous cover (P=0.048), and low groundlevel species richness (P=0.01). Generally, the variability in these factors was low with high glossy buckthorn basal area, and high with low glossy buckthorn basal area. Species on sites where glossy buckthorn dominated the midstory started growth early in the spring and/or had clonal growth habits [25,26,27]. Total herbaceous layer cover, total species richness, and woody plant seedling richness were significantly lower on plots invaded by glossy buckthorn than on uninvaded plots in a riparian savanna near Salmon Creek in the Allegheny National Forest (P<0.002). Nonwoody species richness was not significantly different between invaded and uninvaded plots, but the dominant on invaded plots was bearded shorthusk (Brachyelytrum erectum) and on uninvaded plots was wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa) [68]. In eastern white pine forests in Lebanon, New Hampshire, sugar maple, red maple, and white ash (Fraxinus americana) saplings had lower growth under a glossy buckthorn subcanopy than in areas where the subcanopy was cleared. Over a 9-year period, stem growth of the native tree saplings was significantly lower and, over a 5-year period, radial growth was significantly lower under the subcanopy than in cleared areas (P<0.05). Average sapling mortality under glossy buckthorn was 10.4% and in the open was 5.0%. Fewer than 10% of native saplings were expected to penetrate the subcanopy [20]. During a 2-year field experiment in eastern white and red pine stands in southern New Hampshire, first-year native tree seedling density was significantly lower on plots with glossy buckthorn than on plots where the glossy buckthorn canopy was removed (P=0.048) or on uncut plots (P=0.042). Presence of glossy buckthorn did not significantly affect herbaceous cover or groundlayer species richness, but researchers noted that short experiment duration, low sample size, and/or the very low cover of herbaceous vegetation in the study area may have affected results. Native tree seedling suppression may have resulted from competition for light, space, nutrients, and/or moisture [24,26].
Control: Studies have shown variable success in the control of glossy buckthorn. "Vigorous" sprouting following top-kill makes control difficult and prolongs management. Integration of multiple methods may be most effective. Efforts to eradicate glossy buckthorn from Wisconsin in the 1950s were unsuccessful [14]. In the Gavin bog of Illinois, glossy buckthorn dominates in the tamarack forest zone and tall shrub zone. Researchers predicted that eliminating glossy buckthorn and replacing it with native species was unlikely under any management involving fire, cutting, and herbicide treatments [86].
It is likely that successful management of glossy buckthorn will involve prioritization, site-specific strategy development, and a long-term commitment [12]. Control efforts targeting glossy buckthorn seedlings are likely to succeed [10]. Studies in a mined peat bog in Delafield, Wisconsin, showed that glossy buckthorn growth rates were highest in late spring or early summer. Control efforts may be more effective during this time [96]. Many potential control methods are discussed in a review by Converse [13].
While control of glossy buckthorn is seen as a priority in southern Canada [8], successful control may eliminate an important food source and developmental habitat for Henry's elfin near the northern limit of its range in Ottawa-Carleton, Ontario [4].
Water level manipulation: In some wetland systems, glossy buckthorn dominance has coincided with low water levels. Restoration of flooding or high water tables may provide some control. In the Leitrim Albion Road wetlands in Ottawa-Carleton, aerial photos and other management records showed that increased glossy buckthorn growth coincided with draining and ditching operations [19]. Several researchers suggest that flooding or high water tables may eliminate glossy buckthorn in areas where water tables were artificially lowered [15,39,82].
Prevention: Probably the most effective and economical management of glossy buckthorn would involve preventing its establishment. Prevention methods would likely include minimizing disturbances, restricting the sale and use of glossy buckthorn, and public education. In 11 early-seral sites in southeastern New Hampshire, glossy buckthorn was positively correlated with the abundance of agricultural fields and other disturbed lands (R²=0.176, P=0.057) [45]. In the late 1980s in eastern Massachusetts, glossy buckthorn transplants were used to vegetate artificially created wetlands [43]. Restrictions on the use and sale of glossy buckthorn as well as increased education about its impacts would likely promote prevention.
Physical and/or mechanical: Even when done repeatedly, pulling, mowing, and/or cutting glossy buckthorn rarely provides substantial control, but some researchers note that associated native plants may benefit. In Lincoln, Massachusetts, pulling young glossy buckthorn plants from a very small area appeared to benefit sundews (Drosera spp.) and pitcher plants (Sarracenia spp.) [12]. However, 1 year after glossy buckthorn shrubs were pulled from a site in northern Massachusetts, differences before and after were not discernible (MacDougall, Land Manager for Essex County Greenbelt in Massachusetts, as cited in [12]). Glossy buckthorn was generally unaffected by 3 consecutive years of June or July mowing in a sedge meadow with high shrub density in the Kettle Moraine region of southeastern Wisconsin. Glossy buckthorn density before mowing was 6.1 to 12.3 stems/m² and after was 5 to 6 stems/m². Before mowing, the frequency of glossy buckthorn was 66% to 86% and after was 73% to 77% [59]. Researchers suggested that mowing increased the density of glossy buckthorn roots and may have increased glossy buckthorn's resistance to other control methods [12].
Glossy buckthorn stems that were cut twice in a single growing season for 2 to 3 successive years were less dense and shorter than stems on an untreated control site in a Wisconsin calcareous fen. Herbaceous ground cover was greater on sites cut twice than on sites cut once (Lovely 1983, personal communication as cited in [13]). While cutting did not remove glossy buckthorn from a dense thicket in Ottawa, it did increased overall native species cover. In the first growing season after cutting, overall native species cover was significantly greater on cut than on uncut plots (P=0.008). Following cutting, glossy buckthorn sprouting was "vigorous". The average number of sprouts ranged from 20 to 38/m², and their average height ranged from 6 to 13 inches (16-34 cm). Native species cover increases were likely due to the short-term removal of heavy shade [81].
Fire: See Fire Management Considerations.
Biological: No biological controls for glossy buckthorn have been released to date (2008), but testing is occurring, and releases may be made by 2010 [15].
Chemical: The effectiveness of herbicides to control glossy buckthorn may increase if used in conjunction with other control methods. In Massachusetts, herbicide treatment of cut stumps provided control for 2 to 3 years. Treated stumps produced sprouts after that time [12]. Herbicides considered useful in glossy buckthorn control are discussed by Solecki [82].
Integrated management: Most studies reporting some level of success in the control of glossy buckthorn involved more than one control method and repeated treatments. Heidorn [39] indicated that repeated cutting or girdling of glossy buckthorn followed by herbicide treatments was often effective. Since glossy buckthorn's leaf retention made it easy to identify and associated vegetation was dormant, fall treatments minimized nontarget effects [39]. In mixed-conifer and hardwood swamps in the Cedarburg bog in Wisconsin, just 3 of 150 glossy buckthorn plants survived after cutting and stump herbicide treatments. Sprouts from the 3 survivors were small and deformed at the end of the first posttreatment growing season [73]. When sites were plowed and seeded with little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) in Lincoln, Massachusetts, glossy buckthorn abundance decreased [12].
Some studies suggest that the use of fire with cutting or revegetation may control glossy buckthorn. Prescribed fire and mowing were used to control glossy buckthorn in the Wolf Road Prairie in Illinois. No treatment comparisons were provided, and the effort was ongoing [54]. Northeastern Illinois oak woodlands at Cap Sauers Holding were managed starting in 1989 with spring and/or fall prescribed fire and cutting and removal of nonnative woody vegetation. Unmanaged woodlands on the McClaughry Springs Forest Preserve also in Illinois were used as a comparison to evaluate the effectiveness of burning and cutting treatments. Fires occurred 1 to 4 times in 7 years; frequency of cutting was not provided. Glossy buckthorn density in managed woodlands decreased significantly between 1988 and 1995 (P=0.0001), but cover of glossy buckthorn increased, although not significantly, from 2.6% in 1988 to 3.3% in 1995. Researchers suggested that fall fires may have been less successful than spring fires. In unmanaged woodlands, the density of glossy buckthorn increased from 1,090 stems/ha in 1992 to 5,590 stems/ha in 1995 [55]. On sites where stems are cleared and stumps are herbicide treated, fire and postfire seeding may limit glossy buckthorn reestablishment. In oak woodlands in University of Wisconsin's arboretum, 4 follow-up treatments were compared on sites cleared of glossy buckthorn [79]:
Number of glossy buckthorn seedlings 1 year after follow-up treatments on cleared plots [79] Treatment Low-severity, November prescribed fire and postfire seeding* November prescribed fire only Seeding only No additional treatments Glossy buckthorn density (seedlings/144-m² plot) 6 99 143 191 *7 grass and 18 forb woodland species.Birds, Henry's elfin butterflies, and small mammals feed on glossy buckthorn. A number of bird species feed on glossy buckthorn fruits and are important in seed dispersal [31,64,92]. In southern Ontario, American robins, Bohemeian waxwings, cedar waxwings, rose-breasted grosbeaks, and European starlings were observed eating glossy buckthorn fruits (Darbyshire others, personal communications in [5]). The laxative effect of fruits may, however, limit their nutritional value [34].
Studies in the Wicken Fen in Cambridgeshire, England, showed that mice harvested, consumed, and cached glossy buckthorn fruits or seeds [30].
In Ottawa-Carleton, Ontario, which is near the northern limit of Henry's elfin's range, glossy buckthorn provides important rearing habitat and food. As glossy buckthorn abundance has increased in this area, so have Henry's elfin populations. Populations of Henry's elfin in the area have increased 7 fold from 1980 to 1996 [4].
Glossy buckthorn forms thickets and occupies similar habitats in its native
and nonnative ranges. Reviews report that glossy buckthorn in its native range
occurs in calcareous wetlands, alder (Alnus spp.) thickets, heath-oak (Erica-Quercus ssp.)
woodlands, and pine and spruce (Pinus and Picea spp.) forests
[12,13]. In native European habitats, "gregariousness"
is common for glossy buckthorn [31].
In North America, glossy buckthorn is commonly described in wet to moist
habitats including bogs, fens, marshes, riverbanks, pond margins, and disturbed
areas of larch (Larix spp.) and Atlantic white-cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides)
swamps but is also found in drier sites such as sand
forests, roadsides, and prairies [42,60,92]. In these habitats, glossy buckthorn
may rapidly form dense even-aged thickets [12,13]. Glossy buckthorn has been described as "aggressive" and
as a "serious pest" in damp to wet habitats [60,92].
In southern Ontario, glossy buckthorn occupies habitats ranging from early-seral
old fields to mature woodlands and forests. Fens,
sedge (Carex spp.) marshes, and swamps with red maples (Acer rubrum),
Atlantic white-cedars and/or alders are prime
habitats. In very dense, light-limited forests, glossy buckthorn may be restricted to
forest edges [5]. In Gavin bog in Lake County, Illinois, glossy buckthorn
occurs in the understory of the tamarack (L. laricina) forested zone
and as a nearly "impenetrable" thicket in the tall-shrub zone [86].
In Pennsylvania's Allegheny National Forest, glossy buckthorn occurs in grass-shrublands,
riparian savannas, wet to mesic roadsides, riverine big bluestem (Andropogon
gerardii) grasslands, and less commonly in mesic hardwood forests [68].
Glossy buckthorn dominates the shrub layer of alluvial swamp communities
such as red maple-silver maple-swamp white oak (A. saccharinum-Q.
bicolor) on eastern Massachusetts floodplains [47]. On old fields in Durham,
New Hampshire, the wrinkleleaf goldenrod-northern dewberry (Solidago rugosa-Rubus flagellaris)-glossy buckthorn
understory occurs in partially open eastern white pine forests [41].
Glossy buckthorn is often associated with disturbances. In central and western
Massachusetts, researchers found that previously
plowed sites were more than twice as likely to have glossy buckthorn than pastures or
woodlots. Areas with a greater proportion of forest cover were less likely to
have glossy buckthorn (P=0.085). There was also a trend of finding glossy
buckthorn on sites where soils had low carbon:nitrogen ratios; however, researchers noted
that soil properties were likely related to land use and vegetation type [61]. Glossy buckthorn and disturbed
sites are discussed more in Successional Status.
Glossy buckthorn reproduces by seed production and seedling establishment [86,90] and regenerates from root crown sprouts following top-kill [31,60,92].
Pollination and breeding system: Glossy buckthorn produces perfect flowers [75]. Based on studies conducted in glossy buckthorn's native European habitats, flowers are insect-pollinated and self-incompatible [36,63]. Flowers were visited by bees, wasps, flies, and beetles [31].
In southern Spain, the details of glossy buckthorn's reproductive biology were evaluated. Glossy buckthorn flowers had nectaries, but nectar volume was low (0.2 µl/flower, n=8). Sugar concentration averaged 9.8% in shady sites and 26.6% in sunny sites. About 21 of the 47 insect species that visited glossy buckthorn flowers were likely pollinators. When more than 4,300 flowers were bagged, just a single fruit was produced, indicating that self-fertilization did not occur. Flowers contained in mesh bags also failed to produce fruits, indicating the wind was not a suitable pollination agent [63].
Seed production: Most sources indicate that glossy buckthorn produces "abundant" seed each year ([34,92], Hubbard 1974 as cited in [13]). However, weather conditions and seed predators may affect seed production and survival. In southern Britain, Godwin [31] reported that glossy buckthorn seed is "set very freely indeed every year", but that in dry conditions, flowers drop before mature, and seed crops are reduced.
Glossy buckthorn reaches reproductive age early [30]. McClain [60] reported that plants less than 3 feet (0.9 m) tall produced fruit. Sprouts of mature top-killed plants have produced fruit in their first growing season [73].
Studies conducted in southern Spain provided estimates of glossy buckthorn's reproductive potential, which was reduced in dry conditions. Glossy buckthorn produced an estimated 10,200 to 36,600 flowers/plant. On average, fruits contained 1.5 seeds. Calculations based on the proportion of available ovules that developed into viable seeds suggested that medium- to full-sized glossy buckthorn individuals could potentially produce between 430 and 1,560 offspring/year, but seedlings and juveniles were rare in the study area [63]. The end of the flowering period was triggered by summer drought, and successful fruit production was confined to times of peak pollinator abundance. The flowering period was shorter and seed production was 50% lower in 2001―when conditions were drier, warmer, and windier―than in 2000 [36].
Seed predation: Studies in Germany and England indicate that small mammals feed on glossy buckthorn seed [30,49]. In southwestern Germany, level of seed predation varied by vegetation type and stature. When a known quantity of seeds was left out for a single night, predation of glossy buckthorn seed was 0% in a mixed 30- to 50-year-old shrubland dominated by 13- to 20-foot-tall (4-6 m) vegetation. In stands dominated by glossy buckthorn shrubs less than 15 years old and 5 to 10 feet (1.5-3 m) tall, 27% of seeds were removed; and in an abandoned meadow 47% of seeds were removed. Feces and seed processing evidence found near the seed trays suggested that rodents were the primary seed predators [49].
Seed dispersal: Many researchers indicate that birds are important dispersers of glossy buckthorn seed [31,64,92], but other potential dispersal agents include small mammals, gravity, and water [31,35]. In European habitats, glossy buckthorn seedlings often occurred beneath the parent tree, and clumps of seedlings germinating from abandoned mouse caches were also encountered [31]. In the Wicken fen in Cambridgeshire, England, the majority of glossy buckthorn fruits fell when ripe. Experiments and field observations suggested that mice harvested and cached seed. As many as 30 to 50 glossy buckthorn seedlings germinated from abandoned caches [30].
Glossy buckthorn produces fruits throughout the growing season, and seeds have a laxative effect on birds, making seed dispersal continual and effective [34,39,64]. In southern Ontario, researchers observed American robins, Bohemian waxwings, cedar waxwings, rose-breasted grosbeaks, and European starlings feeding on glossy buckthorn fruits (Darbyshire and others, personal communications as cited in [5]), making them likely dispersers. Since introductions of glossy buckthorn and European starlings were nearly synchronous in northeastern Ohio, researchers speculated that European starlings may have been instrumental in glossy buckthorn dispersal [42].
The importance of water in the dispersal of glossy buckthorn in North America is unclear. Some researchers report that glossy buckthorn fruits may float for weeks in water (Ridley 1930 as cited in [86]), and that naked seeds may float for up to a week in water (Praeger 1913 as cited in [31]). However, ripe fruits collected in Ontario sank immediately in water [5]. Along small mountain streams in southern Spain, birds were important dispersers of glossy buckthorn seed and took an average of 53% of seeds [37], but water was an important secondary dispersal method [35].
Seed banking: Sources suggest that glossy buckthorn seed remains viable in the seed bank for at least 2 years and perhaps longer ([15], Kinzel 1926 as cited in [31]). Following removal of a glossy buckthorn canopy, glossy buckthorn seedlings are common and are likely the result of germination from the seed bank [24,26,79,87]. However, seed bank studies are generally lacking. In deciduous forests of Van Cortlandt and Pelham Bay parks in the Bronx, New York, glossy buckthorn occurred in aboveground vegetation plots but did not emerge from soils samples taken from these plots [50].
Germination: Fresh glossy buckthorn seeds germinate more readily than dried seeds, and warm temperatures may be necessary to encourage germination. Most available studies, however, are either experimental or based on observations made in glossy buckthorn's native habitats, and their relevance to North American specimens and field conditions is unknown. In European habitats, spring germination of glossy buckthorn from seed sources in wet surface litter has been described as "abundant" [31]. From collections made in England's Wicken fen, 90% to 100% of glossy buckthorn seeds from fleshy fruits germinated under controlled conditions, but when fruits or seeds were dry, germination was "very greatly" reduced [30]. Glossy buckthorn seeds collected from open-grown trees near Copenhagen, Denmark, reached 46% to 79% maximum germination/plant. Seeds were stratified for about 20 weeks, and germination trials occurred in the laboratory [67].
Germination was best (81% after 170 days and 91% after 272 days) for glossy buckthorn seed sown in the greenhouse immediately after collection. Collections were made in early September, but the collection area was not given. Glossy buckthorn seed germination was 26% after 255 days when fresh seed was sown outdoors immediately after collection. When seeds were dried and stored over the winter, germination 90 days after spring sowing ranged from 34% to 37% regardless of storage conditions [1].
Seedling establishment/growth: Most studies and observations suggest that glossy buckthorn produces abundant seedlings, and growth and survival are best in open conditions. Glossy buckthorn seedlings were common on Sphagnum hummocks throughout Gavin bog in Lake County, Illinois, where glossy buckthorn was dominant in the tall shrub zones and in the understory of tamarack zones [86]. Densities of glossy buckthorn seedlings and saplings were 1,166/ha and 200/ha, respectively, in river birch (Betula nigra)-dominated stands in the Matanzas Prairie Nature Preserve in central Illinois [90].
During a 2-year field experiment in eastern white and red pine (Pinus resinosa) stands in southern New Hampshire, the density of glossy buckthorn seedlings was 5 times greater where more than 90% of glossy buckthorn cover was removed than in uncut plots. Seedlings were likely the result of seed bank germination. Glossy buckthorn seedling density decreased sharply from the 1st to the 2nd year after canopy removal [24,26].
In a review, glossy buckthorn seedling establishment was considered best on exposed soil in areas where light levels were high [13]. High light levels and herbivory protection were most conducive to seedling growth and survival in the Mt Toby Demonstration Forest, Massachusetts. Growth and survival were greater for glossy buckthorn seedlings transplanted to plots where the canopy was removed than for seedlings transplanted to plots with a closed canopy of 14-year-old birch (Betula spp.) and pin cherry (Prunus pensylvanica). Protection from herbivory increased seedling height and diameter growth but did not increase survival. Unprotected seedlings failed to flower, but 81% of protected seedlings flowered [48].
Growth and survival of glossy buckthorn with and without canopy cover and herbivory protection [48] Canopy removed (n=7-8) Protected Unprotected Absolute height growth (cm/yr) 65.17 6.66 Absolute diameter growth (mm/yr) 6.55 1.88 Percent survival (2000-2002) 52 57 Canopy intact (n=4-8) Absolute height growth (cm/yr) -0.11 0.87 Absolute diameter growth (mm/yr) 0.13 0.07 Percent survival (2000-2002) 29 41Growth: A review reports that glossy buckthorn grows rapidly and has a long growing season [13]. Site conditions that affect water table depth and water table fluctuations may affect glossy buckthorn growth. See Site Characteristics for details.
Vegetative regeneration: Glossy buckthorn sprouts "prolifically" from its roots and and/or root crown after being wounded or top-killed [31,60,92]. In England, glossy buckthorn is "strikingly characteristic" of burned and grazed areas [31].
A review reports that glossy buckthorn sprouts can be "prolific" and almost immediately fecund. Mature glossy buckthorn plants cut to the stem base early in the growing season may produce sprouts up to 6.6 feet (2 m) tall in the same year [13]. Sprouts may produce fruit in their first growing season (Brue 1980 as cited in [13]). A glossy buckthorn shrub with stems ranging from 2.8 to 4.3 inches (7-11 cm) in diameter produced 50 sprouts after cutting [13]. In mixed-conifer-hardwood swamps in Wisconsin's Cedarburg bog, 100% of girdled or cut stems sprouted from their stumps. As stem diameter increased, so did the length of the sprout. The number of sprouts/plant ranged from 13 to 47, and length of the longest sprout/plant ranged from 3 to 7 feet (0.9-2.1 m). Some sprouts produced fruit in their first year [73].
In its native European habitats, glossy buckthorn is described as "on the whole intolerant of shade". Glossy buckthorn is typical in the understory of open woodlands, is often abundant following logging and/or grazing, but is rare in late-seral, closed-canopy forests [31]. Based on studies and observations made in the Wicken fen of Cambridgeshire, England, glossy buckthorn was an early species in fen succession. It was one of the first to dominate the shrub stage but was later replaced by common buckthorn [30].
In the United States and Canada, glossy buckthorn is described in many early-seral nonnative habitats. Colonization of newly disturbed or abandoned sites by sprouting is nearly guaranteed if glossy buckthorn was present before the disturbance. Colonization by seed dispersed onto disturbed sites is also common. Contrary to reports from its native European habitats, reports from the United States and Canada indicate that glossy buckthorn tolerates both full sun and heavy shade [15,93], suggesting it may be less restricted to open-canopy woodlands and disturbed sites in North American habitats. In southern Ontario, glossy buckthorn occurs in old fields, shaded ravines, and dense woodlands, but may occupy only edge habitats in very dense forests [5,83].
Although possible in shady sites in North America, glossy buckthorn growth and reproduction may be reduced in low light conditions. In New England, glossy buckthorn fails to produce seed in densely shaded sites but may persist vegetatively for up to 50 years [12]. In the Mt Toby Experimental Forest, glossy buckthorn seedling survival and growth were compared in clearings and in the understory of a 14-year-old mixed-hardwood stand. Seedling survival, height, biomass, leaf area, and relative height growth were greater in clearings than in the understory [77]:
Differences in the characteristics of glossy buckthorn seedlings growing in the open and in a woodland understory [77] Characteristic measured Survival (%) Height (cm) Biomass (g) Leaf area (cm²) Relative height growth rates (cm/m/d) Open 62a 43.9a 4.97a 421a 1.62a Understory 48a 12.5b 0.14b 13.7b 0.10b Values within a column followed by different letters are significantly different (P=0.05).Rhamnus frangula Sangüeñu, Zangüeña' o Cuernucabra (cfr. ing. buckthorn), ye un parrotal de 3-6 metros d'altor que crez en montes húmedos d'Europa, Asia y norte d'África. Otros nomes vulgares d'esta ramnácea son frángula o rabiacán.
Ye un parrotal de cañes argutes non espinosu. La corteza presenta llurdios llamaos lentíceles. Les fueyes caduques, alternes, ovales, peciolaes con nervaduras sobresalientes nel viesu. Les flores son pequeñes, hermafrodites, con cinco pétalos y de color rosáu o verdosu. Los frutos son coloraos que se vuelven pardos al maurecer. Trátase d'un parrotal típicu de suelos bien húmedos en sustratos xilizos, llargamente estendíu per Europa.
Europa, Asia y norte d'África. N'España ye bien abondosu nos montes de ribera. Apaez nos ríos Tera y Negru en Zamora. En Llión en La Cepeda y La Valdería. Nel ríu Carrión, ríu Adaja, alto Duero etc. Nel Sistema Central na sierra de Ayllón, na sierra de Guadarrama, na sierra de Gredos y na sierra de Gata.
Rhamnus frangula describióse por Carlos Linneo y espublizóse en Species Plantarum 1: 193, nel añu 1753.[1]
Rhamnus: nome xenéricu que deriva d'un antiguu nome griegu pal espín cerval.[2]
frangula: epítetu llatín que significa "como'l xéneru Frangula".
Númberu de cromosomes de Frangula alnus (Fam. Rhamnaceae) y táxones infraespecíficos: 2n=20[3]
Esta páxina forma parte del wikiproyeutu Botánica, un esfuerciu collaborativu col fin d'ameyorar y organizar tolos conteníos rellacionaos con esti tema. Visita la páxina d'alderique del proyeutu pa collaborar y facer entrugues o suxerencies. Rhamnus frangula Sangüeñu, Zangüeña' o Cuernucabra (cfr. ing. buckthorn), ye un parrotal de 3-6 metros d'altor que crez en montes húmedos d'Europa, Asia y norte d'África. Otros nomes vulgares d'esta ramnácea son frángula o rabiacán.
Qızılağacabənzər mürdəşər (lat. Frangula alnus) və ya Kövrək murdarça[1] - murdarça cinsinə aid bitki növü.[2]
Avropanın meşə və meşə-çöl zonasında, Qərbi Avropanın mərkəzi rayonlarında, Kiçik Asiyanın şimalında, Krımda, İranda və Qafqazda, Orta Asiyanın şimal rayonlarında rast gəlinir.
Hündürlüyü 7 m-ə çatan kol və ya kiçik ağacdır. Gövdəsi və budaqları tünd qonurdur. Gövdəsi hamar, tikansızdır. Tünd qabığı mərciməkli, mantar qatının altında qırmızı qat vardır. Yarpaqları ellipsvari formalı, uzunluğu 4-10 sm, kənarları bütöv, 6-8 cüt paralel yan damarcıqlı, qısa saplaqlarda (1,5 sm-dək) yerləşir. Yarpaqların yerləşməsi - növbəli və ya əyri-üzbəüzdür. Çiçəkləri ikicinsli, beş hissəli, kasacığı zəngvari olmaqla yarpaqların qoltuqlarında yerləşir, uzunluğu 2-3,5 mm-dir. Çiçək tacı yaşılımtıl-ağdır. Meyvəsi - şarşəkilli, diametri 8-10 mm, iki-üç yaşılımtıl-sarı, yumru-üçkünc çəyirdəkli, ximircəkli, ikili “dimdikli” çəyirdəkdir. Yetişmiş halda meyvələri göy-qaradır.
İstisevəndir, soyuğa və rütubətə davamlıdır.
Respublikamızın bəzi bölgələrində rast gəlinir.
Meyvələri zəhərlidir, xalq arasında “canavar giləmeyvəsi” adlandırılır, ancaq quşlar tərəfindən yeyilir. Qabıq, tumurcuq, yarpaq və meyvələrində qlikozidlər, qatranlar, aşılayıcı maddələr, efir yağları vardır. Qabığı və meyvələri işlətmə və qusma xüsusiyyətlərinə malikdir və xalq təbabətində istifadə edilir. Oduncağından kömür alınır. Qabığında boyayıcı maddələr vardır. Dekorativ kol kimi yaşıllaşdırmada istifadə edilir.
Qızılağacabənzər mürdəşər (lat. Frangula alnus) və ya Kövrək murdarça - murdarça cinsinə aid bitki növü.
La fràngula[1] és un arbust amb el nom científic complet de Rhamnus frangula L. (= Frangula alnus Miller), i pertany a la família Rhamnaceae.
En llatí existeixen diversos sinònims, tals com, Rhamni frangulae cortex, Avorni cortex, Alni nigrae cortex. En català rep les denominacions de: fràngula, vern menut, vern negre, vern bord.
El terme "Rhamnus" deriva del cèltic "ram= arbust espinós" per les espines d'algunes espècies. Per la seva part "frangula" deriva del llatí "frangere=trencar" degut a la fragilitat de les seves branques, i "alnus" pròpiament és el nom genèric del vern.
La seva distribució mundial és bàsicament eurosiberiana, sobretot de boscos i llocs humits. A Espanya es troba a la major part de la península, però principalment a la meitat septentrional, des de la comarca d'Olot fins a Galícia. I al Principat a zones de Barcelona, Girona, i Lleida. És freqüent trobar-la a boscos acidòfils de riberes, bardisses, i a clarianes de boscos humits. Propera a la segona línia respecte als rius i escassa a l'alta muntanya.
Arbust o petit arbre de fins a 6 metres d'alçada. És vivaç, caducifoli i nanofaneròfit. La rel és axonomorfa i obliqua.
La tija és llenyosa, corbada, de color vermellós-grisenc, i presenta petites taques que es denominen lenticel·les, que són clares i es disposen transversalment.
Les fulles són simples, alternes, peciolades, punxegudes, el·líptiques, esparses i de 2-7 cm de longitud, amb 7-9 parells de nervis laterals molt arquats i marcats. La divisió del marge és entera, amb l'àpex agut. Són d'un color verd intens, tot i que l'anvers és una mica més clar. És glabrescent.
Les flors són hermafrodites. Respecte a la inflorescència, destacar que és de cimes umbel·liformes, situades a l'axil·la de la fulla i soldades a la base.
El calze té una pilositat vermellosa com el pedicel, format per 5 sèpals soldats formant un tub. La corol·la està formada per 5 pètals blancs-groguencs, més curts que els sèpals i tenen la làmina doblegada, on cadascun protegeix al seu interior un estam de filament curt.
L'androceu consta de 5 estams oposipètals; el gineceu té l'ovari lliure, ovoide amb un estil i un estigma obtús. Floreix a partir de l'abril.
El seu fruit és una drupa globosa de 6-10 mm, inicialment de color verd, després vermella i negre brillant al madurar. Els fruits tenen poc sabor i en el seu interior contenen dues o tres llavors comprimides, ataronjades, rodones o angulars. Fructifica de setembre a novembre.
Planta fàcilment cultivada que creix en qualsevol bon terra, preferint les condicions àcides a neutres. Creix bé en terres humits o torbosos. Prefereix un terra moderadament fèrtil en sol o semiombra. Creix bé en terres mullades però no si són inundades d'aigua. No li agrada la sequera o l'exposició als vents forts. Les plantes són robustes a, com a mínim, -15°C.
La droga està constituïda per l'escorça dessecada dels troncs i les branques. Es presenta en trossos enrotllats a tall de canuts senzills o dobles o també trossos aplanats, de diferents longituds i de fins a 2 mm de grossor. La droga tallada està constituïda per trossos plans o corbats cap a dins.
La superfície externa és de color bru vermellós a bru grisenc, va de brillant a opaca, és llisa o presenta fines estriacions, manca de ritidoma i posseeix nombroses lenticel·les blanquinoses allargades transversalment. Raspant amb compte apareix un teixit de color vermell. La superfície interna és de color groc ataronjat a marró clar, amb estries longitudinals evidents.
Principalment heteròsids antraquinònics, en particular les glucofrangulines A i B (o glucofrangulòsids A i B), que són heteròsids bidesmosídics de la frangulaemodina amb glucosa i ramnosa (glucofrangulina A) o apiosa (glucofrangulina B); frangulines A i B, amb una glucosa de menys respecte a les glucofrangulines A i B; i també frangulaemodina-8-O-glucòsid. Conté no menys d'un 7,0% de glucofrangulines, expressats com glucofrangulina A.
En l'escorça fresca, les glucofrangulines estan presents sobretot en forma reduïda, com heteròsids antrónics i diantrònics (principalment com ramnòsid/glucòsid de frangulaemodinaantrona). Mitjançant emmagatzemament (no pas menys d'1 any) o envelliment artificial (per exemple, escalfant la droga en corrent d'aire), es transformen en la forma oxidada. Al mateix temps les glucofrangulines es degraden en part a frangulines o a frangulaemodina-8-O-glucòsid, i per últim al aglicó frangulaemodina.
A la droga es troben també fisció i crisofanol, en forma lliure i monoglicosilada; mucílags i enzims (rhamnodiastases).
L'escorça de frángula conté així mateix 2-acetil-1,8-dihidroxinaftalè, que és volàtil en corrent de vapor d'aigua, i el seu 8-O-glucòsid, a més de tanins i petites quantitats d'alcaloides peptídics (frangulanina, franganina).
En el fruit s'ha trobat crisofanol, aloe-emodol i aloe-emodoldiantrona.
Actua com a laxant a nivell d'intestí gros, emprant-se en casos de restrenyiment ocasional i fins i tot crònic, originats per atonia de l'intestí gros, però també per l'aparició d'espasmes (constipació espàtica), i en malalties en les quals sigui necessària una fàcil defecació amb excrements tous (fissures anals, hemorroides, i després d'operacions quirúrgiques anorectals). També està recomanada per la neteja intestinal prèvia a les operacions quirúrgiques o les exploracions radiològiques. L'acció de la droga comença unes 6-8 hores després de la seva ingestió.
Amb la planta fresca o a dosis elevades, l'escorça de la fràngula és purgant, però una vegada seca el seu efecte és més suau.
Pel que es refereix al mecanisme d'acció, les substàncies són transportades fins a l'intestí gros en forma d'antracenòsids i allà, els bacteris hidrolitzen les esmentades substàncies i les redueixen a antrones o antranols, que constitueixen les formes farmacològicament actives. Les esmentades antrones i antranols impedeixen l'absorció d'aigua i electròlits per inhibició de la Na+/K+-ATPasa de l'epiteli intestinal. D'altra banda, a través de l'augment de la permeabilitat de les unions estretes entre les cèl·lules endotelials, augmenta també la secreció d'aigua cap a la llum intestinal. Això estimula el peristaltisme i accelera el transport del contingut intestinal.
És important subratllar que s'admet només l'ús de la droga envellida, almenys durant 1 any, per considerar que les antrones de l'escorça fresca irriten considerablement la mucosa gàstrica, causant vòmits, còlics i també diarrees hemorràgiques.
Ús intern:
Ús extern: Compreses de tintura (1:10).
La dosi individual correcta és la mínima necessària per aconseguir l'efecte. En adults preparacions equivalents a 15-25 mg de glucofrangulòsids, expressats com a glucofrangulòsid A, pres a la nit en una dosi única. No és recomanable la seva administració a nens menors de 12 anys.
No hi ha estudis sobre la toxicitat de dosis úniques, ni sobre la toxicitat de dosis repetides, ni sobre la toxicitat reproductiva o la carcinogeneïtat. S'ha demostrat que extractes de fràngules diferents són genotòxiques en diversos sistemes in vitro (mutació bacteriana, aberració cromosòmica i reparació de l'ADN en cèl·lules de mamífers). No es van observar increments de les mutacions en un assaig de mutació de gens amb cèl·lules de mamífer. Es van observar signes de la genotoxicitat potencial de l'emodina- principal laxant de la fràngula- en diversos sistemes (bacteris i cèl·lules de mamífer in vitro). Altres antraquinones van donar també resultats positius en experiments limitats.
Els fruits són tòxics i la seva ingesta pot provocar vòmits, cefalees, trastorns gastrointestinals i fins i tot convulsions.
La fràngula no s'ha d'usar en casos d'obstrucció intestinal, estenosi, atonia, malalties inflamatòries del còlon (p.ej., malaltia de Crohn, colitis ulcerativa), dolor abdominal d'origen desconegut, ni en estats greus de deshidratació amb pèrdua hidroelectrólítica.
Com ocorre amb tots els laxants, l'escorça de fràngula no s'hauria d'administrar en presència de símptomes abdominals aguts o persistents sense diagnosticar. Si es necessita administrar laxants diàriament, s'ha d'investigar la causa del restrenyiment. S'ha d'evitar l'ús de laxants a llarg termini; l'ús durant més de dues setmanes requereix supervisió mèdica. L'ús sistemàtic pot produir pigmentació del còlon (seudomelanosis coli), que és innòcua i reversible després de la suspensió del tractament.
L'abús, amb diarrea i consegüent pèrdua hidroelectrolítica, pot provocar dependència (amb una possible necessitat d'augmentar les dosis), pertorbació de l'equilibri de l'aigua i els electròlits (principalment hipocalemia) i còlon atònic amb insuficiència funcional. La ingestió de laxants que contenen antranoids, quan se supera l'ús a curt termini, pot causar un agreujament del restrenyiment.
La hipocalemia pot produir disfunció cardíaca i neuromuscular; especialment, si s'ingereixen glucòsids cardiotònics, diürètics i corticoesteroides. L'ús sistemàtic pot provocar albuminúria i hematúria.
La hipocalèmia (conseqüència de l'abús a llarg termini de laxants) potencia l'acció dels glucòsids cardiotònics i interacciona amb els fàrmacs antiarrítmics i amb els que indueixen la reversió a ritme sinusal (p. ex., la quinidina). L'ús concomitant amb altres fàrmacs que indueixen la hipocalèmia (p. ex., diürètics de tiazida, adrenocorticosteroides i arrel de regalèssia) poden augmentar el desequilibri electrolític.
La fràngula no es recomana durant l'embaràs. No hi ha informes sobre els efectes adversos o danyins durant l'embaràs o sobre el fetus, quan s'usa segons un règim de dosis recomanat. Tanmateix, les dades experimentals sobre el risc genotòxic de certs antranoids -per exemple, emodina, crisofanol, fisciona i extracte de fràngula- no estan recolzats amb estudis suficients per eliminar la possibilitat d'un risc.
La fràngula no es recomana durant la lactància materna, perquè no hi ha dades suficients sobre l'excreció dels seus metabolits en la llet. Tanmateix, se sap que petites quantitats de metabolits actius d'altres antranoids (p. ex. reïna) s'excreten en la llet materna. No s'ha descrit un efecte laxant en lactants alimentats amb llet materna.
Segons Flückiger, el primer autor que va esmentar les propietats purgants de la fràngula va ser Piero Crescenzi, nascut a Bolonya a començaments del segle XIII, que la va denominar anormis o avornus; però tals virtuts van romandre ignorades pels farmacòlegs durant llargs anys. Dels botànics del Renaixement, el primer que va descriure aquesta espècie va ser Hieronymus Bock, per sobrenom Tragus, en "De Stirpium ....libri", de 1552, però encara desconeixia els seus efectes purgants. Mattioli, en l'edició de 1554, parla ja de la fràngula i de la seva escorça, que "purga i tonifica com la del ruibarbre, expulsa la bilis, la pituita i els humors dels hidròpics. És un purgant molt suau -diu- que neteja admirablement el fetge i el vigoritza fins a tal punt, que certs subjectes afectats de cirrosi i malalts de la melsa, han arribat a guarir. L'escorça externa és astringent, la interna, depurativa. Però sol ha de ser emprada seca, la verda produeix vòmits".
A partir de llavors, els apotecaris donaven a l'escorça de la fràngula el nom de ruibarbre de pobres (rhabarbarum plebeiorum).
El Còdex Farmacèutic britànic 1911, el Dispensatory dels Estats Units d'Amèrica 1918 i l'Ecletic Materia Medica, Farmacologia i Terapèutica, 1922 esmenten l'escorça de fràngula com a purgant.
En el seu "Manual de Materia Medica i Farmacologia" Culbreth 1927 menciona l'ús com a purgant, tònic i diürètic. L'efecte s'assembla al ruibarbre i sen, encara que més suau. Les altres indicacions són hidropesia, restrenyiment durant l'embaràs i, com a ungüent de l'escorça fresca, per afeccions parasitàries de la pell, coïssor, etc.
Hager 1927 es refereix a l'escorça de fràngula com un "barat i eficaç laxant". L'escorça de fràngula s'indica com també eficaç per a queixes de morenes i per a malalties del fetge, com a decocció sovint juntament amb sulfat de sodi. La intoxicació provoca còlics, i l'escorça fresca provoca vòmits.
Thoms 1931 també descriu l'ús com un suau i eficaç laxant.
Fisher 1966 menciona l'ús per al restrenyiment i totes les malalties, que poden ser associades amb el restrenyiment, com el dany en el fetge, dolor de la bufeta, però fins i tot mal de cap i disminució de la potència intel·lectual, vertigen, disminució de l'habilitat per veure-hi i concentrar-se, i palpitacions.
Dragendorff 1967 descriu l'efecte emètic de l'escorça fresca i l'efecte laxant de l'escorça assecada. Addicionalment, hi ha una menció que l'escorça està utilitzada externament per a la sarna. No especifica la preparació utilitzada.
A Martindale 1967 l'escorça de fràngula es descriu com a purgant suau amb propietats similars als del cascall sagrat (Rhamnus purshiana).
La fusta té utilitat a la cistelleria. També té ús a l'homeopatia com a purgant, depuratiu i antireumàtic. Antigament s'utilitzava per a curtir el cuir. L'escorça bullida en llet fou utilitzat per a la sarna i bullida en vi o vinagre fa una loció pel mal de queixals. La fusta proporciona un carbó de molt bona qualitat. Els fruits de la fràngula s'han utilitzat per fabricar tint vermell.
http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/hmpc/frangulae_cortex/7630606en.pdf
http://dosssiers.ub.edu/docs/7688/fito/396.html
http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/hmpc/frangulae_cortex/7630706en.pdf
Editorial Labor, S. A.
La fràngula és un arbust amb el nom científic complet de Rhamnus frangula L. (= Frangula alnus Miller), i pertany a la família Rhamnaceae.
En llatí existeixen diversos sinònims, tals com, Rhamni frangulae cortex, Avorni cortex, Alni nigrae cortex. En català rep les denominacions de: fràngula, vern menut, vern negre, vern bord.
El terme "Rhamnus" deriva del cèltic "ram= arbust espinós" per les espines d'algunes espècies. Per la seva part "frangula" deriva del llatí "frangere=trencar" degut a la fragilitat de les seves branques, i "alnus" pròpiament és el nom genèric del vern.
Krušina olšová (Frangula alnus) je opadavá dřevina (keř či strom), dorůstající výšky 4 až 6 metrů.
Někdy bývá řazena do rodu řešetlák, Rhamnus frangula. Vědecká synonyma jsou Rhamnus frangula, Rhamnus frangula subsp. columnaris hort., Rhamnus frangula var. angustifolia Loud. Rodové vědecké jméno Frangula se vztahuje na křehkost dřeva (latinsky frangere = lámati), druhové jméno alnus = olše.
Opadavý beztrnný keř, zřídka nízký strom (max. 6 m) s tenkým kmínkem (průměr do 20 cm) a lámavými štíhlými, témeř hladkými větvemi s rozestálými listnatými větévkami.[2][3]
Borka je hladká, v mládí zelená, později šedohnědá s dlouhými šedobílými a napříč položenými čočinkami (lenticelami). Rozemnuté větve a kůra zapáchají hnilobou.[2][3]
Listy jsou jednoduché, střídavé, eliptičné, celokrajné, s krátkým řapíkem (±1 cm), tenké a tuhé. Na podzim se barví do žluta.[2][3][4]
Pupeny jsou nahé, bez šupin.[3]
Nenápadné drobné květy jsou zelenavě bílé až žlutozelené, zpočátku chlupaté, medonosné. Jsou oboupohlavné, pětičetné, uspořádané ve vrcholíku v úžlabí listu. Kvete od května do září, ojediněle do října.[5][4]
Plodem je zpočátku zelená, později červená a konečně černofialová až černá peckovice velikosti 6–8 mm se 2–3 peckami.[2][5]
Kořenová soustava je rozvětvená, s četnými kořenovými výmladky.[2] Keř je důkladně zakořeněn (špatně se přesazuje).[4]
Krušina olšová je mrazuvzdorná, snáší stín, nadbytečnou vláhu i stagnující vodu a je odolná proti kouřovým plynům.[4]
Otrava plody je vzácná, protože jsou nechutné a tvrdé. Požití vyvolá silný průjem a zvracení. Požití čerstvé kůry způsobuje dávení, kolikové bolesti a krvavý průjem s vysokými bolestmi.[5]
Euroasijský druh s rozsáhlým areálem sahajícím od Pyrenejského poloostrova (s malým přesahem do severní Afriky) na východ po řeku Jenisej.[4] Kromě nejsevernější části a stepí na jihovýchodě roste téměř v celé Evropě a v západní Asii. Zasahuje na Kavkaz, její východní hranicí je Jenisej. V Africe jsou dvě malé arely v Maroku a Alžírsku.[2]
V ČR roste roztroušeně až hojně téměř na celém území. Těžiště výskytu je v nadmořské výšce do 650 m, na Šumavě vystupuje do 900 m n. m., v Novohradských horách do 960 m n. m. Nejvýše roste ve Velké kotlině v Hrubém Jeseníku (1100 m n. m.)[2]
Vyskytuje se na vlhkých místech. Obvykle roste na kyselých podkladech, často na píscích a zrašelinělých půdách, ovšem vyskytuje se i na neutrálních až zásaditých půdách lužních lesů. Bývá to jediný keř v nejchudších bořinách nebo smrčinách na rašelině.[4]
V ČR v nejnižších až podhorských polohách je jedním z nejběžnějších keřů. Nejčastějším stanovištěm jsou světlé listnaté, smíšené i jehličnaté lesy, lužní lesy a křovinaté stráně, vrchoviště a rašeliniště. Řidčeji roste v suchých borech a kyselých doubravách.[4]
Spásačem krušiny olšové jsou tesaříci kozlíček ovocný (Tetrops praeustus praeustus L., 1758), tesařík drobný (Gracilia minuta Fabricius, 1781), kuloštítník beraní (Clytus arietis arietis L., 1758), Oberea pedemontana Chevrolat, 1856, Menesia bipunctata (Zoubkov, 1829) aj.[2]
Na rostlinu je vázán výskyt motýla žluťáska řešetlákového (Gonepteryx rhamni L., 1758), protože je živnou rostlinou jeho housenek. Samička klade vajíčka jednotlivě na mladé listy, případně pupeny a větvičky živné rostliny. Housenka se pak před kuklením vzdaluje z místa, kde prodělala vývoj. Na krušině se živí také housenky modráska krušinového (Celastrina argiolus L., 1758) a ostruháčka ostružinového (Callophrys rubi L., 1758).[2]
Rostlina je hostitelem houby rez korunkatá (Puccinia coronata Corda).
Český název krušina je odvozen ze slova kruchý čili křehký, což vystihuje křehké dřevo krušiny olšové.[6]
Lidové názvy krušiny olšové jsou bluva, čeremcha, krupina, krušina obecná, krušina řešetláková, krušínek, krušinka, posvátná kůra, psí jahůdka, rebarbora chudých, reveň chudých (oddenky), rozpuk (rozpuk jízlivý je jiná rostlina).[7]
Z větví krušiny se pálilo dřevěné uhlí, které bylo důležitou složkou při výrobě střelného prachu do ručních palných zbraní.[8] Plody se požívaly k barvení látek na zeleno. Dřevo má načervenalé jádro, a proto se hodí k řezbářským účelům.[9]
V léčitelství sloužila jako levnější náhrada rebarbory.[2] Kůra se v léčitelství používá jako projímadlo. Sbírá se v dubnu až květnu, měla by být rychle usušena, a to na přímém slunci nebo umělým teplem (max. 40 °C). Usušenou kůru je před používáním nutné buď rok skladovat, nebo několik hodin udržovat zahřátou na teplotu 80 až 100 °C. Čerstvá kůra je totiž silně dráždivá, vyvolává nevolnost, zvracení a bolesti břicha. Plody mají také projímavé účinky, ale několikanásobně vyšší.[8] Zevně se krušina olšová používá při špatně se hojících ranách a hemoroidech do koupelí či na obklady. Jeden z důvodů, proč krušina vymizela v současnosti z přírodního léčitelství, je, že se mohou objevit nežádoucí účinky.[10]
Protože kvete dlouho, lze na keřích nalézt vedle květů také mladé a dozrávající plody.[5]
Krušina olšová figuruje ve scéně filmu O rodičích a dětech režiséra Vladimíra Michálka. Otec (v podání Josefa Somra) jako vystudovaný biolog poučuje svého syna, ztvárněného Davidem Novotným, o názvu a vlastnostech keře, na který společně vykonali malou potřebu.
Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu krušina olšová ve Wikimedia Commons
For alternative betydninger, se Tørst. (Se også artikler, som begynder med Tørst)
Tørst (Frangula alnus) er en op til 7 meter høj busk, der vokser på fugtig bund i skove og moser. Tørst er en god biplante. Den er velegnet til udplantning i skovbryn og vildtplantninger.
Tørst er en løvfældende busk med krukkeagtig vækstform og udspærrede, let opstigende grene. Barken er først grå og fint håret med lyse barkporer på langs. Senere bliver den brun med mere tydelige porer. Gamle grene kan få opsprækkende, grå bark. Knopperne er spredte, udspærrede, nøgne og uregelmæssige med lysebrun farve. Bladene er ovale med hel rand. Oversiden er skinnende blank og friskt grøn, mens undersiden er mere mat og lysegrøn. Høstfarven er klart gul.
Blomsterne, der kommer frem fra begyndelsen af juni, sidder samlet i kvaste ved bladhjørnerne. De er gulligthvide og bittesmå. Frugterne er bær som skifter farve fra grønt over rødt til sort. Blomster og bær i alle grader af modenhed ses samtidig. Frøene spirer villigt.
Rodnettet er kun lidt forgrenet, men der når langt ud og dybt ned. Alle dele af planten har en speciel, ram lugt, og de er giftige og fremkalder kraftige opkastninger. Bierne trækker gerne efter Tørst, som yder god nektar.
Højde x bredde og årlig tilvækst: 6 x 3 m (30 x 20 cm/år).
Tørst optræder som underskov på fugtig, sur bund. Desuden danner den krat ved bredden af damme, søer og vandløb sammen med f.eks. rødel (Alnus glutinosa), dunbirk (Betula pubescens), mosepors (Myrica gale) og gråpil (Salix cineria).
I Danmark er den almindelig i hele landet på fugtig, mager bund i skove, krat og moser.
Tørst er velegnet til den indre del af skovbryn og vildtplantninger. Den tåler vind og skygge og er nøjsom. Den kan gro på alle jordtyper, men lykkes især på fugtig og sur jordbund. Den tørrede bark af Tørst har tidligere været brugt som opkastningsmiddel under navnet Frangula Cortex, men pr. 22.9.2008 er det sidste middel, der indeholdt tørret bark af Tørst, trukket tilbage.
Tørst er en udpræget biplante, der leverer bierne både nektar og pollen i god kvalitet.
For alternative betydninger, se Tørst. (Se også artikler, som begynder med Tørst) Tørst (Frangula alnus) er en op til 7 meter høj busk, der vokser på fugtig bund i skove og moser. Tørst er en god biplante. Den er velegnet til udplantning i skovbryn og vildtplantninger.
Der Faulbaum (Rhamnus frangula), genauer Echter Faulbaum oder Schießbeere und Pulverholz genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart innerhalb der Familie der Kreuzdorngewächse (Rhamnaceae). Sie ist von Europa bis Westsibirien und in Marokko weitverbreitet. Der deutschsprachige Trivialname „Faulbaum“ geht auf den leichten Fäulnisgeruch der Rinde zurück. Die Rinde wird medizinisch als Abführmittel verwendet, die aus dem Faulbaum gewonnene Holzkohle wurde früher für die Herstellung von Schwarzpulver verwendet.
Auch als Faulbaum wird Prunus padus, wegen seiner brüchigen Zweige und ähnlicher Borke, bezeichnet.[1] Aus derselben Gattung sind der Afrikanische Faulbaum (Rhamnus prinoides) und der Amerikanische Faulbaum (Rhamnus purshiana).[2]
Der Faulbaum ist ein mehrstämmiger, unregelmäßig verzweigter Strauch, der meist Wuchshöhen von 2 bis 4 Metern erreicht. Die Stämmchen weisen einen Durchmesser von etwa 5 Zentimetern auf. Besonders auf nassen Standorten wächst er vielstämmig. Selten wächst er als kleiner Baum, der Wuchshöhen von bis zu 8 Metern und dann Brusthöhendurchmesser von höchstens 15 Zentimetern erreicht. Junge Sträucher sind schnellwüchsig.[3] Die Zweige sind nur schwach behaart.
Die Wurzeln sind zunächst rötlich-gelb und werden später rot; bei Trocknung werden sie rotbraun. Sie bilden eine endotrophe Mykorrhiza. Auf vernässten Standorten ist das Wurzelsystem ausgesprochen flach.[3]
Das Holz ist halbringporig. Das Splintholz ist gelblich-weiß, das Kernholz gelbrot bis rot. Die Rohdichte beträgt 0,56 bis 0,6 g/cm3. Das Holz ist reich an Fasern. Die Holzstrahlen sind ein- bis dreireihig und 40 bis 50 Zellreihen hoch. Eine Borke wird nicht ausgebildet. Einzelne Literaturberichte sprechen von einer dunkelgrauen, schwach rissigen Borke bei dickeren Stämmen. Die Rinde ist rund 3,5 mm dick. Das Rindenparenchym bildet manchmal schmale, unregelmäßige Bänder. Sklereiden werden nicht gebildet. Siebröhren verlieren ihre Funktion im zweiten Jahr.[3]
Die wechselständig an den Zweigen angeordneten Laubblätter sind in Blattstiel und Blattspreite gegliedert. Der Blattstiel ist 6 bis 14 Millimeter lang. Die einfache Blattspreite ist bei einer Länge von 40 bis 70 Millimetern sowie einer Breite von 25 bis 50 Millimetern elliptisch bis eiförmig oder verkehrt-eiförmig. Der Spreitengrund ist abgerundet. Die Spreitenspitze ist abgerundet oder bespitzt bis zugespitzt. Der Blattrand ist meist ganzrandig, selten undeutlich gezähnt. Beide Blattseiten sind praktisch kahl und unterseits hellgrün gefärbt. Die Blattspreite besitzt sieben bis neun kräftige Blattaderpaare, die bogig gekrümmt und parallel und an der Oberseite eingedrückt sind, während sie an der Unterseite deutlich hervorstehen. Im Herbst verfärben sich die Laubblätter gelb.[3] Die Blätter sind die wohl wichtigste Raupennahrung der Zitronenfalter.
Zwei bis zehn Blüten stehen in einem seitenständigen trugdoldigen Blütenstand zusammen.
Die zwittrigen, grünlich-weißen, fünfzähligen und kurz gestielten Blüten sind mit einer Größe von 6 bis 12 Millimetern relativ klein und unscheinbar. Die schwachrippige Blütenachse ist napfförmig und von einem Diskus ausgekleidet, das als Nektarium fungiert. Die fünf weißen, innen gekielten Kelchblätter sind dreieckig und länger als die fünf kleinen, weißen und schwach zweispitzigen Kronblätter. Die Staubblätter sind kurz und werden von je einem Kronblatt kapuzenartig umhüllt. Die Staubfäden sind kurz und die Staubbeutel relativ groß. Der Fruchtknoten ist mittelständig mit einem kurzen Griffel und die Narbe ist zwei- bis dreiteilig.[3]
Die Blütezeit reicht von Ende Mai/Anfang Juni bis in den September. Die Bestäubung erfolgt durch Bienen, Hummeln, Schlupfwespen und Käfer.[3]
Die bei einem Durchmesser von etwa 8 Millimetern kugeligen Steinfrüchte enthalten zwei bis drei Steinkerne. Die zunächst grünen Steinfrüchte färben sich ab Juli rot und werden zur Reife ab Mitte August dann schwarz. Wegen der langen Blütezeit trägt ein Strauch meist gleichzeitig grüne, rote und schwarze Früchte. Die Früchte fallen zwischen September und Dezember ab; dadurch gibt es unter einem Strauch reichlich Verjüngung. Die Fernausbreitung erfolgt durch Vögel wie Wacholderdrosseln, Misteldrosseln und Fasane.[3]
Die Chromosomenzahl ist 2n = 20[4], seltener 22 oder 26.[3]
Der Faulbaum ist in Europa weitverbreitet. Er fehlt im Süden der Balkanhalbinsel, auf Sizilien, Sardinien und Korsika sowie den südöstlichen Teilen der Iberischen Halbinsel ebenso wie in den nördlichen Teilen Skandinaviens und in Schottland. In Irland ist er selten, in England und Wales hingegen häufig. Im Osten reicht das Verbreitungsgebiet bis zum Ural und Westsibirien. Vorkommen gibt es auch im Kaukasus und in Anatolien. In Nordafrika gibt es Vorkommen in Marokko. Im östlichen Nordamerika ist der Faulbaum ein Neophyt.[3]
Der Faulbaum bevorzugt subkontinentale bis subozeanische Klimaverhältnisse. Er wächst vorwiegend auf frischen, wechselfeuchten und feuchten Böden, meidet aber Staunässe. Die Art liebt tiefgründige saure Lehm-, Sand- und Tonböden. Obwohl sie häufig in Erlenbrüchen, in Birkenmooren und in Auwäldern wächst, gedeiht sie auch auf trockeneren Standorten. Gegenüber pH-Wert und Lichtverhältnissen ist der Faulbaum indifferent. Er ist eine schwache Charakterart der Ordnung Alnetalia, kommt aber auch in Gesellschaften der Ordnungen Prunetalia, Fagetalia, Quercetalia roboris, in denen der Klasse Vaccinio-Piceetea oder des Verbands Erico-Pinion vor.[5] In den Alpen kann der Faulbaum bis in Höhenlagen von 1500 Meter vorkommen, in Anatolien bis 1700 Meter.[3] In den Allgäuer Alpen steigt er in Bayern am Zipfelschrofen oberhalb Hinterstein bis zu einer Höhenlage von 1130 Metern auf.[6]
Die Erstveröffentlichung erfolgte 1753 unter dem Namen (Basionym) Rhamnus frangula durch Carl von Linné in Species Plantarum, S. 193. Das Synonym Frangula alnus veröffentlichte 1768 Philip Miller in The Gardeners Dictionary ed. 8: n.º 1. Ein weiteres Synonym von vielen ist Frangula dodonei Ard. nom. inval.[7] Je nach verwendeter Systematik wird diese Art zur Gattung Rhamnus oder Frangula gestellt.
Man kann folgende Unterarten unterscheiden, beispielsweise falls man Frangula als Gattung verwendet mit den Namen:
Das Holz des Faulbaums ergibt eine hochwertige Holzkohle mit geringem Ascheanteil. Diese war besonders in der Vergangenheit begehrt zur Herstellung von Schwarzpulver. Auf diese Nutzung geht auch der Trivialname „Pulverholz“ für die Art zurück.[3]
Die getrocknete Rinde der Stämme und Zweige wird als Faulbaumrinde (Frangulae cortex) pharmazeutisch genutzt. Die Rindendroge dient als dickdarmwirksames Abführmittel zur kurzzeitigen Behandlung von Verstopfung. Dazu wird die Rinde von den Stämmen und Ästen geschält und entweder an der Sonne getrocknet und danach ein Jahr gelagert oder bei höheren Temperaturen (80 bis 100 °C) künstlich gealtert. Die Droge muss mindestens sieben Prozent Glucofranguline, berechnet als Glucofrangulin A, enthalten, um den Anforderungen des Europäischen Arzneibuches zu genügen.[9]
An Inhaltsstoffen enthält die Droge die Anthrachinon-Derivate Glucofrangulin A und B, Frangulin A und B, verschiedene Frangulaemodinglykoside wie Frangulaeemodin-8-O-β-D-glucosid sowie wenige freie Aglykone. Weiters sind Gerbstoffe und Peptidalkaloide enthalten.[9]
In der Droge liegen diese Substanzen – im Gegensatz zu anderen Anthranoiddrogen – überwiegend in der oxidierten Anthrachinon-Form vor. Sie sind weniger stark antiabsorptiv und sekretagog (verhindern weniger die Aufnahme von Wasser und Ionen aus dem Darmlumen und fördern weniger die Abgabe von Wasser und Ionen in das Darmlumen). Daraus ergibt sich die mildere Wirkung der Faulbaumrinde.[9]
Die geschnittene Droge wird als Teeaufguss (Infus) verabreicht. Faulbaumrinde ist in vielen industriellen Tees enthalten. Daneben wird der Faulbaumrindentrockenextrakt (Frangulae corticis extractum siccum normatum) mit 15,0 bis 30,0 % Glucofrangulinen in Kombinationspräparaten in Form von Dragees oder Tabletten eingesetzt.[9]
Beeren, Blätter und frische Rinde sind als giftig eingestuft. Faulbäume werden deshalb nicht vom Wild verbissen, wohl aber gefegt. Vergiftungen gelten als selten. Sie treten nach Verzehren der Früchte durch Kinder oder durch Verwendung großer Mengen frischer Rinde als Abführmittel auf. Symptome sind Übelkeit, Erbrechen, Leibschmerzen bis hin zu wässrigem und blutigem Durchfall.[10]
Der Faulbaum wird vom Rostpilz Puccinia coronata var. coronata mit Spermogonien und Aecidien befallen.[11]
Der Faulbaum (Rhamnus frangula), genauer Echter Faulbaum oder Schießbeere und Pulverholz genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart innerhalb der Familie der Kreuzdorngewächse (Rhamnaceae). Sie ist von Europa bis Westsibirien und in Marokko weitverbreitet. Der deutschsprachige Trivialname „Faulbaum“ geht auf den leichten Fäulnisgeruch der Rinde zurück. Die Rinde wird medizinisch als Abführmittel verwendet, die aus dem Faulbaum gewonnene Holzkohle wurde früher für die Herstellung von Schwarzpulver verwendet.
Auch als Faulbaum wird Prunus padus, wegen seiner brüchigen Zweige und ähnlicher Borke, bezeichnet. Aus derselben Gattung sind der Afrikanische Faulbaum (Rhamnus prinoides) und der Amerikanische Faulbaum (Rhamnus purshiana).
Die Huundestok (Frangula alnus), düütsk: "Faulbaum", is n Struuk, die fon Marokko uur groote Deele fon Europa bit in dät Wääste fon Sibirien tou fienden is. Düsse Plonte is giftich, do Bäien konnen oawers fon Fuugele freeten wäide. Die Struuk wäid so n 3 Meter hooch un woakst in wäite Foane, man tou wäit duur't uk nit weese.
Die Huundestok un sien Bäien wäide misferstoundelk uk Fuulbäien naamd. Ieuwenske düsse Oard rakt dät oaber noch een twäide Plonte, ju so beteekent wäd: Ju Oard Solanum nigrum (düütsk:Schwarzer Nachtschatten) hat ap Seeltersk uk "Fuulbäie".
Die Huundestok (Frangula alnus), düütsk: "Faulbaum", is n Struuk, die fon Marokko uur groote Deele fon Europa bit in dät Wääste fon Sibirien tou fienden is. Düsse Plonte is giftich, do Bäien konnen oawers fon Fuugele freeten wäide. Die Struuk wäid so n 3 Meter hooch un woakst in wäite Foane, man tou wäit duur't uk nit weese.
Die Huundestok un sien Bäien wäide misferstoundelk uk Fuulbäien naamd. Ieuwenske düsse Oard rakt dät oaber noch een twäide Plonte, ju so beteekent wäd: Ju Oard Solanum nigrum (düütsk:Schwarzer Nachtschatten) hat ap Seeltersk uk "Fuulbäie".
Pagač (latin.: Frangula alnus vai Rhámnus frangula), toižed nimed paginoiš — koiranmarjad i šoidobolad, om puidenvuitte penzaz. Se mülüb Plakačuižed-sugukundan Plakačud-heimho, necen heimon tipine erik.
Kazvab seičemehe metrhasai kortte Azijadme i Evropan meczonas. Pil'vesenvastaine penzaz, voib kazda sokahil i vägitomil mahusil, mägiden pautkil (1700 metrhasai ü.m.t.).
Penzhan tüvi om siled, ogahita, möuvhan alašoid om rusked.
Pagačun siniž-mustad plodud oma morijad ristitun täht, hot' lindud södas niid.
Kazvatadas dekorativižeks penzhaks. Kävutadas mezikazmuseks, pumaterialaks, lämbitadud kor't — utandzelläks. Ende kävutihe dubindsubstancijaks, tehmaha porhad i samha pakušt da koričmad mujutint.
Veza lehtesidenke i umbikoidenke
Lehtez (adaksialine pol')
Lehtez (abaksialine pol')
Änikuz
Änikod
Ravakod plodud
Küpsad plodud
Semned
Pagač (latin.: Frangula alnus vai Rhámnus frangula), toižed nimed paginoiš — koiranmarjad i šoidobolad, om puidenvuitte penzaz. Se mülüb Plakačuižed-sugukundan Plakačud-heimho, necen heimon tipine erik.
Toś ten nastawk z temu družyna "Frangula alnus" jo pó lema na drugi nastawk pódobny. Drugi lema psowica ma temu poddružyna "Prunus domestica subsp insititia". Dalšne warianty su na boku psowic (wěcejwóznamowosć) listowane. 
Psowic[1][2] (Frangula alnus) jo kerk abo bom ze swójźby gokowcowych rostlinow (Rhamnaceae). Drugej serbskej mjeni stej psowica[1][2] a psowina[1]. Družyna se wót někotarych awtorow do roda gokowcow (Rhamnus) zarědujo, a pótom ma wědomnostne mě Rhamnus frangula.
Psowic jo kerk abo bom, kótaryž dośěgnjo wusokosć wót 1 až do 4 m.
Gałuzy njenjasu śernje a su běle dypkate.
Měnjate łopjena su jajojte a dośěgnu dłujkosć wót 2 až do 5 (8) cm a šyrokosć wót až do 5 cm. Wóni njasu na kuždem boku 7-12 bocnych nerwow.
Kwiśo wót maja až do junija. Pěślicbne kwiśonki su žołtozelene, lejkojte, dośěgnu šyrokosć wót něźi 5 mm a stoje pó dwěma až pó źaseśoch w łopjenowych rozporach.
Płody su cerwjene, pózdźej śamnomódre, 5-8 mm šyroke, kulowate jagody.
Škóra wopśimjejo antranoidy.
Rosćo we ługowych łukach, bagnach, wjerbowych krickach a we swětłych lěsach. Ma lubjej włožne, zwětšego małobazowe do dłymi duce zemje.
Rostlina jo w pśisamem cełej Europje rozšyrjona.
Psowic (Frangula alnus) jo kerk abo bom ze swójźby gokowcowych rostlinow (Rhamnaceae). Drugej serbskej mjeni stej psowica a psowina. Družyna se wót někotarych awtorow do roda gokowcow (Rhamnus) zarědujo, a pótom ma wědomnostne mě Rhamnus frangula.
Skirpstos aba šaltekšnis, medlėiva (luotīnėškā: Frangula alnus, sin. Rhamnus frangula) ī tuokis augals – nedėdlis medelis aba krūms.
Aug mažne vėsuo Lietovuo, bet tonkiau vėdorė, šiaurės ė pėitvakariu līgomūs. Aug skirpstos medies, krūmīnūs, opiu ėr ežerū krontūs, pelkies, lieknūs.
Ožaug lėgė 3–6 m, sīkēs lėgė 7 m augoma, tonkiausē ėšruod kap krūms. Žėivie anuo būn līgė, bavēk jouda. Ūglē būn rauduonā rodi, nadīgliouti, lūžtontīs. Lapā tomsē žali, kiaušė skvarmas, līgēs kraštās. Žėidā mizerni, balti, žīda gegožė-lėipas mienesēs. Rogpjūtė galė prisirpėn joudas, blizgontės ougas.
Skirpstos ī medings augals, bėtis anou gausē lonka. Žėivie ėr ougas tink dažīmou. Skirpsta žėivie žalė būn tročlīva, bet anou ėšdiuovinus ana tink kap liekvarstos (žėivės nūvirs liousoun vėdorius).
Vuulboom (Latien: Rhamnus frangula) is een plant uut de wegedoornfemilie (Rhamnaceae). In Nederland komt de plant veural veur in 't oosten en zujen en in de dunen. De plant liekt een bietjen op de wegedoorn, mar verschilt op details. Vuulboom komt in veul delen van Europa veur in vochtige bossen en venen. De plant greuit 't best in een zure groend.
De soort greuit as struuk of as kleine boom tot oengeveer 5 meter hoog. De bast is zwart en het brune poriën. Vuulboom het gien dores. De blaojen zien der zwat 'tzelfde uut as die van de wegedoorn, mar bin langwaarpig roend en geifrandig.
De bloemen bin tweeslachtig en hen vuuf kelk- en vuuf kroonblaojen. De bloemen bin alleenstaond of in bundels in de oksels. De bleuitied loopt van april tot juli. Vuulboom draagt rooie bezen die laoter zwart worren.
Wôłczô wisznia (Frangula alnus Mill.) - to je czierz z rodzëznë szatlachòwatëch (Rhamnaceae). Òna rosce m. jin. na Kaszëbach.
Йыт çĕмĕрчĕ , (лат. Frangula alnus), (Rhamnus frangula) — йывăç евĕр тĕм е лутра йывăç, 7 м таран.
Йывăç вуллипе турачĕсем тĕттĕм хăмăр. Хупă айĕнче хĕрлĕ тĕслĕ слой пур. Çулçисем елипс формиллĕ, 4-10 см тăршшĕ. Чечекĕсем 2-3,5 мм тăршшĕ, хитре мар. Чечек формули: ∗ K ( 5 ) C 5 A 5 G ( 3 _ ) {displaystyle ast K_{(5)};C_{5};A_{5};G_{({underline {3}})}} 
Çимĕçĕ — 8—10 мм диаметрлă шар евĕрле. Ăшĕнче 3 сарă симĕс çаврака-виçкĕтеслĕ шăмăллă. Пиçсен тĕттĕм кăвак хура тĕслĕ. Çырлисем наркăмăшлă, анчах кайăксем вĕсене тăрăшсах çиеççĕ.
Хуппинче, папкисенче, çулçисенче, çырлисенче антрахинонсем (глюкофрангулин, эмодин тата изоэмодин) пур. Хуппинче 8 % таран. Унсăр пуçне йывăç хуппинче гликозидсем, хризофан йӳçĕкĕ, антранолсем, сухăрсем, тата эфир çăвĕсен йĕрĕсем пур[2].
Европăн вăрманпа вăрманлă хир зонисенче, Хĕвеланăç Çепĕрте, Кĕçĕн Аçин çурçĕр пайĕнче, Крымра, Кавказра, Вăтам Аçин çурçĕр пайĕнче ӳсет. [3].
Халăх медицининче хуппипе çырлисене усă кураççĕ. Официаллă медицина (Cortex Frangulae) хуппине усă курать, анчах малтан е 1 çулталăк упрамалла, е 1 сехет 100 °C хĕртмелле.
Капăрлатмалли тĕм евĕр ĕрчетеççĕ.
Çемçе йывăçĕ çăмăлăн çурăлать, касакансем усă кураççĕ. Танăçлăхĕ пĕчĕк пулнипе унтан хура е тĕтĕмлĕ тар валли йывăç кăмрăкĕ тăваççĕ [4]. Вĕлле хурчĕсем йыт çĕмĕрчĕ çинче нектарпа пыльца пуçтараççĕ. Гектартан 35 ег таран. Хăшпĕр вăрмансенче тĕп пыл ӳсентранĕ пулса тăрать.[5].
Йыт çĕмĕрчĕ , (лат. Frangula alnus), (Rhamnus frangula) — йывăç евĕр тĕм е лутра йывăç, 7 м таран.
Латинла ячĕ frangere — хуç глаголпа çыхăннă. Ăна йывăç çăмăллăн хуçăлнипе çавăн пек ят панă. ,Йывăç вуллипе турачĕсем тĕттĕм хăмăр. Хупă айĕнче хĕрлĕ тĕслĕ слой пур. Çулçисем елипс формиллĕ, 4-10 см тăршшĕ. Чечекĕсем 2-3,5 мм тăршшĕ, хитре мар. Чечек формули: ∗ K ( 5 ) C 5 A 5 G ( 3 _ ) {displaystyle ast K_{(5)};C_{5};A_{5};G_{({underline {3}})}}
Çимĕçĕ — 8—10 мм диаметрлă шар евĕрле. Ăшĕнче 3 сарă симĕс çаврака-виçкĕтеслĕ шăмăллă. Пиçсен тĕттĕм кăвак хура тĕслĕ. Çырлисем наркăмăшлă, анчах кайăксем вĕсене тăрăшсах çиеççĕ.
Этмуйыл (рус. Крушина ломкая, крушина ольховидная, лат. Frangula alnus), или жостер ломкий (Rhamnus frangula) — бейеклеге 1,5-3 тирәһендә булған ҡыуаҡ йәки ағас; аҡ, күгелйем сәскәле, сәнскеле, ҡара ҡабыҡлы, йомшаҡ ҡына ҡара емешле туғай ҡыуағы. Май-июнь айҙарында йәшкелт сәскә ата, август-сентябрҙә емеше өлгөрә.
Европа, Көнбайыш Себерҙә, Кесе Азия, Кавказ һәм Крымда урман һәм урманлы дала зонаһында таралған. Этмуйыл йылға буйҙарында, күл, һаҙлыҡ тиәһендә, әрәмәлек араһында урманда үҫә. Башҡортостанда киң таралған үҫемлек, Дыуан, Мәсетле, Балаҡатай, Салауат райондарында бигерәк тә күп осрай.
Этмуйыл (рус. Крушина ломкая, крушина ольховидная, лат. Frangula alnus), или жостер ломкий (Rhamnus frangula) — бейеклеге 1,5-3 тирәһендә булған ҡыуаҡ йәки ағас; аҡ, күгелйем сәскәле, сәнскеле, ҡара ҡабыҡлы, йомшаҡ ҡына ҡара емешле туғай ҡыуағы. Май-июнь айҙарында йәшкелт сәскә ата, август-сентябрҙә емеше өлгөрә.
Frangula alnus, commonly known as alder buckthorn, glossy buckthorn, or breaking buckthorn, is a tall deciduous shrub in the family Rhamnaceae. Unlike other "buckthorns", alder buckthorn does not have thorns. It is native to Europe, northernmost Africa, and western Asia, from Ireland and Great Britain north to the 68th parallel in Scandinavia, east to central Siberia and Xinjiang in western China, and south to northern Morocco, Turkey, and the Alborz in Iran and the Caucasus Mountains; in the northwest of its range (Ireland, Scotland), it is rare and scattered. It is also introduced and naturalised in eastern North America.[3][4][5][6][7]
Alder buckthorn is a non-spiny deciduous shrub, growing to 3–6 m (10–20 ft), occasionally to 7 m (23 ft) tall. It is usually multistemmed but rarely forms a small tree with a trunk diameter of up to 20 cm (8 in). The bark is dark blackish-brown, with bright lemon-yellow inner bark exposed if cut. The shoots are dark brown, the winter buds without bud scales, protected only by the densely hairy outer leaves.
The leaves are arranged alternately on 8–15-millimetre (5⁄16–19⁄32-inch) petioles. They are ovate, 3–7 cm (1+1⁄4–2+3⁄4 in) long by 2.5–4 cm (1–1+5⁄8 in) wide (rarely to 11 cm or 4+1⁄4 in by 6 cm or 2+1⁄4 in). They have 6–10 pairs of prominently grooved and slightly downy veins and an entire margin.
The flowers are small, 3–5 mm (1⁄8–3⁄16 inch) in diameter, star-shaped with five greenish-white acute triangular petals, hermaphroditic, and insect-pollinated, flowering in May to June in clusters of two to ten in the leaf axils.
The fruit is a small black berry 6–10 mm (1⁄4–13⁄32 inch) in diameter, ripening from green through red in late summer to dark purple or black in early autumn, containing two or three pale brown 5-millimetre (3⁄16-inch) seeds. The seeds are primarily dispersed by frugivorous birds, which readily eat the fruit.[3][5][6][7][8][9]
Alder buckthorn was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as Rhamnus frangula. It was subsequently separated by Philip Miller in 1768 into the genus Frangula on the basis of its hermaphrodite flowers with a five-parted corolla (in Rhamnus the flowers are dioecious and four-parted); this restored the treatment of pre-Linnaean authors, notably Tournefort.[10] Although much disputed historically, the separation of Frangula from Rhamnus is now widely accepted, being supported by recent genetic data[11] though a few authorities still retain the genus within Rhamnus (e.g., the Flora of China[7]).
The genus name Frangula, from Latin frango "to break", refers to the brittle wood. Both the common name alder buckthorn and specific epithet alnus refer to its association with alders (Alnus) on damp sites. Unlike other "buckthorns", alder buckthorn does not have thorns.[12][8] Other recorded names include glossy buckthorn and breaking buckthorn; historically, it was sometimes called "dogwood" through confusion of the leaves with those of dogwood Cornus sanguinea.[12]
Alder buckthorn grows in wet soils in open woods, scrub, hedgerows and bogs, thriving well in sunlight and moderate shade, but less vigorously in dense shade; it prefers acidic soils though will also grow on neutral soils.[6][12][9]
Frangula alnus is one of just two food plants (the other being Rhamnus cathartica) used by the common brimstone butterfly (Gonepteryx rhamni). The flowers are valuable for bees, and the fruit an important food source for birds, particularly thrushes.[8]
Frangula alnus was probably introduced to North America about 200 years ago, and in Canada about 100 years ago. It was planted for hedgerows, forestry plantings, and wildlife habitat, but has become an invasive species, invading forests in the northeastern United States and wetlands and moist forest in the Midwestern United States.[13][14][15] It is predicted to continue to expand its North American range with time.[13] Its invasiveness is assisted by its high adaptability and pollution tolerance.[16] It is one of three species of buckthorn that occurs without cultivation in eastern Canada.[17]
It invades forests and grows in the understory in spots with a lot of light. These areas, usually where a tree has fallen, normally allow locally native tree seedlings to grow and eventually fill in the gap in the canopy. But when Frangula alnus invades and grows in these locations, its dense canopy prevents light from reaching the ground and therefore prevents other seedlings from growing.[16] It tends to grow more densely and with larger individuals in lower topographical areas with moist, fertile soils, and is very problematic for land managers. Uplands forests are not invaded as easily as lower lying ones. Hemlock-oak stands, which tend to be older stands of trees, are much less suitable for Frangula alnus because the density of the tree canopy creates a more shady environment that is not as suitable for Frangula alnus. Eastern white pine stands are easily invaded because they allow more light to reach the forest floor, and tree stands that are cut are very quickly invaded while undisturbed stands are rarely invaded.[18]
Although considered an invasive species in North America, In other places, such as Northern Ireland, Frangula alnus has suffered greatly from habitat loss.[19] This is due to the decline in its preferred habitats, which are boglands.[19][20] It is currently only found on the southern side of Lough Neagh, but it the past, it was also found on the northern side of the lake.[21] Compared to other populations of Frangula alnus, the population in Ireland also has lower genetic diversity.[19][22]
Small saplings can be hand-pulled, but control of larger examples is best achieved using herbicides.[23] Frangula alnus and the related species Rhamnus cathartica have been banned from sale, transport, or import to Minnesota[24] and Illinois.[25] It is considered invasive, but not banned, in Connecticut.[26]
Alder buckthorn has limited decorative qualities without conspicuous flowers or bold foliage, and is mainly grown for its conservation value, particularly to attract Brimstone butterflies. A variegated cultivar Frangula alnus 'Variegata' and a cultivar with very slender leaves 'Asplenifolia' are sometimes grown in gardens as ornamental shrubs. The cultivar 'Tallhedge' has been selected for hedging.[27]
Galen, a Greek physician of the 2nd century A.D., knew of alder buckthorn, although he did not distinguish clearly in his writings between it and other closely related species. All of these plants though, were credited with the power to protect against witchcraft, demons, poisons, and headaches.
The bark (and to a lesser extent the fruit) has been used as a laxative, due to its 3–7% anthraquinone content. Bark for medicinal use is dried and stored for a year before use, as fresh bark is violently purgative; even dried bark can be dangerous if taken in excess.[3][27]
Alder buckthorn charcoal is prized in the manufacture of gunpowder, being regarded as the best wood for the purpose. It is particularly highly valued for time fuses because of its very even burn rate.[3][12] The wood was formerly used for shoe lasts, nails, and veneer. The bark yields a yellow dye, and the unripe berries furnish a green dye.[27]
Frangula alnus, commonly known as alder buckthorn, glossy buckthorn, or breaking buckthorn, is a tall deciduous shrub in the family Rhamnaceae. Unlike other "buckthorns", alder buckthorn does not have thorns. It is native to Europe, northernmost Africa, and western Asia, from Ireland and Great Britain north to the 68th parallel in Scandinavia, east to central Siberia and Xinjiang in western China, and south to northern Morocco, Turkey, and the Alborz in Iran and the Caucasus Mountains; in the northwest of its range (Ireland, Scotland), it is rare and scattered. It is also introduced and naturalised in eastern North America.
La frangolo [1] (Rhamnus frangula aŭ Frangula alnus) estas arbedo kun ovalaj folioj, kvinnombraj duseksaj floroj, pirograndaj ruĝaj-purpuraj-nigraj fruktoj. La ŝelo de la branĉoj estas uzata kiel laksiga medikamento.
La frangolo estas palearktisa specio kiu troviĝas en Eŭropo, Siberio, Sud-Okcidenta Azio, Mez-Azio kaj en Nordafriko. Pere de la homo, ankaŭ en Nordameriko la specio estas disvastiĝinta. La planto precipe kreskas sur acidaj grundoj en malfermaj arbaroj same kiel laŭlonge de riveroj kaj en marĉoj. Altece ĝi povas atingi 1000 metrojn super normalnulo.
La frangolo gastigas la raŭpojn de la tagpapilioj Gonepteryx rhamni kaj Celastrina argiolus.
La frangolo (Rhamnus frangula aŭ Frangula alnus) estas arbedo kun ovalaj folioj, kvinnombraj duseksaj floroj, pirograndaj ruĝaj-purpuraj-nigraj fruktoj. La ŝelo de la branĉoj estas uzata kiel laksiga medikamento.
El arraclán (Frangula alnus) es un arbusto de 3 a 6 metros de altura que crece en bosques galería y de ribera, orlas de robledales, roquedos y zonas húmedas con suelos neutros o ácidos de Europa, Asia, norte de África y naturalizado en Norteamérica.[1]
Es un arbusto de ramas erguidas no espinoso. La corteza presenta manchas llamadas lenticelas. Las hojas son caducas, alternas, ovales y pecioladas con nervaduras sobresalientes en el envés. Las flores son pequeñas, hermafroditas, con cinco pétalos y de color rosado o verdoso. Los frutos son rojos que se vuelven pardos al madurar. Se trata de un arbusto típico de suelos muy húmedos en sustratos silíceos, ampliamente extendido por Europa.
Europa, Asia y norte de África. En España es muy abundante en los bosques de ribera del tercio norte. Al sur se halla en las zonas de montaña del Sistema Ibérico, Sistema Central, Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena, sierra de Cazorla y otras zonas montañosas; también en el litoral de Cádiz y Huelva.[1]
Rhamnus frangula fue descrita por Carlos Linneo y publicado en Species Plantarum 1: 193, en el año 1753.[2] Philip Miller la describió en 1768 en Gard. Dict. ed. 8 1 como Frangula alnus, nombre válido desde 2012.[3][4][1]
Número de cromosomas de Frangula alnus (Fam. Rhamnaceae) y táxones infraespecíficos: 2n=20[5]
Aliso negro, arraclán, arrayán, avellanillo, avellanito, avellano bravío, biondo, cabraescuerna, cavicuerna, chopera, escabracuerna, escuernacabra, frangula, frángula, gedeondo, gediondo, geriondo, gudino , hediondo, jarapudio, jediondo, ollacarana, pudio, rabiacana, rabiacano, rabiacán, salguera, sanapudio negro, sangreda, sangredo, sangrego, sangubiño, sanguina, sanguino, sanguiño, sangüeño, sarapullo, zarapugio, ácere o ázare.[7]
El arraclán (Frangula alnus) es un arbusto de 3 a 6 metros de altura que crece en bosques galería y de ribera, orlas de robledales, roquedos y zonas húmedas con suelos neutros o ácidos de Europa, Asia, norte de África y naturalizado en Norteamérica.
See artikkel räägib taimeliigist; perekonna kohta vaata artiklit Paakspuu (perekond) Harilik paakspuu (Frangula alnus, sünonüüm Rhamnus frangula) on türnpuuliste sugukonda paakspuu perekonda kuuluv madal puu või põõsas.
Paakspuu rahvapärased nimetused on pahaspuu, kitsepaats, ohupaats ja mõruuibu.[2][3].
Teaduslikult kirjeldas harilikku paakspuud esimesena šoti botaanik Philip Miller.
Harilik paakspuu kasvab kõikjal Euroopas ning Kesk- ja Põhja-Aasias. Eestis on ta sage.[3]
Paakspuu kasvab lehtmetsade alusmetsas ja soode servas, harvem okasmetsas, eelkõige laanemetsas. Teda leidub ka rabametsas, soometsas, kõigis sookooslustes ja niitudel. Eestis on ta külmakindel ja mullastiku suhtes vähenõudlik, kõige paremini kasvab viljakatel niisketel muldadel[4]. Põuale peab ta hästi vastu.[3]
Harilik paakspuu on meie metsades kõige arvukam alusmetsa liik, talle järgnevad harilik toomingas ja sarapuu. Alusmetsade kogupindala, kus ta on valitsev puuliik, on ligi 4380 km²[5].
Harilik paakspuu on mitmeaastane heitlehine kuni 8 m kõrge puu või põõsas. Tema võra on rohkesti harunev.[4]
Paakspuu juurestik on hästi arenenud[3]. Noored võrsed on hele- või hallikaspruunid, astlad puuduvad, paljude heledate ja piklike lõvedega[4][3]. Puukoor on sile ja mustjas[4][3]. Pungasoomused puuduvad, pungalehekesed on pruunikad ja pehmete karvakestega kaetud[4].
Lehed paiknevad lehel vahelduvalt[3]. Nad on terve servaga lihtlehed, äraspidimunajad või ellipsoidsed, 3–8 cm pikad ja 1½–4 cm laiad, pealt tumerohelised ja läikivad, alt heledamad, kuivanult sageli kollakasrohelised[4]. Külgroodusid on 6–8 paari, nad pöörduvad enne lehe serva jõudmist lehe tipu suunas[4]. Leherootsu pikkus on kuni 1½ cm[4]. Lehed on sulgroodsed ja rood tungivad lehel selgelt esile[3].
Õied on väikesed ja ilusad[2]. Nad on peaaegu valged, kahesugulised ja asuvad lehtede kaenlas 3–6 kaupa[4]. tupp- ja kroonlehti on 5[4]. Paakspuu õitseb mais-juunis, teist korda augustis-septembris[4]. Õisi tolmeldavad putukad, kes külastavad õisi nektari pärast.[3]
Vili on alguses rohekaspunane, valminult must, kahe luuseemnega, mürgine[4][2]. Vili on kerajas ja meenutab marja, aga on lihakvili.[3]
Kui paakspuu vilju süüa, siis saab mürgistuse. See väljendub tugevas kõhuvalus, oksendamises ja vere roojamises. Kannatanule tuleb kiiresti anda sütt ja toimetada ta haiglasse.[2]
Paakspuu paljuneb peamiselt seemnetega. Seemnetel aitavad levida linnud, kes neid söövad. Kuid paakspuu võib paljuneda ka juurevõsust, samuti saab teda pistokstega paljundada.[3]
Paakspuud saab ära tunda koore järgi, mis on tume ja valgete kriipsukestega, või lehtede järgi, mis on pealt tumerohelised ja alt esiletungivate roodudega. Talvel on iseloomuliku välimusega tema pungad, mida ei kata soomused.[2]
Paakspuu on tuntud meetaim. Õitseb mais-juunis, teist korda võib õitseda augustis-septembris. Meeproduktiivsus 50–150 kg/ha. Mesi on hele, nõrga roheka varjundiga. Puhas paakspuu mesi ei kristalliseeru.[6]
Kõige meelsamini söövad paakspuu vilju tihased, varblased ja leevikesed[3].
Paakspuu on nagu türnpuugi roosteseene vaheperemees. Roosteseen moodustab kevaditi paakspuulehe alumisel küljel oranže kuhjakesi. Hiljem levivad seened temalt teistele taimedele ja nii tekitab paakspuu inimestele pisut kahju.[2]
Paakspuu puidust tehakse joonistussütt, samuti kasutatakse seda nikerdamiseks. Siiski pole tema puidul suurt majanduslikku tähtsust, sest puu ise on pisike ja puitu saab talt vähe.[2]
Paakspuu koort ja vilju on vanad eestlased kasutanud värvainena. Koort kogutakse kevadel mahlajooksu ajal. Sel ajal on okstel koor hästi lahti. Puu tuleb umbes käelaba kõrguselt maha lõigata ning seejärel tüvi ja oksad paari detsimeetri pikkusteks juppideks tükeldada. Igale tükile tuleb teha pikilõige ja siis saab koore maha tõmmata. Pimedas kuivatatud ja kuivas hoitav paakspuukoor säilib 5 aastat. Selleks ajaks on mahalõigatud puu asemele juba uus kasvanud ja selle saab uuesti maha lõigata.[2]
Harilik paakspuu (Frangula alnus, sünonüüm Rhamnus frangula) on türnpuuliste sugukonda paakspuu perekonda kuuluv madal puu või põõsas.
Paakspuu rahvapärased nimetused on pahaspuu, kitsepaats, ohupaats ja mõruuibu..
Teaduslikult kirjeldas harilikku paakspuud esimesena šoti botaanik Philip Miller.
Korpipaatsama eli paatsama (Rhamnus frangula, syn. Frangula alnus) on paatsamakasveihin kuuluva puuvartinen kasvi. Paatsaman murteellisia nimiä ovat pajatin ja koirankusipuu.
Korpipaatsama on harittavaoksainen pensas, joka kasvaa 2–6 metrin korkuiseksi. Joskus se kasvaa pieneksi puuksi, jonka halkaisija rinnan korkeudella on harvoin paksumpi kuin 10 senttimetriä. Puuaines on kellertävää ja ydinpuu oranssia. Leikkauspinta tuoksuu voimakkaasti samalta kuin tuomi.
Paatsaman lehdet ovat samantapaiset kuin lehtokuusaman, mutta kasvavat kierteisesti ja ovat kaljuja. Kukka on kellanvihreä ja teriö valkoinen. Marjat ovat raakoina vihreitä, puolikypsinä punaisia ja kypsinä mustia. Kuori ja marjat ovat myrkyllisiä. Puun kuori on musta ja sileä, ja siinä on pieniä valkoisia täpliä.[2]
Korpipaatsama kasvoi alun perin vain Euraasiassa ja Pohjois-Afrikassa, mutta 1900-luvun alussa sitä vietiin koristekasviksi Pohjois-Amerikkaan, missä se karkasi luontoon ja kasvaa nykyisin paikoin yleisenä.
Suomessa se on yleinen Etelä- ja Keski-Suomessa, mutta Etelä-Lapissa ja Pohjanmaalla se on harvinainen.[3] Korpipaatsama kasvaa korpimailla, soiden reunamilla, purojen varsilla ja muilla kosteilla paikoilla.
Paatsama on ikivanha lääkekasvi. Sen kuori ja marjat sisältävät antrakinoniglykosideja mm. franguliinia ja glukofranguliinia. Niiden hajoamistuote emodiini ärsyttää paksusuolen seinämää ja vaikuttaa täten ulostuslääkkeenä. Kasvi on kuitenkin myrkyllinen runsaasti nautittuna.[4] Kasvista saatavaa hiiltä on käytetty myös hienoimman ruudin valmistukseen. Värjäyksessä korpipaatsaman kuoresta saadaan keltaista väriä ja rautasuoloihin sekoitettuna mustaa. Kasvin lehdistä saadaan keltaista väriainetta ja ruosteen eri sävyjä, jotka rautasuoloilla muuttuvat mustaksi.
Korpipaatsama kärsii usein paatsamanheinäruoste (Puccinia coronata) -ruostesienen aiheuttamasta rengasruosteesta. Muita korpipaatsamalla tavattavia tuholaisia ovat lehtikirvat (Aphis frangulae ym.) sekä eräiden perhoslajien toukat kuten esimerkiksi sitruunaperhonen (Gonepteryx rhamni) ja paatsamasinisiipi (Celastrina argiolus). Korpipaatsaman tuholaisia on myös paatsamanhärmä (Microsphaera divaricata). Korpipaatsamaa ravintokasvinaan käyttäviä eliöitä ovat lisäksi Aceria rhamni, juovasirppikääriäinen (Ancylis apicella), Ancylis derasana, tuomitöyhtökoi (Bucculatrix frangulella), orapaatsamakemppi (Cacopsylla rhamnicola), Oberea pedemontana, paatsamavälkekoi (Sorhagenia janiszewskae), Tetra rhamni ja Zygana suavis.
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Korpipaatsama eli paatsama (Rhamnus frangula, syn. Frangula alnus) on paatsamakasveihin kuuluva puuvartinen kasvi. Paatsaman murteellisia nimiä ovat pajatin ja koirankusipuu.
Frangula alnus
La Bourdaine ou Bourgène (Frangula alnus) est un arbuste de la famille des Rhamnacées qui pousse en milieu généralement très humide et dont l'écorce est utilisée comme purgatif[1].
C'est un arbrisseau haut de 1 à 5 mètres.
L'écorce se dédouble facilement : l'externe est brun-noir, l'interne est verte. De nombreuses lenticelles grisâtres et allongées sont apparentes en surface ; l'écorce exhale une odeur forte et désagréable.
Les tiges sont élancées, les rameaux sont alternes.
Les feuilles sont alternes, obovales, apiculées, à bords lisses, glabres, à 7-9 paires de nervures arquées, courtement pétiolées, et vert brillant au-dessus[3].
Les fleurs, petites et verdâtres et dont la floraison s'étale d'avril à juillet, donnent des fruits globuleux d'abord verts puis rouges et enfin noirs à maturité. Ils sont alors frais, juteux, un peu sucrés mais toxiques.
Leurs bourgeons sont bruns et nus, ils ne possèdent pas d'écailles.
Fleurs de bourdaine. Écorce. On trouve la bourdaine soit sur des terrains humides et acides, soit sur des terrains secs et calcaires (écotype, dans les sous-bois, les clairières, en lisières forestières, en plaine et en montagne). Elle est répandue dans toute l'Europe, sauf l'extrême nord et la région méditerranéenne.
Les fruits et l'écorce fraîche contiennent des composés anthracéniques dont la forme réduite est émétique, donc très toxique, mais le séchage permet leur oxydation en anthraquinones[réf. souhaitée].
Son fruit, très prisé des chevreuils notamment, contient des alcaloïdes peptidiques (frangulanine, franganine) en faibles quantités aux effets psychotropes[4].
L'écorce séchée contient de 6 % à 9 % d’anthranoïdes[réf. souhaitée] (ses baies en contiennent aussi mais seulement 3 % à 4 %) et est utilisée comme laxatif stimulant. À réserver à un usage occasionnel, car elle est irritante pour le côlon[réf. souhaitée].
La bourdaine est également une plante mellifère, grâce à ses petites fleurs riches en nectar[5],[6],[7].
La bourdaine est aussi un arbuste tinctorial. Selon les techniques de teinture et la partie utilisée, elle permet d'obtenir plusieurs couleurs : son écorce fraîche donne des tons nuancés de rouge à framboise, son écorce sèche et son bois varient du rouge au brun, ses baies violettes peuvent même donner du vert[8].
Le bois de la bourdaine est également utilisé en vannerie. Son bois souple se travaille facilement.
La bourdaine est une essence forestière qui servit pendant plusieurs siècles à la fabrication de la poudre à canon. L'ordonnance de Colbert "sur le Faict des Eaux et Forêts" de 1669 ordonne le monopole de sa récolte par le Service des Poudres et Salpêtres, qui avait la charge de la payer au cours moyen des coupes de bois. Une disposition qui fut rappelée au rythme des guerres de la fin du règne du roi Louis XIV. Elle avait alors un intérêt économique important.[9]
Durant le Consulat, un arrêté de 1803 (du 25 fructidor an XI) précisait que « le bois de bourdaine continuera à être réservé pour la confection du charbon de bois propre à la fabrication de la poudre »[10].
Ce même charbon de bois permettait vers 1860 de fabriquer de la poudre noire à faible vitesse de déflagration, utilisée dans les carrières de pierre ornementale pour fournir de gros blocs non fracturés. C'est notamment elle qui permit d'extraire pour Charles Garnier dans les mines de fluorine de Voltennes (La Petite-Verrière, en Morvan, France) les gros blocs nécessaires à la fabrication des 189 colonnettes (de 55 cm de hauteur d'un seul tenant finalement) qui décorent les balcons de la nef du Grand Escalier du Palais Garnier, l'opéra national de Paris[5],[7].
C'est la plante hôte des chenilles de nombreux papillons et parmi les papillons de jour (rhopalocères), c'est la ou une des plantes hôtes de :
Frangula alnus
La Bourdaine ou Bourgène (Frangula alnus) est un arbuste de la famille des Rhamnacées qui pousse en milieu généralement très humide et dont l'écorce est utilisée comme purgatif.
O sanguiño[3] (Rhamnus frangula ou Frangula alnus) é un arbusto de 3-6 metros de altura que medra en bosques húmidos de Europa, Asia e norte de África.
É un arbusto de ramas ergueitas non espiñoso. A casca presenta manchas chamadas lenticelas. As follas caedizas, alternas, ovais, pecioladas con nervaduras sobresaíntes no envés. As flores son pequenas, hermafroditas, con cinco pétalos e de cor rosada ou verdosa. Os froitos son vermellos que se volven pardos ó madurar. Trátase dun arbusto típico de chans moi húmidos en substratos silíceos, amplamente estendido por Europa.
Cómpre non confundir esta especie co sangomiño (Cornus sanguinea).
Son purgantes e colagogos, mantendo os seus efectos por varios días. Nas herboristerías comercialízase co nome de frángula pero hai que extremar o coidado no seu consumo pois en fresco é moi purgante e vomitivo, especialmente nos nenos. Contén diversos principios activos como frangulina, gluco-frangulina, ácido crisofánico, fisiciona, crisofanol etc.
É moi común en toda Galiza. Dáse en Europa, Asia e norte de África. En España é moi abundante nos bosques de ribeira. Aparece nos ríos Tera e Negro na provincia de Zamora. Na provincia de León aparece en La Cepeda e La Valdería. No río Carrión, río Adaja, alto Douro etc. No Sistema Central na Serra de Ayllón, Serra de Guadarrama, Serra de Gredos e Serra de Gata.
Zangariño, xanquiño, xanguiño, senquiño, sanquiño, sanguño, sangumio, sanguiño, sanguino, sanguillo, sangubiño, sangubino, sangubín, sangriño, sangrino, sangomio, sangomín, sangobiño, sangobino, sangobín, sancomiño, samboguiño e sabuguiño[5].
O sanguiño (Rhamnus frangula ou Frangula alnus) é un arbusto de 3-6 metros de altura que medra en bosques húmidos de Europa, Asia e norte de África.
É un arbusto de ramas ergueitas non espiñoso. A casca presenta manchas chamadas lenticelas. As follas caedizas, alternas, ovais, pecioladas con nervaduras sobresaíntes no envés. As flores son pequenas, hermafroditas, con cinco pétalos e de cor rosada ou verdosa. Os froitos son vermellos que se volven pardos ó madurar. Trátase dun arbusto típico de chans moi húmidos en substratos silíceos, amplamente estendido por Europa.
Cómpre non confundir esta especie co sangomiño (Cornus sanguinea).
Trušljika (pasja lijeska, obična krkavina, pasje grožđe, lat. Frangula alnus), biljna vrsta u rodu krkavinka ili krušina, porodica Rhamnaceae.
Raširena je po Euroaziji od Atlantske obale do srednjeg Sibira i sjeverozapadne Kine, te na sjeverozapadu Afrike[1]. Jedna je od dvoje vrste[2] u rodu Frangula, koja raste u Hrvatskoj. Druga je kamenjarska krkavinka (F. rupestris)
Trušljika (pasja lijeska, obična krkavina, pasje grožđe, lat. Frangula alnus), biljna vrsta u rodu krkavinka ili krušina, porodica Rhamnaceae.
Raširena je po Euroaziji od Atlantske obale do srednjeg Sibira i sjeverozapadne Kine, te na sjeverozapadu Afrike. Jedna je od dvoje vrste u rodu Frangula, koja raste u Hrvatskoj. Druga je kamenjarska krkavinka (F. rupestris)
Wšědna psowodźina (Frangula alnus) je kerk abo štom ze swójby hokowcowych rostlinow (Rhamnaceae). Družina so wot někotrych awtorow do roda hokowcow (Rhamnus) zarjaduje, a potom ma wědomostne mjeno Rhamnus frangula.
Wšědna psowodźina je kerk abo štom, kotryž docpěwa wysokosć wot 1 hač do 4 m.
Hałuzy njenjesu ćernje a su běle dypkate.
Měnjate łopjena su jejkojte a docpěwaja dołhosć wot 2 hač do 5 (8) cm a šěrokosć wot hač do 5 cm. Wone njesu na kóždym boku 7-12 bóčnych nerwow.
Kćěje wot meje hač do junija. Pjećličbne kćenja su žołtozelene, likojte, docpěwaja šěrokosć wot něhdźe 5 mm a steja po dwěmaj hač po dźesaćoch w łopjenowych rozporach.
Płody su čerwjene, pozdźišo ćmowomódre, 5-8 mm šěroke, kulowate jahody.
Skora wobsahuje antranoidy.
Rosće we łučinach, tymjenjach, wjerbowych kerčinach a we swětłych lěsach. Preferuje włóžne, zwjetŝa małobazowe hłubokosahace pódy.
Rostlina je w nimale cyłej Europje rozšěrjena.
Wšědna psowodźina (Frangula alnus) je kerk abo štom ze swójby hokowcowych rostlinow (Rhamnaceae). Družina so wot někotrych awtorow do roda hokowcow (Rhamnus) zarjaduje, a potom ma wědomostne mjeno Rhamnus frangula.
La Frangola (Rhamnus frangula L., 1753 - da altri autori chiamato oggi Frangula alnus) è una pianta arborea, appartenente alla famiglia delle Ramnacee, originaria dell'Europa e dell'Asia.
Predilige terreni umidi e sabbiosi, nei boschi di pianura o di montagna, lungo le rive dei fiumi o delle paludi, nei terreni asciutti assume un portamento più compatto.
Arbusto alto fino a 4–5 m (in media 2–3 m) generalmente con pochi rami alterni sviluppati per lo più alle estremità.
Le foglie sono alterne caduche, con un picciolo più lungo delle stipole che sono lunghe 4–7 cm, lamina ovato ellittica, ottusa o più spesso acuminata, con 8 nervi per lato e margine intero. Adulte sono glabre da giovani leggermente pelose come i giovanissimi rami e gemme. Le stipole brevi e strette cadono prestissimo.
I fiori sono piccoli raccolti in fascetti ascellari di 2-6, ermafroditi piccoli 3–4 mm, perigini, con ricettacolo glabro imbutiforme e 5 sepali glabri e biancastri. I petali sono 5 anch'essi bianchicci e concavi più piccoli dei sepali. Ogni petalo ha 5 stami. ovario a 3 logge con stilo unico. Nei terreni umidi i rami si accrescono tutta l'estate e portano fiori all'ascella di ogni foglia, quindi nel periodo estivo si possono trovare su ogni ramo dalla estremità boccioli, fiori, frutti verdi poi rossi poi neri. Nei luoghi asciutti la pianta fiorisce solo a primavera.
Il frutto maturo è una piccola drupa nero-bluastra di 6–7 mm, sferica, un po' più larga che lunga, con un seme per loggia di colore giallo, quasi rotondo, appiattito, con un tegumento coriaceo.
La corteccia è grigio violacea o grigio piombo, con numerose lenticelle bianco grigiastre rotonde nei rami giovani e allungate trasversalmente nei vecchi.
Può essere confusa con:
In generale, le cortecce di tutti questi Rhamnus hanno il sughero rossiccio ma con tonalità più tendenti al giallo o al rosso mattone e si possono ritenere più che surrogati della vera Frangora.
La corteccia contiene antrachinoni, glicofrangullina, frangullina, ramnoxantina, ramnocerina, acido arachinico, altre sostanze amare, si ritiene possibile la presenza di una tossina la ramnotossina.[1]
Il carbone ottenuto dalla Frangola è quello a più rapida combustione che si conosca. Per questo, viene utilizzato, soprattutto in Svizzera e nei paesi dell'Est Europa, per produrre polvere da sparo. Nel bolognese venivano utilizzati i rametti per produrre cannucce per pipa.[2] In fitoterapia viene utilizzata la corteccia essiccata a scopi lassativi e contro le infiammazioni intestinali. La linfa può essere utilizzata come collutorio contro afte o stomatiti. La corteccia fresca o non ben essiccata, come pure le bacche, se ingerite in grossa quantità, hanno effetti collaterali quali vomito, coliche e altri leggeri sintomi da avvelenamento.[1]
La Frangola (Rhamnus frangula L., 1753 - da altri autori chiamato oggi Frangula alnus) è una pianta arborea, appartenente alla famiglia delle Ramnacee, originaria dell'Europa e dell'Asia.
Paprastasis šaltekšnis (lot. Frangula alnus, sin. Rhamnus frangula) - šunobelinių (Rhamnaceae) šeimos augalas.
Lietuvoje paplitęs visoje teritorijoje, tačiau nevienodai. Didesni plotai yra vidurio lygumoje, pietvakarinėje ir šiaurinėje Lietuvos dalyse. Auga miškuose, krūmuose, upių ir ežerų pakrantėse, pelkėse, raistuose. Derlingesnėse dirvose būna išlakesnis, mažiau šakotas, skurdesnėse – blogiau auga, gausiai šakojasi.
Daugiametis 3–6 m, kartais iki 7 m aukščio, dažniausiai augantis kaip krūmas arba gerokai rečiau neaukštas medelis. Išaugusio medelių kamieno skersmuo gali būti iki 20 cm skersmens. Žievė lygi, beveik juoda. Ūgliai raudonai rudi, nedygliuoti, trapūs. Lapai tamsiai žali, kiaušiniški, lygiakraščiai, auga pražangiai. Jų pažastyse išauga po 2-7 smulkius žiedus. Vainikėliai žalsvai balti. Žydi gegužės-liepos mėn. Vaisius – rutuliškas, sultingas kaulavaisis, prinoksta rugpjūčio-rugsėjo mėn. Nenunokę vaisiai būna avietiškai raudoni, o nokdami tamsėja ir tampa juodi.
Žydintis šaltekšnis – dekoratyvus augalas. Jį gausiai lanko bitės, todėl jis svarbus bitininkams.
Žievė ir vaisiai turi dažomųjų medžiagų.
Rusvai oranžinė mediena naudojama tekinimo darbams, dekoratyvios faneros gamyboje. Deginant medieną lieka beveik bepelenė anglis, kuri plačiai naudojama ūkyje.
Kaip vaistinis augalas, naudojamas liaudies medicinoje.
Žievės nuoviras veikia liuosuojančiai, yra kaip žarnyno veiklą skatinanti priemonė.
Kartais žievė būna gydomųjų arbatų sudėtyje. Iš jos gaminamas sausas bei skystas ekstraktas, milteliai.
Šviežioje žievėje yra nuodingųjų junginių. Pačiam ruošiant vaistinę žaliavą, reikia labai atidžiai išsistudijuoti paruošimo technologiją ir vartojimo būdus.
Vaistams naudojama žievė, kuri ruošiama anksti pavasarį (vasario-balandžio mėn.) nuo jaunų stiebų ir stambių šakų. Kas 20-30 cm peiliu daromi žiediniai pjūviai iki medienos, po to 1-2 išilginiai. Džiovinama 50-60 °C temperatūroje, kad nepajuostų vidinis žievės paviršius.
Paruošta žaliava – 0,5-2,0 mm storio žievės gabalai. Jaunos žievės išorinis paviršius lygus, senesnės – kiek šiurkštokas, tamsiai pilkai rusvos spalvos su šviesiais skersiniais brūkšneliais. Pažeidus viršutinį paviršių matyti raudonas kamščio sluoksnis. Iš vidaus žievė lygi, geltonai raudona arba raudonai ruda, kartaus skonio. Paveikus 5 % šarmo tirpalu, žievė nusidažo kruvinai raudona spalva.
Šaltekšnio žievė naudotina tik po 1 metų nuo paruošimo arba tik paruoštą žievę būtina 1 val. pakaitinti 100 °C temperatūroje. Tas labai svarbu, nes šviežioje žievėje yra nuodingųjų junginių, sukeliančių vėmimą. Aukštoje temperatūroje arba per ilgesnį laiką prasideda šių junginių autooksidacija. Oksidacijos produktai pasižymi vidurius laisvinančiomis savybėmis. Žievę galima saugoti 5, kartais – 7 metus.
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Paprastasis šaltekšnis (lot. Frangula alnus, sin. Rhamnus frangula) - šunobelinių (Rhamnaceae) šeimos augalas.
Trauslais krūklis, arī parastais krūklis (latīņu: Frangula alnus) - vasarzaļš 1 - 5 m augsts pabērzu dzimtas krūms vai koks. Bieži sastopams mežos, krūmājos, upju krastos, gravās. Pumpuri bez zvīņām, biezi segti ar rūsganiem matiņiem. Viengadīgie zari sarkanīgi brūni ar bālām lenticelēm (svītrām), vecāki zari pelēkbrūni. Lapas pamīšus, veselas, gludas, otrādi olveidīgas, 3 - 8 cm garas, 1,5 - 4,5 cm platas, virspusē tumši zaļas, spīdīgas, apakšpusē blāvas, gaišākas, kailas vai apakšpusē uz dzīslām un matiņiem. Dzīslas 7 - 10 pārī, tās maz liektas, gandrīz paralēlas. Zied maijā un jūnijā. Ziedi divdzimumu, aktinomorfi, pa 2 - 7 pušķos lapu žāklēs. Kauslapas 5, kauss zvanveida, ar 5 zobiņiem. Vainaglapas 5, iekšpusē baltas, ārpusē zaļganas. Putekšņlapas 5, daudz īsākas nekā vainaglapas. Drīksna galviņveida. Auglis - sulīgs, apaļš kaulenis, parasti ar 3 sēklām. Negatavie augļi zaļi, gatavības sākumā aveņsārti, pilnīgi ienākušies - violeti melni. Krūkļu mizas ir oficiāla droga daudzās valstīs. Lieto kā maigu caurejas līdzekli vēdera hroniska aizcietējuma (dažādas izcelsmes) gadījumos. Tautas medicīnā lieto aknu un nieru slimību, hemoroīdu ārstēšanai, pret zarnu parazītiem. Augu izmanto dekoratīvos stādījumos.
Vikikrātuvē par šo tēmu ir pieejami multivides faili. Skatīt: Trauslais krūklisSporkehout (Rhamnus frangula, synoniem: Frangula alnus) is een plant uit de wegedoornfamilie (Rhamnaceae). De plant lijkt een beetje op de wegedoorn (Rhamnus cathartica). In Nederland komt de plant vooral voor in het oosten en zuiden en in de duinen, terwijl in België de soort algemeen is behalve in het kustgebied.
Andere namen voor sporkehout zijn spork, gewone vuilboom, bloedboom, pijlhout, hondskers, honzehout, sprokkel, peggehout, duvelskeersj, houtjeshout, buskruithout, en stinkboom, en die hangen meestal samen met het (vroegere) gebruik ervan.[1]
Rhamnus is afgeleid van het Griekse "rhamnos" (naaien of steken), een verwijzing naar de dorens. De soortnaam Frangula komt van het Latijnse "frangere" (breken), omdat de takjes makkelijk breken (als in fragiel).[2]
Sporkehout is een bladverliezende, meestal meerstammige struik van 3-6, bij uitzondering 7 m hoog, maar soms een kleine boom met een stamdiameter tot 20 cm. De schors is donker paarsbruin, met heldergeel hout dat zichtbaar wordt als de bast wordt verwijderd. De scheuten zijn donkerbruin en de winterknoppen, die geen knopschubben hebben, worden alleen beschermd door de dicht behaarde buitenste bladeren. De jonge bladeren zijn karakteristiek goudbruin. De bladeren zijn eirond, 3-7 (-11) cm lang en 2½-4 (-6) cm breed, met een toepgespitste top, een gave rand, een wigvormige voet, en een bladsteel van 8-15 mm lang. De 6-10 paren van prominent gegroefde nerven zijn aan de onderkant licht donzig behaard. Ze staan verspreid langs de stengels. De bloemen zijn klein, 3-5 mm in diameter, stervormig met vijf groenwitte spitsdriehoekige bloemblaadjes, tweeslachtig, en staan met 2-10 samen in de bladoksels. Sporkehout bloeit tussen april en juli en wordt door insecten bestoven. De vrucht is een kleine bes (eigenlijk een meerkernige steenvrucht) van 6-10 mm in diameter, die rijpt van groen via rood tot donkerpaars of zwart, waarbij opvalt dat in de late zomer aan dezelfde tak alle kleuren bes tegelijk voorkomen. De bes bevat twee halfronde grijsbeige steenkernen van 5 mm lang.[3][4][5]
De wegedoorn verschilt van het sporkehout daarin dat het blad een variabele vorm heeft, met twee helften die iets ten opzichte van elkaar zijn "verschoven", de bladrand niet gaaf maar fijngezaagd is, de bladstand niet duidelijk verspreid maar bijna tegenoverstaand is, de bloemen niet vijftallig en tweeslachtig maar viertallig en functioneel eenslachtig zijn, de plant tweehuizig is, en de takken uitlopen in een doorn.[5]
Sporkehout komt voor in Europa met uitzondering van het uiterste noorden, West-Siberië, de Kaukasus en het Atlasgebergte. In Nederland is sporkehout een algemeen voorkomende heester in laagveengebieden, aangeplant bos in de IJsselmeerpolders en de duinen, hoewel ze zeldzaam is op de Waddeneilanden en ontbreekt op kleigrond.[5] In België is deze heester zeer algemeen in de Kempen en de Ardennen, en elders vrij algemeen, maar in het kustgebied, zoals De Polders, zeer zeldzaam.[2]
Sporkehout prefereert een zure grond, groeit in vochtige bossen en venen en is een kensoort voor de klasse van de wilgenbroekstruwelen (Franguletea). Buiten de duinen groeit hij in dezelfde biotopen als de wilde kamperfoelie. Beide soorten houden van vochtige maar niet natte ruwe humus in de grond. Sporkehout heeft baat bij het afhakken doordat de stronken weer snel veel nieuwe takken maken. De soort is waardplant voor de dagvlinders citroenvlinder en boomblauwtje. Ook een aantal motten leeft van het blad van deze heester zoals de sporkehoutspanner (Philereme vetulata), de grote boomspanner (Triphosa dubitata), de rossige haakbladroller (Ancylis obtusana), en de vuilboomooglapmot (Bucculatrix frangutella) die het blad mineert. Tot slot is het sporkehout ook nog een waardplant voor de wants Apolygus rhamnicola, en de bladvlo Trichochermes walkeri. De bladeren van wegedoorn en sporkehout hebben vaak oranje zwellingen die worden veroorzaakt door kroontjesroest Puccinia coronata. De bessen worden voornamelijk gegeten door frugivore (vruchtetende) vogels zoals grote lijster, kramsvogel en fazant, die zo de zaden verspreiden in de uitwerpselen.[5] Omdat deze struik zo´n lange bloeiperiode heeft, is het een zeer belangrijke drachtplant voor honingbijen.[1]
Sporkehout is voor mensen onsmakelijk en licht giftig, maar zowel de bessen als de bast kunnen als laxeermiddel gebruikt worden. De bast bevat 3-7% antrachinon, dat de wand van de endeldarm aanzet tot beweging ongeveer 8-12 uur na vertering.[6] De bessen kunnen worden gebruikt voor verschillende verfstoffen zoals schijtgeel en sapgroen. Doordat het hout weinig anorganisch materiaal (as) bevat kan er goede houtskool van gemaakt worden dat werd gebruikt om te tekenen en als bestanddeel van buskruit. In de imkerij werden de dunne, lange, rechte twijgen gebruikt als spijlen in bijenkorven om de bijen van daaruit eenvoudig uitneembare raten te laten bouwen.[5] De Friese naam bijspilehout verwijst hier nog naar.[1]
Sporkehout heeft een beperkte decoratieve waarde zonder opvallende bloemen of bladeren, en wordt voornamelijk geteeld voor de ecologische waarde, met name om de citroenvlinder aan te trekken. Een bonte cultivar 'Variegata' en een cultivar met zeer slanke bladeren 'Asplenifolia' worden soms gekweekt in tuinen als sierheesters. De cultivar 'Tallhedge' is geselecteerd als haagplant.
winterknop
onderkant blad
cultivar "Asplenifolia" in de herfst
bloem close-up
bloemen
onrijpe bessen
rijpe bessen
steenkernen met daarin elk een zaad
kleurenets tak
Mediabestanden die bij dit onderwerp horen, zijn te vinden op de pagina Rhamnus frangula op Wikimedia Commons. Sporkehout (Rhamnus frangula, synoniem: Frangula alnus) is een plant uit de wegedoornfamilie (Rhamnaceae). De plant lijkt een beetje op de wegedoorn (Rhamnus cathartica). In Nederland komt de plant vooral voor in het oosten en zuiden en in de duinen, terwijl in België de soort algemeen is behalve in het kustgebied.
Trollhegg (Frangula alnus) er en løvfellende busk i trollheggslekten innenfor trollheggfamilien.
Trollhegg blir fra 2 til 6 meter høy. Barken er først grå og fint håra med lyse barkporer på langs. Senere blir den mørk brun med mer tydelige porer. Gamle grener kan få oppspukket, grå bark. Bladene er oftest skruestilte, ovale med hel rand. Oversiden er skinnende blank friskt grønn, mens underside er mer matt og lysegrønn. Høstfargen er klart gul. Blomstene, som kommer fram fra begynnelsen av juni, sitter samla i kvaster i bladhjørnene. Blomstene er tokjønna, og gulgrønne og bittesmå. Fruktene er ertestore bær som skifter farge fra grønt over rødt til svart. Blomster og bær kan sees i alle grader av modenhet samtidig. Frøene spirer villig. Rotnettet er kun litt forgreina, men når langt ut og djupt ned. Alle deler av planta har ei spesiell, ram lukt. Hele planta er giftig og framkaller kraftige oppkastninger. Biene trekker gjerne etter trollhegg, som yter god nektar.
Planta opptrer som underskog i nesten alle jordtyper, men især på fuktig jordbunn. Dessuten danner den kratt ved bredden av dammer, sjøer og vannløp sammen f. eks svartor, vanlig bjørk, pors og selje. Trollhegg er vanlig i nesten hele Europa, med mangler nordlige deler. Den går også inn i den asiatiske delen av Russland, samt Kaukasus og Lilleasia. Den er innført i Nord-Amerika. I Norge vokser den i lavlandet nord til Grane i Nordland.
I folkemedisinen har trollhegg et ry som avførende middel. Det var viktig at man skrellet av barken på riktig måte, ovenfra og ned. Ellers ville man få brekninger av barken hvis man drar den av motsatt vei. Brekningen skyldes et atranol-derivat, som etter langvarig lagring omdannes til antrakin-glyoksid som virker avførende.[1] Barken blir også brukt til plantefarging, og gir en grønn farge.
Trollhegg (Frangula alnus) er en løvfellende busk i trollheggslekten innenfor trollheggfamilien.
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Hasło w Wikisłowniku Kruszyna pospolita (Frangula alnus Mill.) – gatunek krzewu należący do rodziny szakłakowatych (Rhamnaceae). W Polsce występuje pospolicie na całym niżu i w niższych położeniach górskich. Inne nazwy: szakłak kruszyna, troszczyna, wilczyna[3]. Status gatunku we florze Polski: gatunek rodzimy.
Gatunek występuje na obszarze od północno-zachodniej Afryki (północna część Maroka, Algierii i Tunezji), poprzez całą Europę, Azję Mniejszą, północną część Syrii, Iraku, Iranu po północną i środkową Azję (Kazachstan, Sinciang). Gatunek zawleczony i inwazyjny w Stanach Zjednoczonych (w szeregu stanów uznany za chwast) oraz w Kanadzie[2]. W Polsce roślina pospolita na niemal całym obszarze, rzadsza jedynie w rejonie Podhala i w wyższych partiach gór[4]. Najwyższe stanowisko podawane jest z Bieszczadów Zachodnich z wysokości 870 m n.p.m.[5]
Nanofanerofit. Występuje w podszycie rozmaitych zbiorowisk leśnych od suchych borów iglastych, poprzez różne lasy mieszane i liściaste, do bagiennych olsów. Rośnie także na torfowiskach i mokrych łąkach. Na niektórych siedliskach (np. w acydofilnym lesie brzozowo-dębowym) rośnie często bardzo licznie. Preferuje miejsca wilgotne i kwaśne, choć spotykana jest na glebach o różnym odczynie od pH 3,5 do 8,0[5]. Dobrze znosi ocienienie[6]. Przedprątne kwiaty kwitną od maja do września. Zapylana jest przez owady (lub jest samopylna)[7]. Roślina miododajna. Owoce dla ludzi niesmaczne i trujące, jednak stanowią przysmak wielu ptaków[7].
Roślina jest przejściowym żywicielem rdzy koronowej (rdzy owsa) wywoływanej przez grzyb z rodziny rdzowatych Puccinia coronata[8][7].
Polska nazwa zwyczajowa pochodzi od kruchych, podatnych na złamanie gałęzi. Dawniej krzew nazywano kruszyną lub w związku z zaliczaniem do rodzaju szakłak – szakłakiem kruszyną (Rhamnus frangula L.)[6].
Roślina objęta była częściową ochroną gatunkową w Polsce na podstawie Rozporządzenia Ministra Środowiska z dnia 5 stycznia 2012 r. w sprawie ochrony gatunkowej roślin[9]. Ochrona miała na celu zabezpieczenie zasobów gatunku wobec intensywnego pozyskiwania kory kruszyny do celów leczniczych[5]. Od 2014 roku nie podlega ochronie.
Uprawiana czasami w parkach.
Kruszyna pospolita (Frangula alnus Mill.) – gatunek krzewu należący do rodziny szakłakowatych (Rhamnaceae). W Polsce występuje pospolicie na całym niżu i w niższych położeniach górskich. Inne nazwy: szakłak kruszyna, troszczyna, wilczyna. Status gatunku we florze Polski: gatunek rodzimy.
Frangula alnus é uma espécie de planta com flor pertencente à família Rhamnaceae.
A autoridade científica da espécie é Mill., tendo sido publicada em The Gardeners Dictionary: eighth edition Frangula no. 1. 1768.
Os seus nome comuns são amieiro-negro, frângula, fúsaro, lagarinho, sangarinheiro, sangarinheiro-de-água, sanguinheiro, sanguinho, sanguinho-bastardo, sanguinho-de-água, zangarinheiro ou zangarinho.[1]
Tem como habitat locais sombrios e húmidos, como por exemplo orlas de bosques e galerias ripícolas.[2]
Trata-se de uma espécie presente no território português, nomeadamente em Portugal Continental.
Em termos de naturalidade é nativa da região atrás indicada.
Não se encontra protegida por legislação portuguesa ou da Comunidade Europeia.
Frangula alnus é uma espécie de planta com flor pertencente à família Rhamnaceae.
A autoridade científica da espécie é Mill., tendo sido publicada em The Gardeners Dictionary: eighth edition Frangula no. 1. 1768.
Os seus nome comuns são amieiro-negro, frângula, fúsaro, lagarinho, sangarinheiro, sangarinheiro-de-água, sanguinheiro, sanguinho, sanguinho-bastardo, sanguinho-de-água, zangarinheiro ou zangarinho.
Tem como habitat locais sombrios e húmidos, como por exemplo orlas de bosques e galerias ripícolas.
Crușinul (Rhamnus frangula) este o plantă medicinală, cunoscută îndeosebi pentru proprietățile ei laxative dar și curative.
Frunzele dar mai ales scoarța de crușin exercită acțiuni purgative și laxative (provoacă eliminarea conținutului tubului digestiv), efect coleretic și colagog asupra bilei (excită bila, mărindu-i secreția), proprietăti vermifuge și au o acțiune relaxantă asupra musculaturii intestinale. Fructele au acțiune protectoare, regenerantă și antioxidantă, fiind bogate în vitamine, minerale și acizi grași.[1]
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WikiProiect Crușinul (Rhamnus frangula) este o plantă medicinală, cunoscută îndeosebi pentru proprietățile ei laxative dar și curative.
Rhamnus frangula L.
Navadna krhlika (znanstveno ime Frangula alnus) je zelo razširjen grm ali nekaj metrov visoko drevo iz družine krhlikovk. Raste v Evropi, severnih predelih Afrike, zahodni Aziji, centralni Sibiriji, področju Xinjiang na zahodu Kitajske, severnem Maroku, Turčiji in ponekod na bližnjem vzhodu. Na Irskem in Škoskem je rastlina redka in razpršena. Gojijo jo tudi na vzhodu Severne Amerike.[1][2][3][4][5]
Navadno krhliko je prvi uradno opisal Carolus Linnaeus leta 1753 kot Rhamnus frangula. Kasneje, leta 1768, jo je Philip Miller uvrstil v rod Frangula na osnovi njenih dvospolnih listov s petčlenskim cvetnim vencem (enospolna in štiričlenska pri Rhamnus). [6] Ločitev rodu Frangula od Rhamnus je sedaj široko sprejeta in podprta z genetskimi testi, čeprav se je o tem veliko prerekalo v preteklosti.[7] . Kljub temu nekaj avtoritet vzdržuje rod te rastline pri Rhamnus (npr. Kitajska flora).
Ime rodu "Frangula" se navezuje na krhek les. Angleško in znanstveno ime se nanašata na pogosto rast rastline skupaj z jelšo("Alnus") na vlažnih tleh.
Navadna krhlika je listnati grm, ki zraste 3-6, včasih do 7, metrov visoko. Običajno ima več stebel in redko tvori majhno drevo s premerom do 20cm. Skorja je temno črno-rjava s svetlo rumeno notranjo skorjo, ki se razkrije ob rezu. Poganjki so temno rjavi, zimski brsti brez brstnih lusk, zavarovani samo z gostimi kosmatimi zunanjimi listi. Listi so jajčasti 3-7(-11)cm dolgi in 2,5-4(-6)cm široki, nekoliko puhasti na žilah; s celotno stopnjo, 6-10 parov žil z dobro razvidnimi utori in 8-15 mm dolg pecelj; listi so razporejeni izmenično na steblo. Cvetovi so majhni s premerom 3-5 mm, zvezdasto oblikovani s petimi zelenkasto belimi trikotnimi cvetnimi listi, dvospolni, oprašujejo jih insekti in cvetijo od maja do junija v skupkih od dva do deset. Plod je majhen, črn, 6-10 mm premera, zori od zelene do rdeče pozno poleti do temno vijolične ali črne zgodaj jeseni in vsebuje dve ali tri bledo rjava 5 milimetrska semena. Semena večinoma raztrosijo ptiči, ki se hranijo s plodovi. [1][3][4][5][8]
Navadna krhlika raste v mokrih tleh odprtih gozdov, grmih, živih mejah, barjih in uspeva dobro na soncu in zmerni senci, slabše v gosti senci; bolje uspeva na kislih tleh, ampak raste tudi na nevtralnih.[4][8]
Navadna krhlika je ena izmed dveh rastlin (druga je Rhamnus cathartica), ki jih uporablja metulj Gonepteryx rhamni, slovensko citronček. Cvetovi so pomembni za čebele in plod je pomemben vir hrane za ptiče, še posebno za drozge.
Navadna krhlika nima posebnega izgleda in jo večinoma gojijo, da privabijo metulje vrste citronček. Večbarvna kultivirana "Frangula alnus" 'Variegata' in 'Aslenifolia', z zelo vitkimi listi, rasteta po vrtovih kot okrasna grma. 'Tallhedge' je tudi pogosta vrsta izbrana za okrasni grm. [9]
Navadna krhlika je bila verjetno kultivirana v Severno Ameriko okoli 200 let nazaj in v Kanado okoli 100 let nazaj. Posajena je bila za žive meje, urejanje okolice za divjad in gozdove, in tako je postala invazivna vrsta. Razširila se je po gozdovih na severovzhodu ZDA in po mokriščih in vlažnih gozdovih na srednjem zahodu ZDA.[10][11][12] Predvideno je, da se bo razširila še drugod po Severni Ameriki čez čas.[10] Njena dobra sposobnost invazivnosti, je posledica njene visoke prilagodljivosti in odpornosti na onesnaženost.[13] Raste v prostorih pod krošnjami gozdov, kjer ima na voljo veliko svetlobe. Ta območja so navadno tam, kje je drevo padlo in bi se normalno razvilo drevo, ki je tam že zasadilo oplojeno seme ali ima sadike. Ko se navadna krhlika tam naseli in raste, njena gosta krošnja preprečuje pot svetlobi do tal in tako preprečuje drugim sadikam normalno rast.[13] Raste višje in bolj gosto v nižjih topografskih krajih z vlažnimi, rodovitnimi tlemi in je zelo problematična za upravitelje posestev. Višje ležeči gozdovi nimajo takih težav, saj tam težje uspeva navadna krhlika. Težje uspeva tudi pod drevesi z gosto in široko krošnjo, ker ni dovolj svetlobe. Dobro pa uspeva pod drevesi kot je npr. vzhodni beli bor, ker dopuščajo veliko svetlobe do tal. [14]
Majhne sadike se lahko odstrani s puljenjem, večje primerke pa se najlažje odstrani z uporabo herbicidov. [15] F. alnus in sorodna vrsta Rhamnus cathartica sta bili prepovedani za prodajo, prevoz in uvoz v Minnesoto in Illinois. [16] and Illinois.[17] V Connecticutu je navadna krhlika spoznana za invazivno, a ni prepovedana. [18]
Galen, grški zdravnik drugega stoletja je poznal navadno krhliko, čeprav v svojih zapisih ni razločeval med to vrsto in njenimi tesnimi sorodnimi vrstami. Te rastline je spoznal za uporabne pri zaščiti pred čarovništvom, demoni, strupi in glavoboli.[navedi vir]
Skorja(v manjši meri tudi plod) se uporabljajo kot odvajalo zaradi 3-7% vsebnosti antrakinonskih glikozidov. Skorja je za uporabo v medicini posušena in shranjena eno leto pred uporabo, saj sveža skorja zelo močno odvajalna; celo posušena skorja je lahko nevarna, če jo uporabimo preveč. [1][9]
Oglje navadne krhlike je uporabljeno pri proizvodnji smodnika in se smatra za najboljši les za ta namen. Dobro cenjeno je tudi za vžigalne vrvice, saj ima zelo enakomeren čas gorenja. [1] Les je bil nekdaj v uporabi za pete čevljev, žeblje in furnir. Iz skorje so pridobivali rumeno barvilo iz nezrelih jagod pa zeleno barvilo. [9]
Navadna krhlika (znanstveno ime Frangula alnus) je zelo razširjen grm ali nekaj metrov visoko drevo iz družine krhlikovk. Raste v Evropi, severnih predelih Afrike, zahodni Aziji, centralni Sibiriji, področju Xinjiang na zahodu Kitajske, severnem Maroku, Turčiji in ponekod na bližnjem vzhodu. Na Irskem in Škoskem je rastlina redka in razpršena. Gojijo jo tudi na vzhodu Severne Amerike.
Brakved (Rhamnus frangula)[1] är en brakvedsväxtart. Rhamnus frangula ingår i släktet getaplar, och familjen brakvedsväxter.[1][2] Brakved är ett litet träd eller buske med smärt stam, vanligen av 2–3 meters höjd, någon gång dubbelt högre.
Arten delas in i följande underarter:[1]
Kronan är gles, grenar och kvistar långa, fina och böjliga, bladen platta, tunna och mjuka. Allt detta är kännetecknen för en skuggälskande buske som kan växa under större träd och alltså finns inne i skogen, se biotop.
Brakveden har 5-taliga, tvåkönade blommor med gulvita, tämligen stora foderblad, men mycket små, kapuschongformade kronblad, och ståndarna motsatta kronbladen. Blomningen börjar under försommaren och fortsätter under hela vegetationstiden. Mogna och omogna frukter (stenbär) ses därför alltjämt bredvid blommorna; fruktfärgen är först röd, sedan svart. De två fruktrummen är enfröiga. Frukten är giftig[3]. Giftet är irriterande på magslemhinnorna och ger rödfärgad urin.
Brakveden har sina ståndorter dels på skogsängar och vid skogsbryn, helst på fuktig mark, dels inne i lundar eller skog.
Buskens utbredning sträcker sig i Norden ända upp till polcirkelns närhet, dock icke i fjällområdet.
Barken av denna växt, "frangulabark" (farmakopéns "Cortex Frangulæ"), var tidigare ett mycket använt medel mot kronisk förstoppning (vanligen som extrakt med vatten).
Inom folkmedicinen används te av bark i blodreningskurer (tillsammans med andra örter, t.ex. brännässla, maskros och enbär) samt mot gall-leverbesvär (tillsammans med andra örter, t. ex. kronärtskocksblad).[4]
Biverkningar vid överdosering kan vara diarréer och buksmärtor. Laxerande örtteer ska inte användas vid tarminflammationer eller för att gå ned i vikt.[4]
Artepitetet syftar på att bladen till formen liknar klibbalens (dock utan alens "glutt i nosen").
Ordleden brak och bråk kan syfta dels på ljudet, när veden knäckes, dels till användning av det av brakved framställda svartkrut, som orsakar kanoners brak och bråk.
Tröste med förvanskningarna Tröske och Toste kan avse den bot, som den folkmedicinska användningen kan ge.
Blommor.
Omogna bär.
Frön.
Wikimedia Commons har media som rör Brakved.
Wikispecies har information om Rhamnus frangula.
Brakved (Rhamnus frangula) är en brakvedsväxtart. Rhamnus frangula ingår i släktet getaplar, och familjen brakvedsväxter. Brakved är ett litet träd eller buske med smärt stam, vanligen av 2–3 meters höjd, någon gång dubbelt högre.
Barut ağacı (Frangula alnus), cehrigiller (Rhamnaceae) familyasından 4–5 m'ye kadar boylanan yaprak döken yavaş gelişen bir bitki türü.
Nadiren 7 m'ye kadar boylanan çalı veya ağaççıklardır. Sürgünler gençken yeşilimsi seyrek ince tüylü, yaşlı sürgünler kahverengimsi olur. Lentiseller belirgin olarak çaprazvari yönelmiştir.
Yaprak sapı 1-1,9 cm uzunlukta ince tüylü veya tüysüzdür. Yaprak alt yüzü soluk yeşil üst yanı yeşildir. Yaprak ayası geniş eliptik veya dikdörgen biçiminde, nadiren ters yumurta, 4-11-2,5–6 cm'dir. Yaprak alt yüzeyindeki orta damar seyrek ince tüylü, üstü tüysüz, yan damarlar 6-10 çiftli her iki tarafıda çıkıntılıdır. Yaprak tabanı geniş kama biçiminde veya hemen hemen yuvarlaktır. Yaprak kenarı tam, ucu kısa ince sivri uçlu veya yuvarlaktır nadiren sivri uçludur. Yaprak sapı 5–10 mm'dir.
Çiçekler tekli veya yaprak koltuğunda 2-4'ü demetler halinde bulunur. Çanak yapraklar omurgalı ve üstü hafif gagalıdır. Taç yapraklar dairemsi ucu hafif girintilidir. Disk ince çanak boru biçimindedir. Yumurtalık küre biçiminde 2 veya 3 gözlüdür.
Eriksi meyve (drupa) kırmızı olgunlaşınca mor-siyah renge döner, çapı 6–8 mm mercimek biçimindeki çekirdek 2 veya 3 adet bulunur. Meyve sapı 7–10 mm'dir.
İskandinavya'dan Kuzey Afrika'nın güney ve doğusuna, Urallar ve Sibirya ile Avrupa'yı içine alan yerlerde dağılım yapar.
Türkiye'de Kuzey Anadolu'da dağlık bölgelerdeki nemli ormanlık sahalarda sakallı kızılağaç, doğu kayını ve adi gürgen türleriyle birlikte yer alır.
Çiçekler Mayıs ile Haziran aylarında gelişir. Tohumlar Ekim-Kasım aylarında olgunlaşır. Çiçekler erdişidir, tozlaşma böcekler vasıtasıyla sağlanır. Yarı gölge ya da yarı ışık ortamlarda nemli veya ıslak toprakları tercih eder. Yaşam alanını bataklıklar genellikle nemli fundalıklar, nemli açık ormanlık ve turbalık alanlar oluşturur.
Bitki -15 C° 'deki sıcaklığa dayanabilir. Kuraklıktan ve kuvvetli rüzgardan zarar görür. Yavaş büyüyen bir bitki olmasına karşın kolaylıkla yetişir. Orman yangınları sonrası yanan alanın yeniden oluşmasında ve otlanmasında büyük rol oynar. İyi bir arı bitkisidir ve birçok kelebek larvasının besinini oluşturur.
Kabuğu mide ağrısı giderici ilaç yapımında kullanılır. Kabuk ve taze meyvesi bir boya maddesi içerir. Ayrıca kerestesi barut ve mangal kömürü yapımında kullanılır.
Tohumlar sonbaharda içi toprakla dolu bir kabın içerisine ekilir. Tohumlar burada 1-2 ay kadar 5 C°'de soğuk katlamaya bırakılır. Çimlenmede % 80 oranında başarı sağlanır. Fideler elle alınabilecek büyüklüğe ulaşınca ayrı kaplara alınır. Sera veya limonluklarda kışa kadar bekletilir.
Çelikle üretimde yarı odunsu çelikler Temmuz-Ağustos aylarında, odunsu çeliklerde bu yılki olgunlaşmış sürgünlerden sonbaharda alınır. Erken ilkbaharda da daldırma ile üretim yapılır.
Barut ağacı (Frangula alnus), cehrigiller (Rhamnaceae) familyasından 4–5 m'ye kadar boylanan yaprak döken yavaş gelişen bir bitki türü.
Розгалужений кущ з роду Крушина родини жостерових (1,3 м заввишки) з гладенькою, майже чорною корою, гілки тонкі, без колючок, молоді пагони червоно-коричневі з ланцетними білими сочевичками. Листки чергові, черешкові, овальні або оберненояйцеподібні (до 6 см завдовжки) з шістьма-вісьмома косими, паралельними жилками по боках серединної жилки. Квітки двостатеві, п'ятичленні, зібрані по 2-7 у пазухах листків, на довгих квітконосах. Чашечка зеленувата, 4-5-роздільна, віночок дрібний, вузькодзвоникуватий, частки його зверху зеленуваті, всередині жовті або білуваті. Тичинок чотири або п'ять, маточка одна з одним стовпчиком, зав'язь верхня. Плід чорний, соковитий з трьома гладенькими лінзоподібними насінинами.
Крушина ламка росте в підліску хвойних, мішаних і листяних лісів, у заростях чагарників, по берегах водойм, боліт, стариць, на вологих луках. Тіньовитривала рослина. Цвіте у травні червні.
Поширена майже по всій Україні, в степових районах тільки в долинах річок. Райони заготівель: Волинська, Рівненська, Житомирська, Київська, Чернігівська, Сумська, Тернопільська, Львівська, Івано-Франківська, Чернівецька, Закарпатська області, північ Полтавської, Хмельницької та Харківської областей. Запаси сировини значні.
Лікарська, медоносна, фарбувальна, танідоносна, деревинна, плетивна рослина.
У науковій медицині використовують кору крушини — Cortex Frangula, як проносний засіб при хронічних запорах і геморої. Входить кора і до складу послаблювального шлункового або протигемороїдального чаю. Глікозид емодін, який добувають з кори крушини, входить до складу препарату холагол, що вживається при жовчнокам'яній хворобі, запаленнях і цирозі печінки. Кора містить глікозиди, сапоніни, смоли, крохмаль, таніди, ефірні олії, мінеральні солі.
У народній медицині кора вважається добрим швидкодійним засобом при хворобах печінки, при водянці, гарячці, хронічних запорах, надмірних менструаціях, кишкових глистах та хворобах шкіри. Кору використовують також при гастритах, хворобах кишечника, виразці шлунка, водянці, пухлинах печінки, листки — при недокрів'ї.
У гомеопатії застосовують есенцію з свіжої кори.
У літературі наводяться випадки смертельного отруєння дітей плодами крушини.
У ветеринарії кору крушини у вигляді відвару або настою вживають як проносний засіб.
Крушина ламка — добрий медонос, цвіте протягом літа, дає багато нектару, пилку, стійкий взяток. Медопродуктивність її до 25 кг/га. Дає товарний мед на Поліссі та в Карпатах. За день бджоли приносять по 2-4 кг нектару на вулик. Мед крушини запашний, темніший від малинового, крупнозернистий. На крушині інколи з'являється падь. Кора і недостиглі плоди дають жовту, бурякову, коричневу і чорну фарби, стиглі плоди — зелену й фіолетову. Кора містить таніди, придатні для дублення шкур.
Деревина крушини м'яка, дає найкращий вугіль для малювання і пороху, придатна для дрібних виробів, декоративної фанери. Гілки придатні для грубого плетива.
Збирають кору навесні, до появи листків. На стовбурах і гілках ножами роблять кільцеві надрізи на відстані 10 — 50 см, які з'єднують поздовжніми розрізами, потім кору легко знімають. Після зняття кори деревця рекомендується зрубувати «на пеньок» для утворення великої кількості паростків, тобто відновлення рослин. На жаль, багато заготівельників, оголивши кору, лишають деревця незрубаними, що призводить до зникнення заростей цієї цінної рослини.
Заготовлену сировину сушать під наметами з гарною вентиляцією або під залізним дахом, розкладаючи на папері або тканині. Суху кору пресують, пакують у тюки або кіпи по 50 кг. Зберігають у сухих, добре провітрюваних приміщеннях, строк зберігання до п'яти років. Перед використанням кора повинна зберігатися не менше року або піддаватися обробці високою температурою (100°) протягом години.
Frangula alnus Mill., 1768
Синонимы
Круши́на ло́мкая, или крушина ольхови́дная (лат. Frángula álnus), или жо́стер ломкий (Rhámnus frangula) — древовидный кустарник; вид рода Крушина (Frangula) семейства Крушиновые, типовой вид этого рода. В литературе этот вид нередко рассматривается в составе рода Жостер (Rhamnus), при таком подходе его правильным названием будет Rhamnus frangula L.
Народные названия растения — крушинник, крушина хрупкая.
Кустарник или небольшое дерево, может достигать в высоту 7 м. Ствол и ветви тёмно-бурые. В отличие от крушины слабительной, ствол гладкий, без колючек. Тёмная кора с поперечно-вытянутыми чечевичками, характерно наличие красного (франгулинового) слоя под внешним слоем пробки.
Листья эллиптической формы, 4—10 см в длину, цельнокрайние, с шестью — восемью парами параллельных боковых жилок, расположены на коротких (до 1,5 см) черешках. Расположение листьев — очерёдное или косо-супротивное.
Цветки обоеполые, невзрачные, пятичленные, собраны пучками в пазухах листьев, 2—3,5 мм длиной. Колокольчатая чашечка внутри белого цвета. Венчик зеленовато-белый.
Формула цветка: ∗ K ( 5 ) C 5 A 5 G ( 3 _ ) {displaystyle ast K_{(5)};C_{5};A_{5};G_{({underline {3}})}}
Плод — костянка шаровидной формы диаметром 8—10 мм, с двумя — тремя зеленовато-жёлтыми округло-треугольными косточками с хрящеватым двойным «клювиком». В зрелом состоянии плоды сине-чёрные. Плоды ядовиты, в народе их называют «волчьи ягоды», однако птицы охотно их поедают.
Кора, почки, листья, плоды содержат антрахиноны: глюкофрангулин, франгулин, эмодин и изоэмодин. Наибольшее содержание этих веществ наблюдается в коре — до 8 %. Кроме антрахинонов, кора также содержит тритерпеновые гликозиды, хризофановую кислоту, антранолы, смолы, дубильные вещества, следы эфирного масла[3].
В семенах содержится до 29 % жирного масла[4].
Встречается в лесной и лесостепной зоне Европы, центральных районах Западной Сибири, на севере Малой Азии, на большей части Крыма, на Кавказе, в северных районах Средней Азии[5].
Растёт по опушкам и в подлеске пойменных лесов, по берегам рек и озёр, окраинам болот, в куртинах кустарников среди лугов, на вырубках, по оврагам и балкам. В горах подымается до 1700 м над уровнем моря[4].
Теневынослива. Предпочитает плодородные почвы, но встречается и на бедных, хотя при этом заметно отстаёт в росте. Хорошо выносит повышенное почвенное увлажнение[4].
В русской ботанической традиции этот вид относят к роду Крушина (Frangula), и его латинское название переводится как крушина ольховидная. В западной традиции ботаники принимают этот вид под именем Rhamnus frangula, то есть жостер ломкий, таким образом причисляя его к роду Rhamnus[6].
Кора и плоды обладают слабительными и рвотными свойствами и применяются в народной медицине. В официальной медицине лечебное значение имеет кора крушины (лат. Cortex Frangulae). Во избежание отравлений не применяют свежую кору. Токсичные вещества в ней постепенно окисляются, поэтому используют кору через 1 год естественного хранения либо после прогрева (1 час при температуре +100 °C). Сырьё применяют в форме отвара, экстракта, в составе слабительных и противогеморройных сборов, в виде препарата «Рамнил»[7].
Разводится как декоративный кустарник.
Мягкая древесина легко колется, используется для столярных работ. Древесина имеет малую плотность, что делает её ценной для получения почти беззольного[4] угля, который применялся в изготовлении лучших сортов[4] чёрного дымного пороха[8].
Кора содержит красящие вещества, применялась для окраски в жёлтый и коричневый цвета[4].
В коре содержится до 10 % танинов, поэтому её можно употреблять для дубления[4].
Хороший медонос, даёт пчёлам нектар и пыльцу. Медопродуктивность 35 кг с гектара сплошных зарослей. В некоторых лесных районах является растением главного взятка[9].
Круши́на ло́мкая, или крушина ольхови́дная (лат. Frángula álnus), или жо́стер ломкий (Rhámnus frangula) — древовидный кустарник; вид рода Крушина (Frangula) семейства Крушиновые, типовой вид этого рода. В литературе этот вид нередко рассматривается в составе рода Жостер (Rhamnus), при таком подходе его правильным названием будет Rhamnus frangula L.
Народные названия растения — крушинник, крушина хрупкая.
欧鼠李（学名：Rhamnus frangula），为鼠李科鼠李属下的一个植物种。[1]
这是一篇與植物相關的小作品。你可以通过编辑或修订扩充其内容。 
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