بلوط أحمر

More info for the terms: fire severity, prescribed burn, severity, tree, wildfire

Oaks tend to be less susceptible to fire during the dormant season [98].
Individuals of poor vigor are less likely to heal following fire-induced
injury than are healthy vigorous specimens.  Oaks growing in overstocked
stands typically exhibit lower vigor and are more susceptible to
fire-caused damage.  Crooked or leaning trees are particularly
susceptible to damage since the flames are more likely to be directly
below the stem, thereby increasing the amount of heat received by the
bark's surface.  Mortality or serious injury increases with greater fire
severity.  Mortality of seedlings may be correlated with temperatures
near the root collars [51].  [See FIRE CASE STUDY].

High mortality was reported after 8 years of biennial burning, although
mortality was not obvious until after the first 3 years.  A spring fire
killed 58 percent of existing northern red oak seedlings and caused
severe damage to the boles of some overstory trees [120].  However, an
"extremely hot" wildfire in Indiana, killed only 22 percent of
4-year-old plants [25].  The tops of 92 percent of 1-year-old northern
red oak seedlings were killed by a low-severity prescribed burn in
Wisconsin, but regenerative portions of 38 percent survived [25].

Northern red oak is generally more severely fire-scarred than many other
oaks [112].  When basal cambial tissue is seriously damaged by fire,
injuries often permit the entry of insects or decay that may ultimately
kill the tree [1,45,98,106].  Toole [132] reported that by the 2d year
after fire, 60 percent of wounded northern red oaks was infested by
insects.  Heart rot spread to 2.5 times the height of the bark
discoloration within 7 years of the fire.  Heart rot progressed more
slowly where the original fire scar represented less than 20 percent of
the tree's circumference and more rapidly where the fire scar was more
extensive.  Rouse [98] estimated that rot traveled up the bole of a
fire-damaged tree at 1.25 feet (0.4 m) per decade.

Mortality equations based on d.b.h., and the width and height of bark
blackening have been developed for northern red oak [71].  These
equations can be useful in predicting if a fire-damaged oak will
survive.

More info for the terms: forest, prescribed fire, tree

Seedlings, saplings, and pole-sized individuals commonly sprout if
girdled by fire.  Damaged seedlings can often sprout several times and
may ultimately grow beyond the fire-susceptible stage [43].  Sprouting
ability appears to decrease as plants age.  Large trees much less likely
to sprout if severely damaged by fire.

On the George Washington National Forest, West Virginia, a spring prescribed
fire promoted northern red oak seedling establishment but reduced northern
red oak sprouts in a mixed-hardwood forest. Average red oak seedling densities
before fire and in postfire year 5 were 0 and 26 seedlings/acre, respectively;
northern red oak sprout densities were 658 sprouts/acre before and 0 sprouts/acre
5 years after the fire. See the Research Paper of Wendel and Smith's [135]
study for details on the fire prescription and fire effects on northern red oak
and 6 other tree species.

For further information on red oak response to fire, see Fire Case Studies.

The Research Project Summaries Effects of surface fires in a mixed red and

eastern white pine stand in Michigan and
Early postfire
effects of a prescribed

fire
in the southern Appalachians of North Carolina and the Research Paper by
Bowles and others 2007 provide information
on prescribed fire and postfire

response
of several plant species, including northern red oak,
that was not

available when this species review was originally written.

northern red oak
red oak
common red oak
gray oak
eastern red oak
mountain red oak

More info for the terms: cover, tree

Northern red oak provides good cover for a wide variety of birds and
mammals.  Young oaks with low branches serve as particularly good winter
cover.  Oak leaves often persist longer than those of many of its plant
associates and in some areas, young oaks may represent the only brushy
winter cover in dense pole stands [105].  Oaks frequently serve as
perching or nesting sites for various songbirds [19].  Many cavity
nesters, such as the red-bellied and hairy woodpecker, utilize northern
red oak [133].  The well-developed crowns of oaks provide shelter and
hiding cover for tree squirrels and other small mammals.  Many birds and
mammals use twigs and leaves as nesting materials [74].  Large oaks
provide denning sites for a variety of mammals [19].

More info for the terms: monoecious, tree

Northern red oak is a medium to large, variable deciduous tree [39,47].
It is the tallest and most rapidly growing of the oaks [20] and commonly
reaches 65 to 98 feet (20-30 m) in height and 2 to 3 feet (61-91 m) in
diameter [101].  On extremely favorable sites plants may grow to 160
feet (49 m) and up to 8 feet (2.4 m) in diameter [24].  Trees are tall,
straight, and columnar with a large crown in forested stands but are
characterized by a short bole and spreading crown in openings [101].
Plants generally have a strongly developed taproot and a network of
deep, spreading laterals [47,56].  The gray to grayish-brown bark has
shallow vertical furrows and low ridges and becomes checkered with age
[39].

Northern red oak is monoecious.  Staminate catkins are borne in leaf
axils of the previous year's growth, whereas pistillate catkins occur in
two- to many-flowered spikes in the axils of leaves [101].  The acorns
are approximately 0.8 to 1.3 inch (20-33 mm) in length, with a shallow,
saucer-shaped cup [26,39,47].  Acorns are borne singly or in clusters of
two to five [101].  The nut contains a large, white, bitter kernel [20].

The variety ambigua is characterized by smaller acorn cups [93].

Northern red oak is widely distributed throughout much of the eastern
United States and southeastern Canada.  It grows from Quebec, Ontario,
Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick southward to southwestern Georgia and
Alabama [39,101].  Northern red oak extends westward through Minnesota
and Iowa, south through eastern Nebraska and Kansas to eastern Oklahoma
[101].  It occurs locally in eastern and southwestern Louisiana and
western Mississippi [39,69].

The variety rubra grows in Georgia and Alabama, northward through
Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia to New England [93,104].  The
variety ambigua occurs farther north than variety rubra does [30].
Variety borealis occurs in Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina in
the South and extends northward throughout New England to Maine
[39,104].

More info for the terms: competition, fern, fire exclusion, fire management, forest, herbaceous, prescribed burn, prescribed fire, root collar, series

Prescribed fire:  Prescribed fire can be an important tool for
regenerating oak stands.  However, results do not always favor oak.
Crow [25] reported that "although there is abundant evidence of a
general relationship between fire and the occurrence of oak, prescribed
burning is not yet a viable silvicultural tool for regenerating oak
stands."  Most oaks sprout vigorously after fire, and competing
vegetation can be much reduced [43].  However, a single low-intensity
fire may have little impact on competing vegetation [25].  According to
Crow [25], a "commitment to frequent burning is needed to compensate for
decades of fire exclusion."  In the southern Appalachians, biennial
summer burns are usually most effective in promoting advance
regeneration.  Single pre- or post-harvest burns generally have
little effect [121].

Timber harvest and fire:  Fire can be used to control competing
herbaceous vegetation after timber harvest [18].  A series of cool or
low-severity prescribed fires prior to timber harvest can promote
advanced regeneration in oaks [121].

Fuels and flammability:  Wydeven and Kloes [131] reported that a "fairly
cool" fire in an uncut northern red oak stand produced flame lengths of
1 to 1.8 feet (0.3-0.56 m).  A "very hot" fire in a cut stand generated
flames 1.6 to 20 feet (0.5-6.0 m) high.

FIRE CASE STUDY

SPECIES: Quercus rubra
FIRE CASE STUDY CITATION :
Tirmenstein, D. A., compiler. 1991. Effects of prescribed burning on northern
red oak in Wisconsin. In: Quercus rubra. In: Fire Effects Information
System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer).
Available: https://www.fs.fed.us
/database/feis/ [
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REFERENCE :
Johnson, Paul S. 1974. Survival and growth of northern red oak seedlings
following a prescribed burn. Res. Note NC-177. St. Paul, MN: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest
Experiment Station. 3 p. [50].


SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
mid-April/not reported.


STUDY LOCATION :
The prescribed burn was conducted on the Hardies Creek Timber Harvest
Farm in Trempeauleau County, Wisconsin.


PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY :
The preburn community was a 102-year old northern red oak stand.
Understory vegetation included interrupted fern (Osmunda claytoniana),
lady fern (Athyrium felix-femina), American hazel (Corylus americana),
and briars (Rubus spp.).


TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE :
Not reported.


SITE DESCRIPTION :
      Slope:  10 to 35 percent.
      Aspect:  north to east.
      Site index for northern red oak:  70.


FIRE DESCRIPTION :
The forest floor (layers L and F) was wet and the fire spread at only 13
inches (33 cm) per minute.  Conditions were as follows:

      Ambient air temperature:  70 degrees F (21 deg C)
      Relative humidity:  25 percent
      Winds:  5 miles per hour (8 km/hour)
      Temperature of soil-forest floor interface:  50 degrees F (10 deg C)


FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES :
Mortality of northern red oak was related to temperatures near the root
collar.  Ninety-three percent of the seedlings on the unburned control
plot were alive after one growing season, but only 42 percent of those
on burned plots survived.  All but 8 of the 42 surviving seedlings were
top-killed.  Thirty-four seedling sprouts were produced, with one to
three living stems originating from the root collar.  Where the
temperature reached 220 degrees F (104 deg C) or more, mortality of
seedlings averaged 71 percent.  Mortality was 64 percent on plots where
the temperature reached 140 to 219 degrees F (60-104 deg C).  Where
temperature was less than 140 degrees F (60 deg C), mortality was only
19 percent.  Seedlings on the burned plot were significantly shorter.


FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
With 7,000 seedlings per acre (17,290/ha), a 50 to 60 percent reduction
in northern red oak seedling numbers may be acceptable as long as
competing vegetation is reduced.  However, this spring fire had little
effect on competing vegetation.  Study results suggest that a single,
low-severity spring burn may harm northern red oak seedlings where
postburn competition is intense.  More research is needed to determine
conditions under which prescribed burns might control competing
vegetation and favor northern red oak reproduction.

More info for the term: competition

With 7,000 seedlings per acre (17,290/ha), a 50 to 60 percent reduction
in northern red oak seedling numbers may be acceptable as long as
competing vegetation is reduced.  However, this spring fire had little
effect on competing vegetation.  Study results suggest that a single,
low-severity spring burn may harm northern red oak seedlings where
postburn competition is intense.  More research is needed to determine
conditions under which prescribed burns might control competing
vegetation and favor northern red oak reproduction.

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte

More info for the terms: herbaceous, mesic, shrubs, tree, vines

Northern red oak grows on a variety of dry-mesic to mesic sites [3].  It
occurs in rich, mesic woods, on sandy plains, rock outcrops, stable
interdunes, and at the outer edges of floodplains [29,124,126].
Northern red oak is most common on north- and east-facing slopes
[30,101].  It typically grows on lower and middle slopes, in coves,
ravines, and on valley floors [101].

Plant associates:  Overstory associates of northern red oak are numerous
and include white oak (Quercus alba), black oak, scarlet oak, southern
red oak, post oak (Q. stellata), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus),
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), sugar maple, red maple (Acer
rubrum), black cherry (Prunus serotina), American basswood (Tilia
americana), sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua), white ash (Fraxinus
americana), green ash (F. pennsylvanica), aspen (Populus tremuloides),
hickories (Carya spp.), black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), black walnut
(Juglans nigra), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), eastern hemlock (Tsuga
canadensis), and elm (Ulmus spp.) [12,76,82,101].  Flowering dogwood
(Cornus florida), holly (Ilex spp.), eastern hophornbeam (Ostrya
virginiana), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), American bladdernut
(Staphylea trifolia), redbud (Cercis canadensis), persimmon (Diospyros
virginiana), and serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.) are frequent small tree
associates [101].  Common understory shrubs and vines include greenbrier
(Smilax spp.), blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), mountain-laurel (Kalmia
spp.), leatherwood (Dirca palustris), witch-hazel (Hamamelis
virginiana), beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta), spice bush (Lindera
benzoin), poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), grape (Vitis spp.), and
rosebay rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum) [101].  Numerous herbaceous
species occur with northern red oak.

Climate:  Annual precipitation averages 30 inches (76 cm) at the
northwestern edge of northern red oak's range and 80 inches (203 cm) in
the southern Appalachians [101].  Mean annual temperatures range from 40
degrees F (4 deg C) in the North to 60 degrees F (16 deg C) in the South
[24].  Growing season length varies from 100 to 220 days.  Northern red
oak reaches its best development in the Ohio Valley and along the west
slope of the Allegheny Mountains where precipitation averages 40 inches
(102 cm) annually and average annual temperature is 52 degrees F (11
degrees C) [101].

Soils:  Northern red oak grows on clay, loam, and sandy or gravelly
soils [20,101].  Soils may be deep and free of rocks, or shallow and
rocky [33].  Plants generally exhibit best growth on deep, fertile,
well-drained, finely textured soils with a relatively high water table
[26,39,101].  Soils are derived from a variety of parent materials
including glacial outwash, sandstone, shale, limestone, gneiss, schist,
or granite [101].

Elevation:  Northern red oak grows at relatively low elevations in the
Smoky Mountains.  The variety rubra typically grows at lower elevations
than does the variety ambigua [129].  Generalized elevations ranges by
geographic location are as follows [73,101,113]:

        Location          Elevation                          

        s Appalachians    up to 5,500 feet (1,680 m)          
        White Mtns. NH    up to 1,476 feet (450 m)            
        IN                700 to 850 feet (214-259 m)        
        MO                800 to 1,300 feet (244-397 m)       
        MI                600 to 700 feet (182-214 m)        
        NY                900 to 1,400 feet (275-427 m)      
        NC                2,300 to 5,000 feet (702-1,525 m)   
        WV                1,800 to 3,500 feet (549-1,070 m)   
        WI                800 to 1,000 feet (244-305 m)      

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: hardwood

     1  Jack pine
    14  Northern pin oak
    15  Red pine
    17  Pin cherry
    18  Paper birch
    19  Gray birch - red maple
    20  White pine - northern red oak - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    22  White pine - hemlock
    23  Eastern hemlock
    25  Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
    26  Sugar maple - basswood
    27  Sugar maple
    28  Black cherry - maple
    29  Black cherry
    40  Post oak - blackjack oak
    42  Bur oak
    43  Bear oak
    44  Chestnut oak
    45  Pitch pine
    46  Eastern redcedar
    51  White pine - chestnut oak
    52  White oak - black oak - northern red oak
    53  White oak
    55  Northern red oak
    57  Yellow poplar
    58  Yellow poplar - eastern hemlock
    59  Yellow poplar - white oak - northern red oak
    60  Beech - sugar maple
    82  Loblolly pine - hardwood
   108  Red maple
   110  Black oak

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

   FRES10  White - red - jack pine
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES14  Oak - pine
   FRES15  Oak - hickory
   FRES18  Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19  Aspen - birch

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

   K095  Great Lakes pine forest
   K099  Maple - basswood
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K102  Beech - maple
   K103  Mixed mesophytic forest
   K104  Appalachian oak forest
   K110  Northeastern oak - pine forest
   K111  Oak - hickory pine forest

More info for the term: mast

Browse:  White-tailed deer commonly browse leaves and young seedlings
[81,119].  Telfer [116] reported that deer browsed only 2.8 percent of
northern red oak in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.  However, in feeding
trials in New Hampshire, northern red oak leaves comprised 15 to 30
percent dry matter of deer diets [90].  Elk, hares, cottontail rabbits,
and moose also feed on northern red oak browse [116,119].  Pocket
gophers occasionally feed on the roots of seedlings [49].

Acorns:  Mammals - The white-footed mouse, eastern chipmunk, fox
squirrel, gray squirrel, red squirrel, white-tailed deer, flying
squirrels, and deer mice consume northern red oak acorns [15,111,119].
In a New Hampshire feeding trial, northern red oak acorns made up 5 to
55 percent (composition dry matter) of deer diets [90].  Acorns of the
northern red oak are a preferred fall and winter food of the gray
squirrel [40,65].  Domestic hogs also eat large quantities of northern
red oak acorns where available [119].  Acorns are an important fall food
source for the black bear [31,97].  The abundance of fall mast crops can
affect black bear reproductive success during the following year [31].

Birds - Acorns of the northern red oak are an important food source the
bobwhite, red-headed woodpecker, red-bellied woodpecker, blue jay,
tufted titmouse, grackle, white-breasted nuthatch, sapsuckers, quail,
ruffed grouse, and other birds [111,119].  They represent a particularly
important food source for the wild turkey.  A single turkey can consume
more than 221 acorns at a "single meal" [95].  Other birds that feed on
acorns include the ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, ring-necked
pheasant, wild turkey, eastern crow, northern flicker, grackle, blue
jay, brown thrasher, tufted titmouse, starling, lesser prairie chicken,
chickadees, nuthatches, and other songbirds.  Acorns are also important
food sources for various waterfowl such as the golden-eye, gadwall, wood
duck, hooded merganser, mallard, American pintail, black duck, redhead,
and green-winged teal [74,119].  Sprouted acorns are readily eaten by
deer, mice, and the northern bobwhite [119].

More info for the term: habitat type

Northern red oak occurs as a dominant in many communities [77],
including mixed mesophytic forests, pine-oak communities, and southern
bottomland forests [12,110].

Publications listing northern red oak as an indicator or dominant in
habitat type (hts) classifications are presented below:

Area              Classification                Authority
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
n MI, ne WI       general veg. hts              Coffman and others 1980
n WI              general veg. hts              Kotar and others 1988

More info for the term: tree

Tree

More info for the terms: density, presence, seed, selection, series

Silviculture:  Northern red oak often regenerates poorly after timber
harvest.  According to Loftis [70], "the preparatory and seed cuts of
the classical shelterwood will not be a part of the shelterwood sequence
to regenerate oaks, but rather, the cuttings applied in a shelterwood to
regenerate northern red oak should be considered removal cuts to exploit
the presence of small advanced oak reproduction, enhancing the
development of and finally, releasing advanced reproduction that is
already established."  The presence of vigorous advanced regeneration is
essential for producing good stands of northern red oak after timber
harvest [5,21,85].  For adequate regeneration of oaks, advanced
regeneration of at least 4.5 feet (1.4 m) in height should number at
least 435 stems per acre (217/ha) prior to harvest [100].  However,
Kittridge and Aston [57] reported that as few as 60 stems per acre
(24/ha) may be sufficient for oak regeneration in some areas.

A series of selection cuts can produce stands with several age classes
and can generate sufficient advanced regeneration for well-stocked,
postharvest stands [7].  Initial cuts should reduce overstory densities
to no less than 60 percent stocking [100].  Reduction of competing
understory species may also be necessary in some instances [7,100].
Prescriptions for regenerating northern red oak should include the
following:  (1) control competing vegetation, (2) reduce overstory
density, (3) ensure adequate propagules, (4) manage for seedling
sprouts, and (5) remove overstory after seedling establishment [25].

Chemical control:  Oaks often produce basal sprouts in response to
herbicide treatments [36].  However, injections of glyphosate can kill
plants [128].

Mechanical treatments:  Trees which have been cut often develop multiple
trunks [10].  Approximately 9.9 sprouts per stump were reported 5 years
after trees were cut in Pennsylvania.  Average sprout numbers declined
to 1.1 per acre 35 years after cutting [75].  Sprouts derived from cut
stumps are often more vigorous than those which have developed as a
result of fire or herbivory [115].

Insects/disease:  Northern red oak is susceptible to several diseases
including oak wilt and oak decline [76].  Oak decline is particularly
serious and has affected northern red oak throughout much of the central
Appalachian region [80].  The gypsy moth and numerous other insects can
attack northern red oak, occasionally causing serious damage [41,101].

Damage:  Northern red oak is resistant to windthrow [87].

Environmental considerations:  Northern red oak is resistant to ozone
damage [48].

Wildlife considerations:  Increases in bear damage to crops, livestock,
and beehives has been noted in years of poor acorn crops [97].  Acorn
production for wildlife can be increased by selective thinning and by
protecting large oaks [90].

Browse:  Dry, fallen leaves are relatively high in protein but low in
digestibility for deer [44].  The nutrient content of northern red oak
browse has been reported as follows [90]:

                     Crude       Ether       Crude       N-free
   Dry matter %      protein %   extract %   fiber %     extract %
   ---------------------------------------------------------------
   33.3              13.27       2.15        23.88       55.37

Acorns:  Northern red oak acorns are relatively low in protein,
phosphorous and crude fiber but are a good source of metabolizable
energy, starches, sugars, and fat [90,95,107,126].  One pound of
northern red oak acorns contains approximately 1,300 calories [95].
Crude available protein of northern red oak acorns has been estimated at
4.6 to 5.92 percent [65].  Smith and Follmer [109] reported that
northern red oak acorns exhibit relatively high tannin levels (6
percent).  Other studies have reported tannin levels ranging from 4.34
to 15.90 percent [15,126,127].

     AL  AR  CT  DE  FL  GA  IL  IN  IA  KS
     KY  LA  ME  MD  MA  MI  MN  MS  MO  NE
     NH  NJ  NY  NC  OH  OK  PA  RI  SC  TN
     VT  VA  WA  WV  WI  NB  NS  ON  PE  PQ

More info for the term: tree

The acorns of many species of oak (Quercus spp.) were traditionally an
important food source for Native American peoples [118].  Acorns of red
oak were leached with ashes to remove bitter tannins and then used in
various foods by many Native American peoples.  Preparations made from
the bark were used to treat bowel problems [38].

Northern red oak was first cultivated in 1724 [84] and is a popular
ornamental shade tree in eastern North America and in parts of Europe
[47,101].

Browse:  The palatability of oak browse is reported to be relatively
high for domestic livestock and for many wildlife species.  Eastern oaks
are preferred by white-tailed deer in some locations [119].  New growth
is particularly palatable to deer and rabbits [43].

Acorns:  Acorns of the northern red oak are highly palatable to many
birds and mammals.  Northern red oak acorns appear to be less palatable
to the white-footed mouse than are white oak acorns [15].  Studies
indicate that relatively high tannin levels may impart a bitter taste
and decrease palatability as compared with acorns from other species of
oak [108,127].  However, gray squirrels prefer northern red oak acorns
to the acorns of other oaks [65].

More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: fruit, natural

The timing of annual budbreak varies with the genetic composition of the
plant and with site characteristics such as elevation and soils [8,62].
Budbreak tends to be delayed at higher elevations [62] and on sites with
copper, lead, or zinc mineralized soil [8].  Plants often undergo
relatively rapid vegetative growth from May through June [23].  Episodic
or recurrent shoot growth, in which periods of shoot elongation
alternate with resting periods, can occur throughout the growing season
[25].  Growth of leaves and roots is also often cyclic [27].  However,
under natural conditions, seedlings typically produce a single flush of
leaves during a relatively short period of growth which often lasts only
2 to 3 weeks.  The shoot becomes dormant during early summer despite
seemingly favorable growing conditions [25].

Flowering occurs in April or May, during or before leaf development
[33].  Acorns require two seasons for development and ripen in September
and October [24].  Phenological development by geographic area follows:

Area              Flowering         Fruit ripe        Reference

Adirondacks       May               September         [20]
Blue Ridge Mtns.  April-May         ----              [130]
WI                May               ----              [26]
var. rubra
NC,SC             April             August            [93]
var. borealis:
NC,SC             May               Sept.-Oct.        [93]

More info for the terms: competition, density, fire severity, root collar, seed, severity

Young northern red oaks commonly sprout vigorously from the stumps or
root collar after aboveground portions of the plant are killed by fire
[24,63].  Stem density is often increased as fire promotes sprouting and
reduces competition [25,91].  Johnson [51] reported that one to three
living stems may originate from a single root collar.  Frequent fire can
produce oak scrublands [25,52].  Hannah [43] reports that the "best"
sprouts often originate from buds located at, or below, ground level.
These sprouts may be more vigorous and less susceptible to rot or other
damage.

Seedling sprouts are often particularly important in postfire
reestablishment, but seedling establishment may also occur [102].  Large
oaks that survive fire frequently serve as seed sources [43].  Dying
trees often produce a massive seed crop.  Acorns often germinate well on
mineral soil, and establishment may actually be favored in burned areas
[98].  Scheiner and others [103] reported 56 sprouts per acre (138/ha)
and 51 seedlings per acre (125/ha) after a fire in Michigan.

Rouse [98] reported that most large oaks are "capable of minimizing
fire-caused losses due to damaged cambium by rerouting the functions of
fire-killed portions within weeks after a fire."

Specific response is presumably related to such factors as fire
severity, season of burn, and plant age and vigor.  Fire does not always
produce increases in northern red oak.  Van Lear and Waldrop [120]
reported that a spring fire in a northern red oak stand failed to
increase oak abundance in the understory.

More info for the terms: caudex, root crown, seed

   survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
   survivor species; on-site surviving roots
   off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water; postfire yr 1&2

More info for the terms: codominant, forest, fruit, herbaceous, litter, natural, seed, stratification, tree

Seed:  Northern red oak generally first bears fruit at 25 years of age,
although most trees do not produce acorns in abundance until 50 years of
age [101].  On extremely favorable sites trees as young as 10 years may
bear some fruit [53].  Northern red oak produces good crops every 2 to 5
years [101].  Yields vary by individual as well as with weather
conditions and site factors.  Relatively large, dominant or codominant
individuals with open crowns typically produce more acorns than do trees
with small, restricted crowns.  Trees with a 16 inch (41 cm) d.b.h. can
yield 800 acorns per year, and trees with a d.b.h. of 20 to 22 inches
(51-56 cm) can yield 1,600 acorns per year [33].  Larger trees tended to
be less productive.  Total acorn production may range from 100 to more
than 4,100 per tree [111].  In a single year, northern red oak trees
produced a combined total of nearly 14,000 sound acorns per acre in a
mixed oak stand in southern Michigan [33].  Cold, rainy weather during
flowering can result in poor seed production [43].

Under carefully controlled conditions, acorns can be stored for up to 2
or 3 years [127].  After 52 months in storage, only a few acorns
remained viable.  In good acorn years up to 80 percent of the crop is
commonly destroyed, and in poor years virtually the entire acorn crop
can be eliminated by birds, mammals, and insects [101].

Germination:  Acorns of northern red oak are characterized by variable
dormancy which requires stratification for germination [11].  Dormancy
varies by the individual seed [114], but northern seeds often require
longer stratification [11].  Under natural conditions, acorns generally
germinate in the spring after dormancy is broken by over-wintering [24].
Delayed germination may occur but is very rare [114].  Seeds can be
stratified at 35 to 41 degrees F (2-5 degrees C) for several months
[11].

Acorns germinate best in soil which is covered by a layer of leaf litter
[101].  In one study, 80 percent of all planted acorns germinated
compared with less than 1 percent of acorns left on the soil surface.
Domestic animals such as pigs and cows may promote germination by
trampling the soil and "planting" the acorns, and by reducing competing
herbaceous vegetation [25].  Seeds on the soil surface are particularly
vulnerable to rodent predation [24].  In an Iowa study all seeds present
on top of the litter layer were destroyed by rodents compared with 68
percent of buried seeds [33].

Seed dispersal:  Seeds of northern red oak are primarily dispersed by
birds and mammals.  Scatter-hoarders such as the gray squirrel are
particularly important dispersal agents in some areas [111].  Gray
squirrels bury as much as 19 percent of the available acorn crop and
fail to recover many seeds over the winter [65].  Scatter-hoarders
typically disperse seed a few yards from the source tree.  Mice and
chipmunks are short-distance dispersers and usually move seeds 33 to 98
feet (10-30 m) [25].  Blue jays are effective long-distance dispersal
agents and can transport seed from several hundred yards to 2 or 3 miles
(4-5 km) [25,53,57].  Evidence suggests that blue jays prefer to cache
acorns on open sites or at forest margins [25].  Gravity may aid in seed
dispersal [101].

Seedling establishment:  Seedling establishment is generally limited to
years of abundant acorn production [101].  However, advance regeneration
is usually present.  In mature stands, seedlings may number up to 7,000
per acre (2,824/ha), but few survive more than a few years or grow to
more than 6 or 8 inches (15-20 cm) in height [52].  Seedlings require
adequate soil moisture for survival and good early development [24].
Early growth may be reduced by a combination of shade, low soil
fertility, and competing herbaceous vegetation [60,61].  Shading alone
has little effect on initial seedling establishment [60].

Vegetative regeneration:  Northern red oak commonly sprouts vigorously
after plants are damaged or killed by fire or mechanical injury [101].
Small poles, saplings, and even seedlings can sprout if cut or burned
[43].  Although young oaks typically stump sprout more readily than do
older or larger individuals, northern red oaks up to 22 inches (56 cm)
in diameter have produced sprouts [33].  Stump sprouts derived from
larger stems tend to grow faster than those derived from smaller,
damaged stems.  Individuals 20 to 25 years of age regardless of size
produce an average of four or five sprouts [101].

Repeated sprouting is common in northern red oak [122]; many seedlings
die back to the ground level periodically.  Seedling sprouts with root
collars up to 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter often develop after repeated
damage [46].  After repeated fires, these stems may develop "stools" or
areas comprised of callus tissue filled with dormant buds.  Seedlings
often develop an "s"-shaped curve at ground level which helps protect
dormant buds from fire [98].  Cycles of dying back and sprouting can
result in crooked, flat-topped, or forked stems [101].

Root sprouting also occurs [46].  Sprouts that develop at or below the
ground level are less likely to decay than are sprouts that develop
relatively high on the parent stump [101].  Epicormic buds located
beneath the bark of older oaks commonly sprout when older trees are
damaged or after openings are created by heavy thinning [101,122].

Bud dormancy is largely controlled by auxins rather than by levels of
carbohydrate reserves [122].  Apical dominance can restrict the
development of belowground buds when buds survive on aboveground
portions of the plant.  Sprouting is reduced by low light levels [122]
and decreases as the stand ages [75].  The number of sprout groups
decreases from poor to good sites [75].  Initial sprout growth is
typically rapid [98].

mid-April/not reported.

      Slope:  10 to 35 percent.
      Aspect:  north to east.
      Site index for northern red oak:  70.

More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: climax, forest, mesic, succession

Northern red oak is intermediate in shade tolerance [101].  It is
generally considered a midseral species, but its successional status is
poorly known.  Crow [25] reported that it is "neither an aggressive
colonizer that is characteristic of early successional species nor an
enduring shade-tolerant, slow-grower . . . typical of late successional
species."  Even-aged stands are common; northern red oak is unable to
establish beneath its own canopy.  Advanced regeneration provides a mode
by which northern red oak can reoccupy a site following disturbances
such as fire, wind damage, or herbivory.  In most areas, advanced
regeneration persists for no more than a few years [85].  Parker and
others [88] reported that some seedlings persisted for approximately 25
years despite repeated die-backs.  These seedlings did not reach sapling
or pole size unless gaps were created in the forest canopy; most
ultimately died [88].  Limited evidence suggests that northern red oak
may have maintained itself in some mature forests through gap-phase
replacement [25].  Northern red oak is often replaced by more
shade-tolerant species such as sugar maple and American basswood [6,17].

The Upper Midwest:  In parts of the Upper Midwest, northern red oak
dominates early seral to midseral stages following clearcutting but is
replaced by sugar maple and American basswood [51].  Northern red oak
assumes prominence after early succession in which bigtooth aspen
(Populus grandidentata) dominates in upland pine-hardwood forests of
Michigan [102] and persists in some old-growth oak-hickory forests of
southern Michigan [42].  Even-aged stands found in parts of the
Driftless Area may have originated after intense, stand-replacing fires
that began in nearby prairies and savannas.  With frequent fires, sugar
maple forests are replaced by northern red oak stands [25].

New England:  In New England, logging and slash fires in the late 1800's
and early 1900's replaced pine-hemlock forests with stands made up of
oak and maple [83].  In central New England, where advance regeneration
is present prior to disturbance, northern red oak often assumes
dominance between 10 to 40 years after disturbance and often persists
for 100 years or more [46].  Forests are often replaced by sugar maple,
red maple, or gray birch (Betula populifolia) [46,83].

Central Midwest:  Northern red oak is present in old growth floodplain
forests of Illinois [96] and in "postclimax" stands on mesic sites in
Nebraska [2].  In parts of Indiana, it is generally regarded as a
midseral to late seral species in mesophytic forests and is often
replaced by species such as sugar maple, Ohio buckeye (Aesculus glabra),
shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), American beech, and white ash in climax
stands [86,88].

Quercus borealis Michx. f.
Querucs borealis Michx. f. var. maxima (Marsh.) Sarg.
Quercus rubra var. borealis (Michx. f.) Farw.
Quercus maxima (Marsh.) Ashe

More info for the term: swamp

Northern red oak is a member of the red oak-black oak subgenus
(Erythrobalanus) within the order Fagales [11]. The currently accepted
scientific name of northern red oak is Quercus rubra L. [69]. The
epithet Q. rubra was formerly applied to several species of oak
including the southern red oak (Q. falcata) [13,69]. Some later
taxonomists rejected the appellation Q. rubra because of past ambiguity
and in 1915 identified northern red oak as Q. borealis [69,101]. In
1950, the name Q. rubra was restored [101]. Most current authorities
prefer the epithet Q. rubra, although Q. borealis is still occasionally
encountered in the literature. The following varieties are commonly
recognized [54]:


Quercus rubra var. rubra
Quercus rubra L. var. ambigua (A. Gray) Fernald

Northern red oak hybridizes with many oaks including scarlet oak (Q.
coccinea), shingle oak (Q. imbricata), swamp oak (Q. palustris), willow
oak (Q. phellos), scrub oak (Q. ilicifolia), northern pin oak (Q.
ellipsoidalis), black oak (Q. velutina), blackjack oak (Q. marilandica)
and Shumard oak (Q. shumardii) [69,93,101]. The following hybrid
products have been identified:

Q. X runcinata (A. DC.) Engelm. (Q. imbricata x Q. rubra)
Q. X heterophylla (Michx. f.) (Q. phellos x Q. rubra)
Q. X hawkinsiae Sudw. (Q. rubra x Q. velutina)
Q. X riparia Laughlin (Q. shumardii x Q. rubra)
Q. X columnaris Laughlin (Q. palustris x Q. rubra)
Q. X fernaldii (Q. ilicifolia x Q. rubra)

More info for the term: seed

Northern red oak is well adapted to some types of moderately
unproductive environments, including certain acidic sites [16,60], and
can be used in various rehabilitation projects.  Northern red oak has
been successfully planted onto coal mine spoils in Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania [4,16,66,89,123].

Plants can be propagated by several methods, including (1) transplanting
bareroot stock, (2) planting acorns in tubes, and (3) direct seeding.
Best survival of bareroot stock has been reported after spring planting
(90 percent survival compared to 50 percent survival after fall
planting) [115].  Direct seeding is the fastest and cheapest propagation
method and can be effective if few seed predators are present [114,115].
Cuttings obtained from young trees often root if properly treated with
hormones [28].

More info for the terms: fuel, hardwood

Northern red oak is an important source of hardwood lumber [20,73].  Its
wood is heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, and at least moderately
durable [87].  When properly dried and treated, oak wood glues well,
machines very well, and accepts a variety of finishes [79].  The wood of
northern red oak has been used to make railroad ties, fenceposts,
veneer, furniture, cabinets, paneling, flooring, caskets, and pulpwood
[76,87].  Northern red oak has a high fuel value and is an excellent
firewood [76].