Armillaria ostoyae (Romagn.) Herink 1973

• Agaricus congregatus Bolton 1791
• Armillaria mellea var. obscura Gillet 1874
• Armillariella ostoyae Romagn. 1970
• Armillariella solidipes (Peck) T.J.Baroni 1981

Armillaria solidipes (anteriorment dita Armillaria ostoyae) és una espècie de bolet dins la família Physalacriaceae. A l'oest dels Estats Units és la variant més comuna del grup d'espècies que comparteixen el nom d'Armillaria mellea. Armillaria solidipes és forçacomuna en els arbres de fusta dura i en les coníferes de la carena de lae Cascade Range. És un fong fitopatogen i bioluminiscent, el seu miceli ataca la fusta dels arbres i pot viatjar a grans distàncies sota l'escorça o entre els arbres sota la forma de rizomorfs negres.

Se sap que és un dels organismes vius més grans s'ha estimat que un sol espècimen trobat al Malheur National Forest d'Oregon ha estat creixent durant uns 2.400 anys cobrint uns 8,4 km². Només a la tardor aquest fong és visible a la superfície quan forma els bolets. Segurament cobreix la zona més gran entre qualsevol organisme viu.^[1]

Taxonomia

Armillaria solidipes

Aquesta espècie fins al 2008 rebia com a nom Armillaria ostoyae, però aleshores es va descobrir que Charles Horton Peck el 1900 ja li havia donat com a nom Armillaria solidipes^[2]

Referències

Enllaços externs

• Beale, Bob. «Humungous fungus: world's largest organism?». ABC Online, 10-04-2003. [Consulta: 2 gener 2007].
• Amos, Jonathan. «Fantastic fungus find». BBC News, 07-08-2000.
• Volk, Thomas «The Humongous Fungus—Ten Years Later». Falta indicar la publicació, 53, 2, abril 2002, pàg. 4–8.
• «Armillaria Root Rot, Shoestring Root Rot, Honey Mushroom». Washington State University.
• Morrison, Duncan; Mallett, Ken «Silvicultural management of armillaria root disease in western Canadian forests» (PDF). Falta indicar la publicació, 18, 1996, pàg. 194–199.
• Chapman, Bill; Xiao, Guoping; Myers, Sheldan «Early results from field trials using Hypholoma fasciculare to reduce Armillaria ostoyae root disease». Canadian Journal of Botany, 82, 7, 2004, pàg. 962–969. DOI: 10.1139/b04-078.

Der Dunkle Hallimasch oder Gemeine Hallimasch (Armillaria ostoyae^[1][2], Syn.: A. polymyces, A. solidipes s. auct.^[3]) ist ein holzbewohnender Blätterpilz aus der Gattung der Hallimasche. Er kommt im Frühsommer bis in den Spätherbst vor und besiedelt sowohl lebende als auch tote Nadelbäume.^[4]

Merkmale

Makroskopische Merkmale

Der Hut erreicht einen Durchmesser von 3–10, manchmal auch bis 20 cm. Er ist halbkugelig bei frühen Entwicklungsstadien, mit zunehmendem Alter gewölbt bis ausgebreitet. Die Oberfläche ist fleischfarben bis rötlich braun und mit dunklen, abwischbaren Schüppchen bedeckt. Der Rand ist heller gefärbt, lange Zeit eingebogen und später undeutlich gerieft. Die weißlichen bis hellbräunlichen Lamellen sind ausgebuchtet bis gerade angewachsen. Sie werden an älteren Exemplaren rotbraun gefleckt. Die oben weißlichen Stiele sind bis zu 15 cm lang und 2–3 cm im Durchmesser. Sie werden nach dem Aufschirmen der Hüte bald längsfaserig und gelegentlich im Alter hohl. Das Fleisch ist weißlich und hat einen angenehmen Geruch. Das Sporenpulver ist weiß.

Mikroskopische Merkmale

Die Sporen sind etwa 6–10 × 5–7 Mikrometer groß.^[4]

Bedeutung

Forstschädling

In der Schweiz entdeckten Wissenschaftler der Eidgenössischen Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft den größten Dunklen Hallimasch Europas. Der Pilz erstreckt sich über eine Länge von 500 und eine Breite von 800 Metern; die sichtbar werdenden Teile des Pilzkörpers gehören zu einem ausgedehnten unterirdischen Netzwerk von Rhizomorphen. Er stellt eine der größten Bedrohungen des Schweizerischen Nationalparks dar, da er dort gerade auch Bergkiefern (Bergföhren) abtötet.^[5]

Im Malheur National Forest, Oregon, wurde ein Exemplar der Größe von ungefähr 9 Quadratkilometern (965 Hektar) und einem anhand von Daten kleinerer Armillaria-Spezies geschätzten Gewicht von etwa 7500 Tonnen gefunden. Der Pilz in Oregon ist nach derzeitigem Kenntnisstand der "größte Pilz der Erde" und gilt, bezogen auf seine Flächenausdehnung, als das größte Lebewesen der Erde. Sein Alter wird auf 1900–8650 Jahre geschätzt.^[6] Wie der Dunkle Hallimasch im Schweizer Nationalpark befällt er von den Wurzeln her Bäume und tötet sie ab.

Speisewert

Der Dunkle Hallimasch ist ein Speisepilz, der allerdings nicht von jedem Menschen vertragen wird. Bei manchen Menschen löst er Grippe-ähnliche Symptome aus. Wie alle Hallimasch-Arten ist er roh brechreizerregend-unbekömmlich und muss deshalb mindestens 8 Minuten lang durchgegart werden.

Einzelnachweise

1. ↑ Scott A. Redhead, Jean Bérubé, Michelle R.Cleary, Ottmar Holdenrieder, Richard S. Hunt, Kari Korhonen, Helga Marxmüller, Duncan J. Morrison: (2033) Proposal to conserve Armillariella ostoyae (Armillaria ostoyae) against Agaricus obscurus, Agaricus occultans, and Armillaria solidipes (Basidiomycota). In: International Association for Plant Taxonomy (Hrsg.): Taxon. Band 60, Nr. 6, Dezember 2011, S. 1770–1771.
2. ↑ Tom W. May: Report of the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi – 201. In: IMA Fungus. Band 8, Nr. 1, 1. Juni 2017, S. 189–203, doi:10.5598/imafungus.2017.08.01.12, PMID 28824847.
3. ↑ Harold H. Burdsall Jr., Thomas J. Volk: Armillaria solidipes, an older name for the fungus called Armillaria ostoyae. In: North American Fungi, Vol. 3, Nr. 7, 2008, , S. 261–267, (PDF zum Herunterladen auf der Seite; 465 kB), abgerufen am 20. Mai 2013.
4. ↑ ^{a b} Hans E. Laux: Der große Kosmos-Pilzführer. Alle Speisepilze mit ihren giftigen Doppelgängern. Kosmos, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-440-08457-4.
5. ↑ Grösster Pilz der Schweiz (Memento vom 8. Oktober 2011 im Internet Archive). Pressemitteilung der Eidgenössischen Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft (WSL). 24. September 2004, abgerufen am 20. Mai 2013.
6. ↑ United States Department of Agriculture: The Malheur National Forest. (PDF) Location of the World’s Largest Living Organism [The Humongous Fungus]. Abgerufen am 21. Dezember 2021.

Anea d' ene djonne årmilire d' Årdene

L' årmilire d' Årdene u foncêye årmilire, c' est on tchampion-åbusson, del famile des årmilires. C' est on près-vijhén di l' årmilire coleur di låme, mins i vént purade so les surès teres, metans e l' Årdene.

On l' voet co pus sovint dins les sapinires, pa grossès taetches. I sont télmint onk so l' ôte kel pî pout fé des djamas.

Come totes les årmilires, c' est on formagnant puvite k' on saprofite. Si pout i ataker l' sapén eyet l' fé crever. Ubén ki l' åbe va aveur on cayeus nieron dins l' cour do bwès.

No e sincieus latén : Armillaria ostoyae (davance : Armillaria obscura)

Discrijhaedje

Cwand l' tchampion dvént vî, udonbén al fén del såjhon d' crexhinne (al fén do moes d' octôbe el Walonreye), li pî dvént foncé brun (did la ès-n ancyin no Armillaria obscura).

Biyolodjeye

Ciste årmilire la est télmint evayixhante k' i gn a ene seule taetche di 890 ectåres, e l' Oregon ås Estats Unis. Ça dvreut fé on pwès di 605 tones. Si on dit ki c' est ene seule vicante sacwè, c' est lu k' a seur li rcôrd do monde di biyomasse.

Eployaedje

On l' magne bén, copurade les ptits. Si on prind les pus grands avou, elzès fåt bén cure. Ôtmint i dmeure cobén so li stoumak.

I s' wåde foirt bén, mime 4 a 5 djoû dins ene froede plaece.

Cwand on l' code dins les sapinires, i nel fåt nén ddja rnetyî; djusse scheure les picas d' sapéns.

Come formagnant

Come formagnant, il atake pus voltî les douglasses et les årdjintés sapéns.

• Troes grandeurs do tchampion

• Co ene bohêye so on stok

• Avou l' anea co plaké après (cogne di boloe)

• Djama do pî (dins l' bwès)

• Djama do pî (al måjhone)

அமுலரியா ஆஸ்டோயா என்ற தேன் காளான் (Armillaria ostoyae (sometimes called Armillaria solidipes) என்பது பிசலாலிரியேசே குடும்பத்தைச் சேர்ந்த ஒரு காளான் வகை ஆகும். இது மேற்கு ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்காவில் மிகவும் பொதுவாக காணப்படக் கூடிய காளான்களான, அன்னைலரியா மெல்லேயா இந்த இனத்தவை பகிர்ந்து கொள்கின்றன.

அமெரிக்காவின் கிழக்கு ஓரிகன் மலைப் பகுதிகளில் உள்ள தேசிய வனப்பகுதியில் இந்த தேன் காளான். 3.4 சதுர மைல்கள் (2,200 ஏக்கர்கள்; 8.8 km²) நிலப்பரப்பில் மிகப்பெரிய உயிரினமாக பரந்து விரிந்திருக்கின்றன. இவை அனைத்தும் கண்களுக்குத் தெரியாத ஒரே ஒரு வித்திலிருந்துதான் உருவாகியிருக்கின்றன என்கிறார்கள் அறிவியலாளர்கள். இந்தக் காளான் உருவாகி குறைந்தது 2,400 ஆண்டுகள் ஆகியிருக்கலாம் என்கிறார்கள். இந்த காளான் தொகுப்புக்கு "Humongous Fungus".^[1] என்று பெயரிட்டுள்ளனர். இந்த காளான்கள் மெதுவாகப் படர்ந்து, தான் செல்லும் வழியில் உள்ள தாவரங்களைக் கொன்றுவிடுகின்றன. ஒவ்வோர் இலையுதிர் காலத்தின்போதும் மஞ்சள் வண்ணக் காளான்களாகக் கூட்டம் கூட்டமாகத் தங்கள் இருப்பை வெளிக்காட்டிக்கொள்கின்றன. ஒரு சில வாரங்களில் தங்களுடைய உருவத்தை மாற்றி, வெள்ளை நிறமாக மாறி சுண்ணாம்புபோல் சாதாரணமாகக் காட்சியளிக்கின்றன. இந்தத் தேன் காளான்கள் மரங்களுக்கு மிகப் பெரிய ஆபத்தை விளைவித்துவிடுகின்றன. மரத்தின் வேர்களில் இருந்து சத்தை மெதுவாக உறிஞ்சி தங்களை வளர்த்துக்கொள்கின்றன. இதனால் மரங்கள் மெதுவாக சத்துகளை இழக்க ஆரம்பிக்கின்றன. 20, 30 ஆண்டுகளில் தேன் காளான்களை எதிர்த்து நிற்க முடியாமல் இறக்கும் நிலைக்கு சென்றுவிடுகின்றன.^[2][3]

இதே தேன் காளான்கள் அமெரிக்காவின் மிச்சிகன் பகுதியிலும் ஜெர்மனியிலும் உள்ளன. ஆனால் ஓரிகனில் வாழ்வதுபோல் அவை மிகப் பெரிய உயிரினமாகவும், மிகப் பழமையான உயிரினமாகவும் இல்லை.^[4]

மேற்கோள்கள்

Armillaria ostoyae (synonym Armillaria solidipes) is a species of fungus (mushroom), pathogenic to trees, in the family Physalacriaceae. In the western United States, it is the most common variant of the group of species under the name Armillaria mellea. A. ostoyae is common on both hardwood and conifer wood in forests west of the Cascade Range in Oregon, United States. It has decurrent gills and the stipe has a ring.^[1] The mycelium invades the sapwood and is able to disseminate over great distances under the bark or between trees in the form of black rhizomorphs ("shoestrings").^[2] In most areas of North America, Armillaria ostoyae can be separated from other species by its physical features: cream-brown colors, prominent cap scales, and a well-developed stem ring distinguish it from other Armillaria.

Armillaria ostoyae grows and spreads primarily underground, such that the bulk of the organism is not visible from the surface. In the autumn, the subterranean parts of the organism bloom "honey mushrooms" as surface fruits.^[2] Low competition for land and nutrients often allow this fungus to grow to huge proportions, and it possibly covers more total geographical area than any other single living organism.^[2][3][4] A spatial genetic analysis estimated that an individual specimen of A. ostoyae growing over 91 acres (37 ha) in northern Michigan, United States, weighs 440 tons (4 x 10⁵ kg).^[5][6]

Another specimen in northeastern Oregon's Malheur National Forest is possibly the largest living organism on Earth by mass, area, and volume – this contiguous specimen covers 3.7 square miles (2,400 acres; 9.6 km²) and is colloquially called the "Humongous fungus".^[2] Approximations of the land area occupied by the "Humongous fungus" are 3.5 square miles (9.1 km²) (2,240 acres (910 ha)), and it possibly weighs as much as 35,000 tons (approximately 31,500 tonnes), making it the world's most massive living organism.^[7]

Taxonomy

Armillaria ostoyae

The species was long known as Armillaria ostoyae Romagn., until a 2008 publication revealed that the species had been described under the earlier name Armillaria solidipes by Charles Horton Peck in 1900,^[8] long before Henri Romagnesi had described it in 1970.^[9] Subsequently, a proposal to conserve the name Armillaria ostoyae was published in 2011 and has been approved by the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi.^[10]

Life cycle, genetics, and mass

This fungus, like most parasitic fungi, reproduces sexually. The fungi begin life as spores, released into the environment by a mature mushroom. Armillaria ostoyae has a white spore print. There are two mating types for spores (not male and female but similar in effect). Spores can be dispersed by environmental factors such as wind, or they can be redeposited by an animal. Once the spores are in a resting state, the single spore must come in contact with a spore of a complementary mating type and of the same species. If the single spore isolates are from different species, the colonies will not fuse together and they will remain separate. When two isolates of the same species but different mating types fuse together, they soon form coalesced colonies which become dark brown and flat. With this particular fungus it will produce mycelial cords – the shoestrings^[2] – also known as rhizomorphs.^[11] These rhizomorphs allow the fungus to obtain nutrients over distances. These are also the main factors to its pathogenicity. As the fruiting body continues to grow and obtain nutrients, it forms into a mature mushroom. Armillaria ostoyae in particular grows wide and thin sheet-like plates radiating from the stem which is known as its gills. The gills hold the spores of a mature mushroom. This is stained white when seen as a spore print. Once spore formation is complete, this signifies a mature mushroom and now is able to spread its spores to start a new generation.

Genetics and mass

Using genotyping and clonal analysis, scientists determined that a 2500-year old specimen of Armillaria ostoyae in northern Michigan, United States originated from spores of a parent fungus in Ontario, Canada, then grew over millennia into the 21st century to a mass of 440 tons (4 x 10⁵ kg), making it the equivalent in weight of 3 blue whales.^[5][6] By comparison of acreage, the Michigan A. ostoyae covers only 38% of the estimated land area of the Oregon "humongous fungus" at 3.5 square miles (9.1 km²),^[2][5][6] (2,240 acres (910 ha) which may weigh as much as 35,000 tons. It is currently the world's largest single living organism.^[7][12][13]

Pathogenicity

The disease is of particular interest to forest managers, as the species is highly pathogenic to a number of commercial softwoods, notably Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), true firs (Abies spp.), pine trees (Pinus), and Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla).^[7] A commonly prescribed treatment is the clear cutting of an infected stand followed by planting with more resistant species such as Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) or deciduous seedlings.

Pathogenicity is seen to differ among trees of varying age and location. Younger conifer trees at age 10 and below are more susceptible to infection leading to mortality, with an increased chance of survival against the fungus where mortality can become rare by age 20.^[14] While mortality among older conifers is less likely to occur, this does happen, however, in forests with dryer climates.^[15]

The pathogenicity of Armillaria ostoyae appears to be more common in interior stands, but its virulence is seen to be greater in coastal conifers. Although conifers along the coastal regions show a lower rate of mortality against the root disease, infections can be much worse. Despite differences in how infections occur between these two regions, infections are generally established by rhizomorph strands, and pathogenicity is correlated to rhizomorph production.

Geography

Armillaria ostoyae is mostly common in the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere. In North America, this fungus is found on host coniferous trees in the forests of British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest.^[2] It also grows in parts of Asia.^[1] While Armillaria ostoyae is distributed throughout the different biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia, the root disease causes the greatest problem in the interior parts of the region in the Interior Cedar Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone.^[16] It is both present in the interior where it is more common as well as along the coast.

A mushroom of this type in the Malheur National Forest in the Strawberry Mountains of eastern Oregon, was found to be the largest fungal colony in the world, spanning an area of 3.5 square miles (2,200 acres; 9.1 km²).^[2][7] This organism is estimated to be some 8,000 years old^[7][17] and may weigh as much as 35,000 tons.^[7] If this colony is considered a single organism, it is one of the largest known organisms in the world by area, only knowingly rivalled by a colony of Posidonia australis on the Australian seabed that measures 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi; 49,000 acres), and rivals the aspen grove "Pando" as the known organism with the highest living biomass. Another "humongous fungus" – a specimen of Armillaria gallica found at a site near Crystal Falls, Michigan – covers 91 acres (0.37 km²; 0.142 sq mi), was found to have originated from a parent fungus in Ontario, Canada.^[5][18]

Diagnosis

A tree is diagnosed with this parasitic fungus once the following characteristics are identified:

• Resin flow from tree base
• Crown thinning or changing color to yellow or red
• Distress crop of cones
• White mycelial fan under bark
• Black rhizomorphs penetrating root surfaces
• Honey-colored mushrooms near base of tree in fall
• Affected trees often in groups or patches on the east side of the Cascades; usually killed singly on the west side.

A. ostoyae may be confused with Mottled rot (Pholiota limonella). It has similar mushrooms, but only if mycelial fans are not present. Dead and diseased trees usually occur in disease centers, which appear as openings in the canopy. GPS tracking can aid in the monitoring of these areas. However, sometimes distinct centers will be absent and diseased trees are scattered throughout the stand. ^[19]

Treatment

Armillaria can remain viable in stumps for 50 years. Chemical treatments do not eradicate the fungus entirely, and they are not cost-effective. The most frequent and effective approach to managing root disease problems is to attempt to control them at final harvest by replanting site-suited tree species that are disease tolerant. In eastern Washington that typically means replacing Douglas-fir or true fir stands with ponderosa pine, western larch, western white pine, lodgepole pine, western red cedar, alder, or spruce. Species susceptibility varies somewhat from location to location. All trees in the disease center as well as uninfected trees within 50 feet (15 m) should be cut. No tree from a highly susceptible species should be planted within 100 feet (30 m) of a disease center.

The use of another fungus, Hypholoma fasciculare has been shown in early experiments to competitively exclude Armillaria ostoyae in both field and laboratory conditions, but further experimentation is required to establish the efficacy of this treatment.

Another more expensive alternative to changing species is to remove diseased stumps and trees from the site by pushing them out with a bulldozer. The air will dry and kill the fungus. Any small roots left underground will decay before they can reinfect the new seedlings, so it is not necessary to burn the stumps. After stump removal, any species may be planted. The removal of stumps (stumping) has been used to prevent contact between infected stumps and newer growth resulting in lower infection rates. It is unknown if the lower infection rates will persist as roots of young trees extend closer to the original inoculate from the preceding stand.

The most important control measure after planting is to manage for reduced tree stress. This includes regulating species composition, maintaining biological diversity, and reducing the chances for insect pest buildup. Mixed-species forests are more resistant to insect defoliation, and also slow the spread of species-specific pests such as dwarf mistletoe, which are both predisposing agents for Armillaria.^[20]

Uses

The species is considered a choice edible.^[21]

See also

• Largest organisms
• List of Armillaria species
• List of bioluminescent fungi

References

Armillaria ostoyae.

Armillaria ostoyae es un hongo saprofito comestible comúnmente llamado hongo miel.

Es la variante mucho más común en el oeste de EE. UU., del grupo de especies que comparten el nombre, Armillaria mellea. Armillaria ostoyae es bastante común en bosques de coníferas del oeste de la cordillera de las Cascadas de México («Cascade Range»).

El micelio ataca los vasos floemáticos y atraviesa grandes distancias en la corteza o entre árboles en la forma de rizomorfos negros.

Una honguera de este tipo en el bosque nacional Malheur en las montañas Blue («Blue Mountains») (Oregón), del este de Oregón, es la colonia clonal más grande, con 8,9 km² de área. Y el organismo se estima tendría 2400 años de antigüedad. Se estima que pesaría 605 t. Si esta colonia fuera considerada un solo organismo, entonces sería el organismo conocido más grande, y rivales como el "aspen grove" Populus tremuloides sería el organismo más viejo.

En 1992 se descubrió un pariente clonal de las montañas Blue en el sudoeste del estado de Washington, cubriendo 6 km².

Otro espécimen de Armillaria bulbosa se encontró cerca de Crystal Falls, Míchigan con 0,15 km², y fue publicado en Nature 356:428-431. La colonia de este hongo comestible cubre un área de 8,9 km² en el bosque nacional Malheur de Oregón (Estados Unidos).

Véase también

• Tamaño de los seres vivos

Tõmmu külmaseen (Armillaria solidipes, varem Armillaria ostoyae) on šampinjonilaadsete (Agaricales) seltsi kuuluv seeneliik. Ta on maailmas üpris sagedane liik ja kasvab peamiselt põhjapoolkera jahedamatel aladel. Eestis on ta levinud hajusalt üle riigi territooriumi.^[1]

Tõmmu külmaseen on poolparasiitne liik ja ka saprotroof, ta on üpris tavaline okaspuudel, kuid leidub ka lehtpuudel. Tema niidistik levib päris kiiresti ja üsna kaugele nii maa sees kui ka puude koore all tänu oma musta värvi risomorfidele ehk seenenööridele.

Kuna tõmmu külmaseen on poolparasiitne liik puidul, siis võib kohata seda seent peale metsades, raiesmikel, parkides olevate leht- ja okaspuukändude tihtipeale ka elusatel puudel. Üldjuhul kasvab ta põõsasjalt ja hiiglaslike kogudena. Eestis leidub teda kesksuvest kuni kesksügiseni (juulist oktoobrini). Peamiselt on tõmmu külmaseen ikkagi parasiitne seen okaspuudel, kuid suudab aastaid säilida elusana ka saprotroofina (surnud puidu tarbijana). Värskelt sööduna on ta inimesele mürgine, nimelt tekitab seen hemolüüsi ning mao-soole häireid ja mürgistust, kuid kui seent süüa kupatatult, siis on ta ohutu.^[2]

Seda seeneliiki on nimetatud maailma kõige suuremaks elusorganismiks. Nimelt on mitu teadet maailmas olnud selle kohta, et tõmmu külmaseene niidistik hõlmab ligi 10 ruutkilomeetrit maad. Ameerika Ühendriikides Oregonis Malheuri metsas leiti üks liigi esindaja, mis oli eeldatavasti 2400 aasta jooksul kasvanud umbes 8,4 ruutkilomeetri suurusele alale. Siinkohal võeti arvesse seenehüüfi levik ja suurus, mis on maa all ja puude sees silmale üldjuhul nähtamatult, kuna seenekübarad on väike osa seenest. Nähtavale ilmuvad need seened suve lõpu poole ning kasvavad umbes sügise keskpaigani.

Seene välisteks tunnusteks on selle kreemjas kuni pruunikas värvus, küllaltki väljapaistvad soomused seene kübara peal ning teistest perekonnakaaslastest külmaseentest erineb tõmmu külmaseen kõige rohkem oma rõnga järgi, mis ta jalal kasvab. Seene kübar on 5–10 sentimeetri laiune. Tõmmu külmaseene eoslavakandja on lamellidega.

Kirjeldus

Tõmmu külmaseen (Armillaria ostoyae) kasvamas kännul

Kübar

Kübara laius varieerub kolmest 20 sentimeetrini. On kumer kuni tasane, nooremalt kumeram, vanemalt tasasem. Kübar on pealt kuiv kuni vähesel määral niiske. Värvus on tal pruun kuni punakas- või hoopis kollakaspruun, mis on kaetud beeži kuni pruuni või kohati isegi mustjate soomustega.^[3]

Eoslava

Tõmmu külmaseene lamellid

Lamellid ulatuvad kübaraservast jalani või väga jala lähedale. Lamellid on valget või valkjat värvi, tihtipeale esineb värvitooni erisust või värvimuutust lamellides roosakate laikude või punakaspruunide täpikeste näol. Tõmmu külmaseene eoslava jätab vastu alust pressides valge mustriga jälje.^[3]

Jalg

Jalg on olenevalt vanusest ja kasvutingimustest 6–15 sentimeetrit pikk ja on umbes 2–3 sentimeetrit lai. Jalg on tavaliselt kogu pikkuses ühtlaselt jäme või on mõnel juhul jala alumisest osast koonusjas. Värvus on tõmmu külmaseene jalal valkjas, allapoole minnes muutub värv pruunikamaks, kuni isegi peaaegu mustaks. Jalga katab ka peen karvkate. Jala ülaosas on ka hästi välja arenenud valkjas rõngas, millel võib olla alumine pool või ääris pruuni värvi. Jala allosas on üldjuhul kollakad mütseelid, mis on omakorda kinnitunud risomorfidele, mis kasvavad puus.^[3]

Seeneliha

Seeneliha on tõmmul külmaseenel valkjas, kuid seene vananedes võib seeneliha värvus muutuda roosakaks kuni pruunikaks.^[3]

Lõhn ja maitse

Tõmmu külmaseen maitseb mahedalt, kohati võib maitseda ka veidi kibedalt. Lõhn ei ole sellel seenel selgelt eristuv ega eripärane.^[3]

Mikroskoopilised tunnused

Spooride suurus küündib 8–11 × 5–7 µm-ni. Spooride pind on sile, enam-vähem elliptiline. Tõmmu külmaseen ei muutu värvuselt punaseks või siniseks, kui reageerib Melzeri reagendiga ehk on inamüloidne.^[3]

Keemilised reaktsioonid

KOH reaktsioon seene kübaraga annab negatiivse tulemuse (KOH ei reageeri seene kübaraga).^[3]

Risomorfid

Tõmmul külmaseenel on ka väga iseloomulikud risomorfid ehk seenenöörid. Selle risomorfid on musta värvi, väga pikad, üpris nõtked ja tugevasti harunenud. Nende struktuur meenutab jalatsite paelu, mille järgi neid ka kohati kutsutakse. Risomorfe on võimalik näha langenud puude juurtel, kui juured on maa seest välja tulnud, ja mõnikord ka puukoore all. Tänu risomorfidele saavad külmaseened levida maapõues, otsida uusi peremeestaimede juuri ning neid nakatada.^[4]

Elutsükkel

Nagu enamik parasiitseid seeni, paljuneb ka tõmmu külmaseen sugulisel teel. See seeneliik alustab oma eluteed eosena (spoor, mis on vabanenud täiskasvanult seenelt). Tõmmu külmaseene spoorimuster on valge värvusega (tõmmu külmaseene eoslava jätab vastu alust pressides valge mustriga jälje). Spoor hakkab arenema ja kasvama mullas. Saprofüütilises faasis lagundab külmaseen mullas ja maapõues asuvat puitmaterjali, mille abil kogub endale toitaineid, et laiendada enda valdusi elavatele peremeestaimedele ja hakata parasiitseks. See laienemine toimub tänu musta värvi risomorfidele ehk seenenööridele. Need kasvavad mullas edasi, kuni satuvad kontakti puude juurtega ning tungivad puujuurte membraanist läbi mehaanilise jõuga ja ensüümide abil. Kui infektsioon on toimunud, siis levib seen mütseelina üle kogu puu juurestiku ning sealt edasi puu tüvesse. Puu tüvi õõnestatakse seest ning selle tagajärjel puu sureb. Pärast puu suremist asub seen taas saprofüütselt toituma ning lagundab puitu, kogumaks energiat uute puude nakatamiseks.^[5]

Patogeensus

Tõmmu külmaseene peremeestaimedena on seni täheldatud nii nulge, lehist, kuuske, mändi, kadakat, seedrit kui ka erinevaid laialehiseid lehtpuid, põõsaid ja rohttaimi. Ta võib kasvada nii surnud puudel, lamapuidul kui ka kändudel. Ta kasvab ka elusatel puudel ning seejuures olles patogeenne, mädandades peremeestaime puitu ja nende juuri, pärssides taime lehtede suurust, paksust ja muundades nende värvi. Seen pärsib ka taime enda kasvu ning lõpuks surmab taime. Haigestunud okaspuudel on üheks silmapaistvamaks tunnuseks vaigu eraldumine puu tüve alaosast ja juurte lähedusest. Tõmmu külmaseen levib ühelt okaspuult teisele ka "haige" puu ja terve puu juurte omavahelisel kokkupuutel. Üldjuhul on surnud ja seeninfektsiooniga haigestunud puud justkui infektsioonikeskused, mis ulatuvad umbes 0,1 hektari raadiusesse. Kuna tõmmu külmaseen kasvab ohtralt ka kändudel, siis üks viis temast vabaneda on eemaldada puukände metsadest. Veel tuuakse tema vabanemiseks kooslusesse seene vastu resistentseid või seenele mitte kohaseid peremeestaimi.^[6]

Tõmmu külmaseenega "nakatunud" puud

Sümptomid

Maapinnal olenevad sümptomid ja märgid puudel peremeespuu vanusest, liigist jne. Üldiselt on tunnused mändidel ja kuuskedel silmapaistvamad. Esmalt saab vaadelda puu lehtede (okaste) värvust – sureval männil värvuvad lehed/okkad rohelisest kollakaspruuniks. Nulg hakkab näiteks see-eest kordades ohtramalt käbisid moodustama, parasjagu enne surma. Kui seen on infektsiooniga jõudnud puusse endasse, siis hakkab tüve alaosast erituma okaspuudel tugevasti vaiku. Kuusk ja eriti just selle vanemad isendid ei pruugigi hakata enne surma mingeid iseloomulikke sümptomeid välja näitama.^[5]

Süstemaatika

Tõmmu külmaseene nimi oli Armillaria ostoyae. Selle nime andis Henri Romagnesi 1970. aastal. Hilisem avastus 2008. aastast tegi aga kindlaks, et Horton Peck oli tõmmu külmaseene juba 1900. aastal Armillaria solidipes'ina kirjeldanud^[7]

Huvitavat

Tõmmul külmaseenel on väljapaistvaid liiginäiteid maailmast. Nimelt on öeldud tõmmu külmaseene kohta, et ta võib olla suurim elusorganism maailmas (biomassi arvestades). Tegemist ei ole hiiglasuure seenekübaraga, nagu mulje võiks jääda, vaid enamus tõmmu külmaseene organismist hõlmab enda alla tema niidistik. Selliseid näiteid ülisuurest eksemplarist on mitu (rekordeid on korduvalt ületatud). Suurim leitud liigi esindaja on seni umbes 9,7 ruutkilomeetrit maad enda alla hõivanud, arvatavasti kaalub üle 605 tonni ja asub Põhja-Ameerikas Malheuri metsas. Organism ise on eeldatavasti ligilähedaselt 2400 aastat vana ja levib kuni 1 meeter aastas. Veel saab suure organismi näitena tuua ühe tõmmu külmaseene Michiganist Crystal Fallsi lähedusest. See avastati aastal 1986 ning see on levinud ligikaudu 0,15 ruutkilomeetri ulatuses ja kaalub ligi 100 tonni. Selle seene iga võib küündida kuni 1500 aastani. Peamine põhjus tõmmu külmaseene vohamiseks on tõenäoliselt see, et nende kasvukeskkond on toitainetevaene pinnas, kus paljud teised seened meelsasti ei kasva, mistõttu puudub tõmmul külmaseenel suuresti konkurents.^[4]

Vaata ka

• Saprofüüt
• Külmaseen
• Okasmets
• Seened

Viited

Välislingid

• Tõmmu külmaseen andmebaasis eElurikkus

Mäntymesisieni (Armillaria solidipes tai Armillaria ostoyae)^[2] on mesisieniin kuuluva, puulla ja puiden juuristossa kasvava helttasienilaji. Se on laajalle levinnyt pohjoisella pallonpuoliskolla. Suomessa se on pohjanmesisientä ja nuijamesientä harvinaisempi.^[3]

Suomessa mäntymesisieni aiheuttaa jonkin verran männyntaimien tuhoja Salpausselän alueella Hankoniemen ja Luumäen välisellä alueella.^[4]

Suurin lajin yksittäinen edustaja, ts. laajimmalle levinnyt yhtenäinen sienirihmasto löytyi Yhdysvaltojen Oregonista vuonna 1998. Tämän yksilön rihmasto kattaa yli kahdeksan neliökilometrin alueen ja sen arvellaan olevan vähintään 2400 vuoden ikäinen. Kyseisen eliön arvellaan olevan maapallon laajin organismi ja yksi vanhimmista.^[5]

Lähteet

Armillaria solidipes, armillaire à squames foncées ou armillaire sombre, anciennement Armillaria ostoyae est une espèce de champignons de la famille des Physalacriaceae. Le mycète est particulièrement notable pour détenir le titre du plus grand organisme vivant, un individu couvrant une surface de 8,9 km² ayant été trouvé en Oregon. Dans l'ouest des États-Unis c'est le champignon le plus commun du groupe d'espèces généralement désignées sous le nom d'Armillaria mellea.

Taxonomie

L'espèce était anciennement connue sous le nom d’Armillaria ostoyae Romagn., jusqu'à ce qu'une publication de 2008 révèle que l'espèce avait été décrite sous le nom d'Armillaria solidipes par Charles Horton Peck en 1900^[1], longtemps avant qu'Henri Romagnesi ne la décrive en 1970^[2].

Pathogène

Mycélium d'Armillaria ostoyae dans l'aubier d'un douglas.

Il est fréquent sur le bois des feuillus et des conifères dans les forêts à l'ouest de la chaîne des Cascades. Le mycélium attaque l'aubier et peut traverser de grandes distances sous l'écorce ou entre les arbres sous la forme de rhizomorphes noirs.

La maladie est d'un intérêt particulier pour les gestionnaires forestiers, car l'espèce est hautement pathogène chez un certain nombre de résineux à valeur commerciale, notamment le douglas (Pseudotsuga menziesii), les sapins (Abies spp.) et la pruche de l'Ouest (Tsuga heterophylla). Un traitement généralement préconisé est la coupe à blanc du peuplement infecté, suivie de la plantation avec des espèces plus résistantes telles que le thuya géant (Thuja plicata) ou de feuillus. L'enlèvement des souches a été utilisé pour empêcher tout contact entre les souches infectées et les pousses plus récentes, conduisant à des taux d'infection plus faibles. Toutefois, on ne sait pas si le taux d'infection va persister si les racines des jeunes arbres s'étendent près de l'inoculum initial du support précédent. Il a été montré en laboratoire et sur le terrain qu'un autre champignon, Hypholoma fasciculare concurrence et élimine A. ostoyae, mais des expériences supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour établir l'efficacité de ce traitement.

Taille record

Un champignon de ce type dans la Forêt nationale de Malheur de la Strawberry Range dans l'est de l'Oregon aux États-Unis a été estimé comme étant la plus grande colonie de champignons au monde, s'étendant sur 9,6 kilomètres carrés de superficie^[3]. Cet organisme a été daté d'au moins 2 500 ans^[4]. Le cas a été rapporté dans le numéro d'avril 2003 du Canadian Journal of Forest Research^[5]. Même si une estimation précise n'a pas été faite, la masse totale de la colonie, en se basant sur la vitesse de croissance du champignon, est estimée à 100 tonnes^[4]. Si cette colonie est considérée comme un organisme unique, il est le plus grand organisme connu dans le monde par sa superficie, et rivalise avec les peupliers faux-trembles appelés « Pando » et qui sont l'organisme connu à la biomasse la plus élevée^[6].

En 1992, un parent du clone de la Strawberry Range a été découvert dans le sud-ouest de l'État de Washington. Il couvre environ 6 kilomètres carrés. Un autre champignon gigantesque est un spécimen de Armillaria bulbosa trouvé sur un site près de Crystal Falls (Michigan). Il couvre 0,15 km² et la découverte a été publiée dans Nature^[7].

Voir aussi

Références taxinomiques

• (en) Référence Index Fungorum : Armillaria ostoyae (+ MycoBank)
• (en) Référence Catalogue of Life : Armillaria ostoyae (Romagn.) Herink (consulté le 19 décembre 2020)

Notes et références

• (en) Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé .

1. ↑ (en) Peck CH., « New species of Fungi », Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, vol. 27,‎ 1900, p. 609–13 (DOI , JSTOR ).
2. ↑ (en) Burdsall HH, Volk TJ., « Armillaria solidipes, an older name for the fungus called Armillaria ostoyae », North American Fungi, vol. 3, n^o 7,‎ 2008, p. 261–67 (lire en ligne [PDF]).
3. ↑ (en) « Largest Living Organism: Fungus », sur extremescience.com.
4. ↑ ^{a et b} (en) James B Anderson, Johann N Bruhn, Dahlia Kasimer, Hao Wang, Nicolas Rodrigue, Myron L Smith, « Clonal evolution and genome stability in a 2,500-year-old fungal individual », BioRxiv,‎ 2018 (DOI , lire en ligne).
5. ↑ (en) B.A. Ferguson, T.A. Dreisbach, C.G. Parks, G.M. Filip et C.L. Schmitt, « Coarse-scale population structure of pathogenic Armillaria species in a mixed-conifer forest in the Blue Mountains of northeast Oregon », Canadian Journal of Forest Research, vol. 33, n^o 4,‎ avril 2003, p. 612–623 (DOI ).
6. ↑ (en) Richard Webb, « Magic mushrooms: The hidden power of fungi », New Scientist, vol. 220, n^o 2946,‎ 7 décembre 2013, p. 39 (DOI ).
7. ↑ (en) M.L. Smith, J.N. Bruhn et J.B. Anderson, « The fungus Armillaria bulbosa is among the largest and oldest living organisms », Nature, vol. 356,‎ 1992, p. 428–431 (DOI ).

Armillaria ostoyae Romagn. (Herink) 1973 è un fungo basidiomicete della famiglia delle Physalacriaceae^[1] molto comune. I suoi miceli attaccano le radici degli alberi vicini e sono in grado di coprire grandi distanze. Secondo una ricerca americana, un unico micelio continuo è arrivato ad estendersi per centinaia di ettari, tanto da potersi considerare il secondo essere vivente più grande al mondo, dopo Bea.^[2]

Il colore marrone e le forme caratteristiche che compaiono sul cappello e altre peculiarità lo distinguono da tutte le altre Armillaria.

Etimologia

Genere: dal latino armilla = braccialetto, armillaria = attinente ai braccialetti, per il suo anello.

Descrizione della specie

Cappello

Prima emisferico, poi convesso; ornato da squame bruno-olivastre che diventano più scure col tempo; margine involuto spesso rivestito da residui cotonosi di velo.

Lamelle

Di color bianco-crema, adnate, ma spesso decorrenti per un piccolo tratto, a volte con qualche tonalità bruna.

Gambo

Cilindrico, pieno all'inizio, poi diventa cavo; bianco-sporco sopra l'anello, sotto tende al marrone ed è fibroso.

Anello

Color bianco, fioccoso.

Carne

Biancastra, fibrosa; più coracea nel gambo, come per A. mellea.

• Odore: gradevole.
• Sapore: dolciastro ed amarognolo, a volte un po' sgradevole, resinoso.

Spore

Bianche in massa, 8-9 x 5-6 µm.

Biologia

Come la maggior parte dei funghi parassiti, anche la Armillaria ostoyae si riproduce sessualmente. I funghi iniziano la loro vita sotto forma di spore rilasciate nell'aria dagli esemplari maturi. Le spore, che in questa specie sono bianche, possono essere disperse nell'ambiente da fattori naturali come il vento oppure possono essere ridepositate da un animale.^[3]

Una volta che le spore si trovano in stato di riposo, ognuna di esse può venire a contatto con un'altra di sesso opposto e della stessa specie. Se le spore non appartengono alla stessa specie, rimangono separate. Invece quando si incontrano due spore della stessa specie e di sesso opposto, queste danno subito vita ad una colonia che assume colore marrone scuro e forma piatta.^[3]

Il corpo fruttifero continua a crescere e ottenere sostanze nutritive: si forma un nuovo esemplare di fungo maturo che a sua volta rilascerà delle spore completando così il ciclo vitale.

Diagnosi

Deforestazione provocata dal fungo Armillaria ostoyae

Un albero può essere ritenuto affetto da Armillaria ostoyae quando presenta le seguenti caratteristiche:

• Flusso di resina alla base del tronco.
• Assottigliamento della sommità con cambiamento di colore (giallo e rosso).
• Presenza di miceli bianchi sotto la corteccia.
• Presenza di rizomorfe penetrate nelle radici.
• In autunno, presenza di piccoli funghi color miele in prossimità della base del tronco.
• La parte della pianta rivolta verso Ovest appare rinsecchita.^[4]

Specie di Pinus pinaster resistenti all'infezione fungina sono state trovate da ricercatori Spagnoli.^[5]

Distribuzione e habitat

Cresce in autunno, spesso cespitoso, su ceppaie o radici marcesecenti in boschi di conifere (predilige l'Abete rosso).

Commestibilità

Ottima, con cautela, con le stesse caratteristiche di A. mellea.

Tossico da crudo, si raccomanda di cuocerlo bene e di non consumare esemplari che sono stati sottoposti ad un processo di congelamento anche parziale, in quanto potrebbero risultare indigesti. In A. mellea sembra che dopo un processo di congelamento le "emolisine" vengano fissate nella struttura fungina e non vengano smaltite completamente neppure dopo cottura.

Tassonomia

La specie è formalmente conosciuta con il nome di Armillaria ostoyae Romagn., ma una pubblicazione del 2008 ha rivelato che la specie era stata descritta con il nome di Armillaria solidipes da Charles Horton Peck già nel 1900,^[6] molto prima della descrizione di Henri Romagnesi del 1970.^[7]

Sinonimi e binomi obsoleti

• Agaricus obscurus sensu auct.; fide Checklist of Basidiomycota of Great Britain and Ireland (2005)
• Armillaria obscura sensu auct.; fide Checklist of Basidiomycota of Great Britain and Ireland (2005)
• Armillaria polymyces sensu auct.; fide Checklist of Basidiomycota of Great Britain and Ireland (2005)
• Armillariella ostoyae Romagn., Bull. trimest. Soc. mycol. Fr. 86(1): 265 (1970)
• Armillariella polymyces sensu auct. eur.; fide Checklist of Basidiomycota of Great Britain and Ireland (2005)

Specie simili

• Armillaria gallica (ottimo commestibile, velenoso da crudo)
• Armillaria mellea (ottimo commestibile, velenoso da crudo)
• Hypholoma fasciculare (velenoso)

Curiosità

Micelio che ha infettato un albero di abete rosso douglas

Un esemplare di questa specie nella Malheur National Forest dell'Oregon è l'essere vivente più grande del mondo considerando la superficie. Esso copre approssimativamente 890 ettari, equivalenti a 8.900.000 metri quadrati^[8] cioè 1.665 campi di calcio.^[9] Inoltre la sua età è stimata tra i 2000 e gli 8000 anni,^[10] verosimilmente 2400 anni.^[11]

Questo esemplare è situato per la maggior parte sotto terra; sotto forma di un gigantesco intreccio di miceli, una specie di radici, di colore bianco e coperti di tentacoli. Questi si estendono nel suolo e gli alberi circostanti muoiono per mancanza di sostanze vitali.^[12]

In alcune zone i miceli sbucano dal terreno ed appaiono come degli esemplari isolati. Proprio questa caratteristica ha spinto per molti anni a considerare questi funghi individuali e non come un unico organismo. Solo recentemente alcuni ricercatori hanno confermato che si tratta di un unico essere vivente, il più grande esistente, totalmente collegato nel suolo.^[12]

Esperti ritengono che questo "gigantismo" possa essere dovuto al particolare clima secco dell'Oregon, clima che non faciliterebbe la propagazione del micelio per via sporigena. Ciò ha fatto adattare la specie che non riesce a riprodursi con facilità per via del clima, verso un fenomeno di gigantismo anche per la mancanza di concorrenti interspecie.^[11]

Il secondo fungo più grande al mondo, con circa 1.000 anni di età, è stato scoperto in Svizzera nel Cantone dei Grigioni; anche in questo caso si tratta di un Armillaria ostoyae.^[13]

Fitoterapia

Diverse ricerche indicherebbero un potenziale interesse di ricerca per la medicina, dovuto ad alcune proprietà biochimiche di principi attivi presenti nel fungo Armillaria,^[14][15][16] in particolare come possibile antitumorale^[17][18][19] in virtù di un'attività antimicrobica e antiossidante.^[17][20][21] Ad oggi queste ricerche hanno un valore solamente speculativo e non terapeutico.

Note

Bibliografia

• (EN) Gary A. Laursen e Rodney D. Seppelt, Common Interior Alaska Cryptogams: Fungi, Lichenicolous Fungi, Lichenized Fungi, Slime Molds, Mosses, and Liverworts, University of Alaska Press, 15 settembre 2009, pp. 52–, ISBN 978-1-60223-058-3. URL consultato il 30 marzo 2011.
• (EN) Olaf Schmidt, Wood and tree fungi: biology, damage, protection, and use, Springer, 2006, pp. 186–, ISBN 978-3-540-32138-5. URL consultato il 30 marzo 2011.
• (EN) Rebecca Stefoff, The Fungus Kingdom, Marshall Cavendish, 15 novembre 2007, pp. 7–, ISBN 978-0-7614-2696-7. URL consultato il 30 marzo 2011.
• (EN) Michael Scherer-Lorenzen, Ernst-Detlef Schulze e European Science Foundation. "Linking Community and Ecosystem Ecology" Program, Forest diversity and function: temperate and boreal systems, Springer, 2005, pp. 267–, ISBN 978-3-540-22191-3. URL consultato il 30 marzo 2011.
• (EN) Arleen Rainis Bessette, Alan Bessette e William J. Neill, Mushrooms of Cape Cod and the national seashore, Syracuse University Press, luglio 2001, pp. 21–, ISBN 978-0-8156-0687-1. URL consultato il 30 marzo 2011.
• (EN) Rick Strassman, Slawek Wojtowicz e Luis Eduardo Luna, Inner Paths to Outer Space: Journeys to Alien Worlds Through Psychedelics and Other Spiritual Technologies, Inner Traditions / Bear & Company, 18 aprile 2008, pp. 246–, ISBN 978-1-59477-224-5. URL consultato il 30 marzo 2011.

De sombere honingzwam (Armillaria ostoyae) behoort tot de plaatjeszwammen met manchet.

Grootte

In april 2000 werd in het Malheur National Forest in de Amerikaanse staat Oregon een sombere honingzwam ontdekt van naar schatting 2400 jaar oud met een ondergrondse mycelium oppervlakte van 8,9 km². Daarmee is deze schimmel het grootste organisme ter wereld.^[1] Ook in het Zwitsers Nationaal Park in de streek Engadin komt deze schimmel met een grote omvang voor. Hier is de schimmel ongeveer duizend jaar oud en ongeveer 800 meter lang en 500 meter breed.

• SoortenBank.nl: Armillaria ostoyae

Vos an lenga piemontèisa Për amprende a dovré 'l sistema dle parlà locaj ch'a varda sì.

Capel fin a 12 cm., brun scur, con scajëtte brunastre, che a dròco motobin. Bòrd fiocos. Lamele pòch decorente, bianche, peui macià ëd brun ross. Gamba àuta fin a 15 cm. e larga fin a 2,5 cm., silìndrica o curvà, ciàira, ambrunenta al pé, fiocosa. Anel membranos biancastr, con pluch brun monèt da dzora.

Ambient

A chërs a bocc. Parassita peui saprofita, an dzora a latifeuje e conìfere.

Comestibilità

A venta mai mangé un bolè trovà se un a l'é nen un bon conossidor dij bolè!
Comestìbil, ma a venta fela beuje e campé via l'eva ëd cotura.

Arferiment bibliogràfich për chi a veul fé dj'arserche pì ancreuse

• Armillaria ostoyae (Romagnesi) Herink
• [= A. obscura (Schaeffer) Herink]

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Opieńka ciemna (Armillaria ostoyae (Romagn.) Herink) – gatunek grzybów z rodziny Physalacriaceae^[1].

Systematyka i nazewnictwo

Pozycja w klasyfikacji według Index Fungorum: Armillaria, Physalacriaceae, Agaricales, Agaricomycetidae, Agaricomycetes, Agaricomycotina, Basidiomycota, Fungi^[1].

Dawniej wszystkie gatunki opieniek określane były nazwą opieńka miodowa (Armillaria mellea) ^[2]. W 1973 r. Romagnesi wyodrębnił wśród nich nowy gatunek i umieścił go w rodzaju Armillariella jako Armillariella ostoyae. Przez innych mykologów takson ten został zaakceptowany jako nowy gatunek, ale w obrębie opieniek. W roku 1973 Herink, przeniósł go do z powrotem do rodzaju Armillaria jako Armillaria ostoyae^[1].

Polską nazwę nadał Władysław Wojewoda w 2003 r.^[3]

Morfologia

Kapelusz

Średnicy 3–8 cm, u młodych okazów wypukły, ale szybko staje się rozpostarty, a u starszych okazów wklęsły. Kolor cielisty lub czerwonobrązowy. Charakterystyczną cechą jest występowanie na kapeluszu czarnobrązowych dość dużych łusek sięgających do jego brzegu^[2].

Blaszki

Dość gęste, początkowo kremowobiałe, potem brązowe^[2].

Trzon

Wysokość 4–12 cm, grubość do 2 cm. Jest walcowaty, włóknisty, pałkowaty, pełny i często wygięty. U starszych okazów staje się watowaty i pusty w środku. W górnej części białawy, niżej rdzawy i przeważnie z resztkami białawej osłonki oraz brązowymi kosmkami. Pierścień dość gruby, barwy białej, u spodu i na brzegach występują ciemno zabarwione łuski^[4].

Miąższ

Barwy białej, z wiekiem z różowiejący odcieniem, o grzybowym zapachu i łagodnym smaku.

Wysyp zarodników

Biały. Zarodniki elipsoidalne, gładkie, z kroplami, o rozmiarach 7,5–10 × 5–7 µm. Podstawki ze sprzążkami^[5].

Występowanie i siedlisko

Opisano występowanie tego gatunku w Ameryce Północnej, Europie i Japonii^[6]. W Europie Środkowej opieńka ciemna jest bardzo pospolita^[2], w Polsce również^[3].

Rośnie na drzewach iglastych i liściastych, głównie na świerku, rzadziej na jodle, także na sośnie i buku^[7]. Jest pospolita na terenie całej Polski, szczególnie w lasach świerkowych na kwaśnej glebie. Czasami występuje tak licznie, że opanowane przez opieńkę ciemną pniaki drzew są białe od jej zarodników^[2].

Opieńka ciemna jest najczęściej występującym gatunkiem opieńki w Polsce^[5].

Ciekawostki

Osobnik opieńki ciemnej odkryty w 2001 r. w Malheur National Forest w Górach Błękitnych (ang. Blue Mountains) we wschodnim Oregonie i opisany w 2003 r. w kwietniowym numerze Canadian Journal of Forest Research, jest największym (pod względem zajmowanej powierzchni) organizmem żyjącym na Ziemi. Badania potwierdzające, iż ów grzyb jest jednym organizmem, polegały na gromadzeniu próbek grzybni z różnych miejsc lasu i obserwacji ich rozrostu w laboratorium, wykonano także badania genetyczne^[8]. Grzybnia tego pojedynczego osobnika zajmuje powierzchnię 8,9 km². Naukowcy szacują, iż upłynęło 8 tys. lat od czasu, gdy grzyb ten skiełkował z zarodnika^[9]. Pod względem masy organizm opieńki ustępuje topoli osikowej o nazwie Pando rosnącej w stanie Utah, której klonalny osobnik zajmując 43 ha powierzchni waży 6,5 tysiąca ton^[10]. W 1992 na południowym zachodzie stanu Waszyngton znaleziono okaz opieńki ciemnej. Powierzchnia jej grzybni zajmowała obszar ok. 6 km².

Znaczenie

Pasożyt wywołujący u zaatakowanych drzew chorobę o nazwie opieńkowa zgnilizna korzeni prowadzącą do obumarcia drzewa i powodującą białą zgniliznę drewna^[11]. Występuje również jako saprotrof na martwych pniakach i korzeniach drzew, a czasami również na ziemi w pobliżu korzeni lub pniaków^[12].

Grzyb jadalny wysoko ceniony przez grzybiarzy. Nadaje się do gotowania, smażenia, marynowania, może też być przyrządzany na różne inne sposoby, jednakże zawiera pewne związki chemiczne, które w stanie surowym dla niektórych ludzi mogą być szkodliwe. Dlatego też należy go najpierw obgotować przez około 5 minut i odlać wywar, po czym dopiero poddaje się go dalszej obróbce termicznej^[12].

Gatunki podobne

Przez grzybiarzy opieńka ciemna często mylona jest z opieńką miodową (Armillaria mellea) lub opieńką bezpierścieniową (Armillaria tabescens). W dawnych atlasach grzybów zwykle opieńki miodowej nie odróżniano od opieńki ciemnej^[12] lub wszystkie te trzy gatunki określane były nazwą opieńka miodowa^[2]. Z punktu widzenia grzybiarzy nierozróżnianie tych gatunków nie ma większego znaczenia, gdyż wszystkie są jadalne. Opieńka bezpierścieniowa nie posiada pierścienia na trzonie i w Polsce jest rzadka, opieńka miodowa występuje na obumarłych drzewach liściastych i ma kapelusz z bardzo drobnymi kosmkami, nieraz całkowicie nagi^[4].

Młode owocniki

Hymenofor

Powierzchnia kapelusza

Przekrój owocnika

Przypisy

Destruição da Floresta pelo fungo.

O Armillaria solidipes (antes designado Armillaria ostoyae) é um fungo que pertence ao género Armillaria, também conhecidos como cogumelo-do-mel.

Foi encontrado em novembro de 2000 sob o solo da Floresta Nacional de Malheur, nas montanhas Blue no leste do estado chuvoso de Oregon, é atualmente considerado como a maior colônia de fungos do mundo. Através de estudos de DNA e índices de taxa de crescimento, descobriu-se que este fungo cobre uma área de 8,9 km² (equivalente a 1220 campos de futebol). A sua idade é difícil de avaliar, e embora alguns estudiosos afirmem que este organismo vivo pode ter 2400 anos de idade, pesquisas recentes com base no genoma do fungo parecem indicar que pode ter 8000 anos. Estima-se que este fungo possa ter uma massa total de 605 toneladas. Ele é considerado como o maior organismo do mundo.^[1][2][3]

O fungo nasceu como uma partícula minúscula (esporo) impossível de ser vista, e vem estendendo seus filamentos, entre as raízes das árvores. À superfície do solo, ele possui a forma de pequenos cogumelos de aparência inocente, mas sob o solo (micélio) fixa-se nas raízes das árvores da floresta, roubando-lhes água, nutrientes, provocando putrefação e morte das mesmas. Embora existam espécies de árvores que resistam a este fungo, a taxa de crescimento fica comprometida. Assim, abre caminho para que espécies vegetais floresçam no lugar.

Referências

Armillaria ostoyae (Henri Romagnesi, 1970 ex Herink, 1973) sin. Armillaria solidipes Charles Horton Peck, 1900)^[1] din încrengătura Basidiomycota în familia Physalacriaceae și de genul Armillaria, este o ciupercă comestibilă care este denumită în popor ciupercă de miere^[2] sau ciuperca uriașă.^[3] este o specie saprofită, dar în primul rând parazitară care se dezvoltă și în România, Basarabia precum Bucovina de Nord în tufe cu multe exemplare, pe trunchiuri aflați în putrefacție ori copaci vii, numai prin păduri deconifere în special pe jneapăni, dar și pe molizi, unde produce o distrugere frapantă și pricinuiește importante pagube, provocând putregaiul alb al lemnului. Specia se poate găsii din (mai) iunie până în noiembrie (decembrie).^[4][5]

Oameni de știință au descoperit în pădurea Malheur National Forest^⁠(en) în est de Prairie City, Oregon^⁠(en) (statul Oregon, SUA) o Armillaria ostoyae uriașă (foarte apropiat înrudită cu Armillaria mellea, pentru mai mulți savanți între alții Claude Casimir Gillet sau Bruno Cetto numai variația Armillaria obscura^[6]), răspândită peste 900 de hectare, cu o greutate de aproximativ 600 de tone și o vârstă de 2.400 de ani. Ea reprezintă cel mai mare organism cunoscut din lume.^[7][8] Soiul este și în Europa cel mai mare organism cunoscut.

Istoric

Ch. H. Peck

Specia a fost descrisă pentru prima dată de savantul englez James Bolton în volumul 4 al lucrării sale An History of Fungusses, Growing about Halifax din 1791.^[9]

Specia a fost apoi cunoscută pentru mult timp sub taxonul Armillariella ostoyae Romagn., redenumită în Armillaria ostoyae de micologul ceh Josef Herink (1915-1999) în 1973, până când o publicație din 2008 a arătat că specia a fost descrisă sub denumirea Armillaria solidipes de Charles Horton Peck (1833-1917) deja în 1900, cu mult înainte ca Henri Romagnesi să o descrie în 1970. Pe urmă, o propunere privind conservarea numelui de Armillaria ostoyae a fost publicată în 2011 și a fost aprobată de Nomenclature Committee for Fungi (Comitetul de nomenclatură pentru ciuperci).^{[10] [11]}

Taxonul Armillariella polymyces, propus de micologii germani Rolf Singer și Heinz Clémençon în 1973 poate fi neglijat.

Descriere

Schaeff: A. obscura

• Pălăria: Ea are un diametru de 4-12 (20) cm, este cărnoasă, la început emisferică, apoi convexă, pentru mult timp cu marginea răsucită în jos, aplatizând odată cu vârsta, atunci adesea ceva adâncită, rar cu un gurgui mic central și de culoare mai închisă în mijloc. Cuticula este netedă, mată și uscată, fiind de culoare foarte variată care tinde de la gri-albicios, peste ocru-bej, până la brun-roșcat sau brun închis, ce depinde de specia arboricolă pe seama căreia trăiește. În urma vălului parțial, suprafața ei este presărată cu mulți solzi mici, ascuțiți, brun-negricioși care se concentrează spre zona centrală. Acești negi sunt destul de trecători, astfel exemplare bătrâne sunt adesea goale, dar, de asemenea ciuperci tinere pot să piardă solzii după o ploaie puternică.
• Lamelele: Ele sunt subțiri, inegale, stând dens, fiind la început albe, slab ondulate și acoperite pentru scurt timp de vălul alb parțial, ca să devină apoi din ce în ce mai maronii.
• Sporii: Ei sunt rotunjori până ovoidali, granulat umpluți, hialini (translucizi) și neamilozi cu o mărime de 6–9,5 × 5,5–7 microni. Pulberea lor este albă.
• Piciorul: El este relativ lung și zvelt cu o înălțime de 5-12 (15) cm și o lățime de 1-2,5 cm, fiind canelat sau flocos, fibros, elastic, rar ușor curbat, plin pe interior, câteodată și ușor bulbos la bază. Coloritul este albicios în partea superioară și mai închis cu tonuri maronii spre bază, în vârstă brun. Tulpina are un inel alb, bătător la ochi, pielos și striat, durabil, imobil precum atârnat în jos fiind foarte apropiat de pălărie.
• Carnea: Ea este albicioasă și nu se colorează după tăiere, fiind în pălărie fermă iar în picior tare și fibroasă. Mirosul este ca de ciuperci, gustul ceva acrișor și rășinos, astfel puțin astringent. Ciuperci ingerate crud sau exemplare bătrâne provoacă intoxicații gastrointestinale grave.^[4][5]

• A. ostoyae, lamele și inel

• A. ostoyae, tulpine

• A. ostoyae tinere

• A. ostoyae bătrâne

• A. ostoyae, grup

Confuzii

Armillaria ostoyae poate fi confundată cu alte soiuri ale genului Armillaria, ca de exemplu cu gemenii ei Armillaria mellea (comestibilă)^[12] sau Armillaria tabescens (comestibilă),^[13] respectiv alte specii crescătoare pe lemn atrofiat ca de exemplu cu letala Galerina marginata,^[14] otrăvitoarele Hypholoma fasciculare,^[15] Hypholoma lateritium sin. Hypholoma sublateritium^[16] sau Hypholoma marginatum,^[17] cu Pholiota squarrosa (de comestibilitate restrânsă)^[18] și Stropharia aurantiaca (necomestibil).^[19] ori cu comestibilele și delicioasele Hypholoma capnoides,^[20] și Kuehneromyces mutabilis, sin. Galerina mutabilis ori Pholiota mutabilis (gheba ciobanilor).^[21]

Specii asemănătoare

Valorificare

Armillaria ostoyae nu sunt ciuperci chiar astfel de gustoase și delicioase ca ghebele cu inel, gustul fiind ceva rășinos. La ele trebuie dat de asemenea atenție privind comestibilitatea: Ciupercile sunt toxice ingerate crud, nu fierte lung destul sau bătrâne. Tulpinile nu se folosesc, fiind tari și fibroase. Bureții tineri se potrivesc, datorită mirosului aromatic excelent, mereu bine fierți sau prăjiți, într-o supă de cartofi, pentru mâncăruri cu miel/oaie/batal sau vânat (căprioară, cerb).^[22] sau ca adăugare la cartofi prăjiți cu slănină.^[23] Foarte gustoși sunt preparați ca Duxelles (un fel de zacuscă) sau, după preparare, conservate în ulei sau oțet.^[24]

Note

Bibliografie

• Marcel Bon: “Pareys Buch der Pilze”, Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-440-13447-4
• H. Clémençon: „Pilze im Wandel der Jahreszeiten”, vol. 1 și 2, Editura Éditions Piantanida, Lausanne 1981
• Rose Marie și Sabine Maria Dähncke: „700 Pilze in Farbfotos”, Editura AT Verlag, Aarau - Stuttgart 1979 și 1980, ISBN 3-85502-0450
• Jean-Louis Lamaison & Jean-Marie Polese: „Der große Pilzatlas“, Editura Tandem Verlag GmbH, Potsdam 2012, ISBN 978-3-8427-0483-1
• Meinhard Michael Moser: „Röhrlinge und Blätterpilze - Kleine Kryptogamenflora Mitteleuropas”, ediția a 5-ea, vol. 2, Editura Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart 1983
• Andreas Neuner: „BLV Naturführer – Pilze”, Editura BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, München-Bern-Viena 1976, ISBN 3-405-11345-8
• Craig L. Schmitt, Michael L. Tatum: „The Malheur National Forest: Location of the World’s Largest Living Organism - The Humongous Fungus”, United States Department of Agriculture, 2008

Legături externe

• Materiale media legate de Ciupercă de miere la Wikimedia Commons
• Ghebe de miere, film

Mörkfjällig honungsskivling (Armillaria ostoyae) är en giftig art bland svamparna^[3] som först beskrevs av Henri Romagnesi, och fick sitt nu gällande namn av Josef Herink 1973. Den ingår i släktet honungsskivlingar (Armillaria), och familjen Physalacriaceae.^[4][5][6] Inga underarter finns listade.^[4]

Arten är reproducerande i Sverige,^[6] och kan anses vara problematisk för svampplockare då den är svår att skilja från de övriga honungsskivlingarna, exempelvis A. Borealis. Förgiftningssymptomen yttrar sig genom svåra men på något dygn övergående gastrointestinella besvär och kraftiga magkramper.

Denna svamp är, så vitt känt, världens största organism. En och samma individ har med DNA-analys funnits täcka en yta på ca 9 500 km2, i staten Oregon i nordöstra U.S.A. Den kan också samtidigt vara en av världens äldsta levande organismer, minst 2 400 år, möjligen så mycket som 8 600 år. ^[7] Endast tre andra organismer anses vara äldre: barrträdet Pinus longaeva 5 000 år gammalt, sjögräset Posidonia oceanica 100 000 - 200 000 år gammalt, samt bakterier frusna under is i Sibirien och vid liv upptinade ca 500 000 år gamla.

Bilder

Se även

• Svampförgiftning

Källor

1. ^ [a b c d] sensu auct.; fide Checklist of Basidiomycota of Great Britain and Ireland (2005). ”CABI databases”. http://www.speciesfungorum.org. Läst 24 januari 2013.
2. ^ Henri Romagnesi (1970), In: Bull. trimest. Soc. mycol. Fr. 86(1):265
3. ^ Herink, J. (1973) Taxonomie václavky obecné – Armillaria mellea (Vahl ex Fr.) Kumm., In: Sympozium o Václavce Obecné Armillaria mellea (Vahl ex Fr.) Kumm. (Brno): 21–48
4. ^ [a b] Bisby F.A., Roskov Y.R., Orrell T.M., Nicolson D., Paglinawan L.E., Bailly N., Kirk P.M., Bourgoin T., Baillargeon G., Ouvrard D. (red.) (24 april 2011). ”Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life: 2011 Annual Checklist”. Species 2000: Reading, Storbritannien. Arkiverad från originalet den 18 juni 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120618223324/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/services/res/2011AC_26July.zip. Läst 24 september 2012.
5. ^ Species Fungorum. Kirk P.M., 23 november 2010
6. ^ [a b] Dyntaxa: Mörkfjällig honungsskivling
7. ^ ”THE WORLD’S LARGEST LIVING ORGANISM”. https://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/nature/the-worlds-largest-living-organism.aspx. Läst 30 mars 2019.

Externa länkar

• Wikimedia Commons har media som rör Mörkfjällig honungsskivling.
  Bilder & media

Armillaria mellea var. obscura Gillet 1874
Armillariella ostoyae Romagn. 1970 nom. cons.
Armillaria solidipes Peck 1900 nom. rej.

Вікісховище:

EOL:

NCBI:

Armillaria ostoyae — вид базидіоміцетових грибів родини фізалакрієвих (Physalacriaceae).

Поширення

Вид поширений на заході США та у Канаді (провінція Британська Колумбія) на захід від Каскадних гір.

Рекорд

У 1998 році дослідники звернули увагу, що гриби Armillaria ostoyae, які ростуть у заповіднику Малур в штаті Орегон, є не окремими скупченнями, а гігантським цілісним організмом. Його грибниця займає площу понад 880 га, а її вік оцінюється у 2,4 тисячі років. Цей гриб визнаний найбільшою живою істотою на планеті.

Посилання

• Beale, B. (10 April 2003). Humungous fungus: world's largest organism?. ABC Online. Архів оригіналу за 31 December 2006. Процитовано 2 January 2007.
• Amos, J. (7 August 2000). Fantastic fungus find. BBC News.
• Volk, T. (2002). The Humongous Fungus - Ten Years Later. Inoculum 53 (2): 4–8.
• Armillaria Root Rot, Shoestring Root Rot, Honey Mushroom. Forest Health Notes. Washington State University.
• Morrison, D.; Mallett, K. (1996). Silvicultural Management of Armillaria Root Disease in Western Canadian Forests (pdf). Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 18 (2): 194–199. doi:10.1080/07060669609500645. Архів оригіналу за 29 October 2008.
• Chapman, B.; Xiao, G.; Myers, S. (2004). Early Results from Field Trials Using Hypholoma fasciculare to Reduce Armillaria ostoyae Root Disease. Canadian Journal of Botany 82 (7): 962–969. doi:10.1139/b04-078.

Armillaria solidipes (trước đây là Armillaria ostoyae) là một loại nấm trong họ Physalacriaceae. Nó là biến thể phổ biến nhất ở miền tây Hoa Kỳ, của nhóm các loài rằng tất cả đã từng chia sẻ tên chung Armillaria mellea. Armillaria solidipes là loài nấm khá phổ biến trên cả hai loại gỗ cứng và gỗ tùng trong các khu rừng phía tây của đỉnh Cascade. Sợi nấm tấn công dát gỗ và có thể di chuyển khoảng cách rất xa dưới vỏ cây hoặc giữa các cây trong các hình thức rhizomorphs đen.

Trong hầu hết các khu vực Bắc Mỹ, Armillaria solidipescó thể được tách ra từ các loài khác bởi các đặc điểm của nó. Màu nâu của nó, quy mô khá nổi bật đặc trưng trên tai nấm, và vòng xuyến phát triển tốt trên gốc của nó khiến nó khác các loài Armillaria. (Herink, 1973)

Nó được biết đến là một trong những sinh vật sống lớn nhất, nơi mà các nhà khoa học đã ước tính một mẫu vật duy nhất được tìm thấy ở rừng quốc gia Malheur ở Oregon hiện tại là cây nấm lớn nhất thế giới theo diện tích bề mặt với khoảng 8.9 km² (2.200 mấu Anh) và hơn 2400 năm tuổi.^[1] Armillaria solidipes phát triển và lây lan chủ yếu dưới lòng đất và phần lớn các cơ quan nằm trên mặt đất, không thể nhìn thấy. Vì vậy, cơ thể không thể nhìn thấy bất cứ ai xem từ bề mặt. Nó chỉ là vào mùa thu khi sinh vật này sẽ nở hoa "nấm mật ong", có thể nhìn thấy bằng chứng của sinh vật nằm bên dưới. Sự cạnh tranh thấp đối với đất và chất dinh dưỡng đã cho phép loài này phát triển rất lớn, nó có thể bao gồm khu vực địa lý nhiều hơn bất kỳ sinh vật sống khác^[2] .

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• Dữ liệu liên quan tới Armillaria solidipes tại Wikispecies

Bản mẫu:Agaricales-st

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Опёнок тёмный (лат. Armillaria ostoyae) — гриб рода Опёнок.

Научные синонимы^[1]

• Armillariella ostoyae Romagn., 1970basionym

Описание

Шляпка выпуклая или плоская, окрашена в красновато-желтые или коричневатые тона, покрыта более темными чешуйками, в центре окрашена интенсивнее. Край шляпки с бахромчатыми остатками белого покрывала. Пластинки редкие, приросшие, у молодых грибов беловато-желтые, со временем становятся окрашенными более интенсивно. Ножка обычно цвета шляпки, с бахромчатым хорошо выраженным кольцом и утолщением у основания. Мякоть рыхлая, беловатая или чуть желтоватая. Споровый порошок белый.^[2]

Подавляющая часть массы тёмного опёнка и других видов из его рода лежит под землёй и не видна человеку. Лишь небольшие группы, напоминающие обычные грибы и служащие для размножения, можно увидеть над поверхностью. В настоящий момент эти крупнейшие в мире организмы представляют собой серьёзную угрозу для лесов, главным образом хвойных, вызывая внешне беспричинную гибель деревьев^[3].

Грибница опенка темного, которая развивается в лесном заповеднике Малур в американском штате Орегон признана самым крупным живым существом на планете: она занимает площадь более 880 гектаров, а ее возраст оценивается в 2,4 тысячи лет. Гигантская грибница, опутывая корни деревьев, вызывает гибель последних, что и привлекло внимание биологов, которые в 1998 году смогли определить, что она — это не отдельные скопления, растущие по всему лесу, а гигантский целостный живой организм^[4]. Изучив геном тёмного опёнка установили, что он умеет разлагать лигнин в составе древесины высших растений особо эффективно, что и позволяет ему паразитировать на них столь успешно. Их ризоморфы — это тёмные нити, которые, проникнув под кору, идут под ней через заболонь ствола на десятки метров и таким образом грибы получают от растений питательные вещества. Со временем деревья, поражённые паразитами, гибнут^[3].

Примечания