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General Ecology

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Sugar maple is widespread and dominant or codominant in many northern hardwood and mixed mesophytic forests of the eastern United States. It occurs in rich, mesic (moist) woods but also grows in drier upland woods. In 2002, it was one of the 10 most abundant tree species in the U.S. (FIA 2011). Sugar maple is declining in some northeastern forests (such as the Alleghenies), due to its sensitivity to acid rain and other pollution; it may be replaced by opportunistic species in frequently cut or highly disturbed forests (Wikipedia, 2011). In other regions, sugar maple has increased, possibly due to fire suppression (Potter-Witter and Lacksen 1993; MapleInfo.org 2011).

Animals that feed on sugar maple seeds, buds, twigs, and leaves include white-tailed deer, moose, snowshoe hare, red, gray, and flying squirrels, and numerous lepidopteran larvae and aphids. Porcupines consume the bark and can girdle the upper stem. Songbirds and woodpeckers, and cavity nesters nest in sugar maple. The flowers appear to be wind-pollinated, but the early-produced pollen is important for Apis mellifera (honeybees) and other insects.
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Taxonomy

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The word “Acer” is derived from a Latin word meaning “sharp,” referring to the characteristic points on maple leaves. It was first applied to the genus by the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in 1700. The species epithet, "saccharum," is from the Greek "saccharin," for sugar.
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Brief Summary

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Acer saccharum, sugar maple, is a large tree native to North America; it is the official State Tree of New York, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin (USNA 2011). It has a dense, spreading crown, 25-40 m tall. The leaves are deciduous, opposite, 5-11 cm long and wide, with 5 shallow, blunt or short-pointed lobes, edges coarsely toothed, dark green in summer, turning intensely red, orange, or yellow in fall. Most trees are dioecious (either male or female) but some individuals are monoecious, bearing both male and female flowers. The fruits are samaras (winged nutlets) that occur in pairs.

Maples are classified in their own family, Aceraceae, or in the larger group, Sapindaceae. See Systematics and Taxonomy.

Maples were an important sweetener and source of winter nutrition for North American natives and early European settlers (see Uses in full entry). Production of maple syrup is a multimillion dollar industry in the U.S. and Canada (NASS 2011).

Sugar maple is widely planted as an ornamental or shade tree. Many cultivars have been developed, with variations in crown shape, height, fall color, leaf shape, and temperature tolerance. It does not tolerate street salt or soil compaction in urban plantings, so is no longer commonly planted as a street tree. Sugar maple is an important timber tree (see Uses).

Sugar maple in North America is sometimes confused with Norway maple (Acer platanoides), an introduced European species that looks similar, but is more resistant to pollution and has fewer insect pests. Norway maple has broader leaves with drooping lobes, and sap from a broken petiole is milky. Norway maple is considered invasive in 20 Northeastern U.S. states (USFS 2011), and in eastern Canada.

Sugar maple is widespread and dominant or codominant in many northern hardwood and mixed mesophytic forests of the eastern United States. It occurs in rich, mesic (moist) woods but also grows in drier upland woods. In 2002, it was one of the 10 most abundant tree species in the U.S. (FIA 2011). Sugar maple is declining in some northeastern forests (such as the Alleghenies), due to its sensitivity to acid rain and other pollution; it may be replaced by opportunistic species in frequently cut or highly disturbed forests (Wikipedia, 2011). In other regions, sugar maple has increased, possibly due to fire suppression (Potter-Witter and Lacksen 1993; MapleInfo.org 2011).

Animals that feed on sugar maple seeds, buds, twigs, and leaves include white-tailed deer, moose, snowshoe hare, red, gray, and flying squirrels, and numerous lepidopteran larvae and aphids. Porcupines consume the bark and can girdle the upper stem. Songbirds and woodpeckers, and cavity nesters nest in sugar maple. The flowers appear to be wind-pollinated, but the early-produced pollen is important for Apis mellifera (honeybees) and other insects.
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Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire

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More info for the term: prescribed fire

The Research Project Summaries Effects of surface fires in a mixed red and
eastern white pine stand in Michigan
and Early postfire effects of a prescribed
fire in the southern Appalachians of North Carolina
, and the Research Paper by Bowles and others 2007 provide information on prescribed fire and postfire response
of several plant species, including sugar maple, that was not available when this
species review was originally written.
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Common Names

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sugar maple
rock maple
hard maple
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Conservation Status

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Sugar maple is listed as rare in South Dakota where it is at the western
edge of its range [35].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Value

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Numerous species of songbirds nest in sugar maple.  Cavity nesters such
as the black-capped chickadee excavate nest cavities or utilize
preexisting cavities [33].  The common flicker, pileated woodpecker, and
screech owl also nest in maples [33].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Description

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More info for the terms: dioecious, fruit, monoecious, tree

Sugar maple is a deciduous tree which reaches 90 to 120 feet (27-37 m)
in height and 30 to 36 inches (76-91 cm) in d.b.h. [30,60].  Extremely
large specimens have reached more than 130 feet (40 m) in height and
more than 5 feet (1.5 m) in d.b.h. [36].  Sugar maple is long-lived and
plants can survive for 300 to 400 years [30].  The bark is light gray to
gray-brown and becomes deeply furrowed and rough with age [17].  Twigs
are a shiny, reddish-brown [36].  Sugar maple is relatively deep-rooted,
with many extensively-branched laterals [30,36].

Sugar maple is monoecious or dioecious [68].  Small, greenish-yellow
flowers are borne in tassellike clusters or racemes [9,36,68].  Each
drooping cluster contains 8 to 14 flowers [9,68].  Fruit is a paired,
papery-winged samara which averages 1 inch (2.5 cm) in length [30,32].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

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Sugar maple grows from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick westward to Ontario
and Manitoba, southward through Minnesota, and eastern Kansas into
northeastern Texas [46].  It extends eastward to Georgia and northward
through the Appalachian Mountains into New England [46,68].  Local
populations occur in northwestern South Carolina, northern Georgia, and
northeastern South Dakota [46].  Disjunct populations are known from the
Wichita Mountains of southwestern Oklahoma [16].
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bibliographic citation
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Ecology

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More info for the terms: fire regime, fire suppression, hardwood, seed

Sugar maple typically increases in the absence of fire [40].  Seedlings
occasionally sprout, but postfire establishment occurs primarily through
an abundance of wind-dispersed seed.

Central States:  Fire has played an important role in deciduous forests
of the central and eastern United States [63,76].  Fire suppression has
favored sugar maple and other northern hardwood species, while
fire-tolerant species such as white oak, northern red oak, and Shumard
oak (Quercus shumardii) have experienced declines [55].  Dramatic
increases in sugar maple during the past 48 years in central hardwood
forests have been attributed to fire suppression [65].  Sugar maple was
formerly nearly absent in areas of central Missouri which bordered the
fire-prone prairies [55].  Since settlement times, it has increased as
mean fire intervals have declined.

The Southeast:  Fire was a major influence in presettlement forests of
the Southeast [73].  Increased fire suppression in this region has also
favored shade-tolerant hardwoods, such as sugar maple, and has resulted
in a decrease in oaks [73].

Northeast:  Mean fire intervals are typically long in most northern
hardwood forests.  In New England, fire is a less important disturbance
agent than windthrow or insect infestations [22].  In northern hardwood
stands in Maine and New Hampshire, mean fire intervals in presettlement
forests ranged from 230 to 4,970 years [22].  In New Brunswick, fire
rotations have been estimated at 625 years in both sugar maple-yellow
birch-fir and sugar maple-eastern hemlock-pine forests [22].  In
hardwood stands in parts of New Hampshire, sugar maple has been
increasing [45].

Great Lakes Region:  Northern hardwood forests of the Great Lakes Region
lie between the fire-prone savanna and prairie communities to the south
and west [8].  Fires in these forests were presumably fairly common in
presettlement times but may have occurred at intervals which exceeded
the lifespan of individual trees [8].  Shade-tolerant species, such as
sugar maple, commonly assume dominance in the absence of fire in Great
Lake's hardwood forests.  Where fire frequencies are high, aspen and
paper birch (Betula papyrifera) are common dominants [69].  In
presettlement times, sugar maple was typically absent from portions of
the North Woods which burned at frequent intervals [13].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
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bibliographic citation
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Management Considerations

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Fuels/flammability:  The average ash content of dead sugar maple leaves
collected in two Michigan counties was documented as follows [47]:

               Wexford Co.       Ingham Co.
                         (percent)
Fall              7.1              8.5        
Spring            9.2             12.2
Early summer     10.3             13.1
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: chamaephyte, geophyte, hemicryptophyte, phanerophyte

   Undisturbed State:  Phanerophyte (mesophanerophyte)
   Undisturbed State:  Phanerophyte (megaphanerophyte)
   Burned or Clipped State:  Chamaephyte
   Burned or Clipped State:  Hemicryptophyte
   Burned or Clipped State:  Cryptophyte (geophyte)
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat characteristics

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More info for the terms: cover, hardwood, marsh, mesic, natural, seed, shrub, tree

Sugar maple most commonly occurs in rich, mesic woods but also grows in
drier upland woods [18,68].  It grows in level areas or in coves and
other sheltered locations on adjacent lower slopes [1,18,24].  Sugar
maple is often associated with stream terraces, streambanks, valleys,
canyons, ravines, and wooded natural levees [1,10,28,68].  It is
occasionally found on dry rocky hillsides [32].  At the western edge of
its range, sugar maple grows as scattered canopy seed trees or as
abundant seedlings in protected ravines and relatively mesic
north-facing slopes [77].

Sugar maple is a major species in seven SAF cover types and is common in
17 others [30].  It is a prominent component of mesic hardwood forests,
Great Lakes pine forests, spruce-fir forests, and northern hardwood
forests [12,22,67].  Sugar maple forms pure stands but also grows mixed
with other hardwoods and scattered conifers [36].  Common associates
include American basswood, yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), black
cherry (Prunus serotina), red spruce (Picea rubens), white spruce (P.
glauca), beech, eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), eastern hemlock
(Tsuga canadensis), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), white oak (Q.
alba), and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) [30].

Understory associates:  Understory associates of sugar maple are both
varied and numerous.  Common shrub associates include beaked hazel
(Corylus cornuta), Atlantic leatherwood (Dirca palustris), redberry
elder (Sambucus pubens), alternate-leaf dogwood (Cornus alternifolia),
dwarf bush-honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera), Canada yew (Taxus
canadensis), red raspberry (Rubus idaeus), and blackberries (Rubus
spp.).  Springbeauty (Claytonia caroliniana), large-flowered trillium
(Trillium grandiflorum), anemone (Anemone spp.) marsh blue violet (Viola
cucullata), downy yellow violet (V. pubescens), Solomon's-seal
(Polygonatum pubescens), false Solomon's-seal (Smilacina stellata), sweet
cicely (Osmorhiza spp.), adderstongue (Ophioglossom vulgatum),
jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema atrorubens), clubmosses (Lycopodium spp.),
and largeleaf aster (Aster macrophyllus) [30].

Soils:  Sugar maple can grow on a wide variety of soils [30,75], but
typically grows best on deep, moist, fertile, well-drained soils [4,36].
It grows on sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, silty loam, and loam [30].
Sugar maple is commonly associated with alluvial or calcareous soils
[24,32] but also grows on stabilized dunes [75].  This tree is
intolerant of flooded soils [3] and generally grows poorly on dry,
shallow soils [30].  In parts of New England, sugar maple commonly grows
on soils rich in organics [30].  Sugar maple occurs on strongly acidic
(pH=3.7) to slightly alkaline (pH=7.3) soils but grows best where soil
pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.3.  Soils are derived from a variety of parent
materials including shale, limestone, and sandstone [68,62].

Elevation:  In the southern and southwestern portions of its range,
sugar maple generally grows at intermediate elevations [30].
Generalized elevational ranges by geographic location are as follows
[30]:

Location                Elevation

s Appalachian Mtns.     3,000 to 5,500 feet (910-1,680 m)
Lake States             up to 1,600 feet (490 m)
n New England           up to 2,500 feet (760 m)
New York                up to 2,500 feet (760 m)
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

     1  Jack pine
     5  Balsam fir
    16  Aspen
    17  Pin cherry
    19  Gray birch - red maple
    20  White pine - northern red oak - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    22  White pine - hemlock
    23  Eastern hemlock
    24  Hemlock - yellow birch
    25  Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
    26  Sugar maple - basswood
    27  Basswood
    28  Black cherry - maple
    30  Red spruce - yellow birch
    31  Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
    32  Red spruce
    33  Red spruce - balsam fir
    34  Red spruce - Fraser fir
    35  Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
    40  Post oak - blackjack oak
    44  Chestnut oak
    51  White pine - chestnut oak
    52  White oak - black oak - northern red oak
    53  White oak
    55  Northern red oak
    57  Yellow-poplar
    58  Yellow-poplar - eastern hemlock
    59  Yellow-poplar - white oak - northern red oak
    60  Beech - sugar maple
    61  River birch - sycamore
    64  Sassafras - persimmon
   107  White spruce
   108  Red maple
   110  Black oak
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

   FRES10  White - red - jack pine
   FRES11  Spruce - fir
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES15  Oak - hickory
   FRES16  Oak - gum - cypress
   FRES17  Elm - ash - cottonwood
   FRES18  Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19  Aspen - birch
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

   K093  Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
   K095  Great Lakes pine forest
   K096  Northeastern spruce - fir forest
   K097  Southeastern spruce - fir forest
   K098  Northern floodplain forest
   K099  Maple - basswood forest
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K102  Beech - maple forest
   K103  Mixed mesophytic forest
   K104  Appalachian oak forest
   K106  Northern hardwoods
   K107  Northern hardwoods - fir forest
   K108  Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
   K109  Transition between K104 and K106
   K110  Northeastern oak - pine forest
   K111  Oak - hickory - pine forest
   K112  Southern mixed forest
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Immediate Effect of Fire

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More info for the terms: litter, mesic

Sugar maple is sensitive to fire [13].  The thin bark is easily damaged
by even light ground fires [12].  Curtis [12] reported that "cambial
injury occurs even in trees that show little external damage."  Large
trees occasionally survive light fires and may exhibit visible fire
scars [40].  Hot fires can kill existing regeneration [49].

Sugar maple commonly occurs in mesic closed canopy forests that are
relatively resistant to ground fires, particularly during the winter and
spring when litter is usually moist [12].  In the summer, flammable
litter (generally deciduous leaves) is often scarce or absent.  Greatest
fire hazard occurs in dry years during October, after the leaves have
fallen [12].  Fires which occur during this time period are occasionally
severe and can kill the entire stand.  In a Tennessee loblolly pine
stand, DeBruyn and Buckner [14] reported 85 percent mortality in sugar
maple following a fall burn when fuels were very dry.
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Sugar maple is commonly browsed by white-tailed deer, moose, and
snowshoe hare [31,53,71].  In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick,
white-tailed deer and snowshoe hare use is heaviest during the winter
[71].  The red squirrel, gray squirrel, and flying squirrels feed on the
seeds, buds, twigs, and leaves of sugar maple [30].  The porcupine
consumes the bark and can, in some instances, girdle the upper stem
[30].
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bibliographic citation
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Key Plant Community Associations

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More info for the terms: association, codominant, forest, hardwood

Sugar maple grows in a wide variety of plant communities throughout
eastern North America.  It is a dominant or codominant in many northern
hardwood and mixed mesophytic communities.  Common codominants include
beech (Fagus grandifolia), birch (Betula spp.), and American basswood
(Tilia americana).  Sugar maple has been listed as a dominant or
indicator in the following community type (cts), ecosystem associations
(eas), dominance types (dts), and plant association (pas)
classifications:

Area                    Classification                Authority

s IL                    forest cts                    Fralish 1976
e IA                    forest dts                    Cahayla-Wynne & Glenn-
                                                      Lewin 1978
MI                      forest eas                    Pregitzer & Ramm 1984
MN                      forest cts                    Daubenmire 1936
s NY                    forest pas                    Wilm 1936  
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Life Form

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More info for the term: tree

Tree
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management considerations

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More info for the terms: hardwood, natural, series

Damage:  Sugar maple is susceptible to wind damage and to damage caused
by ice storms and winter freezes [11,30].  De-icing salts often damage
sugar maples which grow along roadways.  Individuals within the
overstory are susceptible to air pollutants such as sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, chlorides, and fluorides [30].  Sugar maple is
susceptible to logging injuries which frequently permit the entrance of
decay [30].

Insects/disease:  Sugar maple is host to numerous insects including bud
miners, aphids, borers, and defoliators such as the gypsy moth, tent
caterpillar, linden looper, and cankerworms [2,30].  Cankers, root rot
(Armillaria spp.), and wilt also affect sugar maple.  Since the early
1900's, this species has been periodically affected by a condition known
as maple decline [52].  Increases in die-back have been observed in many
parts of the Northeast since 1982 [34].  Causes of maple decline are
unknown, but acid rain and other pollutants are possible contributors
[74].  Trees already weakened by pollutants may be increasingly
susceptible to root rot and tent caterpillar infestations [34].  Maple
decline may be accentuated by a series of unusual climatic events; large
diameter trees are most susceptible [37].

Silviculture:  Past exploitation has resulted in the degradation of many
sugar maple stands [19].  However, in some areas, high-grading of oaks,
hickories, and walnuts, has actually produced a proportional increase in
sugar maple [12].  Shelterwood harvests and progressive strip cut
methods are often applied to mixed hardwood stands which include maple
[31,50].  For best growth of sugar maple, the residual canopy left after
the first shelterwood cut should admit approximately 40 percent light
[31].  A two-cut shelterwood system "cannot guarantee natural
regeneration" in stands which are less than 40 years in age.

Chemical control:  In general, sugar maple is resistant to foliar
herbicides [25].  Studies indicate that Tordon may be effective in
controlling sugar maple [25].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Nutritional Value

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The nutrient content of sugar maple browse varies by plant part and by
phenological development [15].  Starch content is highest in early fall
and lowest in winter.  Sugar maple leaves average 1.81 percent calcium,
0.25 percent magnesium, 0.75 percent potassium, 0.11 percent phosphorus,
0.67 percent nitrogen, and 11.85 percent ash by dry weight [30].  Unlike
many plants, the leaves of sugar maple typically contain relatively high
levels of calcium, magnesium, and potassium when they are shed in autumn
[12].
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bibliographic citation
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

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     AL  AR  CT  DE  FL  GA  IA  IL  KS KY   
     LA  ME  MA  MI  MN  MO  NH  NJ NY  NC 
     OH  OK  PA  RI  SC  SD  TN  VT VA  WV 
     WI  MB  NB  NS  ON  QC
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Other uses and values

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More info for the term: tree

Sugar maple is the primary source of maple sugar and syrup [30].  The
maple syrup industry is important throughout much of eastern North
America and accounted for more than 100 million dollars in trade during
1989 [34].  Maple sugar and syrup were used as trade items by many
Native American peoples [75].  Sugar maple is an attractive shade tree
and is widely planted as an ornamental [42,54].  It is sometimes used in
shelterbelt plantings [54].
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bibliographic citation
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Palatability

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Sugar maple is at least somewhat palatable to deer in most areas.
Samaras are palatable to squirrels and many other small mammals.
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Phenology

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More info for the terms: association, fruit

Growth initiation of sugar maple varies geographically [42].  Flower
buds generally begin to swell prior to the development of vegetative
buds and generally emerge 1 to 2 weeks before the leaves appear [30].
Male and female flowers mature at slightly different rates, which
promotes cross-pollination [42].  Fruit ripens approximately 12 to 16
weeks after the flowers appear [30,70].  Fruit begins to fall
approximately 2 weeks after ripening [30].  Flowering and fruiting dates
by geographic location are as follows:

Location          Flowering         Fruiting          Authority

Adirondack Mtns.  May               Sept.-Oct.        Chapman & Bessette 1990
Blue Ridge Mtns.  April-June        ----              Wofford 1989
FL Panhandle      March             ----              Clewell 1985     
Great Plains      April-May         ----              Great Plains Flora
                                                      Association 1986 
Gulf & Atlantic   April - May       ----              Duncan & Duncan 1987   
      Coasts                                               
New England       April 28-May 1-23 ----              Seymour 1985
NC, SC            April - May       June - Oct.       Radford & others 1968
se US             March - May       ----              Duncan & Duncan 1988

Leaves turn yellow to orange or deep red in the fall [6] and generally
drop just after seeds have fallen [30].  At the southern edge of the
species' range, dead brown leaves tend to remain on the trees through
much of the winter [28].  Trees from the northern portion of the
species' range become dormant earlier than do those from the South [42].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Plant Response to Fire

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Sugar maple sprouts poorly after fire [40].  Mature trees that have been
top-killed by fire do not sprout, small saplings occasionally sucker
[12].  Although sprouting is common in young sugar maples following
mechanical disturbances, it is relatively uncommon after fire.  Sugar
maple reestablishes through seedling sprouts and seedlings [49].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Post-fire Regeneration

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More info for the terms: caudex, root crown, seed

   survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
   off-site colonizer; seed carried by wind; postfire yrs 1 and 2
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: avoidance, forest, layering, seed

Sugar maple reproduces through seed and by vegetative means. 

Seed:  Sugar maple possesses extremely effective outbreeding mechanisms
[70], and flowers are readily wind pollinated [30].  Minimum
seed-bearing age is 30 to 40 years [30,54].  Forty- to sixty-year-old
trees with 8-inch (20 cm) d.b.h. produce light crops, whereas 70- to
100-year-old trees with d.b.h. of 10 to 14 inches (25-36 cm) produce
moderate seed crops [30].  Large fluctuations in annual seed crops have
been reported [70].  Seed production is partly dependent on genetic
factors, and some trees produce an abundance of flowers nearly every
year [42].  In north-central Wisconsin, good or better crops are
produced at 1- to 4-year intervals [30].  Elsewhere in the United
States, good crops occur at 2- to 5-year intervals, and in Canada, at 3-
to 7-year intervals [30].  In good crop years, 264 seeds per meter
square may be produced [38].

Seed dispersal:  Seed is primarily dispersed by wind [54], which can
carry the relatively large seeds for up to 330 feet (100 m) [30].
However, most seeds do not travel more than 49 feet (15 m) from the
forest edge [38].  Some sugar maple seed may also be dispersed by water
[54].

Seed banking:  Sugar maple seed can remain viable for up to 5 years when
properly stored [30].  However, few seeds persist in the seed bank for
more than 1 year [38], and sugar maple is not considered an important
seed banker [51].

Seedling establishment:  Seedling recruitment varies annually; periodic
high seedling densities may function as a predator avoidance mechanism
[70].  In favorable years seedling recruitment may reach 18.7 seedlings
per meter square, but in poor years no seedling recruitment occurs [38].
Seedlings can survive for long periods when suppressed beneath a forest
canopy and respond quickly to release.  Seedlings in very dense young
stands may survive for only 5 years, but in stands where trees average
10 inches (25 cm) or more in d.b.h., seedlings commonly persist for many
years.  Initial seedling growth is slow [30], and mortality is often
high [70].

Vegetative regeneration:  Sugar maple is a prolific sprouter in the
northern part of its range, but at the southern edge of its range, it
sprouts less vigorously than associated hardwoods [30].  Stump-sprouting
and root-sprouting are moderately common [38].  Layering occasionally
occurs [30].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Successional Status

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More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: climax, forest, succession

Sugar maple is very tolerant of shade and can persist for long periods
beneath a dense forest canopy [30].  It is noted for its ability to
quickly occupy gaps created in the forest canopy [37,64].  A bank of
abundant seedlings remains suppressed until gaps are created by windfall
or other disturbances [37].  Seedlings and saplings typically respond
vigorously and rapidly to release and can overtop competitors such as
northern red oak.  Openings or gaps in the canopy allow more nutrients,
light, and water to become available [37].  In many areas, sugar maple
is a dominant species in gaps created by dying American elms [56].

Sugar maple is generally regarded as a late seral or climax species in
many eastern deciduous forests [57].  However, as Parker and Sherwood
[58] note, the "long-term dynamics of eastern deciduous forests are not
well understood."  Throughout much of the Upper Midwest, sugar maple
codominates climax stands with American basswood, or yellow birch
[4,13,23].  In the absence of disturbance, forests composed of jack
pine, eastern white pine, eastern hemlock, yellow birch, or red pine are
replaced by sugar maple and American basswood [12,21,69].  However, it
should be noted that disturbances, particularly fire, were common in
eastern deciduous forests in presettlement times.  In some locations,
succession to sugar maple-American basswood stands may have taken as
long as 650 years [40].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy

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More info for the term: marsh

The currently accepted scientific name of sugar maple is Acer saccharum
Marsh. Sugar maple is highly variable genetically and taxonomic
controversy abounds. Some taxonomists recognize two to six varieties,
but others recognize these entities as forms or subspecies [30,68].
Several ecotypes or races, each exhibiting clinal variation, have also
been delineated. The following are widely recognized [30]:

Acer saccharum var. saccharum
Acer saccharum var. schneckii Rehder

Florida maple (A. barbatum), chalk maple (A. leucoderme), and black
maple (A. nigrum) hybridize and intergrade with sugar maple and are
often included in the sugar maple complex [27,46]. Some authorities
recognize these taxa as subspecies of sugar maple [46], but most
delineate them as discrete species. Sugar maple hybridizes with red
maple (A. rubrum) in the field, and with bigleaf maple (A. macrophyllum)
under laboratory conditions [30]. Acer X senecaense Slavin is a hybrid
derived from an A. leucoderme x sugar maple cross [39]. A. skutchii is
closely related to sugar maple and is treated as a subspecies by some
taxonomists [46].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites

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More info for the term: seed

Sugar maple has potential value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites.
It can be propagated by seed, which averages 7,000 per pound (15,400/kg)
[30].  Early spring plantings generally produce the best results [30].
Sugar maple can also be propagated vegetatively by budding, grafting,
air-layering, or by rooting stem cuttings [30,42].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Wood Products Value

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Sugar maple wood is tough, durable, hard, heavy, and strong [36,68].  It
is well suited for many uses and is commonly used to make furniture,
paneling, flooring, and veneer [18,42].  It is also used for gunstocks,
tool handles, plywood dies, cutting blocks, woodenware, novelty
products, sporting goods, bowling pins, and musical instruments
[12,36,42].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Acer saccharum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Acer saccharum

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Acer saccharum, the sugar maple, is a species of flowering plant in the soapberry and lychee family Sapindaceae. It is native to the hardwood forests of eastern Canada and eastern United States.[3] Sugar maple is best known for being the primary source of maple syrup and for its brightly colored fall foliage.[4] It may also be known as "rock maple", "sugar tree", "birds-eye maple", "sweet maple", "curly maple",[5][6] or "hard maple", particularly when referring to the wood.[7]

Description

Bark
Seasonal leaf color change

Acer saccharum is a deciduous tree normally reaching heights of 25–35 m (80–115 ft),[8][9] and exceptionally up to 45 m (150 ft).[10] A 10-year-old tree is typically about 5 m (20 ft) tall. As with most trees, forest-grown sugar maples form a much taller trunk and narrower canopy than open-growth ones.

The leaves are deciduous, up to 20 cm (7.9 in) long and wide,[8] palmate, with five lobes and borne in opposite pairs. The basal lobes are relatively small, while the upper lobes are larger and deeply notched. In contrast with the angular notching of the silver maple, however, the notches tend to be rounded at their interior. The fall color is often spectacular, ranging from bright yellow on some trees through orange to fluorescent red-orange on others. Sugar maples also have a tendency to color unevenly in fall. In some trees, all colors above can be seen at the same time. They also share a tendency with red maples for certain parts of a mature tree to change color weeks ahead of or behind the remainder of the tree. The leaf buds are pointy and brown-colored. The recent year's growth twigs are green, and turn dark brown.

A pair of samaras
Flowers in spring

The flowers are in panicles of five to ten together, yellow-green and without petals; flowering occurs in early spring after 30–55 growing degree days. The sugar maple will generally begin flowering when it is between 10 and 200 years old. The fruit is a pair of samaras (winged seeds). The seeds are globose, 7–10 mm (9321332 in) in diameter, the wing 2–3 cm (341+14 in) long. The seeds fall from the tree in autumn, where they must be exposed to 45 days of temperatures below 4 °C (39 °F) to break their coating down. Germination of A. saccharum is slow, not taking place until the following spring when the soil has warmed and all frost danger is past.[11] It is closely related to the black maple, which is sometimes included in this species, but sometimes separated as Acer nigrum. The western American bigtooth maple (Acer grandidentatum) is also treated as a variety or subspecies of sugar maple by some botanists.

The sugar maple can be confused with the Norway maple, which is not native to America but is commonly planted in cities and suburbs, and they are not closely related within the genus. The sugar maple is most easily identified by clear sap in the leaf petiole (the Norway maple has white sap), brown, sharp-tipped buds (the Norway maple has blunt, green or reddish-purple buds), and shaggy bark on older trees (the Norway maple bark has small grooves). Also, the leaf lobes of the sugar maple have a more triangular shape, in contrast to the squarish lobes of the Norway maple.[12][13]

Although many people think a red sugar maple leaf is featured on the flag of Canada, the official maple leaf does not belong to any particular maple species; although it perhaps most closely resembles a sugar maple leaf of all the maple species in Canada, the leaf on the flag was specially designed to be as identifiable as possible on a flag waving in the wind without regard to whether it resembled a particular species' foliage.[14]

Ecology

Sugar maple-yellow birch forest, Jacques-Cartier National Park, Quebec, Canada

The sugar maple is an extremely important species to the ecology of many forests in the northern United States and Canada. Pure stands are common, and it is a major component of the northern and Midwestern U.S. hardwood forests. Due to its need for cold winters, sugar maple is mostly found north of the 42nd parallel in USDA growing zones 3–5. It is less common in the southern part of its range (USDA Zone 6) where summers are hot and humid; there sugar maple is confined to ravines and moist flatlands. In the east, from Maryland southward, it is limited to the Appalachians. In the west, Tennessee represents the southern limit of its range and Missouri its southwestern limit. Collection of sap for sugar is also not possible in the southern part of sugar maple's range as winter temperatures do not become cold enough.

The minimum seed-bearing age of sugar maple is about 30 years. The tree is long-lived, typically 200 years and occasionally as much as 300.

Sugar maple is native to areas with cooler climates and requires a hard freeze each winter for proper dormancy. In northern parts of its range, January temperatures average about −18 °C (0 °F) and July temperatures about 16 °C (61 °F); in southern parts, January temperatures average about 10 °C (50 °F) and July temperatures average almost 27 °C (81 °F).[15] Seed germination also requires extremely low temperatures, the optimal being just slightly above freezing, and no other known tree species has this property. Germination of sugar maple seed in temperatures above 50 °F (10 °C) is rare to nonexistent.

Acer saccharum is among the most shade tolerant of large deciduous trees. Its shade tolerance is exceeded only by the striped maple, a smaller tree. Like other maples, its shade tolerance is manifested in its ability to germinate and persist under a closed canopy as an understory plant, and respond with rapid growth to the increased light formed by a gap in the canopy. Sugar maple can tolerate virtually any soil type short of pure sand, but does not tolerate xeric or swampy conditions.

Sugar maples are deeper-rooted than most maples and engage in hydraulic lift, drawing water from lower soil layers and exuding that water into upper, drier soil layers. This not only benefits the tree itself, but also many other plants growing around it.[16]

Sugar Maple terminal bud

Human influences have contributed to the decline of the sugar maple in many regions. Its role as a species of mature forests has led it to be replaced by more opportunistic species in areas where forests are cut over. The sugar maple also exhibits a greater susceptibility to pollution than other species of maple. Acid rain and soil acidification are some of the primary contributing factors to maple decline. Also, the increased use of salt over the last several decades on streets and roads for deicing purposes has decimated the sugar maple's role as a street tree.[17][18] The mushroom Pholiota squarrosoides is known to decay the logs of the tree.[19]

In some parts of New England, particularly near urbanized areas, the sugar maple is being displaced by the Norway maple. The Norway maple is also highly shade tolerant, but is considerably more tolerant of urban conditions, resulting in the sugar maple's replacement in those areas. In addition, Norway maple produces much larger crops of seeds, allowing it to out-compete native species.

Cultivation and uses

Maple syrup and other food use

Collecting sap from sugar maples

The sugar maple is one of the most important Canadian trees, being, with the black maple, the major source of sap for making maple syrup.[20] Other maple species can be used as a sap source for maple syrup, but some have lower sugar content and/or produce more cloudy syrup than these two.[20] In maple syrup production from Acer saccharum, the sap is extracted from the trees using a tap placed into a hole drilled through the phloem, just inside the bark. The collected sap is then boiled. As the sap boils, the water evaporates and the syrup is left behind. Forty gallons of maple sap produces 1 gallon of syrup. In the southern part of their range, sugar maples produce little sap; syrup production is dependent on the tree growing in cooler climates.[21]

The seeds can be soaked, and—with their wings removed—boiled, seasoned, and roasted to make them edible.[22] The young leaves and inner bark can be eaten raw or cooked.[23]

Timber

Ultra-thin sugar maple sections from Romeyn Beck Hough's American Woods. From top to bottom, the image displays transverse, radial and tangential sections. The adjacent image shows light passing through the specimens. Note, while the title of the image in the original book is "Acer Saccharinum", sugar maple is actually Acer saccharum. Acer saccharinum is a different species better known as silver leaf maple.

The sapwood can be white, and smaller logs may have a higher proportion of this desirable wood.[24] Bowling alleys and bowling pins are both commonly manufactured from sugar maple. Trees with wavy woodgrain, which can occur in curly, quilted, and "birdseye maple" forms, are especially valued. Maple is also the wood used for basketball courts, including the floors used by the NBA, and it is a popular wood for baseball bats, along with white ash. In recent years, because white ash has become threatened by emerald ash borer, sugar maple wood has increasingly displaced it for baseball bat production. It is also widely used in the manufacture of musical instruments, such as the members of the violin family (sides and back), guitars (neck), grand pianos (rim), and drum shells. It is also often used in the manufacture of sporting goods.[25][26]

Canadian maple, often referred to as "Canadian hardrock maple", is prized for pool cues, especially the shafts. Some production-line cues will use lower-quality maple wood with cosmetic issues, such as "sugar marks", which are most often light brown discolorations caused by sap in the wood. The best shaft wood has a very consistent grain, with no marks or discoloration. Sugar marks usually do not affect how the cue plays, but are not as high quality as those without it. The wood is also used in skateboards, gunstocks, and flooring for its strength.[25] Canadian hardrock maple is also used in the manufacture of electric guitar necks due to its high torsional stability and the bright, crisp resonant tone it produces. If the grain is curly, with flame or quilt patterns, it is usually reserved for more expensive instruments. In high-end guitars this wood is sometimes Torrefied to cook out the Lignin resins, allowing the greater stability to climate & environmental changes, and to enhance its tonal characteristics as the instrument's resonance is more evenly distributed across the cellulose structure of the wood without the lignin.

Urban planting

Sugar maple was a favorite street and park tree during the 19th century because it was easy to propagate and transplant, is fairly fast-growing, and has beautiful fall color. As noted above, however, it proved too delicate to continue in that role after the rise of automobile-induced pollution and was replaced by Norway maple and other hardier species. It is intolerant of road salt. Sugar Maples are commonly planted as a street tree in cities within the Mountain West region of the United States, usually a different cultivar such as the “Legacy” sugar maple. The shade and the shallow, fibrous roots may interfere with grass growing under the trees. Deep, well-drained loam is the best rooting medium, although sugar maples can grow well on sandy soil which has a good buildup of humus. Light (or loose) clay soils are also well known to support sugar maple growth. Poorly drained areas are unsuitable, and the species is especially short-lived on flood-prone clay flats. Its salt tolerance is low and it is very sensitive to boron. The species is also subject to defoliation when there are dense populations of larvae of Lepidoptera species like the rosy maple moth (Dryocampa rubicunda).[27]

Cultivars

  • 'Apollo' – columnar
  • 'Arrowhead' – pyramidal crown
  • 'Astis' ('Steeple') – heat-tolerant, good in southeastern USA, oval crown
  • 'Bonfire' – fast growing
  • 'Caddo' – naturally occurring southern ecotype or subspecies, from Southwestern Oklahoma, great drought and heat tolerance, good choice for the Great Plains region[28]
  • 'Columnare' ('Newton Sentry') – very narrow
  • 'Fall Fiesta' – tough-leaved, colorful in season, above-average hardiness
  • 'Goldspire' – columnar with yellow-orange fall color
  • 'Green Mountain' (PNI 0285) – durable foliage resists heat and drought, oval crown, above-average hardiness
  • 'Inferno' – possibly the hardiest cultivar, with more red fall color than 'Lord Selkirk' or 'Unity'
  • 'Legacy' – tough, vigorous and popular
  • 'Lord Selkirk' – very hardy, more upright than other northern cultivars
  • 'Monumentale' – columnar
  • 'September Flare' - very hardy, early orange-red fall color
  • 'Sweet Shadow' – lacy foliage
  • 'Temple's Upright' – almost as narrow as 'Columnare'
  • 'Unity' – very hardy, from Manitoba, slow steady growth

Use by Native Americans

The Mohegan use the inner bark as a cough remedy, and the sap as a sweetening agent, and to make maple syrup following the introduction of metal cookware by Europeans.[29]

Big trees

The national champion for Acer saccharum is located in Charlemont, Massachusetts. In 2007, the year it was submitted, it had a circumference of 5.92 metres (233 in; 19 ft 5 in) at 1.3 metres (4 ft 3 in) above the ground's surface, and thus a diameter at breast height of about 1.88 metres (6 ft 2 in). At that time the tree was 34.1 metres (111 ft 11 in) tall with an average crown spread of 27.7 metres (90 ft 11 in). Using the scoring system of circumference in inches plus height in feet plus 25% of crown spread in feet resulted in a total number of 368 points at the National Register of Big Trees.[30] A tree in Lyme, Connecticut, measured in 2012, had a circumference of 18 ft 3 in; 6 m, or an average diameter at breast height of about 5.8 feet (5 ft 10 in; 1.8 m). This tree had been 123 feet (37 m) tall with a crown spread of 86 feet (26 m), counting for a total number of 364 points.[31]

In popular culture

Leafless sugar maples in Vermont state quarter

The sugar maple is the state tree of the US states of New York, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.

It is depicted on the state quarter of Vermont, issued in 2001.

References

  1. ^ Barstow, M.; Crowley, D.; Rivers, M.C. (2017). "Acer saccharum". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T193863A2287314. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T193863A2287314.en. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  2. ^ "Acer saccharum Marshall — The Plant List". www.theplantlist.org.
  3. ^ "Acer saccharum". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
  4. ^ "Sugar Maple Tree Facts: Sugar Maple Tree Growing Information". gardeningknowhow.com. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
  5. ^ M.M. Grandtner (8 April 2005). Elsevier's Dictionary of Trees: Volume 1: North America. Elsevier. pp. 24–. ISBN 978-0-08-046018-5.
  6. ^ Michigan State Horticultural Society (1900). Annual Report. Michigan State Horticultural Society. pp. 283–.
  7. ^ Meier, Eric. "Hard Maple". The Wood Database. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
  8. ^ a b "Acer saccharum". Northern Ontario Plant Database.
  9. ^ "Acer saccharum". Oklahoma Biological Survey. Archived from the original on 9 November 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2007.
  10. ^ "GSMNP tall trees". Nativetreesociety.org. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
  11. ^ Lawrence O. Copeland; M. B. McDonald (2001). Principles of seed science and technology. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7923-7322-3.
  12. ^ "Norway Maple – New York Invasive Species Information". Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  13. ^ "Invasive Species Identification Sheet - Norway Maple". Natural Resources Conservation Service Connecticut. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  14. ^ "The National Flag of Canada". Archived from the original on 23 April 2010. Retrieved 4 May 2013.
  15. ^ Godman, Richard M.; Yawney, Harry W.; Tubbs, Carl H. (1990). "Acer saccharum". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Hardwoods. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Vol. 2 – via Southern Research Station.
  16. ^ Emerman, Steven H.; Dawson, Todd E. (1996). "Hydraulic lift and its influence on the water content of the rhizosphere: an example from sugar maple, Acer saccharum". Oecologia. 108 (2): 273–278. Bibcode:1996Oecol.108..273E. doi:10.1007/BF00334651. PMID 28307839. S2CID 38275842.
  17. ^ "Sugar Maple Faces Extinction Threat". The New York Times. 7 December 1986. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  18. ^ Siek, Stephanie V. "Sugar Maples Fall Victim to Road Salt". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  19. ^ Halama, Marek (January 2011). "First record of the rare species Pholiota squarrosoides (Agaricales, Strophariaceae) in southwestern Poland". Polish Botanical Journal. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
  20. ^ a b Heilingmann, Randall B. "Hobby Maple Syrup Production (F-36-02)". Ohio State University. Archived from the original on 17 September 2002.
  21. ^ "Sugar Maple: Nebraska Forest Service" (PDF). Nebraska Forest Service. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
  22. ^ Elias, Thomas S.; Dykeman, Peter A. (2009) [1982]. Edible Wild Plants: A North American Field Guide to Over 200 Natural Foods. New York: Sterling. pp. 125–26. ISBN 978-1-4027-6715-9. OCLC 244766414.
  23. ^ Angier, Bradford (1974). Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 135. ISBN 0-8117-0616-8. OCLC 799792.
  24. ^ Daniel L. Cassens. "Hard or sugar maple" (PDF). Purdue University:Purdue Extension.
  25. ^ a b "Sugar Maple Plant Guide" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  26. ^ Kaufman, David (8 October 2020). "Lenny Kravitz Designs a Showstopping Piano for Steinway & Sons". Architectural Digest.
  27. ^ "Auburn University Entomology and Plant Pathology | Greenstriped Mapleworm". Auburn University Entomology and Plant Pathology. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
  28. ^ "Putting Down Roots: Landscape Guidelines for the Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Trees in Central Oklahoma". okPLANTtrees. 3.1.2:Medium Deciduous Trees. Archived from the original on 20 July 2012. Fortunately for Oklahoma, a subspecies (believed to be an ecotype) of the Sugar Maple was discovered in the southwest part of the state that is specifically adapted to our hot summers and drying winds.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  29. ^ Tantaquidgeon, Gladys 1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians. Harrisburg. Pennsylvania Historical Commission Anthropological Papers No. 3 (p. 69, 128)
  30. ^ "Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) - Champion Tree, National Forests, Massachusetts". americanforests.org. 15 September 2016. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  31. ^ "Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) - Champion Tree, National Forests, Connecticut". americanforests.org. 15 September 2016. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  • Horton, J. L.; Hart, S.C. (1998). "Hydraulic lift: a potentially important ecosystem process". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 13 (6): 232–235. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01328-7. PMID 21238277.
  • Canham, C. D. (1989). "Different Responses to Gaps Among Shade-Tolerant Tree Species". Ecology. 70 (3): 548–550. doi:10.2307/1940200. JSTOR 1940200.
  • Brisson, J., Bergeron, Y., Bouchard, A., & Leduc, A. (1994). Beech-maple dynamics in an old-growth forest in southern Quebec, Canada. Ecoscience (Sainte-Foy) 1 (1): 40–46.
  • Duchesne, L.; Ouimet, R.; Houle, D. (2002). "Basal Area Growth of Sugar Maple in Relation to Acid Deposition, Stand Health, and Soil Nutrients". Journal of Environmental Quality. 31 (5): 1676–1683. doi:10.2134/jeq2002.1676. PMID 12371186.
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Acer saccharum: Brief Summary

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Acer saccharum, the sugar maple, is a species of flowering plant in the soapberry and lychee family Sapindaceae. It is native to the hardwood forests of eastern Canada and eastern United States. Sugar maple is best known for being the primary source of maple syrup and for its brightly colored fall foliage. It may also be known as "rock maple", "sugar tree", "birds-eye maple", "sweet maple", "curly maple", or "hard maple", particularly when referring to the wood.

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