Oophaga pumilio (Schmidt 1857)

La granota maduixa^[1] (Dendrobates pumilio) és una espècie de dendrobàtid d'Amèrica central, especialment de la nació de Costa Rica.

A l'agost de 2006, un estudi reemplaçà aquesta espècie al gènere Oophaga (Grant et al., 2006), però D. pumilio n'és el nom científic més usat.

Verí

La seva coloració és molt cridanera, la qual cosa adverteix els possibles depredadors que aquesta granota conté un potent verí neurotòxic (especialment pumiliotoxines) a la pell, tot i que no arriba als nivells de toxicitat de les batracotoxines, pròpies de les granotes del gènere Phyllobates.

Referències

Das Erdbeerfröschchen (Oophaga pumilio, Syn.: Dendrobates pumilio) ist eine Art aus der Familie der Baumsteigerfrösche (Dendrobatidae).

Beschreibung

Erdbeerfröschchen erreichen eine Körpergröße von lediglich 17,2–22 Millimeter^[1]. Ihre oft erdbeerrote Körperfärbung dient als Warnfarbe (Aposematismus). Daneben treten zahlreiche Farbvariationen auf, von denen 15 bis 30 unterschieden werden.^[2] Dabei handelt es sich um einen Polymorphismus.

Verbreitung

Der Lebensraum der Erdbeerfröschchen umfasst die Tropen und Subtropen an der Atlantikküste von Nicaragua (Süden) über Costa Rica bis in die Mitte von Panama in Mittelamerika. Ihre Vorkommen liegen überwiegend auf dem Land in feuchten Flachgebieten und gebirgsnahen Waldgebieten, größere Populationen finden sich aber auch auf Ruderalflächen wie Plantagen.^[1]

Ernährung und Hautgift

Erdbeerfröschchen ernähren sich hauptsächlich von Schuppenameisen^[3], daneben werden kleine Gliederfüßer, Käfer und Schnabelkerfe angenommen.^[4]

Wie viele andere Baumsteigerfrösche sondert auch das Erdbeerfröschchen Gift über die Hautoberfläche ab. Hauptkomponenten der toxischen Alkaloide sind Pumiliotoxine und Allopumiliotoxine.^[5][3] Insbesondere auf der Ameisenkost beruht die Fähigkeit zur Giftakkumulation.^[6][3][7] Schuppenameisen wie die Gattungen Brachymyrmex und Paratrechina produzieren neben Ameisensäure die giftigen Alkaloide Pumiliotoxine.^[3] Da die Fröschchen aber selber keine Gifte produzieren können und sie für die Giftakkumulation auf ihre Nahrung angewiesen sind, bleiben sie in Gefangenschaft ohne Fütterung mit Schuppenameisen giftfrei.^[3]

Da sich die Habitate der Erdbeerfröschchen nicht mit denen bestimmter Ameisenarten decken, sind die Hautgifte ziemlich variabel, auch zwischen den Geschlechtern gibt es Unterschiede.^[8] 232 toxische Alkaloide wurden in der Haut von Erdbeerfröschchen identifiziert.^[5]

Verhalten

Erdbeerfröschchen sind tagaktiv und überwiegend landbewohnend.^[9] Oft halten sie sich im Laubstreu auf. Männchen sind sehr standorttreu und bewachen kleine Reviere.^[10] Verbreitung und Territoriumsbildung der Erdbeerfröschchen hängen wahrscheinlich von der Verbreitung der bevorzugten Ameisen ab.^[3] Der Ruf des Männchens erinnert an das Summen einer Biene.

Fortpflanzung

Erdbeerfröschchen in der „La Gruta“-Farbvariante aus der Provinz Colón, Panama

Erdbeerfröschchen in der „Blue jeans“-Farbvariante

Anders als bei den meisten Fröschen findet keine Umklammerung der Weibchen durch die Männchen statt (Amplexus), sondern die Partner nähern sich bäuchlings (ventral) einander. Die Weibchen platzieren dann 3–5 Eier auf einem überwiegend trockenen Bromelientrichter oder ähnlichem, und die Männchen besamen die Eier.^[11]

Danach werden die befruchteten Eier durch das männliche Elterntier bewacht und täglich mit Wasser befeuchtet, welches es in seiner Kloake transportiert. Die Kaulquappen schlüpfen nach etwa 10 Tagen.^[12][13] Das Froschweibchen transportiert jeweils eine Kaulquappe auf ihrem Rücken, um sie einzeln in wassergefüllten Bromelientrichtern (Phytotelma) abzusetzen. In Gefangenschaft wurden selten auch Männchen dabei beobachtet.

Die Brutpflege durch die Mutter dauert ungefähr sechs Wochen. Jede Bromelie wird einzeln im Abstand weniger Tage von der Froschmutter aufgesucht, die für ihren Nachwuchs jeweils mehrere Abortiveiern, bzw. unbefruchtete Nähreier produziert.^[12][14], Die intensive Pflege wird durch den hohen Laichverlust erklärt: nur 5–12 % der Eier entwickeln sich zu Kaulquappen.^[15] Das Erdbeerfröschchen ist die erste Froschart, bei der ein derartiges Brutpflegeverhalten beobachtet wurde.^[6]

In Gefangenschaft wurden der Versuch unternommen die Kaulquappen mit Algen oder Laich anderer Frösche zu füttern, mit geringem Erfolg. Erdbeerfröschchenlarven sind obligate Eierfresser, der neue Gattungsname Oophaga ‚Eierfresser‘, nimmt direkt auf die Ernährung der Kaulquappen durch Oophagie Bezug.^[16]

Nach etwa einem Monat machen die Erdbeerfröschchenkaulquappen innerhalb weniger Tage eine Metamorphose durch. Solange bleiben sie noch in der Nähe ihrer Bromelie.

Evolution

Vermutlich erfolgte die Entwicklung der elterlichen Pflegefürsorge erst nach Schließung der mittelamerikanischen Landverbindung im Pliozän.^[17]

Literatur

• Darrel R. Frost: Amphibian species of the world: an online reference. Version 5.3 (12. Februar 2009). Electronic Database, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA

Einzelbelege

1. ↑ ^{a b} J. M. Savage: The amphibians and reptiles of Costa Rica. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 2002.
2. ↑ K. Summers, T. W. Cronin, T. Kennedy: Variation in spectral reflectance among population of Dendrobates pumilio, the strawberry poison frog, in the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, Panama. In: Journal of Biogeography. Band 30, 2002, S. 35–53.
3. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Konrad Staudt et al.: Foraging behaviour and territoriality of the strawberry poison frog (Oophaga pumilio) in dependence of the presence of ants. In: Amphibia-Reptilia. Band 31, Nr. 2, 2010, S. 217–227. doi:10.1163/156853810791069100.
4. ↑ J. W. Daly, C. W. Myers: Toxicity of Panamanian poison frogs (Dendrobates): some biological and chemical aspects. In: Science. Band 156, 1967, S. 970–973.
5. ↑ ^{a b} Ralph A. Saporito et al.: Spatial and temporal patterns of alkaloid variation in the poison frog Oophaga pumilio in Costa Rica and Panama over 30 years. In: Toxicon. Band 50, Nr. 6, 2007, S. 757–778.
6. ↑ ^{a b} T. Grant et al.: Phylogenetic systematics of dart-poison frogs and their relatives (Amphibia, Athesphatanura, Dendrobatidae). In: Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Band 299, 2006, S. 1–262.
7. ↑ N. Cohen, R. Stebbins: A natural history of Amphibians, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 1995.
8. ↑ Ralph A. Saporito et al.: Sex-Related Differences in Alkaloid Chemical Defenses of the Dendrobatid Frog Oophaga pumilio from Cayo Nancy, Bocas del Toro, Panama⊥. In: Journal of Natural Products. Band 73, Nr. 3, 2009, S. 317–321. doi:10.1021/np900702d.
9. ↑ https://apiv3.iucnredlist.org/api/v3/taxonredirect/55196 IUCN Redlist Eintrag
10. ↑ M. A. Donnelly: Reproductive phenology and age structure of Dendrobates pumilio in northeastern Costa Rica. In: Journal of Herpetology. Band 23, 1989, S. 362–367.
11. ↑ C. W. Myers, J. W. Daly, V. Martinez: An arboreal poison frog (Dendrobates) from western Panama. In: American Museum Novitates. Band 2783, 1984, S. 1–20.
12. ↑ ^{a b} A. Haase, H. Prohl: Female activity patterns and aggressiveness in the strawberry poison frog Dendrobates pumilio (Anura: Dendrobatidae). In: Amphibia-Reptilia. Band 23, 2002, S. 129–140.
13. ↑ S. Limerick: Courtship behavior and ovipo- sition of the poison-arrow frog Dendrobates pumilio. In: Herpetologica. Band 36, 1980, S. 69–71.
14. ↑ J. Stynoski, Y. Torres-Mendoza et al. (2014): Evidence of maternal provisioning of alkaloid-based chemical defenses in the strawberry poison frog Oophaga pumilio. Ecology, 95(3), 587–593 doi:10.1890/13-0927.1
15. ↑ H. Prohl, Walter Hödl: Parental investment, potential reproductive rates, and mating system in the strawberry dart-poison frog, Dendrobates pumilio. In: Behavioral Ecological Sociobiology. Band 46, 1999, S. 215–220.
16. ↑ J. Stynoski, Y. Torres-Mendoza et al. (2014): Evidence of maternal provisioning of alkaloid-based chemical defenses in the strawberry poison frog Oophaga pumilio. Ecology, 95(3), 587–593 doi:10.1890/13-0927.1
17. ↑ K. Summers, L. A. Weigt, P. Boag, E. Bermingham: The evolution of female parental care in poison frogs of the genus Dendrobates: Evidence from mitochondrial DNA sequences. In: Herpetologica. Band 55, Nr. 2, 1999, S. 254–270.

The strawberry poison frog, strawberry poison-dart frog or blue jeans poison frog (Oophaga pumilio, formerly Dendrobates pumilio) is a species of small poison dart frog found in Central America.^[2] It is common throughout its range, which extends from eastern central Nicaragua through Costa Rica and northwestern Panama. The species is often found in humid lowlands and premontane forest, but large populations are also found in disturbed areas such as plantations.^[3] The strawberry poison frog is perhaps most famous for its widespread variation in coloration, comprising approximately 15–30 color morphs, most of which are presumed to be true-breeding.^[4] O. pumilio, while not the most poisonous of the dendrobatids, is the most toxic member of its genus.

Diet

The diet of O. pumilio causes the skin of the amphibian to become toxic in nature when certain subspecies of mites and ants are ingested very similar to many other poison dart frogs.^[5][6] Alkaloid toxins are organic in nature and contain nitrogenous bases that react with carbon and hydrogen groups.^[7] Pumiliotoxin 251D is the specialized toxin that is sequestered by this species of frog. This toxin has a negative stimulating effect on cardiac function and is a severe disruptor of the sodium potassium ion channels within cells. Upon ingestion of Pumiliotoxin 251D, organisms preying on O. pumilio experience convulsions, paralysis, and death.^[7]

It has been found that once O.pumilio reaches sexual maturity, their granular glands significantly increase in size and their diet shifts. In females, it is common to find about 53% more alkaloids than adult males.^[8]

Oribatida mites belonging to the glandulate suborder Brachypylina are an important origin of pumiliotoxins in O. pumilio. Hexane-extraction techniques indicate presence of alkaloid toxins in Brachypylina.^[9] Toxins appear to be biosynthesized in adult mites, as nymph and larval stages of the arachnid do not carry the toxins. Experimental analysis of this species of mite show alkaloid toxins are found almost exclusively in the opisthonotal glands of mites of the Scheloribatidae.^[10] Oil glands of the mite contain the toxins and are then released internally as the amphibian digests the arthropod.

O. pumilio can also attribute its cutaneous toxicity to its rich diet of formicinae ants.^[6] Species of the formicine genus Brachymyrmex contain pumiliotoxins which the frogs incorporate and accumulate poison from.^[11] There is a variability of alkaloid profiles among populations and individuals of O. pumilio, which is indicative of varying levels of available prey within their infraspecific habitats.^[12] Research and physical analysis reveal that maternally derived alkaloids exist in young tadpoles.^[13] The increase in alkaloids in tadpoles suggests that the females are providing more chemical defenses to their more vulnerable young. This being one of the first found examples of provisioning that occurs after hatching.^[8] During tadpole-rearing, mother frogs feed their young an unfertilized egg from their ovaries after dropping each individual tadpole into a repository of water usually found in a bromeliad.^[14] Tadpoles lacking the obligate nutritive egg diet do not contain the alkaloid.^[13] This step is crucial for the tadpoles to sequester the alkaloid from their mother; without such, young tadpoles become susceptible to predation by arthropods and other frogs.

Behavior

Oophaga pumilio is diurnal and primarily terrestrial, and can often be found in leaf litter in both forested and disturbed areas. Studies have shown that the optimal habitat is determined by the male, considering the resource benefits and defense costs. Males tend to expend more energy defending smaller but higher quality areas.^[15] There has also been evidence that the better competitors and fighters are the males guarding smaller sites with higher female density. In most Anura the louder the vocalization when competing usually means they are larger in size and in better health. However, in the O. pumilio species researchers have determined that these frogs call out at a lower rate to limit their energetic expenditures.^[15] Females, on the other hand, simply distribute themselves according to tadpole rearing sites.^[15]

Though brightly colored and toxic, these frogs are relatively small, growing to approximately 17.5–22 mm (0.69–0.87 in) in standard length.^[3]

Listen to a pumilio call

Male advertisement call

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Problems playing this file? See media help.

Reproduction and parental care

Oophaga pumilio is an external breeder, and other species of the genus Oophaga are notable in the amphibian world for exhibiting a high degree of parental care.^[16] The strawberry poison frog has dual parental care.^[17] The males defend and water the nests, and the females feed the oophagous tadpoles their unfertilized eggs. Although both male and female contribute to parental care, females invest more heavily in terms of energy expenditure, time investment, and loss of potential reproduction.^[17] When choosing a partner for mating, females will choose the closest calling male rather than the highest quality male.^[18] Females provide energetically costly eggs to the tadpoles for 6–8 weeks (until metamorphosis), remain sexually inactive during tadpole rearing, and care for only one clutch of four to six tadpoles at a time.^[17] The males contribute via the relatively "cheap" (in terms of energy) act of watering and protecting the eggs for a relatively short period (10–12 days), and can care for multiple nests at one time.^[17] The extreme maternal investment in their offspring is believed to be the result of high egg mortality. Only 5–12% of the clutch develops into tadpoles, so the female's fitness may be best increased by making sure those few eggs that form tadpoles survive.^[19]

The la gruta morph from Colón Province, Panama

After mating, the female lays three to five eggs on a leaf or bromeliad axil. The male then ensures the eggs are kept hydrated by transporting water in his cloaca. After about 10 days, the eggs hatch and the female transports the tadpoles on her back to some water-filled location.^[20] In captivity, on rare occasions, the male is observed transporting the tadpoles, though whether this is intentional, or the tadpoles simply hitch a ride, is unknown. Bromeliad axils are frequently used tadpole deposition sites, but anything suitable can be used, such as knots in trees, small puddles, or human trash such as aluminum cans.

Tadpoles are deposited singly at each location. Once this has been done, the female will come to each tadpole every few days and deposit several unfertilized food eggs.^[3] In captivity, tadpoles have been raised on a variety of diets, ranging from algae to the eggs of other dart frogs, but with minimal success. O. pumilio tadpoles are considered obligate egg feeders, as they are unable to accept any other form of nutrition.

After about a month, the tadpole will metamorphose into a small froglet. Generally, it stays near its water source for a few days for protection as it absorbs the rest of its tail.

Taxonomy

Oophaga pumilio belongs to the genus Oophaga,^[16] although the name Dendrobates pumilio is still sometimes used. There is evidence that the species of Oophaga (previously classified as the "female parental care group" of Dendrobates^[21]) are a monophyletic evolutionary group. Due to the low level of genetic divergence between the species analyzed in this genus, it is estimated that they speciated relatively recently, after the formation of the current Panamanian land bridge in the Pliocene (3–5 million years ago).^[22] Oophaga pumilio is believed to be most closely related to Oophaga arborea^[23] and Oophaga sylvatica.^[16]

Evolution

Strawberry poison frog, O. pumilio, shows extreme variation in color and pattern between populations that have been geographically isolated for more than 10,000 years.^[24] When populations are separated by geographic distances and landscape barriers, they frequently experience restricted gene flow, which can enable phenotypic divergence between populations through selection or drift.^[25] Their variety in warning coloration is used for their visibility, toxicity and resistance to predators. When divergent phenotypes are mostly restricted to separate islands, the biogeography of color polymorphism suggests a major role for neutral process. However, Summers et al. (1997)^[26] provide evidence that neutral divergence alone is unlikely to have caused the variation in color patterns. As shown by Lande, rapid evolution in sexually selecting species is led by the interaction of random genetic drift with natural and sexual selection such as random genetic drift in female mating preferences.^[27] Color is known to play a role in male–female signaling, mate attraction, and male–male signaling in anurans. Based on Tazzyman and Iwasa's study that involved collections of samples from main islands in the Bocas del Toro archipelago, its results proved that female preference on male calls led to call divergence and therefore divergence was driven by sexual selection. Mate choice plays a critical role in generating and maintaining biodiversity.^[28] Furthermore, spatial variation in predators or habitat features could exert divergent natural selection on coloration in response to its subjection to predator selection.^[24] It is still unclear to what extent sexual selection has driven the evolution of color morphs rather than reinforcing the reproductive isolation of morphs.^[29] In an aposematic organism such as O. pumilio, phylogenetic signal of selection cannot be attributed to female mate choice alone but is quite possible that genetic drift would interact with female color preferences to trigger divergence^[24] Researchers Maan and Cummings had also found that in some cases female O. pumilio preferred male mates that had very different coloration than their own phenotype.^[30] In nature, the equality of color through evolution is very unlikely considering the various sensory biases of predators and the different background colors of the environments these frogs inhabit. Due to this variability in color evolution, it is unlikely to say there is superiority of aposematic purpose of color selection in Oophaga. Species such as O. pumilio have been known to thrive and compete very well on disturbed and converted land. With temperatures rising in many different biomes, the success of many species is going to be determined by its ability to acclimate and adapt. In a study done by Rivera and Nowakowski, they discovered that in many cases O. pumilio is experiencing greater temperature stress in converted habitats than forests.^[30]

Habitat niche

This frog species utilizes scattered structures throughout disturbed lands to relieve some thermal stress. However, O. pumilio is still warmer than any other species in the forested areas, being exposed to temperatures up to 27 degrees Celsius. These findings suggest that this species of dart frog acts as an ecological buffer and will be more successful than other species as land use changes and temperatures rise.^[31]

Captivity

Oophaga pumilio is a popular frog in captivity, due to its striking colors and unique life cycle. They have been imported in vast quantities to the United States and Europe since the early 1990s, when they would typically be available for around US$75 each. However, these shipments have since stopped, and O. pumilio is much less common and available in reduced diversity. In Europe, O. pumilio is much more diverse due to an increased frequency of smuggling and the resulting offspring of smuggled animals. Smuggling of dart frogs is less common elsewhere, but is still a large problem as it kills large numbers of animals and often degrades or destroys viable habitat.

"Blue jeans" color morph

Recently, O. pumilio has been exported from Central America again in small numbers from frog farms. Because of this, they have seen a huge increase in numbers in the dart frog community and are regularly available.

Common color morphs in captivity

One example of a color morph is the blue jeans morph. It is most common throughout the species range, but is relatively rare in the United States pet trade. Most of these animals came from imports during the 1990s, or are their descendants.^[32] As of 2003, it was observed that this morph could be found throughout Costa Rica, as well as in mainland Panama.^{[4][24][25][26][27][28][29]}

References

La rana flecha roja y azul, rana flecha venenosa, rana venenosa de la fresa, rana dardo venenosa de la fresa o rana flecha venenosa roja y azul (Oophaga pumilio, designada anteriormente como Dendrobates pumilio) es una especie de rana veneno de dardo, distribuida por la vertiente caribeña desde el este de Nicaragua, Costa Rica y hasta el oeste de Panamá (incluyendo algunas islas del archipiélago de Bocas del Toro).^[2]​

Descripción

Es una especie altamente polimórfica, o sea que posee una gran variedad de coloraciones. En la región de Bocas del Toro, en Panamá encontramos una gran variedad de coloraciones, mientras que en Costa Rica y Nicaragua prevalece la coloración roja con manchas negras, pero en el extremo sur de Costa Rica presentan un único color que puede ser rojo, naranja o beige.

Su coloración aposemática es muy llamativa, lo cual advierte a los posibles depredadores que dicha rana contiene un potente veneno neurotóxico (especialmente pumiliotoxinas) en la piel. En 30 años de investigación se han registrado en esta especie más de 230 alcaloides de 21 diferentes clases estructurales.^[3]​ El veneno de estas ranas es tomado de los insectos que consume, principalmente de hormigas de los géneros Brachymyrmex y Paratrechina^[4]​ y garrapatas de suelo de la familia Oribatidae.^[3]​ Si se le alimenta en cautiverio sólo con moscas de la fruta (Drosophila melanogaster) dejan de portar veneno en la piel (John Daly comunicación personal).

Reproducción

Como todo anuro, la rana flecha roja y azul presenta metamorfosis. Dentro del género Oophaga no se da el amplexo en ninguna de las especies del grupo O. histrionicus.^[5]​ El macho transporta los renacuajos hasta un cúmulo de agua ubicado en la axila de una hoja o en bromelias y regresa diariamente para alimentarlos, el macho atrae a la hembra para que deposite huevos infertiles para que los renacuajos se alimenten.^[6]​ Los renacuajos son oófagos obligatorios, y piden comida a la madre vibrando su cuerpo y presionando con sus cabezas el área de la cloaca de ésta, con el fin de estimularla a que oviposite.

Referencias

Oophaga pumilio Oophaga generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Dendrobatidae familian sailkatuta dago, Anura ordenan.

Erreferentziak

Ikus, gainera

• Dendrobatidae

Mansikkasammakko tai mansikkanuolimyrkkysammakko (Oophaga pumilio^[2][3]) on punaisen yleisvärinsä mukaan nimetty nuolimyrkkysammakko. Sitä tavataan trooppisissa sademetsissä Keski-Amerikassa, erityisesti Costa Ricassa.

Mansikkasammakkopariskunnat huoltavat poikasia yhdessä.^[4] Naaras laskee kudun (enintään viisi munaa) lehdelle. Uroksen tehtäväksi jää pitää kutu märkänä virtsaamalla sen päälle. Nuijapäiden kuoriuduttua naaras kuljettaa ne selässään yksitellen puuhun. Puusta se etsii kasvin, jonka ympyrässä kasvavat lehdet muodostavat keskelleen syvennyksen, johon kerääntyy vettä. Naaras etsii kullekin nuijapäälle oman kasvin, minkä jälkeen se käy lähes kerran päivässä munimassa kunkin poikasen ravinnoksi korkeintaan viisi hedelmöittymätöntä munaa.

Urossammakot ovat reviiritietoisia, ja saattavat käydä alueelleen pyrkivän tunkeilijan kimppuun. Tällöin molemmat sammakot seisovat takajaloillaan, ja pyrkivät etujaloillaan kaatamaan vastustajansa maahan. Paini saattaa kestää kaksikymmentäkin minuuttia. Sen voittaa usein reviiriään puolustava yksilö, joka vastustajansa kumottuaan antaa tämän yleensä lähteä tiehensä.

Mansikkasammakko ei ole harvinainen, mutta sen kanta on kärsinyt Keski-Amerikan sademetsien hakkuista, ja yläilmakehän otsonikerroksen ohentumisen johdosta lisääntynyt ultraviolettisäteily on luultavasti vaikuttanut sammakoihin. Lisäksi siitä on tullut suosittu lemmikkieläin, mikä on vähentänyt merkittävästi luonnonvaraisia kantoja.^[1] Sammakon kirkkaanvärinen iho varoittaa sen myrkyllisyydestä, mikä suojaa sitä vihollisilta.

Lähteet

Aiheesta muualla

• Sammakkolampi.net: Mansikkanuolimyrkkysammakko

Oophaga pumilio est une espèce d'amphibiens de la famille des Dendrobatidae^[1]. Cette espèce est parfois appelée Dendrobate fraise ou Grenouille des fraises.

Répartition et habitat

Cette espèce se rencontre au Nicaragua, au Costa Rica et au Panama jusqu'à 500 m d'altitude^[1].

Elle vit dans les forêts tropicales humides^[2], voire dans les bosquets naturels de bananes et de cacao mais jamais dans les plantations^[3].

Description

Oophaga pumilio

Oophaga pumilio

Cette espèce mesure de 17 à 24 mm^[4]. Elle présente de nombreux morphes : les "pumilio bribri" étant les plus grandes formes. La forme usuelle ("pumilio blue jeans") présente un corps rouge avec des taches noires et des pattes antérieures bleues ou noires. Les couleurs possibles des différents morphes varient du rouge au vert, en passant par le bleu, le violet et l'orangé. La forme des taches peut aussi varier^[5].

La plupart des morphologies viennent de petites îles proches du Panama^[4].

Comportement

Le mâle séduit sa partenaire en poussant des petits cris. La femelle choisit le mâle au cri le plus puissant.

Une fois fécondée, la femelle surveille ses 2 à 16 œufs qui incubent à terre dans un lit de feuilles humides^[6]. Dès qu'un têtard éclot, la mère se le colle sur le dos avec un mucus très adhésif. Elle hisse ainsi ses " bébés " vers des calices de broméliacées remplis d'eau. Régulièrement, elle monte y pondre des œufs infertiles dont ils se nourrissent. Elle garde une mémoire prodigieuse des calices où elle a déposé ses petits. En dispersant sa progéniture dans de multiples caches, la mère accroît ses chances d'en sauver une partie. Les plantes hôtesses profitent aussi de cet élevage : " semi-carnivores ", elles se nourrissent des déjections et des cadavres d'insectes abandonnés par les têtards. Les têtards commencent à chanter vers 3-4 mois et sont matures sexuellement vers 6-7 mois.

Publication originale

• Schmidt, 1857 : Diagnosen neuer frösche des zoologischen cabinets zu krakau. Sitzungberichte der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. 24, p. 10–15 (texte intégral).

Notes et références

Il dendrobate pigmeo (Oophaga pumilio (Schmidt, 1857)) è un anfibio anuro della famiglia Dendrobatidae.

Descrizione

È una specie di piccola taglia, lunga dai 1,7 ai 2,4 cm, con una sgargiante livrea di colore rosso, blu o verde o marrone e gialla. La livrea varia molto a seconda della morph (o varietà). Esistono tra le 15 e le 30 varietà, tra cui Straawberry, Blue jeans, Blastimentos, La gruta, San Cristobal. Grazie ai cuscinetti sotto le zampe e alle cosce muscolose, questo dendrobate non ha difficoltà ad arrampicarsi. I suoi occhi di notevoli dimensioni gli permettono di vedere meglio al buio.^[1]

Biologia

Comportamento

Come molte altre specie di Dendrobatidae, si affida al suo sistema di difesa chimico per tenersi lontano dai guai: pur non essendo la più velenosa, questa specie centro-americana ha comunque un alto grado di tossicità. La tossina viene da acari di cui si nutre. Ha una aspettativa di vita di 3-5 anni.^[1]

Alimentazione

Si alimenta di piccoli invertebrati, prevalentemente di formiche.

Riproduzione

Raggiunge la maturità sessuale a 9 mesi. Si riproduce durante la stagione delle piogge. La femmina del dendrobate pigmeo depone da 3 a 17 uova in cordoni, che deposita in piccole pozze, dette fitotelmi, dentro a fessure arboree ovvero a cavità tra le foglie di piante appartenenti al genere Bromelia o sul suolo della foresta. I girini si nutrono delle uova non fecondate che la madre depone in ogni pozza. La schiusa delle uova avviene dopo 5-15 giorni dalla deposizione. La metamorfosi si verifica dopo 6-8 settimane.^[1]

Distribuzione e habitat

Specie interamente terrestre. Comune nello Stato di Panama settentrionale, in Costa Rica, in Nicaragua e nelle isole al largo di questa zona.^[1]

Note

Bibliografia

• (EN) Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Neil Cox 2008, Oophaga pumilio, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020.

Mažoji medlaipė (lot. Dendrobates pumilio, vok. Erdbeerfröschchen) – Medlaipinių šeimos nuodingas varliagyvis. Kūnas iki 18 mm ilgio. Viršus oranžiškai raudonas su taškų dėmėmis. Būdingas didelis spalvų varijavimas.

Patinas iš pradžių išleidžia spermą, o tik po to patelė į tą pačią vietą išneršia kiaušinėlius. Buožgalviai vystosi lapų skrotelėse susitelkusiame vandenyje, reguliariai aplanko savo jauniklius ir į vandenį išneršia neapvaisintus kiaušinėlius, kuriais buožgalviai maitinasi.

Paplitusi Centrinėje Amerikoje, ypač Kosta Rikoje.

Nuorodos

• Google: Dendrobates pumilio, nuotraukos
• The Dendrobates pumilio Photo Gallery
• Dendrobates pumilio
• Dendrobates pumilio

Vikiteka

De aardbeikikker^[2] (Oophaga pumilio) is een kleine giftige kikker uit de familie pijlgifkikkers (Dendrobatidae).^[3] De soort werd voor het eerst wetenschappelijk beschreven door Karl Patterson Schmidt in 1857. Oorspronkelijk werd de wetenschappelijke naam Dendrobates pumilio gebruikt. De soort behoorde lange tijd tot het geslacht Dendrobates.

Uiterlijke kenmerken

De aardbeikikker is meestal makkelijk te herkennen aan de rode voorzijde die ongeveer twee derde uitmaakt en de donkerblauwe achterzijde. Ook is de lengte niet groter dan 3 centimeter en daaraan is de wetenschappelijke soortnaam te danken, want pumilus betekent dwerg. Lang niet alle exemplaren hebben echter de roodblauwe kleurencombinatie; geheel blauwe, gele en groene kleuren komen ook voor, soms in combinatie met zwarte vlekken of strepen. Ook zijn er andere soorten die gemakkelijk verward kunnen worden met de aardbeikikker, waardoor determinatie met het blote oog niet altijd mogelijk is. Over sommige ondersoorten bestaat dan ook discussie.

Uit onderzoek aan de universiteit van Leiden werd duidelijk dat de kleur van de aardbeikikker niet alleen is ter afschrikking van predatoren, maar dat vrouwtjes ook een voorkeur hebben voor feller gekleurde mannetjes. Dit is zodanig, dat er zelfs seksuele dimorfie door kan ontstaan in een populatie.^[4]

De huid van de aardbeikikker bevat zogenaamde pumiliotoxines, een groep van aanverwante giftige verbindingen.

Levenswijze

Het voedsel van deze volledig terrestrische kikkers bestaat uit kleine diertjes zoals mieren, kevertjes, luizen en mijten. Het gif dat in de prooien zit wordt door de kikkers 'hergebruikt', en naar de huid getransporteerd waar ze het voor de eigen verdediging gebruiken.

Voortplanting

Net zoals alle Oophaga- soorten kent de aardbeikikker een speciale vorm van broedzorg. Nadat een koppeltje elkaar na een kort paringsritueel gevonden heeft, wordt er naar ei-afzetplaatsen gezocht, waarna er eitjes worden gelegd op een tak tussen de bladeren of mos die door de mannetjes bewaakt en verzorgd worden. Nadat de kikkervisjes zijn uitgekomen, nemen de vrouwtjes ze op de rug en brengen ze naar een ander water, meestal in waterreservoirs in planten (Phytotelma), zoals de kelkvormige Bromelia- soorten of bladoksels. Omdat er in dit soort watertjes geen voedsel is, worden de larven gevoerd met zogenaamde voedseleitjes, eitjes die enkel dienen om het nageslacht groot te brengen.

In juli 2005 slaagde de ZOO Antwerpen erin om aardbeikikkers zich in gevangenschap te laten voortplanten, iets wat voorheen nog niet was gelukt. Sinds 2004 houdt men in Diergaarde Blijdorp in Rotterdam aardbeikikkers. In 2011 werden daar de eerste drie aardbeikikkers geboren.

Verspreiding

De aardbeikikker komt voor in delen van Midden-Amerika en komt voor in de landen Nicaragua, Panama en Costa Rica.^[5] Het biotoop bestaat uit dichtbegroeide regenwouden waar het erg warm en vochtig is, met veel bemoste takken en een voedselrijke strooisellaag. Deze strooisellaag bevindt zich niet alleen op de bodem, maar ook op brede takken van grote bomen.

Externe link

• Op deze kaart staat per populatie de kleurenvariatie aangegeven, met foto's van de variaties.

Referenties

Bronnen

• (nl) - Dendrobatidae Nederland - Oophaga pumilio - Website
• (en) - Animal Diversity Web - Website
• (en) - Darrel R. Frost - Amphibian Species of the World: an online reference - Version 6.0 - American Museum of Natural History - Oophaga pumilio - Website Geconsulteerd 23 februari 2017
• (en) - University of California - AmphibiaWeb - Oophaga pumilio - Website

Drzewołaz karłowaty (Oophaga pumilio^[3]) – gatunek płaza bezogonowego z rodziny drzewołazowatych

Zasięg występowania

Występuje w Ameryce Środkowej^[2].

Budowa ciała

Osiąga długość 25 mm. Jest najmniejszym z drzewołazów. ^[4]

Ubarwienie grzbietowej strony ciała jest jaskrawoczerwone z czarnymi kropkami, kończyny zaś są niebieskoczarne.^[4]

Biologia i ekologia

Występuje w wilgotnych lasach tropikalnych^[4], gdzie spotykany jest na ziemi i na drzewach.

Zjada niewielkie owady i pająki a także mechowce, z których pozyskuje alkaloidy do produkcji trucizny^[5].

Samica składa 4 do 6 jaj. Żyje od 1 do 3 lat.

Przypisy

• Allophrynidae
• Alsodidae
• Alytidae – ropuszkowate
• Aromobatidae
• Arthroleptidae – artroleptowate
• Ascaphidae – ogończakowate
• Batrachylidae
• Bombinatoridae – kumakowate
• Brachycephalidae
• Brevicipitidae
• Bufonidae – ropuchowate
• Calyptocephalellidae
• Centrolenidae – szklenicowate
• Ceratobatrachidae
• Ceratophryidae
• Conrauidae
• Craugastoridae
• Cycloramphidae
• Dendrobatidae – drzewołazowate
• Dicroglossidae
• Eleutherodactylidae
• Heleophrynidae – straszakowate
• Hemiphractidae
• Hemisotidae – prosiakowate
• Hylidae – rzekotkowate
• Hylodidae
• Hyperoliidae – sitówkowate
• Leiopelmatidae – liopelmowate
• Leptodactylidae – świstkowate
• Limnodynastidae
• Mantellidae – mantellowate
• Megophryidae
• Micrixalidae
• Microhylidae – wąskopyskowate
• Myobatrachidae – żółwinkowate
• Nasikabatrachidae
• Nyctibatrachidae
• Odontobatrachidae
• Odontophrynidae
• Pelobatidae – grzebiuszkowate
• Pelodryadidae
• Pelodytidae – nurzańcowate
• Petropedetidae
• Phrynobatrachidae
• Phyllomedusidae
• Pipidae – grzbietorodowate
• Ptychadenidae
• Pyxicephalidae
• Ranidae – żabowate
• Ranixalidae
• Rhacophoridae – nogolotkowate
• Rhinodermatidae
• Rhinophrynidae – nosatkowate
• Scaphiopodidae
• Sooglossidae – seszelkowate
• Telmatobiidae

A rela-morango ou rã-morango (Oophaga pumilio) é uma espécie de anfíbio da família Dendrobatidae. Pode ser encontrada na Nicarágua, Costa Rica e Panamá.^[2]

Referências

Pralesnička drobná alebo stromárka drobná (Dendrobates pumilio) je žaba z čeľade drevolezovité (Dendrobatidae).

Je to vzácna, oranžovo zafarbená jedovatá žaba. Jej jed využívajú indiáni na hroty šípov. Obýva mangrové porasty v Strednej a Južnej Amerike.

Iné projekty

• Commons ponúka multimediálne súbory na tému Pralesnička drobná
• Wikidruhy ponúkajú informácie na tému Pralesnička drobná

• 1 Опис
• 2 Спосіб життя
• 3 Розповсюдження
• 4 Джерела

Oophaga pumilio là một loài ếch phi tiêu độc nhỏ được tìm thấy ở Trung Mỹ. Loài này phổ biến trên toàn phạm vi phân bố của nó, kéo dài từ phía đông miền trung Nicaragua qua Costa Rica và tây bắc Panama. Loài này thường được tìm thấy ở vùng đất thấp ẩm và rừng đồi núi, nhưng quần thể lớn cũng được tìm thấy trong khu vực bị xáo trộn như các đồn điền. Loài này có lẽ nổi tiếng nhất về màu sắc với 15-30 kiểu màu sắc khác nhau.^[2] Oophaga pumilio nổi tiếng bởi các biến thể màu sắc của chúng, gồm khoảng độ 15–30 biến thể màu.^[3]

Hành vi

Loài này sống vào ban ngày và thường trên mặt đất. Loài này tương đối nhỏ, chỉ lớn khoảng 17.5–22 mm.^[2] Con đực chiến giữ một khu đất nhỏ và không cho con ếch nào vào khu vực của nó;^[4] Con cái và con non có tập tính xã hội hơn.

Chú thích

Bài viết ếch phi tiêu độc này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.

• x
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• s

Маленький древолаз^[1] (лат. Oophaga pumilio) — маленькая тропическая лягушка из семейства древолазов.

Описание

Длина 17—24 мм. Кожа относительно гладкая. Спина ярко-красного цвета с небольшими чёрными пятнами. Ноги обычно чёрного или чёрно-синего цвета. Живот красного цвета, иногда красно-синего, коричневого или белого.

Икринки откладываются на листья группами по 3—17 яиц. Самцы охраняют их 5—15 дней, пока они не разовьются в головастиков. Затем самка относит их в водосодержащие пазухи древесных растений, таких как бромелиевые, и оставляет в этих мини-бассейнах головастиков поодиночке. Периодически она возвращается к головастикам и откладывает неоплодотворённые икринки, которые служат головастикам пищей. Самка в состоянии поддерживать существование до 6 головастиков. Через 6—8 недель, когда лягушата достигают длины 11 мм, они покидают воду.

Взрослые особи питаются в основном муравьями, но едят и других мелких насекомых и пауков. Токсины, содержащиеся в муравьях, концентрируются в кожных железах, превращаясь в смертельный яд.

Яркая окраска имеет несколько назначений. Во-первых, она предупреждает хищников, что амфибия ядовита. Во-вторых, яркие самцы защищают свою территорию сильнее, и тем раньше реагируют на появление конкурента, чем он ярче. В-третьих, самки выбирают более ярких самцов.

Древолазы могут существовать только во влажной среде. Они передвигаются в тени по земле или по ветвям низких кустарников. Подвижные и ловкие лягушки делают короткие прыжки и только в исключительных случаях останавливаются и замирают на месте. Присоски на пальцах их лапок помогают удерживаться на растениях.

Распространение

Встречаются в тропических лесах Карибского побережья Центральной Америки, от Никарагуа до Панамы, до 960 м от уровня моря.

Интересные факты

У древолазов есть только один враг — уж (лат. Leimado)^{[источник не указан 3258 дней]}, на которого их яд не действует.

Примечания

草莓箭毒蛙（学名：Oophaga pumilio），又名草莓毒刺蛙，是在中美洲的一類箭毒蛙，集中在哥斯達黎加。

草莓箭毒蛙雖是一個物種，但有很大的變異，其下有超過30個不同的顏色形態。除了顏色上的不同外，不同的形態在棲息地、體型、發聲及親代照顧行為上均有所不同。鈷藍形態是最廣為人知的一類。大部份的形態成體平均長18-20毫米。

草莓箭毒蛙鮮艷的警戒態表明牠的皮膚上有不同的毒素。這些毒素令牠們有難聞的氣味，驅趕掠食者。草莓箭毒蛙的毒素不足以嚴重傷害人類。

草莓箭毒蛙類中包含了疣背箭毒蛙、桔紅箭毒蛙及威氏箭毒蛙。牠們的近親是小丑箭毒蛙類，當中包含了小丑箭毒蛙自己及O. duellmani。這兩類都會照顧產下的卵及蝌蚪。

Oophaga是2006年新成立的屬。^[2]以往草莓箭毒蛙是分類在箭毒蛙屬中，而這個分類仍然廣泛使用。

生殖及照顧

在兩棲類的世界中，草莓箭毒蛙及其相關的青蛙以高度照顧卵及蝌蚪而聞名。交配後，雌性會在樹葉或鳳梨科葉脈產下3-5顆卵。雄性會確保卵的濕潤，利用牠的泄殖腔來輸送水份。約10日卵孵化後，雌性會揹蝌蚪到有沙的地方。有罕有的情況下，雄性亦會揹送蝌蚪，但究竟是有意或是只是巧合則不得而知。鳳梨科的葉脈是草莓箭毒蛙產卵的勝地，而牠們亦會在其他適合的地方，如樹孔、小土丘或人類垃圾的鋁罐中產卵。

每個位點只會放下一隻蝌蚪，因為牠們是同類相食的。一旦安放好蝌蚪後，雌性每隔幾日就會到蝌蚪的位點產下未受精卵作為食物。有研究曾以其他的食物（如藻類及其他箭毒蛙的卵）來餵養蝌蚪，但都很難成功。可見牠們是必須照顧蝌蚪，否則牠們很難生存或成長。

約1個月後，蝌蚪會變態成小蛙。牠們一般會留在原有地方幾日，待尾巴完全消失。

飼養

由於草莓箭毒蛙吸引的顏色及獨有的生命週期，故牠是很受歡迎的寵物。於1990年代，牠們已經由不同的地方輸入美國及歐洲。不過由於已停止運送，草莓箭毒蛙已變得不普遍及很少選擇。在歐洲，有較多不同的草莓箭毒蛙供選擇，很多都是走私入境或是其後代。雖然走私草莓箭毒蛙在其他地方很少見，但牠們仍然殺死大量的動物及破壞棲息地。現時有草莓箭毒蛙從中美洲出口，這樣大大提升了牠們的數量。

形態

Bastimentos種

Bastimentos種

Bastimentos種一般有三個形態，分別為紅色、黃色或白色，背及腳上有黑點。牠們分佈在巴拿馬的Bastimentos島上，相信是某程度上真實遺傳的，而非混種而來。

鈷藍種

鈷藍種在美江相對較稀有^{[來源請求]}。牠們大部份都是於1990年代引入美國，或是其後代。牠們的身體是紅色，而四肢是藍色。牠們在照顧蝌蚪上一般都很差，可能是照顧及食性上的問題引致。現時有一種科技可以從較普遍的種，如Man Creek種或Bastimentos種轉變出鈷藍種的蝌蚪。鈷藍種分佈在哥斯達黎加，數量非常豐富。

奇里基種

奇里基種一般都是綠色的，一些是紅色的，有時有些身體呈黃色而四肢呈藍綠色。奇里基種是在大奇里基或奇里基河中捕獲的。由於正確的位點並不清楚，所以很難說是大奇里種或是奇里基河種。

Man Creek種

Man Creek種非常像鈷藍種，有時甚至會彼此混淆。一些Man Creek種的四肢是藍色的，但從眼睛就可以分辨牠們。不過，Man Creek種其實四肢一般都是有灰色的，而前肢沒有灰色的亦很普遍。

參考

外部連結

• Dart Den
• DendroBoard
• Frognet^{[永久失效連結]}
• Dendrobatesworld

Dendrobates typographus
Keferstein, 1867 Dendrobates ignitus　Cope, 1874
Dendrobates galindoi　Trapido, 1953

イチゴヤドクガエル（苺矢毒蛙、Dendrobates pumilio）は、ヤドクガエル科ヤドクガエル属に分類されるカエル。

分布[編集]

コスタリカ、ニカラグア、パナマ西部

形態[編集]

最大体長2-2.5cmとヤドクガエル属でも小型種。種小名pumilioは「小さい」の意。

本種の持つ毒はプミリオトキシンというアルカロイド系毒物である。プリミオトキシンの摂取元はアリやテントウムシと考えられていたが、新たに2004年に京都大学の桑原保正教授らによってパナマに棲息するササラダニ類のScheloribates属の成虫にプリミオトキシン類が含まれていることが確認された^[1]。このため、イチゴヤドクガエルは食物から毒物を摂取して体内に蓄積していると考えられている。

分類[編集]

胴体が赤く四肢が暗青色なのが一般的だが、体色の個体変異や地域変異が大きく、黒や黄色、緑色などの体色で斑紋が入ったり逆に斑紋が入らない個体もいる。これらの変異種が別種として記載された事もある。

生態[編集]

熱帯雨林に生息する。地表棲。オスは約300cmの縄張りを形成して生活する。

食性は動物食で、小型昆虫やダニなどを食べる。

繁殖形態は卵生。落ち葉の下などにオスが放精し、その上にメスが卵を産む。孵化した幼生はメスが背中に乗せて葉腋などの水場へ運ぶ。メスは幼生を運んだ水場を巡回して、無精卵を産んで幼生に食物として与えるエッグフィーダーという特異な繁殖形態を持つ。

四肢の青さのためにジーンズを履いているようだということでブルージーンと呼ばれることもある。

人間との関係[編集]

ペットとして飼育される事もあり、日本にも輸入されている。前述のようにエッグフィーダーという特殊な繁殖形態を持つため飼育下繁殖が難しく主にWild Caughtと呼ばれる野生個体が流通する。これら野生個体は毒性が強いために手袋をして触るなど取り扱いには注意を要する。

オスの縄張り意識が強いため、基本的には単独もしくはペアで飼育する。小型種であるため、餌には市販の栄養剤をまぶしたショウジョウバエを与える。

関連項目[編集]

• ヤドクガエル属
• ヤドクガエル

参考文献[編集]

• 海老沼剛 『爬虫・両生類ビジュアルガイド カエル2 南北アメリカ大陸と周辺の島々のカエル』、誠文堂新光社、2006年、80-81頁。
• 海老沼剛 『かえる大百科』、マリン企画、2008年、49頁。
• 杉山伸 「小さな蛙の毒の不思議」『クリーパー』第24号、クリーパー社、2004年、91頁。
• 千石正一監修 長坂拓也編著 『爬虫類・両生類800種図鑑 第3版』、ピーシーズ、2002年、265頁。
• 『小学館の図鑑NEO 両生・はちゅう類』、小学館、2004年、36頁。

1. ^ ｄ）ダニ類の化学生態学, 生命・食料・環境 2004,京都大学農学研究科／農学部, p216, ISSN 1880-6163.

外部リンク[編集]

• The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
  • Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Neil Cox 2008. Oophaga pumilio. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2.

딸기독화살개구리(영어: strawberry poison-dart frog)는 중앙아메리카에서 발견되는 소형 독화살개구리 종으로,^[2] 딸기독화살개구리속의 모식종이다. 니카라과 중동부에서 코스타리카를 거쳐 파나마 서북부에 이르기까지 널리 분포한다. 주로 습한 저지대나 산기슭의 삼림에 살지만, 농장 같은 곳에서도 발견된다.^[3] 딸기독화살개구리는 그 몸색깔의 변종이 심한 것으로도 유명하다. 15-30여개의 색깔 형질이 존재하며 그 중 대부분이 잡종이 아닌 순수육종이다.^[4] 딸기독화살개구리는 가장 독성이 강한 독화살개구리는 아니지만, 자기 속 중에서는 가장 독성이 강하다.^[5]

각주