Carvalho Branco

More info for the terms: fire intensity, forest, severity, tree

Oaks tend to be less susceptible to fire during the dormant season
[100].  Mean white oak mortality after fires in the dormant season was
23 percent, as compared with 69 percent after fires occurring in the
growing season.  Individuals of poor vigor are less likely to heal than
healthy vigorous specimens.  Oaks growing in overstocked stands
typically are less vigorous and thus more susceptible to fire damage.
Crooked or leaning trees are particularly susceptible to damage because
the flames are more likely to be directly below the stem, thereby
increasing the amount of heat received at the bark's surface.  Higher
fire intensity and severity increase mortality and serious injury.
Topographic factors such as aspect and slope can also influence
mortality [78].  Fire mortality also varies with the size of the tree;
fire is more likely to kill smaller white oaks than large ones [76].  A
fire in an oak-pine stand in New Jersey killed 44 percent of trees 1
inch in d.b.h., 5 percent of tree 2 to 4 inches in d.b.h., but no trees
greater than 5 inches in d.b.h. were killed [76].

Toole [117] reported that approximately 20 percent of white oaks
examined were uninjured by fire despite discolored bark.  Bark sloughed
off wounded white oaks within 5 years [117].  Following an early-season
fire in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey, some white oaks exhibited
partial crown mortality later in the summer, while others showed no
evidence of significant crown damage [14].  White oak is reportedly
susceptible to fire scars [93] which can permit the entry of insects or
decay that may ultimately kill the tree [100].  However, Kaufert [63]
reported that 50 percent of all fire scars on white oak had healed
within 15 years in a southern bottomland forest [63].  Studies suggest
that basal wounding does not affect growth rates [59].

Large white oaks can survive bark scorch up to two-thirds of their
circumferences [100].  Mortality equations based on d.b.h., and the
width and height of bark blackening have been developed for white oak
[55,78,86].  These equations can be useful in predicting if a
fire-damaged oak will survive [78].

More info for the terms: density, hardwood, prescribed fire

Postfire increases in white oak have been documented as follows after
fire in a mixed hardwood community of Rhode Island [22]:

size class              burned                        unburned
                  density %   BA %              density %       BA %

overstory         42.7        23.40             23.6            27.60
1-10 ft. tall     42.4        -----             17.0            ----
< 1 ft. tall      42.3        -----             28.7            ----         

The following Research Project Summaries and a Research Paper by Bowles and others 2007

provide information on managment using prescribed fire and postfire response of

several plant species, including white oak, that was not available when this species

review was written:

• Effects of surface fires in a mixed red and eastern white pine stand in Michigan


• Early postfire effects of a prescribed fire in the southern Appalachians
  of North Carolina


• Early postfire response of southern Appalachian Table Mountain-pitch
  pine stands to prescribed fires in North Carolina and Virginia

white oak
stave oak
ridge white oak
forked-leaf white oak
fork-leaf oak

More info for the terms: cover, tree

White oak provides good cover for a wide variety of birds and mammals.
Oak leaves often persist longer than many other plant associates and in
some areas, young oaks may represent the only brushy winter cover in
dense pole stands [120].  Oaks frequently serve as perching or nesting
sites for various songbirds [29].  The well-developed crowns provide
shelter and hiding cover for small mammals such as tree squirrels.  Many
birds and mammals use twigs and leaves as nesting materials [90].  Large
oaks provide denning sites for a variety of mammals [29].

More info for the terms: monoecious, tree

White oak is a medium to large, spreading, deciduous tree which commonly
reaches 60 to 80 feet (18-24 m) in height [31,53,131].  On favorable
sites, individuals may grow to more than 100 feet (30 m) in height and
exceed 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter [19,108].  White oak is slow-growing
and long-lived (up to 600 years) [35].

White oak is monoecious [131].  Yellowish staminate catkins are borne at
the base of new growth, whereas reddish pistillate catkins grow in the
axils of new growth [119,131,148].  The short-stalked, glabrous, ovoid
acorns are tan to brown [31,53,108].  Acorns are generally borne in
pairs [31].  The rough, warty cup covers approximately 33 to 50 percent
of the nut [31,55,131].

White oak grows throughout much of the eastern United States from
southwest Maine to northern Florida, Alabama, and Georgia [53,83,148].
It extends westward throughout southern Ontario and Quebec into central
Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and southeastern Minnesota and south to
southwestern Iowa, eastern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas
[55,83]. Little [83] reported that white oak may have been eliminated
from southeastern Nebraska.

The best growing conditions for white oak occur on the western slope of
the Appalachian Mountains and in the Ohio Valley and central Mississippi
Valley [148].  White oak is mostly absent from conifer-dominated stands
at higher elevations within the Appalachian Mountains and from the lower
Mississippi Delta and coastal areas of Texas and Louisiana [148].

The variety latiloba occurs at the northern edge of the species' range
[47].  The range of var. repanda is poorly documented, but it has been
reported in parts of New England [117].

More info for the terms: fire frequency, fire regime, fire suppression, frequency, root crown

White oak is unable to regenerate beneath the shade of parent trees and
relies on periodic fires for its perpetuation.  The exclusion of fire
has inhibited white oak regeneration through much of its range [121].
Following fire, white oak typically sprouts from the root crown or
stump.  Some postfire seedling establishment may also occur on favorable
sites during favorable years.

Northeast and central states:  Fire has played an important role in
deciduous forests of the eastern United States [100,128].  Evidence
suggests that most oaks (Quercus spp.) are favored by a regime of
relatively frequent fire.  Many present-day oak forests may have
developed in response to recurrent fire.  Declines of oak forests have
been noted throughout much of the East and are often attributed to
reduced fire frequency [2,7,100].
 
The Southeast:  Fire was also a major influence in presettlement forests
of the Southeast [121,123].  In the southern Appalachians, many
present-day oak stands may have developed 60 to 100 years ago with
widespread burning associated with agricultural activities or timber
harvest.  Increased fire suppression has evidently favored more
shade-tolerant hardwoods and resulted in a decrease in oaks [123].

Oak savannas:  White oak formerly assumed importance in open oak
savannas of Wisconsin and Iowa, but with increased fire suppression,
fire-tolerant species such as white oak are being replaced by sugar
maple and other more shade-tolerant species.  Many open savannas are
being converted to dense, forested stands [19,37].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".

More info for the term: series

Prescribed fire can be an important tool for regenerating oak stands.
Fire may favor seedling establishment by creating suitable seedbeds and
reducing competing vegetation [100].  A series of low-intensity
prescribed fires prior to timber harvest can promote advanced
regeneration [123].  In the southern Appalachians, biennial summer burns
are often most effective in promoting advance regeneration [123].
Single preharvest or postharvest burns generally have little effect
[123].

Protein content of white oak browse was higher during the year following
low- and high-intensity burns [36].  Calcium levels also tend to
increase in twigs on recently burned sites [11].  Changes in nutritive
value after fire have been documented [11,12,36].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte

More info for the terms: association, hardwood, herbaceous, mesic, tree, woodland

White oak grows in rich uplands, moist bottomlands, along streams, on
hammocks, sinks, sandy plains, and on dry, gravelly slopes
[17,28,30,99,116].  It occurs on all upland aspects, and slope positions
[99], but in the southern Appalachians, it exhibits best growth on
northern lower slopes and in coves [32].  White oak is absent on
ridgetops with shallow soil, on poorly drained flats, and on very wet
bottomlands [99].  Latitude, aspect, and topography are important
factors influencing the distribution of white oak within its range [99].
White oak grows in a variety of dry to mesic woodland communities [131]
including pine-oak-hickory woods, beech-maple, and mixed hardwood
forests [30,131].  It also occurs in relatively open post oak savanna
[110] and oak savanna codominated by bur oak [8].

Plant associates:  White oak grows in pure or mixed stands in the
Southeast [38] but towards the northern portion of its range it rarely
occurs in pure stands [57].  Important tree associates are numerous and
include beech (Fagus grandifolia), sugar maple, black cherry (Prunus
serotina), white ash (Fraxinus americana), yellow poplar, shortleaf pine
(Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (P. taeda), eastern white pine (P.
strobus), jack pine (P. banksiana), eastern hemlock, sweet gum, black
gum (Nyssa sylvatica), American basswood (Tilia americana), shagbark
hickory (Carya ovata), and other hickories (Carya spp.)  [28,57,83,110].
Scarlet oak, post oak, bur oak, black oak, and northern red oak are also
important associates [99], Upland oaks and hickories are the most common
associates [99].  Many herbaceous species grow in association with white
oak.

Climate:  White oak is often associated with a cool, temperate,
continental climate [12] but can grow under a variety of climatic
regimes [99].  Mean average temperatures range from 45 degrees F (7 deg
C) in the North to 70 degrees F (21 deg C) in eastern Texas and northern
Florida [32].  Annual precipitation averages 80 inches (203 cm) in the
southern Appalachians but is less than 30 inches (77 cm) in southern
Minnesota [99].  Growing season length ranges from 5 months in the North
to 9 months in the South [99].

Soils:  White oak grows on a wide variety of soils [28] derived from
many types of parent materials [42].  It grows on silty loam, clay loam,
silty clay loam, fine sand, and loamy clay [12,43,110] but grows best on
deep, well-drained loamy soils.  Low soil-nutrient levels limit growth
of white oak only on sandy soils [99].  White oak is common on rocky
soils [116].

Elevation:  White oak grows from sea level to 5,900 feet (0-1,800 m)
[38].  In the North, it generally grows under 500 feet (152 m) in
elevation, but in the southern Appalachians, it grows as a "scrub tree"
at 4,500 feet (1,372 m) [99].  It is absent from higher elevations in
the northern Appalachians.  In the Smoky Mountains, two populations are
separated by an elevational gap of 1,000 feet (305 m) [130].  White oak
grows below 2,000 feet (610 m) in the Cumberland Mountains [130].

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the terms: hardwood, swamp

    14  Northern pin oak
    15  Red pine
    19  Gray birch - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    22  White pine - hemlock
    23  Eastern hemlock
    26  Sugar maple - basswood
    27  Sugar maple
    40  Post oak - blackjack oak
    42  Bur oak
    43  Bear oak
    44  Chestnut oak
    45  Pitch pine
    46  Eastern redcedar
    51  White pine - chestnut oak
    52  White oak - black oak - northern red oak
    53  White oak
    55  Northern red oak
    57  Yellow poplar
    58  Yellow poplar - eastern hemlock
    59  Yellow poplar - white oak - northern red oak
    60  Beech - sugar maple
    61  River birch - sycamore
    64  Sassafras - persimmon
    65  Pin oak - sweetgum
    75  Shortleaf pine
    76  Shortleaf pine - oak
    78  Virginia pine - oak
    80  Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
    81  Loblolly pine
    82  Loblolly pine - hardwood
    91  Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
   110  Black oak

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

   FRES10  White - red - jack pine
   FRES12  Longleaf - slash pine
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES14  Oak - pine
   FRES15  Oak - hickory
   FRES16  Oak - gum - cypress
   FRES18  Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19  Aspen - birch

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

   K081  Oak savanna
   K089  Blackbelt
   K095  Great Lakes pine forest
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K103  Mixed mesophytic forest
   K104  Appalachian oak forest
   K111  Oak - hickory - pine
   K112  Southern mixed forest
   K113  Southern floodplain forest

More info for the terms: fire severity, severity, tree

White oak is moderately resistant to fire [44,59].  Aerial portions may
be killed by fire [11], but underground regenerative structures
protected by overlying soil usually survive [10,76].  The rough, scaly
bark of white oak is more fire-resistant than the solid bark of many
other oaks [114].  Oaks typically become more fire resistant as the bark
thickens with age [51].

Most oaks will survive periodic fires.  In parts of the New Jersey Pine
Region, most white oaks 25 years and older possessed fire scars; four
fire scars were observed on a 65-year old tree [76].  However, frequent
fires can damage or kill white oaks, and recurrent fires at less than
8-year intervals could eliminate white oak [77].

Approximately 76 percent of white oaks were killed following fire in a
loblolly pine stand in Virginia [4], and an estimated 56.5 percent were
killed after a fire in a New Jersey pine-oak community [106].  Many of
the observed differences in susceptibility of oaks to fire can be
attributed to variation in fire severity and intensity, site
characteristics, plant age or size, form, vigor, season of burn, and
stocking levels [100].

Most acorns are characterized by a relatively high moisture content.  As
the moisture within the acorns is heated, the seeds swell and often
rupture [100].  Therefore, "average" fires kill all white oak acorns
present on-site [44].

More info for the term: mast

Browse:  The young shoots of many eastern oak species are readily eaten
by deer [57].  Dried oak leaves are also occasionally eaten by
white-tailed deer in the fall or winter [120].  Rabbits often browse
twigs and can girdle stems [57].  The porcupine feeds on the bark, and
beavers eat twigs of white oaks [135].

Acorns:  Acorns of white oak are considered choice food for many
wildlife species [118], including the white-footed mouse, fox squirrel,
black bear, pine mouse, red squirrel, and cottontail rabbits
[22,27,135].  The gray squirrel consumes white oak acorns but prefers
the acorns of other oak species [80].  Many birds, including the
bluejay, northern bobwhite, mallard, ring-necked pheasant, greater
prairie chicken, ruffed grouse, and wild turkey, eat white oak acorns
[60,66,135].  In some areas, the abundance of fall mast crops, such as
acorns, can affect black bear reproductive success during the following
year [44].  Sprouted acorns are often eaten by deer, mice, and bobwhite
[135].

More info for the terms: cover, forest

White oak grows as a dominant in many communities and as a major species
in several cover types [95,96].  Common codominants within the overstory
include northern red oak (Quercus rubra), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea),
northern pin oak (Q. ellipsoidalis), black oak (Q. velutinus), beech
(Fagus spp.), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), chestnut (Castanea
dentata), red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (A. saccharum), and
hickories (Carya spp.).  Understory dominants or codominants include
deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum), leadplant (Amorpha canescens), trailing
arbutus (Epigaea repens), huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.), meadow-rue
(Thalictrum spp.), and false Solomon's-seal (Smilacina racemosa). 

Published classifications listing white oak as an indicator or dominant
in habitat types (hts) are presented below:

Area              Classification                Authority

   AL             general veg. cts              Golden 1979
 s IL             general veg. cts              Fralish 1976
   IN             general veg. cts              Keith 1983
ne IA             general veg. cts              Cahayla-Wynne &
                                                Glenn-Lewin 1978
   MI             general veg. cts              Hammitt and Barnes 1989
                  general veg. eas              Pregitzer and Ramm 1984
 n MI, ne WI      forest hts                    Coffman and others 1980
sw OH             general veg. cts              Braun 1936
 e TN             general veg. cts              Martin and DeSelm 1976
n WI              forest hts                    Kotar and others 1988
Smoky Mtns        general veg. cts              Whittaker 1956

More info for the term: tree

Tree

More info for the term: seed

Chemical control:  Oaks often produce basal sprouts in response to
herbicide treatments [50].

Damage:  White oak can be damaged by frost or drought.  It is also
sensitive to periodic flooding [64].

Environmental considerations:  White oak is sensitive to excessive ozone
[64].

Grazing:  Intensive grazing can reduce the number of trees present and
aid in the regeneration of white oak through seed [8].

Wildlife considerations:  Acorns are a particularly important food
source for black bears in many areas.  Acorn crop failures have been
correlated with increases in damage to crops, livestock, and beehives by
bears [112].

More info for the term: fire management

Browse:  The nutritional value of white oak browse varies
geographically, and with site history and phenological development.
Annual variation has also been observed [40].  Foliar nitrogen content
was measured at 1.40 percent in Tennessee but averaged only 0.7 percent
in New York [114].  The calcium content of leaves tends to increase
slowly as the growing season progresses [15].  Calcium levels of twigs,
and protein and phosphorus content of the foliage, are generally higher
on recently burned sites [12,15,40].  Total solids, ash, ether extract,
crude fiber, and N-free extract appear to be unaffected by fire [40].
[see Fire Management Considerations].  Winter nutrient content of white
oak browse in Texas has been documented as follows [78]:

protein     fat     fiber     N-free     ash    phosphoric    Ca
                              extract           acid
                  percent at 15 percent moisture

  3.89      1.46    34.22      42.43     3.00     0.13        1.67

Acorns:  Acorns are nutritious [57] and high in carbohydrates [59].
White oak acorns are relatively low in protein, crude fiber, and
potassium [16,123,142] but high in digestible cell contents such as
fats, starches, sugars, and pectins [123].  White oak acorns tend to be
lower in fats than the acorns of many other oak species [124].  Primary
stored energy reserves are in the form of carbohydrates [16].  Specific
nutritional values are reported below [123,124]:

crude       crude      crude     Si     Ca     P     ash    N-free
protein     fat        fiber                                extract
                              percent dry weight -

5.9         4.3        18.7     0.01   0.15    0.09   ---    ---
4.6         5.8        18.6     0.06   0.18    0.09   2.7    68.3            

Tannin levels of white oak acorns are relatively low, generally ranging
from 0.5 to 2.5 percent [126].  Lipid concentrations are also low,
averaging 5 to 10 percent [126].  However, Lewis [80] reported tannin
and lipid levels of 2.94 and 4.6 percent, respectively.  Metabolizable
energy content has been estimated at 72 percent [80].

Taproot:  The taproot of white oak is high in fibers, lignin, and
cellulose [126].

     AL  AR  CT  DE  FL  GA  IL  IN  IA  KS
     KY  LA  ME  MA  MI  MN  MS  MO  NE  NH
     NJ  NY  NC  OH  OK  PA  RI  SC  TN  TX
     VT  VA  WV  WI  ON  PQ

More info for the term: tree

Acorns were traditionally an important food source for many Native
American peoples [134].  White oak acorns have been described variously
as sweet and edible [131] and as slightly bitter [43].  The acorns were
often boiled to remove bitter tannins [35].  Oils obtained from pressed
acorns were used to alleviate pain in the joints [63].

White oak is commonly used in landscaping [125] and is often planted as
a shade tree or ornamental [43,148.  Its colorful purplish-red to
violet-purple foliage enhances its ornamental value in autumn [125,148].
White oak was first cultivated in 1724 [99].

The palatability of oak browse is relatively high for domestic livestock
and for many wildlife species [135].  Eastern oaks are preferred by
white-tailed deer in some locations [135].  New growth is particularly
palatable to deer and rabbits [57].

The acorns of most oaks are highly palatable to many species of birds
and mammals [57,90].  Palatability of white oak acorns to fox squirrels,
and presumably to some other species, declines after the acorns have
sprouted [123].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: fruit

Leaves begin to develop and new shoots are initiated in mid-March to
late May, depending on geographic location [99].  The timing of bud
break is largely dependent on latitude [99] but also depends on soil
nutrient levels [18] and weather.  Bell and others [18] observed delayed
budbreak on copper, lead, and zinc-mineralized sites.  Most vegetative
growth takes place during the spring, with up to 50 percent of seedling
height growth attained in April [99].  Fowells [42] reported that
seedling height growth was 90 percent complete by July 1.  Plants may
become dormant in late fall, although leaves commonly persist into
winter [28].

Flowering generally occurs in spring when the new leaves are elongating
[32] but varies according to latitude, weather conditions, and with the
genetic composition of individual trees [99,104,105].  Flowering can
occur from late March to May [99] or June [103].  In Pennsylvania,
pistillate catkins emerge in late April or May, approximately 5 to 10
days after the emergence of staminate flowers [105].  Sharp and Chisman
[104] observed trees within the same population flowering early (May 5
to May 11) and late (May 13 to May 19).  Three distinct waves of
flowering (early, middle, and late) have been reported.  Warm weather
speeds up floral development, which begins after exposure to minimum
temperatures of 50 degrees F (10 deg C) for at least 10 days [104].
Pollen is generally shed within 3 days, but light winds can accelerate
shedding [104].  Pollen shedding is often delayed by prolonged rainy
weather [104]. 

Acorns typically ripen approximately 120 days after pollination [99].
In Pennsylvania, embryos generally begin development after July 24, grow
rapidly by August 4, and reach full size by August 25 [105].  Acorns
fall from the trees by September or October [99,105].  Generalized
flowering and fruit ripening dates by geographic location are as
follows:

Location          Flowering         Fruit ripe        Authority

PA                April-May         ----              Sharp and Sprague 1967
NC, SC            April             Sept.-Nov.        Radford and others 1968
New England       May 21-June 3     ----              Seymour 1985
Blue Ridge Mtns.  April-May         ----              Wofford 1989
Adirondack Mtns.  May               Sept.             Chapman & Besette 1990 
nc Great Plains   May               Oct.              Stephens 1973          
WV                ----              Oct. 3            Park 1942

More info for the terms: density, fire severity, root crown, seed, severity

White oak commonly sprouts vigorously from the stump or root crown after
aboveground portions of the plant are damaged or killed [11,99].
Sprouting depends on such factors as plant vigor [84], genetic
composition, size, and fire severity and intensity.  White oak probably
stump-sprouts after moderate fires [51], and when completely top-killed,
underground portions often regenerate [100].  Hannah [51] reported that
the "best" sprouts often originate from buds located at or below ground
level.  These sprouts may be more vigorous and less susceptible to rot
or other damage.

White oak seedlings generally sprout after fire, and in many instances,
numbers remain essentially unchanged [97].  Damaged seedlings can often
resprout several times and may ultimately grow beyond the
fire-susceptible stage [51].  Seedlings often develop an enlarged root
crown after frequent fires [11,42].  Sprouting ability typically
decreases with increasing d.b.h. [64].  Pole-sized trees sprout readily
from stumps [32], but older, faster-growing, or taller trees often fail
to sprout [64].

Multiple sprouts, which resemble seedlings, commonly develop after fire
[75] and plant density is often increased.  In the southern
Appalachians, Keetch [65] reported an average of six to seven sprouts
per clump 4 years after fire and 10 to 15 per clump 2 years after
several consecutive fires.

White oak generally responds quickly to release [99].  Previously
suppressed individuals often grow rapidly into the understory soon after
fire [90].  Initial postfire sprout growth is also rapid, and prolific
seed production occurs at an early age [10,14].  Sprouts are commonly
present within one growing season after fire [13].

Rouse [100] reported that most surviving oaks are "capable of minimizing
fire-caused losses due to damaged cambium by rerouting the functions of
fire-killed portions within weeks after a fire."  Large oaks that
survive fire frequently serve as seed sources for burned areas [51];
dying trees often produce a massive seed crop [100].  Birds and mammals
may transport seeds from adjacent unburned areas, and seedling
establishment may occur.

More info for the terms: caudex, root crown

   survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
   survivor species; on-site surviving roots
   off-site colonizer; seeds carried by animals or water; postfire yr1&2

More info for the terms: cover, forest, fresh, fruit, litter, natural, presence, root crown, seed, selection, series, tree

White oak reproduces through seed and by vegetative means.  Both modes
of regeneration appear to be important.

Seed:  White oak produces good acorn crops at erratic intervals.  Good
crops have been reported at 4- to 10-year [148] and at 3- to 5-year
intervals [118].  Vigorous crowned trees greater than 20 inches d.b.h.
(51 cm) generally produce the best seed crops [57].  Pollen, which is
produced in abundance, is dispersed by wind, but generally travels less
than 656 feet (200 m) [46,58].  Plants generally bear fruit between 50
and 200 years of age, but open-grown trees on good sites may produce
seed as early as 20 years of age [99,148].  Reproduction from seed can
occur when (1) large seed trees are present within 200 feet (61 m), (2)
litter cover is moderate, and (3) the site receives at least 35 percent
of full sunlight [148].

Seeds of white oak do not store well [16].  Seed longevity is less than
1 year; white oak is not considered a seed banker [60].  Viability in
storage declines from 90 percent for fresh seed to 7.0 percent for seed
stored for 6 months [16].  Only 14 to 18 percent of the total seed
produced may be sound [148].  Many acorns are damaged or destroyed by
insects [144] or bird and mammal seed predators.  Several studies have
reported that animals consumed 72 to 83 percent of all white oak acorns
[135].  In years of poor acorn production, the entire seed crop may be
eliminated [148].

Acorn production:  Acorn production varies annually with the individual
tree or stand [148].  Certain trees tend to produce larger acorn crops
on a consistent basis [119].  Weather conditions, and tree size and vigor,
also influence acorn production.  An individual oak 69 feet (21 m) tall
with a d.b.h. of 25 inches (63.5 cm) produced more than 23,000 acorns in
a favorable year [148].  However, most forest-grown trees produce less
than 10,000 acorns annually.  Annual yields may range from 0 to 202,000
acorns per acre (500,000/ha) [148].  Acorn production may be reduced by
cool April temperatures [119] and drought [118].

Seed dispersal:  In parts of Michigan, the blue jay is the primary
dispersal agent of white oak [60].  Blue jays commonly exhibit a
preference for burying acorns in bare open areas which are well suited
for germination [60].  Gray squirrels are also important dispersal
agents in many locations and are the only known long-distance disperser
[35,148].  The now-extinct passenger pigeon may have effected
long-distance dispersal of many eastern oaks [21].  Wind and gravity
also aid in seed dispersal [148].

Germination:  White oak acorns do not exhibit dormancy [16].  In
storage, seeds germinate readily at temperatures of 33 to 37 degrees F
(1-3 deg C) [16].  Under natural conditions, acorns begin germinating
soon after they fall [35].  Acorns require a cover of litter for good
germination and seedling establishment [86].  Acorns without such
protection are often damaged or killed by frost or drought [86].
Germination capacity ranges from 50 to 99 percent [148].

Seedling establishment:  Seedling establishment is generally limited to
years of abundant acorn production [148].  Light to moderate litter
cover and periods of full sunlight are required for establishment.
Establishment is best on loose soils [30].

Vegetative regeneration:  White oak exhibits a number of modes of
vegetative regeneration.  Vigorous sprouting from the stump or root
crown is commonly observed after fire, mechanical damage, and other
types of disturbance.  Sprouting generally decreases with increasing
stem diameter [64], although trees up to 80 years of age occasionally
retain the ability to sprout [42].  Small poles, saplings, and even
seedlings sprout readily if cut or burned [51].  Stump-sprouting by
diameter class has been reported as follows [99]:

      d.b.h. (inches)   percent of stumps likely to sprout

      2 to 5                        80
      6 to 11                       50
      12 to 16                      15
      16 +                           0         
     
Repeated sprouting is commonly observed [125].  Seedlings often develop
an "s"-shaped curve at ground level, which helps protect dormant buds
from fire [100].  Root stools develop under the ground surface after
repeated fires or herbivory.  These root stools, made up of callus
tissue filled with dormant buds, typically sprout vigorously in the
absence of further disturbance [100].

Seedling sprouts persist beneath the forest canopy even in the absence
of disturbance.  Although the top dies back every few years, the root
system continues to develop and plants may persist for up to 90 years or
more [99].  As the forest canopy is opened, the seedling sprouts grow
rapidly [99].  Epicormic branches or water sprouts often develop from
dormant buds located on the boles [16,23].  Buds are stimulated to
sprout by sudden shifts in light intensity, partial removal of the
crown, and a loss of plant vigor [16].  Bud dormancy in oaks is largely
controlled by auxins rather than by levels of carbohydrate reserves
[125].  Apical dominance can restrict the development of belowground
buds when buds survive on aboveground portions of the plant.  Sprouting
is reduced by low light levels [125] and decreases as the stand ages
[82].  McIntyre [82] reported that the number of sprout groups decreases
from poor to good sites.

Silviculture:  Oaks often regenerate poorly after timber harvest.
Hannah [51] reported that the use of natural seedbeds and standard
silvicultural practices are often ineffectual in promoting oak
regeneration.  The presence of vigorous advanced regeneration is
essential for producing good stands of oaks after timber harvest
[29,88,102].  For adequate regeneration of oaks, advanced regeneration
of at least 4.5 feet (1.4 m) in height should number at least 435 per
acre (1,074/ha) prior to harvest [99,102].  A series of selection cuts
can produce stands with several age classes and can generate sufficient
advanced regeneration for well-stocked postharvest stands.  Initial cuts
should reduce overstory densities to no less than 60 percent stocking
[102].  Reduction of competing understory species may also be necessary
in some instances [102].

Mechanical treatment:  Sprouts tend to be larger and taller when white
oaks are cut during the dormant season [64].  Sprout growth by season
has been reported in detail [64].

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More info for the terms: climax, codominant, forest, hardwood, tree

White oak readily regenerates after disturbances such as fire or logging
and often assumes prominence in mid to late seral stages [2,61].  In the
North, white oak is commonly seral to sugar maple and other species
characteristic of mixed mesophytic stands [42].  In much of its range,
it is succeeded by beech and other shade-tolerant species on
well-drained second bottoms and in protected coves [99].  White oak is a
pioneer on frequently burned sites in southern Wisconsin [8], and in
Michigan, readily colonizes agricultural land 15 years after abandonment
[54].  In much of the eastern deciduous woodlands, forests formerly
dominated by white oak, beech, red maple, yellow poplar, and northern
red oak are now being replaced by more shade-tolerant species such as
sugar maple and American basswood [8,91].

White oak cannot regenerate successfully beneath a dense canopy and in
many areas, grows in forests transitional to climax sugar maple or mixed
mesophytic forests [2,34].  Because of the longevity of white oak,
climax development proceeds very slowly [2].  White oaks may persist on
exposed sites within climax stands [8].

White oak is considered a climax tree in oak-hickory stands in the
central and southern hardwood forest zone [99].  It grows as a climax
dominant or codominant on certain lower elevation sites in the Smoky
Mountains [130] and occurs in climax pine-oak forests of New Jersey
[77].  It also assumes importance in climax floodplain oak-hickory
forests of Tennessee [107].  White oak is represented in mixed hardwood
old growth stands of northwestern Ohio [12].  Old-growth oak-hickory
forests of southern Michigan [50], and in old-growth oak communities of
eastern Tennessee [81].  Pine-oak forests cyclically replace
beech-magnolia forests after disturbance in parts of southeastern Texas
[47] and Louisiana.

More info for the term: swamp

The currently accepted scientific name of white oak is Quercus alba L.
[69]. It is a member of the order Fagales and has been placed within
the white oak subgenus (Lepidobalanus) [16]. Three varieties of white
oak are commonly recognized [148]:

Quercus alba var. alba
Quercus alba var. repanda Michx.
Quercus alba var. latiloba Sarg.

Some authorities recognize these entities as forms rather than varieties
[108,117,131].

White oak is highly variable genetically [58], and many forms and
ecotypes have been described. According to Fowells [47], "no definite
races have been defined, but within such a tremendously diverse habitat,
climatic races undoubtedly exist." White oak readily hybridizes with
many other species within the genus Quercus [58], including swamp white
oak (Q. bicolor), bur oak (Q. macrocarpa), chinkapin oak (Q.
muehlenbergi), dwarf chinkapin oak (Q. prinoides), overcup oak (Q.
lyrata), swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii), sandpost oak (Q.
margaretta), chestnut oak (Q. prinus), English oak (Q. robur), Durand
oak (Q. durandii), and post oak (Q. stellata) [58,83]. Hybrids, their
common names, and purported origins are listed below [69,148].

Beadle oak X beadlei Trel. (Quercus alba x michauxii)
Bebb oak X bebbiana (Q. alba x Q. macrocarpa)
X bimundorum Palmer (Q. alba x Q. robur)
Deam oak X deamii (Q. alba x Q. muehlenbergi)
Faxon oak X faxonii Trel. (Q. alba x Q. prinoides)
Fernow oak X fernowii Trel. (Q. alba x Q. stellata)
Jack oak X jackiana Schneid. (Q. alba x Q. montana)
Saul oak X saulii Schneid. (Q. alba x Q. prinus)

Saul oak was formerly known as Q. alba f. ryderii but is now considered
a heterozygous hybrid form of white oak [3].

Introgressive populations are locally common throughout much of the
range of white oak. Hybrid swarms derived from complex mixtures of
parental forms are particularly common on disturbed sites, at the
margins of white oak's range, and where several oak species occur
sympatrically [58].

More info for the term: seed

White oak is potentially valuable for use in reforestation projects [79]
and appears to have potential for use on other types of disturbed sites.
It has been planted on strip-mined lands in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois
[6,23,81] and has exhibited good growth and survival on cast overburden
and graded topsoil overlying mine spoils [6,139].  It is well adapted to
loamy and clayey spoils with a pH of 5.5 to 8.0 [81].

White oak is difficult to transplant and grows slowly [148].  It can be
readily propagated through seed which is generally planted in the fall
[99].  Seed collection, storage, and planting techniques have been
documented [16,99].

More info for the term: fuel

White oak wood is heavy, hard, strong, and durable [131].  When properly
dried treated, oak wood glues well, machines very well and accepts a
variety of finishes [97].

White oak is the most important timber oak and is commercially important
throughout much of the South and East [35,141,148].  White oak is an
important source of wood for furniture, veneer, paneling, and flooring
[28,95,101].  It has been used to make railroad ties, fenceposts, mine
timbers, ships, and caskets [95].  White oak has long been used in
cooperage [125] and is currently the major source of wood for whiskey
barrels [43].  White oak wood has also been used as a source of
clapboard shingles and woven baskets, although demands for these
products are decreasing [43].  Its high fuel value makes white oak an
attractive firewood [95].