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Quercus alba L.

Comments ( Inglês )

fornecido por eFloras
Considerable variation in depth of lobing occurs in the leaves of Quercus alba (M. J. Baranski 1975; J. W. Hardin 1975); the species is easily distinguished from others, however, by the light gray-green, glabrous mature leaves and cuneate leaf bases.

In the past Quercus alba was considered to be the source of the finest and most durable oak lumber in America for furniture and shipbuilding. Now it has been replaced almost entirely in commerce by various species of eastern red oak (e.g., Q . rubra , Q . velutina , and Q . falcata ) that are more common and have faster growth and greater yields. These red oaks also lack tyloses and therefore are more suited to pressure treating with preservatives, even though they are less decay-resistant without treatment.

Medicinally, Quercus alba was used by Native Americans to treat diarrhea, indigestion, chronic dysentery, mouth sores, chapped skin, asthma, milky urine, rheumatism, coughs, sore throat, consumption, bleeding piles, and muscle aches, as an antiseptic, and emetic, and a wash for chills and fevers, to bring up phlegm, as a witchcraft medicine, and as a psychological aid (D. E. Moerman 1986).

Numerous hybrids between Quercus alba and other species of white oak have been reported, and some have been named. J. W. Hardin (1975) reviewed the hybrids of Quercus alba . Nothospecies names based on putative hybrids involving Q . alba include: Q . × beadlei Trelease (= Q . alba × prinus ), Q . × bebbiana Schneider (= Q . alba × macrocarpa ), Q . × bimundorum E. J. Palmer (= Q . alba × robur ), Q . × deami Trelease (= Q . alba × muhlenbergii ), Q . × faxoni Trelease (= Q . alba × prinoides ), Q . × jackiana Schneider (= Q . alba × bicolor ), and Q . × saulei Schneider (= Q . alba × montana ).

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direitos autorais
Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
citação bibliográfica
Flora of North America Vol. 3 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
fonte
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
editor
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
projeto
eFloras.org
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
eFloras

Description ( Inglês )

fornecido por eFloras
Trees , deciduous, to 25 m. Bark light gray, scaly. Twigs green or reddish, becoming gray, 2-3(-4) mm diam., initially pubescent, soon glabrous. Buds dark reddish brown, ovoid, ca. 3 mm, apex obtuse, glabrous. Leaves: petiole (4-)10-25(-30) mm. Leaf blade obovate to narrowly elliptic or narrowly obovate, (79-)120-180(-230) × (40-)70-110(-165) mm, base narrowly cuneate to acute, margins moderately to deeply lobed, lobes often narrow, rounded distally, sinuses extending 1/3-7/8 distance to midrib, secondary veins arched, divergent, (3-)5-7 on each side, apex broadly rounded or ovate; surfaces abaxially light green, with numerous whitish or reddish erect hairs, these quickly shed as leaf expands, adaxially light gray-green, dull or glossy. Acorns 1-3, subsessile or on peduncle to 25(-50) mm; cup hemispheric, enclosing 1/4 nut, scales closely appressed, finely grayish tomentose; nut light brown, ovoid-ellipsoid or oblong, (12-)15-21(-25) × 9-18 mm, glabrous. Cotyledons distinct. 2 n = 24.
licença
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
citação bibliográfica
Flora of North America Vol. 3 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
fonte
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
editor
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
projeto
eFloras.org
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
eFloras

Distribution ( Inglês )

fornecido por eFloras
Ont., Que.; Ala., Ark., Conn., Del., Fla., Ga., Ill., Ind., Kans., Ky., La., Maine, Md., Mass., Mich., Minn., Miss., Mo., Nebr., N.H., N.J., N.Y., N.C., Ohio, Okla., Pa., R.I., S.C., Tenn., Tex., Vt., Va., W.Va., Wis.
licença
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
citação bibliográfica
Flora of North America Vol. 3 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
fonte
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
editor
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
projeto
eFloras.org
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
eFloras

Flowering/Fruiting ( Inglês )

fornecido por eFloras
Flowering in spring.
licença
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
citação bibliográfica
Flora of North America Vol. 3 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
fonte
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
editor
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
projeto
eFloras.org
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
eFloras

Habitat ( Inglês )

fornecido por eFloras
Moist to fairly dry, deciduous forests usually on deeper, well-drained loams, also on thin soils on dry upland slopes, sometimes on barrens; 0-1600m.
licença
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
citação bibliográfica
Flora of North America Vol. 3 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
fonte
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
editor
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
projeto
eFloras.org
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
eFloras

Broad-scale Impacts of Fire ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: fire intensity, forest, severity, tree

Oaks tend to be less susceptible to fire during the dormant season
[100].  Mean white oak mortality after fires in the dormant season was
23 percent, as compared with 69 percent after fires occurring in the
growing season.  Individuals of poor vigor are less likely to heal than
healthy vigorous specimens.  Oaks growing in overstocked stands
typically are less vigorous and thus more susceptible to fire damage.
Crooked or leaning trees are particularly susceptible to damage because
the flames are more likely to be directly below the stem, thereby
increasing the amount of heat received at the bark's surface.  Higher
fire intensity and severity increase mortality and serious injury.
Topographic factors such as aspect and slope can also influence
mortality [78].  Fire mortality also varies with the size of the tree;
fire is more likely to kill smaller white oaks than large ones [76].  A
fire in an oak-pine stand in New Jersey killed 44 percent of trees 1
inch in d.b.h., 5 percent of tree 2 to 4 inches in d.b.h., but no trees
greater than 5 inches in d.b.h. were killed [76].

Toole [117] reported that approximately 20 percent of white oaks
examined were uninjured by fire despite discolored bark.  Bark sloughed
off wounded white oaks within 5 years [117].  Following an early-season
fire in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey, some white oaks exhibited
partial crown mortality later in the summer, while others showed no
evidence of significant crown damage [14].  White oak is reportedly
susceptible to fire scars [93] which can permit the entry of insects or
decay that may ultimately kill the tree [100].  However, Kaufert [63]
reported that 50 percent of all fire scars on white oak had healed
within 15 years in a southern bottomland forest [63].  Studies suggest
that basal wounding does not affect growth rates [59].

Large white oaks can survive bark scorch up to two-thirds of their
circumferences [100].  Mortality equations based on d.b.h., and the
width and height of bark blackening have been developed for white oak
[55,78,86].  These equations can be useful in predicting if a
fire-damaged oak will survive [78].
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: density, hardwood, prescribed fire

Postfire increases in white oak have been documented as follows after
fire in a mixed hardwood community of Rhode Island [22]:

size class              burned                        unburned
                  density %   BA %              density %       BA %

overstory         42.7        23.40             23.6            27.60
1-10 ft. tall     42.4        -----             17.0            ----
< 1 ft. tall      42.3        -----             28.7            ----         

The following Research Project Summaries and a Research Paper by Bowles and others 2007

provide information on managment using prescribed fire and postfire response of

several plant species, including white oak, that was not available when this species

review was written:

licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Common Names ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
white oak
stave oak
ridge white oak
forked-leaf white oak
fork-leaf oak
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Value ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cover, tree

White oak provides good cover for a wide variety of birds and mammals.
Oak leaves often persist longer than many other plant associates and in
some areas, young oaks may represent the only brushy winter cover in
dense pole stands [120].  Oaks frequently serve as perching or nesting
sites for various songbirds [29].  The well-developed crowns provide
shelter and hiding cover for small mammals such as tree squirrels.  Many
birds and mammals use twigs and leaves as nesting materials [90].  Large
oaks provide denning sites for a variety of mammals [29].
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Description ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: monoecious, tree

White oak is a medium to large, spreading, deciduous tree which commonly
reaches 60 to 80 feet (18-24 m) in height [31,53,131].  On favorable
sites, individuals may grow to more than 100 feet (30 m) in height and
exceed 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter [19,108].  White oak is slow-growing
and long-lived (up to 600 years) [35].

White oak is monoecious [131].  Yellowish staminate catkins are borne at
the base of new growth, whereas reddish pistillate catkins grow in the
axils of new growth [119,131,148].  The short-stalked, glabrous, ovoid
acorns are tan to brown [31,53,108].  Acorns are generally borne in
pairs [31].  The rough, warty cup covers approximately 33 to 50 percent
of the nut [31,55,131].
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
White oak grows throughout much of the eastern United States from
southwest Maine to northern Florida, Alabama, and Georgia [53,83,148].
It extends westward throughout southern Ontario and Quebec into central
Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and southeastern Minnesota and south to
southwestern Iowa, eastern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas
[55,83]. Little [83] reported that white oak may have been eliminated
from southeastern Nebraska.

The best growing conditions for white oak occur on the western slope of
the Appalachian Mountains and in the Ohio Valley and central Mississippi
Valley [148].  White oak is mostly absent from conifer-dominated stands
at higher elevations within the Appalachian Mountains and from the lower
Mississippi Delta and coastal areas of Texas and Louisiana [148].

The variety latiloba occurs at the northern edge of the species' range
[47].  The range of var. repanda is poorly documented, but it has been
reported in parts of New England [117].
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Ecology ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: fire frequency, fire regime, fire suppression, frequency, root crown

White oak is unable to regenerate beneath the shade of parent trees and
relies on periodic fires for its perpetuation.  The exclusion of fire
has inhibited white oak regeneration through much of its range [121].
Following fire, white oak typically sprouts from the root crown or
stump.  Some postfire seedling establishment may also occur on favorable
sites during favorable years.

Northeast and central states:  Fire has played an important role in
deciduous forests of the eastern United States [100,128].  Evidence
suggests that most oaks (Quercus spp.) are favored by a regime of
relatively frequent fire.  Many present-day oak forests may have
developed in response to recurrent fire.  Declines of oak forests have
been noted throughout much of the East and are often attributed to
reduced fire frequency [2,7,100].
 
The Southeast:  Fire was also a major influence in presettlement forests
of the Southeast [121,123].  In the southern Appalachians, many
present-day oak stands may have developed 60 to 100 years ago with
widespread burning associated with agricultural activities or timber
harvest.  Increased fire suppression has evidently favored more
shade-tolerant hardwoods and resulted in a decrease in oaks [123].

Oak savannas:  White oak formerly assumed importance in open oak
savannas of Wisconsin and Iowa, but with increased fire suppression,
fire-tolerant species such as white oak are being replaced by sugar
maple and other more shade-tolerant species.  Many open savannas are
being converted to dense, forested stands [19,37].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Management Considerations ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: series

Prescribed fire can be an important tool for regenerating oak stands.
Fire may favor seedling establishment by creating suitable seedbeds and
reducing competing vegetation [100].  A series of low-intensity
prescribed fires prior to timber harvest can promote advanced
regeneration [123].  In the southern Appalachians, biennial summer burns
are often most effective in promoting advance regeneration [123].
Single preharvest or postharvest burns generally have little effect
[123].

Protein content of white oak browse was higher during the year following
low- and high-intensity burns [36].  Calcium levels also tend to
increase in twigs on recently burned sites [11].  Changes in nutritive
value after fire have been documented [11,12,36].
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification) ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte
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cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat characteristics ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: association, hardwood, herbaceous, mesic, tree, woodland

White oak grows in rich uplands, moist bottomlands, along streams, on
hammocks, sinks, sandy plains, and on dry, gravelly slopes
[17,28,30,99,116].  It occurs on all upland aspects, and slope positions
[99], but in the southern Appalachians, it exhibits best growth on
northern lower slopes and in coves [32].  White oak is absent on
ridgetops with shallow soil, on poorly drained flats, and on very wet
bottomlands [99].  Latitude, aspect, and topography are important
factors influencing the distribution of white oak within its range [99].
White oak grows in a variety of dry to mesic woodland communities [131]
including pine-oak-hickory woods, beech-maple, and mixed hardwood
forests [30,131].  It also occurs in relatively open post oak savanna
[110] and oak savanna codominated by bur oak [8].

Plant associates:  White oak grows in pure or mixed stands in the
Southeast [38] but towards the northern portion of its range it rarely
occurs in pure stands [57].  Important tree associates are numerous and
include beech (Fagus grandifolia), sugar maple, black cherry (Prunus
serotina), white ash (Fraxinus americana), yellow poplar, shortleaf pine
(Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (P. taeda), eastern white pine (P.
strobus), jack pine (P. banksiana), eastern hemlock, sweet gum, black
gum (Nyssa sylvatica), American basswood (Tilia americana), shagbark
hickory (Carya ovata), and other hickories (Carya spp.)  [28,57,83,110].
Scarlet oak, post oak, bur oak, black oak, and northern red oak are also
important associates [99], Upland oaks and hickories are the most common
associates [99].  Many herbaceous species grow in association with white
oak.

Climate:  White oak is often associated with a cool, temperate,
continental climate [12] but can grow under a variety of climatic
regimes [99].  Mean average temperatures range from 45 degrees F (7 deg
C) in the North to 70 degrees F (21 deg C) in eastern Texas and northern
Florida [32].  Annual precipitation averages 80 inches (203 cm) in the
southern Appalachians but is less than 30 inches (77 cm) in southern
Minnesota [99].  Growing season length ranges from 5 months in the North
to 9 months in the South [99].

Soils:  White oak grows on a wide variety of soils [28] derived from
many types of parent materials [42].  It grows on silty loam, clay loam,
silty clay loam, fine sand, and loamy clay [12,43,110] but grows best on
deep, well-drained loamy soils.  Low soil-nutrient levels limit growth
of white oak only on sandy soils [99].  White oak is common on rocky
soils [116].

Elevation:  White oak grows from sea level to 5,900 feet (0-1,800 m)
[38].  In the North, it generally grows under 500 feet (152 m) in
elevation, but in the southern Appalachians, it grows as a "scrub tree"
at 4,500 feet (1,372 m) [99].  It is absent from higher elevations in
the northern Appalachians.  In the Smoky Mountains, two populations are
separated by an elevational gap of 1,000 feet (305 m) [130].  White oak
grows below 2,000 feet (610 m) in the Cumberland Mountains [130].
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the terms: hardwood, swamp

    14  Northern pin oak
    15  Red pine
    19  Gray birch - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    22  White pine - hemlock
    23  Eastern hemlock
    26  Sugar maple - basswood
    27  Sugar maple
    40  Post oak - blackjack oak
    42  Bur oak
    43  Bear oak
    44  Chestnut oak
    45  Pitch pine
    46  Eastern redcedar
    51  White pine - chestnut oak
    52  White oak - black oak - northern red oak
    53  White oak
    55  Northern red oak
    57  Yellow poplar
    58  Yellow poplar - eastern hemlock
    59  Yellow poplar - white oak - northern red oak
    60  Beech - sugar maple
    61  River birch - sycamore
    64  Sassafras - persimmon
    65  Pin oak - sweetgum
    75  Shortleaf pine
    76  Shortleaf pine - oak
    78  Virginia pine - oak
    80  Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
    81  Loblolly pine
    82  Loblolly pine - hardwood
    91  Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
   110  Black oak
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

   FRES10  White - red - jack pine
   FRES12  Longleaf - slash pine
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES14  Oak - pine
   FRES15  Oak - hickory
   FRES16  Oak - gum - cypress
   FRES18  Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19  Aspen - birch
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

   K081  Oak savanna
   K089  Blackbelt
   K095  Great Lakes pine forest
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K103  Mixed mesophytic forest
   K104  Appalachian oak forest
   K111  Oak - hickory - pine
   K112  Southern mixed forest
   K113  Southern floodplain forest
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Immediate Effect of Fire ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: fire severity, severity, tree

White oak is moderately resistant to fire [44,59].  Aerial portions may
be killed by fire [11], but underground regenerative structures
protected by overlying soil usually survive [10,76].  The rough, scaly
bark of white oak is more fire-resistant than the solid bark of many
other oaks [114].  Oaks typically become more fire resistant as the bark
thickens with age [51].

Most oaks will survive periodic fires.  In parts of the New Jersey Pine
Region, most white oaks 25 years and older possessed fire scars; four
fire scars were observed on a 65-year old tree [76].  However, frequent
fires can damage or kill white oaks, and recurrent fires at less than
8-year intervals could eliminate white oak [77].

Approximately 76 percent of white oaks were killed following fire in a
loblolly pine stand in Virginia [4], and an estimated 56.5 percent were
killed after a fire in a New Jersey pine-oak community [106].  Many of
the observed differences in susceptibility of oaks to fire can be
attributed to variation in fire severity and intensity, site
characteristics, plant age or size, form, vigor, season of burn, and
stocking levels [100].

Most acorns are characterized by a relatively high moisture content.  As
the moisture within the acorns is heated, the seeds swell and often
rupture [100].  Therefore, "average" fires kill all white oak acorns
present on-site [44].
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: mast

Browse:  The young shoots of many eastern oak species are readily eaten
by deer [57].  Dried oak leaves are also occasionally eaten by
white-tailed deer in the fall or winter [120].  Rabbits often browse
twigs and can girdle stems [57].  The porcupine feeds on the bark, and
beavers eat twigs of white oaks [135].

Acorns:  Acorns of white oak are considered choice food for many
wildlife species [118], including the white-footed mouse, fox squirrel,
black bear, pine mouse, red squirrel, and cottontail rabbits
[22,27,135].  The gray squirrel consumes white oak acorns but prefers
the acorns of other oak species [80].  Many birds, including the
bluejay, northern bobwhite, mallard, ring-necked pheasant, greater
prairie chicken, ruffed grouse, and wild turkey, eat white oak acorns
[60,66,135].  In some areas, the abundance of fall mast crops, such as
acorns, can affect black bear reproductive success during the following
year [44].  Sprouted acorns are often eaten by deer, mice, and bobwhite
[135].
licença
cc-publicdomain
citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Key Plant Community Associations ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cover, forest

White oak grows as a dominant in many communities and as a major species
in several cover types [95,96].  Common codominants within the overstory
include northern red oak (Quercus rubra), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea),
northern pin oak (Q. ellipsoidalis), black oak (Q. velutinus), beech
(Fagus spp.), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), chestnut (Castanea
dentata), red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (A. saccharum), and
hickories (Carya spp.).  Understory dominants or codominants include
deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum), leadplant (Amorpha canescens), trailing
arbutus (Epigaea repens), huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.), meadow-rue
(Thalictrum spp.), and false Solomon's-seal (Smilacina racemosa). 

Published classifications listing white oak as an indicator or dominant
in habitat types (hts) are presented below:

Area              Classification                Authority

   AL             general veg. cts              Golden 1979
 s IL             general veg. cts              Fralish 1976
   IN             general veg. cts              Keith 1983
ne IA             general veg. cts              Cahayla-Wynne &
                                                Glenn-Lewin 1978
   MI             general veg. cts              Hammitt and Barnes 1989
                  general veg. eas              Pregitzer and Ramm 1984
 n MI, ne WI      forest hts                    Coffman and others 1980
sw OH             general veg. cts              Braun 1936
 e TN             general veg. cts              Martin and DeSelm 1976
n WI              forest hts                    Kotar and others 1988
Smoky Mtns        general veg. cts              Whittaker 1956
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Life Form ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: tree

Tree
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management considerations ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: seed

Chemical control:  Oaks often produce basal sprouts in response to
herbicide treatments [50].

Damage:  White oak can be damaged by frost or drought.  It is also
sensitive to periodic flooding [64].

Environmental considerations:  White oak is sensitive to excessive ozone
[64].

Grazing:  Intensive grazing can reduce the number of trees present and
aid in the regeneration of white oak through seed [8].

Wildlife considerations:  Acorns are a particularly important food
source for black bears in many areas.  Acorn crop failures have been
correlated with increases in damage to crops, livestock, and beehives by
bears [112].
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Nutritional Value ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: fire management

Browse:  The nutritional value of white oak browse varies
geographically, and with site history and phenological development.
Annual variation has also been observed [40].  Foliar nitrogen content
was measured at 1.40 percent in Tennessee but averaged only 0.7 percent
in New York [114].  The calcium content of leaves tends to increase
slowly as the growing season progresses [15].  Calcium levels of twigs,
and protein and phosphorus content of the foliage, are generally higher
on recently burned sites [12,15,40].  Total solids, ash, ether extract,
crude fiber, and N-free extract appear to be unaffected by fire [40].
[see Fire Management Considerations].  Winter nutrient content of white
oak browse in Texas has been documented as follows [78]:

protein     fat     fiber     N-free     ash    phosphoric    Ca
                              extract           acid
                  percent at 15 percent moisture

  3.89      1.46    34.22      42.43     3.00     0.13        1.67

Acorns:  Acorns are nutritious [57] and high in carbohydrates [59].
White oak acorns are relatively low in protein, crude fiber, and
potassium [16,123,142] but high in digestible cell contents such as
fats, starches, sugars, and pectins [123].  White oak acorns tend to be
lower in fats than the acorns of many other oak species [124].  Primary
stored energy reserves are in the form of carbohydrates [16].  Specific
nutritional values are reported below [123,124]:

crude       crude      crude     Si     Ca     P     ash    N-free
protein     fat        fiber                                extract
                              percent dry weight -

5.9         4.3        18.7     0.01   0.15    0.09   ---    ---
4.6         5.8        18.6     0.06   0.18    0.09   2.7    68.3            

Tannin levels of white oak acorns are relatively low, generally ranging
from 0.5 to 2.5 percent [126].  Lipid concentrations are also low,
averaging 5 to 10 percent [126].  However, Lewis [80] reported tannin
and lipid levels of 2.94 and 4.6 percent, respectively.  Metabolizable
energy content has been estimated at 72 percent [80].

Taproot:  The taproot of white oak is high in fibers, lignin, and
cellulose [126].
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
     AL  AR  CT  DE  FL  GA  IL  IN  IA  KS
     KY  LA  ME  MA  MI  MN  MS  MO  NE  NH
     NJ  NY  NC  OH  OK  PA  RI  SC  TN  TX
     VT  VA  WV  WI  ON  PQ
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Other uses and values ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: tree

Acorns were traditionally an important food source for many Native
American peoples [134].  White oak acorns have been described variously
as sweet and edible [131] and as slightly bitter [43].  The acorns were
often boiled to remove bitter tannins [35].  Oils obtained from pressed
acorns were used to alleviate pain in the joints [63].

White oak is commonly used in landscaping [125] and is often planted as
a shade tree or ornamental [43,148.  Its colorful purplish-red to
violet-purple foliage enhances its ornamental value in autumn [125,148].
White oak was first cultivated in 1724 [99].
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Palatability ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
The palatability of oak browse is relatively high for domestic livestock
and for many wildlife species [135].  Eastern oaks are preferred by
white-tailed deer in some locations [135].  New growth is particularly
palatable to deer and rabbits [57].

The acorns of most oaks are highly palatable to many species of birds
and mammals [57,90].  Palatability of white oak acorns to fox squirrels,
and presumably to some other species, declines after the acorns have
sprouted [123].
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Phenology ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

More info for the term: fruit

Leaves begin to develop and new shoots are initiated in mid-March to
late May, depending on geographic location [99].  The timing of bud
break is largely dependent on latitude [99] but also depends on soil
nutrient levels [18] and weather.  Bell and others [18] observed delayed
budbreak on copper, lead, and zinc-mineralized sites.  Most vegetative
growth takes place during the spring, with up to 50 percent of seedling
height growth attained in April [99].  Fowells [42] reported that
seedling height growth was 90 percent complete by July 1.  Plants may
become dormant in late fall, although leaves commonly persist into
winter [28].

Flowering generally occurs in spring when the new leaves are elongating
[32] but varies according to latitude, weather conditions, and with the
genetic composition of individual trees [99,104,105].  Flowering can
occur from late March to May [99] or June [103].  In Pennsylvania,
pistillate catkins emerge in late April or May, approximately 5 to 10
days after the emergence of staminate flowers [105].  Sharp and Chisman
[104] observed trees within the same population flowering early (May 5
to May 11) and late (May 13 to May 19).  Three distinct waves of
flowering (early, middle, and late) have been reported.  Warm weather
speeds up floral development, which begins after exposure to minimum
temperatures of 50 degrees F (10 deg C) for at least 10 days [104].
Pollen is generally shed within 3 days, but light winds can accelerate
shedding [104].  Pollen shedding is often delayed by prolonged rainy
weather [104]. 

Acorns typically ripen approximately 120 days after pollination [99].
In Pennsylvania, embryos generally begin development after July 24, grow
rapidly by August 4, and reach full size by August 25 [105].  Acorns
fall from the trees by September or October [99,105].  Generalized
flowering and fruit ripening dates by geographic location are as
follows:

Location          Flowering         Fruit ripe        Authority

PA                April-May         ----              Sharp and Sprague 1967
NC, SC            April             Sept.-Nov.        Radford and others 1968
New England       May 21-June 3     ----              Seymour 1985
Blue Ridge Mtns.  April-May         ----              Wofford 1989
Adirondack Mtns.  May               Sept.             Chapman & Besette 1990 
nc Great Plains   May               Oct.              Stephens 1973          
WV                ----              Oct. 3            Park 1942
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Plant Response to Fire ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: density, fire severity, root crown, seed, severity

White oak commonly sprouts vigorously from the stump or root crown after
aboveground portions of the plant are damaged or killed [11,99].
Sprouting depends on such factors as plant vigor [84], genetic
composition, size, and fire severity and intensity.  White oak probably
stump-sprouts after moderate fires [51], and when completely top-killed,
underground portions often regenerate [100].  Hannah [51] reported that
the "best" sprouts often originate from buds located at or below ground
level.  These sprouts may be more vigorous and less susceptible to rot
or other damage.

White oak seedlings generally sprout after fire, and in many instances,
numbers remain essentially unchanged [97].  Damaged seedlings can often
resprout several times and may ultimately grow beyond the
fire-susceptible stage [51].  Seedlings often develop an enlarged root
crown after frequent fires [11,42].  Sprouting ability typically
decreases with increasing d.b.h. [64].  Pole-sized trees sprout readily
from stumps [32], but older, faster-growing, or taller trees often fail
to sprout [64].

Multiple sprouts, which resemble seedlings, commonly develop after fire
[75] and plant density is often increased.  In the southern
Appalachians, Keetch [65] reported an average of six to seven sprouts
per clump 4 years after fire and 10 to 15 per clump 2 years after
several consecutive fires.

White oak generally responds quickly to release [99].  Previously
suppressed individuals often grow rapidly into the understory soon after
fire [90].  Initial postfire sprout growth is also rapid, and prolific
seed production occurs at an early age [10,14].  Sprouts are commonly
present within one growing season after fire [13].

Rouse [100] reported that most surviving oaks are "capable of minimizing
fire-caused losses due to damaged cambium by rerouting the functions of
fire-killed portions within weeks after a fire."  Large oaks that
survive fire frequently serve as seed sources for burned areas [51];
dying trees often produce a massive seed crop [100].  Birds and mammals
may transport seeds from adjacent unburned areas, and seedling
establishment may occur.
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Post-fire Regeneration ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: caudex, root crown

   survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
   survivor species; on-site surviving roots
   off-site colonizer; seeds carried by animals or water; postfire yr1&2
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regeneration Processes ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cover, forest, fresh, fruit, litter, natural, presence, root crown, seed, selection, series, tree

White oak reproduces through seed and by vegetative means.  Both modes
of regeneration appear to be important.

Seed:  White oak produces good acorn crops at erratic intervals.  Good
crops have been reported at 4- to 10-year [148] and at 3- to 5-year
intervals [118].  Vigorous crowned trees greater than 20 inches d.b.h.
(51 cm) generally produce the best seed crops [57].  Pollen, which is
produced in abundance, is dispersed by wind, but generally travels less
than 656 feet (200 m) [46,58].  Plants generally bear fruit between 50
and 200 years of age, but open-grown trees on good sites may produce
seed as early as 20 years of age [99,148].  Reproduction from seed can
occur when (1) large seed trees are present within 200 feet (61 m), (2)
litter cover is moderate, and (3) the site receives at least 35 percent
of full sunlight [148].

Seeds of white oak do not store well [16].  Seed longevity is less than
1 year; white oak is not considered a seed banker [60].  Viability in
storage declines from 90 percent for fresh seed to 7.0 percent for seed
stored for 6 months [16].  Only 14 to 18 percent of the total seed
produced may be sound [148].  Many acorns are damaged or destroyed by
insects [144] or bird and mammal seed predators.  Several studies have
reported that animals consumed 72 to 83 percent of all white oak acorns
[135].  In years of poor acorn production, the entire seed crop may be
eliminated [148].

Acorn production:  Acorn production varies annually with the individual
tree or stand [148].  Certain trees tend to produce larger acorn crops
on a consistent basis [119].  Weather conditions, and tree size and vigor,
also influence acorn production.  An individual oak 69 feet (21 m) tall
with a d.b.h. of 25 inches (63.5 cm) produced more than 23,000 acorns in
a favorable year [148].  However, most forest-grown trees produce less
than 10,000 acorns annually.  Annual yields may range from 0 to 202,000
acorns per acre (500,000/ha) [148].  Acorn production may be reduced by
cool April temperatures [119] and drought [118].

Seed dispersal:  In parts of Michigan, the blue jay is the primary
dispersal agent of white oak [60].  Blue jays commonly exhibit a
preference for burying acorns in bare open areas which are well suited
for germination [60].  Gray squirrels are also important dispersal
agents in many locations and are the only known long-distance disperser
[35,148].  The now-extinct passenger pigeon may have effected
long-distance dispersal of many eastern oaks [21].  Wind and gravity
also aid in seed dispersal [148].

Germination:  White oak acorns do not exhibit dormancy [16].  In
storage, seeds germinate readily at temperatures of 33 to 37 degrees F
(1-3 deg C) [16].  Under natural conditions, acorns begin germinating
soon after they fall [35].  Acorns require a cover of litter for good
germination and seedling establishment [86].  Acorns without such
protection are often damaged or killed by frost or drought [86].
Germination capacity ranges from 50 to 99 percent [148].

Seedling establishment:  Seedling establishment is generally limited to
years of abundant acorn production [148].  Light to moderate litter
cover and periods of full sunlight are required for establishment.
Establishment is best on loose soils [30].

Vegetative regeneration:  White oak exhibits a number of modes of
vegetative regeneration.  Vigorous sprouting from the stump or root
crown is commonly observed after fire, mechanical damage, and other
types of disturbance.  Sprouting generally decreases with increasing
stem diameter [64], although trees up to 80 years of age occasionally
retain the ability to sprout [42].  Small poles, saplings, and even
seedlings sprout readily if cut or burned [51].  Stump-sprouting by
diameter class has been reported as follows [99]:

      d.b.h. (inches)   percent of stumps likely to sprout

      2 to 5                        80
      6 to 11                       50
      12 to 16                      15
      16 +                           0         
     
Repeated sprouting is commonly observed [125].  Seedlings often develop
an "s"-shaped curve at ground level, which helps protect dormant buds
from fire [100].  Root stools develop under the ground surface after
repeated fires or herbivory.  These root stools, made up of callus
tissue filled with dormant buds, typically sprout vigorously in the
absence of further disturbance [100].

Seedling sprouts persist beneath the forest canopy even in the absence
of disturbance.  Although the top dies back every few years, the root
system continues to develop and plants may persist for up to 90 years or
more [99].  As the forest canopy is opened, the seedling sprouts grow
rapidly [99].  Epicormic branches or water sprouts often develop from
dormant buds located on the boles [16,23].  Buds are stimulated to
sprout by sudden shifts in light intensity, partial removal of the
crown, and a loss of plant vigor [16].  Bud dormancy in oaks is largely
controlled by auxins rather than by levels of carbohydrate reserves
[125].  Apical dominance can restrict the development of belowground
buds when buds survive on aboveground portions of the plant.  Sprouting
is reduced by low light levels [125] and decreases as the stand ages
[82].  McIntyre [82] reported that the number of sprout groups decreases
from poor to good sites.

Silviculture:  Oaks often regenerate poorly after timber harvest.
Hannah [51] reported that the use of natural seedbeds and standard
silvicultural practices are often ineffectual in promoting oak
regeneration.  The presence of vigorous advanced regeneration is
essential for producing good stands of oaks after timber harvest
[29,88,102].  For adequate regeneration of oaks, advanced regeneration
of at least 4.5 feet (1.4 m) in height should number at least 435 per
acre (1,074/ha) prior to harvest [99,102].  A series of selection cuts
can produce stands with several age classes and can generate sufficient
advanced regeneration for well-stocked postharvest stands.  Initial cuts
should reduce overstory densities to no less than 60 percent stocking
[102].  Reduction of competing understory species may also be necessary
in some instances [102].

Mechanical treatment:  Sprouts tend to be larger and taller when white
oaks are cut during the dormant season [64].  Sprout growth by season
has been reported in detail [64].
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Successional Status ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: climax, codominant, forest, hardwood, tree

White oak readily regenerates after disturbances such as fire or logging
and often assumes prominence in mid to late seral stages [2,61].  In the
North, white oak is commonly seral to sugar maple and other species
characteristic of mixed mesophytic stands [42].  In much of its range,
it is succeeded by beech and other shade-tolerant species on
well-drained second bottoms and in protected coves [99].  White oak is a
pioneer on frequently burned sites in southern Wisconsin [8], and in
Michigan, readily colonizes agricultural land 15 years after abandonment
[54].  In much of the eastern deciduous woodlands, forests formerly
dominated by white oak, beech, red maple, yellow poplar, and northern
red oak are now being replaced by more shade-tolerant species such as
sugar maple and American basswood [8,91].

White oak cannot regenerate successfully beneath a dense canopy and in
many areas, grows in forests transitional to climax sugar maple or mixed
mesophytic forests [2,34].  Because of the longevity of white oak,
climax development proceeds very slowly [2].  White oaks may persist on
exposed sites within climax stands [8].

White oak is considered a climax tree in oak-hickory stands in the
central and southern hardwood forest zone [99].  It grows as a climax
dominant or codominant on certain lower elevation sites in the Smoky
Mountains [130] and occurs in climax pine-oak forests of New Jersey
[77].  It also assumes importance in climax floodplain oak-hickory
forests of Tennessee [107].  White oak is represented in mixed hardwood
old growth stands of northwestern Ohio [12].  Old-growth oak-hickory
forests of southern Michigan [50], and in old-growth oak communities of
eastern Tennessee [81].  Pine-oak forests cyclically replace
beech-magnolia forests after disturbance in parts of southeastern Texas
[47] and Louisiana.
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: swamp

The currently accepted scientific name of white oak is Quercus alba L.
[69]. It is a member of the order Fagales and has been placed within
the white oak subgenus (Lepidobalanus) [16]. Three varieties of white
oak are commonly recognized [148]:

Quercus alba var. alba
Quercus alba var. repanda Michx.
Quercus alba var. latiloba Sarg.

Some authorities recognize these entities as forms rather than varieties
[108,117,131].

White oak is highly variable genetically [58], and many forms and
ecotypes have been described. According to Fowells [47], "no definite
races have been defined, but within such a tremendously diverse habitat,
climatic races undoubtedly exist." White oak readily hybridizes with
many other species within the genus Quercus [58], including swamp white
oak (Q. bicolor), bur oak (Q. macrocarpa), chinkapin oak (Q.
muehlenbergi), dwarf chinkapin oak (Q. prinoides), overcup oak (Q.
lyrata), swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii), sandpost oak (Q.
margaretta), chestnut oak (Q. prinus), English oak (Q. robur), Durand
oak (Q. durandii), and post oak (Q. stellata) [58,83]. Hybrids, their
common names, and purported origins are listed below [69,148].

Beadle oak X beadlei Trel. (Quercus alba x michauxii)
Bebb oak X bebbiana (Q. alba x Q. macrocarpa)
X bimundorum Palmer (Q. alba x Q. robur)
Deam oak X deamii (Q. alba x Q. muehlenbergi)
Faxon oak X faxonii Trel. (Q. alba x Q. prinoides)
Fernow oak X fernowii Trel. (Q. alba x Q. stellata)
Jack oak X jackiana Schneid. (Q. alba x Q. montana)
Saul oak X saulii Schneid. (Q. alba x Q. prinus)

Saul oak was formerly known as Q. alba f. ryderii but is now considered
a heterozygous hybrid form of white oak [3].

Introgressive populations are locally common throughout much of the
range of white oak. Hybrid swarms derived from complex mixtures of
parental forms are particularly common on disturbed sites, at the
margins of white oak's range, and where several oak species occur
sympatrically [58].
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: seed

White oak is potentially valuable for use in reforestation projects [79]
and appears to have potential for use on other types of disturbed sites.
It has been planted on strip-mined lands in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois
[6,23,81] and has exhibited good growth and survival on cast overburden
and graded topsoil overlying mine spoils [6,139].  It is well adapted to
loamy and clayey spoils with a pH of 5.5 to 8.0 [81].

White oak is difficult to transplant and grows slowly [148].  It can be
readily propagated through seed which is generally planted in the fall
[99].  Seed collection, storage, and planting techniques have been
documented [16,99].
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Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Wood Products Value ( Inglês )

fornecido por Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: fuel

White oak wood is heavy, hard, strong, and durable [131].  When properly
dried treated, oak wood glues well, machines very well and accepts a
variety of finishes [97].

White oak is the most important timber oak and is commercially important
throughout much of the South and East [35,141,148].  White oak is an
important source of wood for furniture, veneer, paneling, and flooring
[28,95,101].  It has been used to make railroad ties, fenceposts, mine
timbers, ships, and caskets [95].  White oak has long been used in
cooperage [125] and is currently the major source of wood for whiskey
barrels [43].  White oak wood has also been used as a source of
clapboard shingles and woven baskets, although demands for these
products are decreasing [43].  Its high fuel value makes white oak an
attractive firewood [95].
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citação bibliográfica
Tirmenstein, D. A. 1991. Quercus alba. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Associated Forest Cover ( Inglês )

fornecido por Silvics of North America
White oak grows in association with many other trees, the more important of which are other upland oaks (Quercus spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), yellowpoplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), American basswood (Tilia americana), white ash (Fraxinus americana), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (P.taeda), eastern white pine (P. strobus), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). The most frequent associates are other oaks and the hickories.

White oak is a major component of three forest cover types (10): White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak (Society of American Foresters Type 52), White Oak (Type 53), and Yellow-Poplar-White Oak-Northern Red Oak (Type 59). It is a minor component of the following 28 other forest types:

Northern Forest Region
14 Northern Pin Oak
19 Grey Birch-Red Maple
21 Eastern White Pine 22 White Pine-Hemlock
23 Eastern Hemlock
26 Sugar Maple-Basswood
27 Sugar Maple
51 White Pine-Chestnut Oak
60 Beech-Sugar Maple

Central Forest Region
40 Post Oak-Blackjack Oak
42 Bur Oak
43 Bear Oak
44 Chestnut Oak
45 Pitch Pine
46 Eastern Redcedar
55 Northern Red Oak
57 Yellow-Poplar
58 Yellow-Poplar-Eastern Hemlock
61 River Birch-Sycamore
110 Black Oak

Southern Forest Region
75 Shortleaf Pine
76 Shortleaf Pine-Oak
78 Virginia Pine-Oak
79 Virginia Pine
80 Loblolly Pine-Shortleaf Pine
81 Loblolly Pine
82 Loblolly Pine-Hardwood
91 Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak

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Silvics of North America

Climate ( Inglês )

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White oak grows under a wide variety of climatic conditions. Mean annual temperature ranges from 7° C (45° F) along the northern edge of the growing area to nearly 21° C (70° F) in east Texas and north Florida. The extreme low temperature ranges from -460 C (-50° F) in Wisconsin and Minnesota to -18° C (0° F) in north Florida. Annual precipitation ranges from 2030 mm (80 in) in the southern Appalachians to 760 mm (30 in) in southern Minnesota. Snowfall averages 178 cm (70 in) in southern Maine and less than 3 cm (1 in) in northern Florida. The average noon July relative humidity is less than 50 percent in the western part of the range and more than 65 percent on the Atlantic Coast. The frost-free season is 5 months in the north and 9 months in the extreme southern part of the range. The mean maximum frost penetration in the soil is 102 cm (40 in) in the north and 3 cm (1 in) in the south.

The optimum range of white oak in the Ohio Valley and central part of the Mississippi Valley has the following average climatic conditions: annual temperature, 13° C (55° F); annual precipitation, 1020 mm (40 in); annual snowfall, from 38 to 51 cm. (15 to 20 in); noon relative humidity in July, 55 percent; frost-free season, 6 months; and frost penetration, 25 cm (10 in) (28).

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Damaging Agents ( Inglês )

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Several insects attack white oak trees (15,28,43). They are usually not important but may become epidemic and kill weakened trees. Economically, the most important are the wood borers. These may damage the wood of standing trees and cause log and lumber defects.

White oak is attacked by several leaf eaters including the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), orange-striped oakworm (Anisota senatoria), variable oakleaf caterpillar (Heterocampa manteo), several oak leaf tiers (Psilocorsis spp.), and walkingstick (Diapheromera femorata). Frequently trees are killed from an interaction of damaging agents such as a defoliator followed by invasion of a shoestring fungus and the twolined chestnut borer (Agrilus bilineatus).

White oak also hosts various scale insects, gall-forming insects, and twig pruners, but most of these are of minor importance. White oak acorns are commonly attacked by insects, in some cases affecting half the total acorn crop. Weevils of the genera Curculio and Conotrachelus cause most acorn damage. Light acorn crops usually are more heavily infested than heavy ones. Two moths damage acorns, the filbertworm (Melissopus latiferreanus) and Valentinia glandulella. The Cynipid wasps cause galls to develop in the acorn or on the cup.

The oak timberworm (Arrhenodes minutus) frequently damages white oak, making it unfit for tight cooperage. Attacks by this insect usually occur at wounds made by logging, lightning, and wind. Golden oak scale (Asterolecanium variolosum) can seriously damage and even kill the tree. It is especially damaging when accompanied by drought.

Decay of heartwood resulting from fire scars causes the most serious white oak losses. The amount of decay depends on the size of the wound, the species of fungi, and the length of time since wounding. In general, rot spreads in the stem if the basal sear is more than 0.3 m (1 ft) in d.b.h. The larger the wound, the faster the rot (28).

Oak wilt, a vascular disease caused by the fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum, is potentially the most destructive disease of both the red and white oaks. It is widely distributed throughout the Central States. White oak is less susceptible to oak wilt than the red oak species, and may lose only a limb at a time, or may sustain infection by the pathogen without ever showing symptoms (21).

Several other diseases of white oak seldom kill or cause much loss. Perennial cankers induced by bark diseases Strumella coryneoides and Nectria galligena are responsible for most of the losses in white oak particularly where ice and snow accumulation is common. Damage results from a weakening of the bole at the cankers with subsequent wind breakage. The trunk can become wholly or partially unmerchantable.

A root rot caused by the fungus Armillaria mellea attacks weakened trees. Root rot caused by Armillaria tabescens is similar and attacks oaks in the South. White root rot caused by Inonotus dryadeus is common on weak and suppressed trees.

The fungus Gnomonia veneta causes irregular brown areas on leaves and shoots. It may cause loss of some leaves and rarely, complete defoliation.

Oak leaf blister, caused by Taphrina caerulescens, is prevalent on eastern oaks, producing blisterlike swellings on the foliage.

White oak is moderately resistant to ice breakage, sensitive to flooding, and resistant to salt spray and brief salt-water submergence (21,28). It is sensitive to fire injury but less so than scarlet oak. Coal smoke and the resulting fly ash deposit on the soil surface substantially reduce white oak productivity (2,38).

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Flowering and Fruiting ( Inglês )

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White oak flowers in the spring at about the same time leaves appear. The time may vary from late March to late May depending upon latitude. It is monoecious; flowers of both sexes are present on the same tree. The yellowish staminate flowers appear first and are home in 5- to 8-cm (2- to 3-in) catkins. The reddish pistillate flowers appear 5 to 10 days later either singly or in pairs on short stalks. Female flowers that are not fertilized abscise during the development period. High abscission rates are common and may be related to weather conditions during the period of pollination, ovule development, and fertilization (44). Ripe anthers open and close with changes in relative humidity. Normally, pollen dissemination is completed within 3 days but periods of wet weather delay pollen shedding. Dry winds and freezing weather are also detrimental to flower development and pollen shedding (28). Acorn crops are good in years when the weather is warm for 10 days during flowering and then cool for 13 to 20 days afterward. The acorn crop has been poor in years when cool periods preceded warm periods at the time of flowering (36).

Acorn maturity is reached approximately 120 days after pollination. Acorn drop follows 25 days later and is complete within a month. Physiological maturity, as indicated by normal germination, is reached when acorns change color from green to light brown (4). Acorns germinate almost immediately after falling to the ground in September or October.

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Genetics ( Inglês )

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In addition to the type variety, two varieties of Quercus alba have been named: Q. alba var. repanda Michx. and Q. alba var. latiloba Sarg.

Seven hybrids are recognized: Quercus x jackiana Schneid. (Q. alba x bicolor); Q. x bebbiana Schneid. (Q. alba x macrocarpa); Q. x beadlei Trel. (Q. alba x michauxii); Q. x faxonii Trel. (Q. alba x prinoides); Q. x saulli Schneid. (Q. alba x prinus); Q. x fernowii Trel. (Q. alba x stellata); Q. x bimundorum Palmer (Q. alba x- robur).

White oak also hybridizes with the following: Durand oak (Quercus durandii), overcup oak (Q. lyrata), and chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii).

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Growth and Yield ( Inglês )

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White oak is a large, long-lived tree often 24 to 30 ni (80 to 100 ft) in height and 91 to 122 cm (36 to 48 in) in d.b.h. Individual trees 46 m (150 ft) high, 244 cm (96 in) in d.b.h., and 600 years old have been recorded. In the open it is characterized by a short stocky bole with a widespreading rugged crown. In the forest, white oaks develop a tall straight trunk with a compact crown (28).

White oak generally has the reputation of being a slow-growing tree. According to growth averages from Forest Resources Evaluation data in the Central States, 10-year d.b.h. growth of white oak was 3.0 cm (1.20 in) for seedlings and saplings, 3.5 cm (1.37 in) for poles, and 4.7 cm (1.84 in) for sawtimber. These growth rates were slower than scarlet oak Quercus coccinea), northern red oak (Q. rubra), or black oak but faster than chestnut oak (Q. prinus). Among the non-oak species only hickory and beech had slower growth rates than white oak, while yellow-poplar, black walnut (Juglans nigra), white ash, and sugar maple all had faster growth rates than white oak (16).

Although white oak was once a component of mixed, uneven-aged stands, most white oaks today are in pure to mixed second growth stands of sprout origin. Individual trees may contain 5.7 m³ (1,000 fbm) or more of wood but this is uncommon. Pure and mixed unthinned stands at age 80 normally contain from 28 to 168 m³/ha (2,000 to 12,000 fbm/acre) of wood, occasionally more. Mean annual volume growth over a 60-year period in these stands ranges from 0.95 m³/ha on fair to poor sites to 2.2 m³/ha on good sites (68 fbm/acre to 156 fbm/acre) (17). Total volumes of fully stocked, even-aged stands of mixed oak have been reported to be 89.3 m³/ha (6,380 ft³/acre) at age 100 on site index 24.4 m (80 ft) sites; and merchantable volumes of 294 m³/ha (21,000 fbm/acre) have been found in stands on comparable sites in Wisconsin at age 100. However, such high volumes are rare and occur in localized areas (28).

Because oaks in general, and white oak specifically, are long-lived trees, rotation length can be long (120+ years). But rotation lengths can be shortened by as much as 50 percent and yields increased dramatically if stands are thinned early and regularly, particularly on good sites. If thinnings are begun at age 10 and stands rethinned to 60 percent stocking at 10-year intervals, volume yield at age 60 on good sites (264 m³/ha or 18,840 fbm/acre) is approximately double that in similar unthinned stands. Mean annual growth in such thinned stands is 3.9 m³/ha (279 fbm/acre) (17).

Throughout its range, site index for white oak is generally less than for yellow-poplar and other important oaks on the same site (26,28). White oak site index is approximately 1.2 ni (4 ft) less than black oak and 2.1 in (7 ft) less than scarlet oak. On all sites the index for white oak is higher than that for shortleaf pine. And on the poorest sites, the index for white oak is higher than that for yellow-poplar.

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Reaction to Competition ( Inglês )

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White oak is generally classed as intermediate in tolerance to shade. It is most tolerant in youth and becomes less tolerant as the tree becomes larger. White oak seedlings, saplings, and even pole-size trees are nevertheless able to persist under a forest canopy for more than 90 years.

Saplings and pole-size trees respond well to release. A 41 percent increase in diameter has resulted in young stands 1 year following release, and this trend has continued through the fourth year following release. Moreover, diameter growth of released trees for a 20-year period can be expected to be double that of nonreleased trees. Release significantly increases height growth only for those trees in the intermediate or suppressed crown classes. Young white oak sprout clumps thinned to one stem show a slightly greater diameter growth response over released single-stemmed trees (8,28,29). Such increases are possible when stands are heavily thinned, but the response becomes less dramatic as residual stand stocking increases. Other things being equal, however, the trees to release should be the large potential crop trees that show evidence of rapid recent growth.

Thinning combined with fertilization can boost 2-year diameter growth by 95 percent over unthinned and unfertilized pole-size white oak according to tests conducted in the Boston Mountains of Arkansas (19). The addition of nitrogen and calcium to soils in the Allegheny Plateau region of central Pennsylvania increased stand volume more than 40 percent (42).

White oak usually becomes dominant in the stand because of its ability to persist for long periods of time in the understory, its ability to respond well after release, and its great longevity. When associated with other oaks and hickory in the central and southern hardwood forests, white oak is considered a climax tree. On good sites in the north, it is usually succeeded by sugar maple. In the Ozark-Ouachita Highlands, white oak is climax on moderately dry to moist sites. In sheltered, moist coves and well-drained second bottoms throughout its range it may be succeeded by beech and other more tolerant species (10).

Most research and field experience suggest that even-aged silviculture is most suitable for white oak growing in pure or mixed hardwood stands. Although selection silviculture has been considered, it has been difficult to develop a sustainable stand structure without continual cultural treatments to restrain the more tolerant species, particularly on the better sites (34).

If oak advance reproduction is adequate, clearcutting is the recommended silvicultural system (32). if oak advance reproduction is scarce or absent, new seedlings need to be established. Some reduction of overstory density should help to stimulate seed production, but because of the periodicity of seed crops, it will probably take a long time to establish an adequate number of new seedlings. Seedlings can be planted under an overstory and allowed to develop. The overstory should be maintained at about 60 percent stocking and if competition from an existing understory will impair the growth of the planted seedlings, its density should be reduced. Planting oaks after clearcutting has generally been unsatisfactory because the planted seedlings do not grow fast enough to compete with new sprouts. Reducing both overstory and understory competition is likely to accelerate the growth of small oak advance reproduction. However, even with this increased growth, advance oak reproduction grows slowly and the development period may be from 10 to 20 years or longer.

Natural pruning of white oak is usually good in moderately to heavily stocked stands. Large dominant trees have cleaner boles than smaller trees in lower crown classes. Some branches along the trunk tend to persist when exposed to sunlight. Epicormic sprouting may be heavy on trees that have been grown in fully stocked stands for 20 years or more and then given sudden and heavy release (28). However, residual stand density and the vigor of trees may be more important to the persistence of epicormics than to their initiation following thinning (41). Significantly more epicormic branches have been observed on multiple-stemmed trees than on single-stemmed trees.

Live branches not more than 4 cm (1.5 in) in d.b.h. may be saw-pruned without danger of introducing rot. However, epicormic sprouts will often develop around the edges of the wound on saplings and small pole-size trees. Diameter growth of thinned and pruned trees may be 10 percent less than thinned but unpruned trees (35).

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Rooting Habit ( Inglês )

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White oak is deep rooted-a trait that persists from youth to maturity. White oak seedlings produce a conspicuous, well-developed taproot but this gradually disappears with age and is replaced by a fibrous root system with well-developed, tapered laterals. Although the deepest point of root penetration observed during a study conducted at the Harvard Black Rock Forest in Massachusetts approached 1.2 m (4 ft), most of the main branches away from the central stem were within 53.3 cm (21 in) of the ground surface. Fine roots are typically concentrated in dense mats in the upper soil horizons usually close to trunks but occasionally lying beneath the base of neighboring trees (5,14,39).

Root grafts between neighboring trees are common, especially under crowded conditions.

The ratio between the area of the root system and the area of the crown ranges from 3.4 to 1 to 5.8 to 1.

Following stand thinning, roots of released trees are capable of elongating at the rate of 0.24 m (0.8 ft) per year.

Root regeneration of young forest-grown seedlings may be hampered following top damage. A study of root regeneration of 1-0 white oak seedlings growing under greenhouse conditions has shown that new growth of seedlings whose shoot tops were pruned was 20 to 80 percent less than that of unpruned seedlings (12).

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Seed Production and Dissemination ( Inglês )

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White oak can produce seeds prolifically, but good acorn crops are irregular and occur only every 4 to 10 years. Sometimes several years may pass without a crop. Acorn yields range from 0 to 500,000 acorns per hectare (202,000/acre) (7,22,28). This great variation in acorn production exists not only among isolated stands of oaks but also among individual trees within stands and from year to year.

Trees normally bear seeds between the ages of 50 and 200 years, sometimes older; however, opengrown trees may produce seeds as early as 20 years. Individual white oak trees tend to have either very good or very poor seed crops and are noticeably consistent in seed production from year to year (20,28,36,40). A recent study (13) showed that white oak flower production varies not only annually but also among trees within a given year and that much of the variation in acorn production can be related to flower abundance at the time of pollination. More than 23,000 acorns were produced during a good seed year by an individual white oak tree growing in Virginia; it was 69 years old, 63.5 cm (25 in) in d.b.h., and 21 in (69 ft) tall, and had a crown area of 145 m² (1,560 ft²) . Average production in good years for individual forest-grown trees, however, is probably no more than 10,000 acorns.

Several studies have shown that only a small portion of the total mature acorn crop (sometimes only 18 percent) is sound and fully developed; the remainder is damaged or destroyed by animals and insects (15,28,40). However, some damaged acorns germinate if the embryo is not damaged. Light acorn crops are often completely destroyed by animals and insects, so seedlings are produced only during heavy crop years.

Seeds are disseminated by rodents (chiefly squirrels and mice), gravity, and wind. The area seeded by individual trees is small and therefore widespread reproduction depends on adequate distribution of seedbearing trees.

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Seedling Development ( Inglês )

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Germination is hypogeal. Sound white oak acorns have a germination capacity between 50 and 99 percent (30). Seeds germinate in the fall soon after dropping, requiring no pretreatment for germination. For germination to occur, the moisture content of acorns must not fall below 30 to 50 percent. Germination is favored at soil temperatures between 10° and 16° C (50° and 60° F). Germination is severely limited after 15 days of exposure to flooded conditions (1). When acorns germinate, their roots begin to grow but the shoot remains dormant. This trait serves to protect it from damage by freezing (11).

After germination, root growth continues until interrupted by cold weather. Broken radicles are replaced on freshly sprouted seeds. Root and shoot growth resumes in the spring, and after the first growing season, seedlings 7.6 to 10.2 cm (3 to 4 in) high normally develop a large taproot 6 to 13 mm (0.25 to 0.50 in) in diameter and more than 30.5 em (12 in) long.

Oak seedling establishment is best on loose soil because the radicle cannot penetrate excessively compact surfaces. A humus layer is especially important because it keeps the soil surface loose and porous and because it mechanically supports the acorn as the radicle penetrates the soil (28).

If climate and soil are favorable for germination, white oak reproduces adequately from seed when: (1) large seed trees are within about 61 m (200 ft); (2) litter cover is light to moderate (but not thick); and (3) light reaching seedling level is at least 35 percent of full sunlight. Reproduction is least abundant on moist sites that have a thick carpet of ferns and lesser vegetation (6). Seedlings persist more readily in open stands typical of dry exposures but can be maintained on moist sites if adequate sunlight reaches the forest floor.

Although important, soil moisture is probably not a critical factor in determining early seedling survival except under unusually dry conditions. At least one study has shown that when available soil moisture was 19 percent of oven dry soil weight, white oak seedling survival was 98 percent; at 3 percent available moisture, survival was 87 percent (28).

A Missouri study has shown that despite an adequate crop of sound acorns, the number of new white oak seedlings produced in any given year is low compared to other oaks, particularly black oak Quercus velutina). However, these individuals may persist in the understory for many years (90 years) by repeatedly dying back and resprouting. This phenomenon permits the gradual buildup of advance reproduction that is often taller and more numerous than the advance reproduction of associated oaks.

Under ideal growing conditions it is common for individual seedlings to grow 0.6 m (2 ft) or more a year. However, white oak seedlings established at the time of overstory removal normally grow too slowly to be of value in stand reproduction. Mean height of seedlings 10 years after overstory removal on sites with a site index of 13 to 19 in (43 to 63 ft) at base age 50 years in Missouri was slightly more than 0.6 m (2 ft) while seedling sprouts and stump sprouts averaged 4.9 and 6.4 m (16 and 21 ft), respectively (27).

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Soils and Topography ( Inglês )

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White oak grows on a wide range of soils and sites. It is found on podzols, gray-brown podzolic soils, brown podzolic soils, red and yellow podzolic soils, lithosols, planasols, and alluviums. The tree grows on both glaciated and nonglaciated soils derived from many parent materials. It is found on sandy plains, gravelly ridges, rich uplands, coves, and well-drained loamy soils. Growth is good on all but the driest, shallowest soils (28).

Mineral nutrition is not limiting to white oak growth except on very sandy soils where moisture is also a limiting factor. The amount of variability in white oak growth that can be accounted for by soil factors alone is low (9,28,37). Nevertheless, several studies have identified the more important factors to be thickness of the A, and A2 horizons and the percent clay in the surface soils (18,25,28). White oak is most frequently found growing on soils in the orders Alfisols and Ultisols.

The major site factors influencing white oak growth are latitude, aspect, and topography (9,18). White oak has the ability to grow on all upland aspects and slope positions within its range except extremely dry, shallow-soil ridges; poorly drained flats; and wet bottom land. It grows best on north and east-facing lower slopes and coves and grows well on moderately dry slopes and ridges with shallow soils. White oak is more abundant although smaller in size on the drier west- and south-facing slopes than on the more mesophytic sites.

It is found at all altitudes in the central and southern parts of its range, but it is seldom found above 150 in (500 ft) in elevation in the northern part of its range. It is excluded from the high Appalachians in New York and New England; but it is a scrub tree at elevations of 1370 in (4,500 ft) in the southern Appalachians (28).

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Special Uses ( Inglês )

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Acorns are a valuable though inconsistent source of wildlife food. More than 180 different kinds of birds and mammals use oak acorns as food; among them are squirrels, blue jays, crows, red-headed woodpeckers, deer, turkey, quail, mice, chipmunks, ducks, and raccoons. White oak twigs and foliage are browsed by deer especially in clearcuts less than 6 years old (3).

White oak is sometimes planted as an ornamental tree because of its broad round crown, dense foliage, and purplish-red to violet-purple fall coloration. It is less favored than red oak because it is difficult to transplant and has a slow growth rate.

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Vegetative Reproduction ( Inglês )

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Small white oak trees sprout prolifically and vigorously when cut or damaged by fire. The ability to sprout depends on the d.b.h. of the parent trees as follows (23):



D.b.h. classes Stumps likely to sprout cm in percent 5 to 14 2 to 5 80 14 to 29 6 to 11 50 29 to 42 12 to 16 15 42- 16- 0

Shoot elongation of stump sprouts increases with increasing stump diameter up to 15 cm (6 in) after which it declines. Annual height growth of stump sprouts when overstory competition is removed averages 0.7 ni (2.2 ft) (24).

Another source of vegetative reproduction is seedling sprouts. Seedling sprouts are stems with root systems that are several to many years older. These develop as a result of repeated dieback or mechanical damage.

In general, low stump sprouts from pole-size trees and seedling sprouts are about as good as trees grown from seed. However, sprouts originating high on the stump are likely to have heartwood decay (28).

The seedlings and seedling sprouts already present in a mature stand (advance reproduction), together with stump sprouts, regenerate the stand with oaks following overstory removal. Although many stands may have adequate numbers of stems, the size of the reproduction when the overstory is removed is the key to adequate growth and subsequent stocking (31). A minimum of 1,095 stems per hectare (443/acre) that are 1.37 m (4.5 ft) tall or taller is required to ensure a future stocking of at least 546 dominant and codominant oaks per hectare (221/acre) when average stand diameter is 7.6 cm (3 in) (33). Nevertheless, stands deficient in advance reproduction may be adequately stocked if a sufficient number of stumps sprout.

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Distribution ( Inglês )

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White oak grows throughout most of the Eastern United States. It is found from southwestern Maine and extreme southern Quebec, west to southern Ontario, central Michigan, to southeastern Minnesota; south to western Iowa, eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas; east to northern Florida and Georgia. The tree is generally absent in the high Appalachians, in the Delta region of the lower Mississippi, and in the coastal areas of Texas and Louisiana.

The west slopes of the Appalachian Mountains and the Ohio and central Mississippi River Valleys have optimum conditions for white oak, but the largest trees have been found in Delaware and Maryland on the Eastern Shore.


-The native range of white oak.


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Brief Summary ( Inglês )

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Fagaceae -- Beech family

Robert Rogers

White oak (Quercus alba) is an outstanding tree among all trees and is widespread across eastern North America. The most important lumber tree of the white oak group, growth is good on all but the driest shallow soils. Its high-grade wood is useful for many things, an important one being staves for barrels, hence the name stave oak. The acorns are an important food for many kinds of wildlife.

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Ağ palıd ( Azerbaijano )

fornecido por wikipedia AZ

Ağ palıd (lat. Quercus alba) — fıstıqkimilər fəsiləsinin palıd cinsinə aid bitki növü.

Təbii yayılması

Botaniki təsviri

Ekologiyası

Azərbaycanda yayılması

İstifadəsi

Ədəbiyyat

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Ağ palıd: Brief Summary ( Azerbaijano )

fornecido por wikipedia AZ

Ağ palıd (lat. Quercus alba) — fıstıqkimilər fəsiləsinin palıd cinsinə aid bitki növü.

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Roure blanc americà ( Catalão; Valenciano )

fornecido por wikipedia CA

El roure blanc americà (Quercus alba) és un arbre del gènere Quercus original de l'est d'Amèrica del Nord, des de l'oest del Quebec al sud de Minnesota, a l'est i sud de la Florida del Nord i Texas Oriental. Pot arribar als 600 anys d'edat.

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tronc i capçada
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fulles
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aglans

Descripció

Arbre caducifoli que pot arribar als 40 m d'alçada, encara que rarament supera els 25 o 30 m. Acostuma a ser un arbre més ample que alt; les seves branques inferiors són capaces d'arribar a una distància considerable amb un desenvolupament totalment horitzontal, paral·lel a la superfície del sòl.

El tronc i branques presenten una escorça grisa que varia en diverses tonalitats, amb petites fissures o escates. Les branquetes, en canvi, són d'un color verd brillant, amb tendència, més tard, al verd-vermellós, i, finalment, al gris clar.

Les fulles, alternes, de 5 a 9 cm. de llarg i de 2,75 a 4,5 cm. d'ample, són lobulades (de set a nou lòbuls). Aquests arbres ofereixen un espectacle cromàtic tant a la primavera com a la tardor. En brotar a la primavera, les fulles presenten un rosa platejat que després passen a un verd pàl·lid, mentre que a la tardor esdevenen vermelles i marrons, que resten a l'arbre molta part de l'hivern fins a la seva caiguda definitiva quasi a la primavera.

Usos

Proporciona una de les fustes americanes més interessants, per les seves múltiples aplicacions per la seva duresa, resistència i durabilitat, especialment en la fàbrica de mobles, construcció naval i ferrocarrils. Les seves aglans són comestibles.

Bibliografia

  • A. López, Mª Mar Trigo, X. Argimon, JM. Sánchez Flora Ornamental Española Tomo I. Coedició Junta de Andalucia, Consejería de Agricultura y Pesca, Mundi-Prensa i Asociación Española de Parques y Jardines Públicos, Sevilla 2000.

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Roure blanc americà: Brief Summary ( Catalão; Valenciano )

fornecido por wikipedia CA

El roure blanc americà (Quercus alba) és un arbre del gènere Quercus original de l'est d'Amèrica del Nord, des de l'oest del Quebec al sud de Minnesota, a l'est i sud de la Florida del Nord i Texas Oriental. Pot arribar als 600 anys d'edat.

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Dub bílý ( Checo )

fornecido por wikipedia CZ

Dub bílý (Quercus alba) je opadavý strom dorůstající výšky 25 metrů. Pochází z východních oblastí Severní Ameriky a v Česku je pěstován jako okrasná dřevina. Je ceněn zejména pro podzimní zbarvení listů.

Charakteristika

Dub bílý je opadavý strom dorůstající výšky 25, výjimečně až 35 metrů. Koruna je široce vejcovitá, nahoře zaoblená. Borka je světle šedohnědá, odlupčivá v úzkých plátech. Letorosty jsou zelené nebo načervenalé, později šedé, zprvu pýřité, olysávající. Zimní pupeny jsou tmavě červenohnědé, asi 3 mm dlouhé, vejcovité, lysé. Listy jsou obvejčité až úzce eliptické nebo úzce obvejčité. Čepel listů je 12 až 18 cm dlouhá a 7 až 11 mm široká, na okraji mělce až hluboce laločnatá, na bázi úzce klínovitá až špičatá. Laloky jsou často úzké a na vrcholu zakulacené. Žilnatina je tvořena 5 až 7 páry postranních žilek. Listy jsou na líci světle sivozelené, matné nebo lesklé, na rubu světle zelené, zprvu pokryté bělavými nebo červenavými vzpřímenými chlupy, které později opadávají. Řapíky jsou 10 až 25 mm dlouhé, žlutavé. Na podzim se listy zbarvují do oranžových a vínově až fialově červených odstínů. Žaludy jsou světle hnědé, vejcovitě elipsoidní až podlouhlé, jednotlivé nebo po 2, krátce stopkaté nebo téměř přisedlé, obvykle 12 až 30 mm dlouhé, asi do 1/4 až 1/3 kryté polokulovitou číškou se ztlustlými jemně chlupatými šupinami.[2][3][4]

Rozšíření

Dub bílý je rozšířen ve východní polovině USA a v jihovýchodní Kanadě. Roste v opadavých listnatých lesích na hlubších půdách, někdy též na mělkých půdách na suchých horských svazích, v nadmořských výškách do 1600 metrů. Preferuje kyselé a dobře odvodněné půdy. V oblastech společného výskytu se kříží s různými jinými duby z téže sekce: s dubem košíčkatým (Q. prinus), dubem velkoplodým (Q. macrocarpa), dubem letním (Q. robur), dubem Muehlenbergovým (Q. muehlenbergii), dubem křovitým (Q. prinoides) a dubem dvoubarevným (Q. bicolor).[3][5]

Ekologické interakce

Na dubu bílém se mj. živí některé bizarně vypadající housenky, jako je Parasa indetermina a Acharia stimulea.

Význam

V minulosti byl dub bílý ve Spojených státech zdrojem nejvíce ceněného dubového řeziva, používaného zejména v truhlářství a při stavbě lodí. V dnešní době je téměř zcela nahrazen dřevem rychle rostoucích červených dubů. Domorodí indiáni používali dub bílý při léčení celé řady neduhů, jako jsou průjmy a úplavice, astma, revma, afty a podobně.[3] Semena dubu bílého jsou nasládlé chuti a jedlá.[4]

Dub bílý je v Česku pěstován jako okrasná dřevina, nápadná zejména podzimním zbarvením listů.[2] Je to dlouhověký dub, dožívající se stáří přes 200 let. Do Evropy byl zaveden v roce 1724.[5]

Zajímavosti

Dub bílý je stromem amerického státu Illinois.

Reference

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-10]
  2. a b Dendrologie online: Quercus alba [online]. Dostupné online.
  3. a b c Flora of North America: Quercus alba [online]. Dostupné online.
  4. a b KOBLÍŽEK, J. Jehličnaté a listnaté dřeviny našich zahrad a parků. 2. vyd. Tišnov: Sursum, 2006. ISBN 80-7323-117-4.
  5. a b Oaks of the World: Quercus alba [online]. Dostupné online.

Externí odkazy

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Dub bílý: Brief Summary ( Checo )

fornecido por wikipedia CZ

Dub bílý (Quercus alba) je opadavý strom dorůstající výšky 25 metrů. Pochází z východních oblastí Severní Ameriky a v Česku je pěstován jako okrasná dřevina. Je ceněn zejména pro podzimní zbarvení listů.

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visite a fonte
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wikipedia CZ

Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche ( Alemão )

fornecido por wikipedia DE

Die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche (Quercus alba) ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Eichen (Quercus) innerhalb der Familie der Buchengewächse (Fagaceae). Sie ist im östlichen Nordamerika verbreitet. Ihr großes Verbreitungsgebiet sowie etliche markante Einzelexemplare tragen zur Popularität der White Oak in Nordamerika bei. So ist die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche der Staatsbaum der US-Bundesstaaten Connecticut, Illinois und Maryland. In Mitteleuropa ist sie als Parkbaum nur selten anzutreffen, obwohl sie winterhart ist.

Beschreibung

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Borke der Amerikanischen Weiß-Eiche
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Laubblätter im Austrieb
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Das hellgrüne Laub im Sommer
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Hellbraune Eicheln mit und ohne Fruchtbecher
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Illustration aus Arboretum et fruticetum britannicum, or - The trees and shrubs of Britain, native and foreign, hardy and half-hardy, pictorially and botanically delineated, and scientifically and popularly described

Erscheinungsbild und Blatt

Die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche ist ein sommergrüner Baum. Sie ähnelt in ihrem Aussehen den beiden europäischen Arten Stiel- und Traubeneiche. Im Alter erreicht der Stamm einen Durchmesser von 90 bis 120 Zentimeter bei einer Wuchshöhe des Baums von 25 Metern. Einzeln stehende Exemplare erreichen auch weit größere Ausmaße – Höhen bis maximal 46 Meter und Stammdurchmesser bis 240 Zentimeter. Während die Krone im geschlossenen Wald schmal und der Stamm gerade ist, bilden freistehende Bäume eine tief angesetzte Rundkrone mit waagrechten Ästen aus. In den Höhenlagen der südlichen Appalachen wächst sie nur strauchförmig.

Die Früchte zeigen keine Dormanz, sondern keimen (hypogäisch) bald nach der Reife im September oder Oktober. Dabei wächst im Herbst zuerst die Wurzel, im Frühjahr dann auch der Spross.

Das Wurzelsystem besteht aus einer tief reichenden Pfahlwurzel sowie weit ausgebreiteten oberflächennahen Seitenwurzeln. Es ist empfindlich gegen Überflutung und Bodenverdichtung, tolerant gegen Salz. Durch die tief reichenden Wurzeln können Trockenperioden ausgehalten werden, die Pfahlwurzel macht allerdings das Verpflanzen in der Baumschule schwierig.

Die Rinde junger Zweige ist rötlich oder rot und grün gefärbt und leicht behaart, später wird sie grau und kahl. An älteren Ästen und am Stamm bildet sich eine hellgraue Borke, auf deren Farbe sich der Name bezieht. Die Borke ist rau und in schmale Platten geteilt, manchmal auch gefurcht.

Die braun-roten, glatten Winterknospen sind mit einer Größe von 3 bis 4 Millimetern oval mit stumpfer Spitze.

Die wechselständig an den Zweigen angeordneten Laubblätter sind in Blattstiel und Blattspreite gegliedert. Der Blattstiel ist 1 bis 3 Zentimeter lang. Die einfache Blattspreite ist etwa 12 bis 20 Zentimeter lang und 9 Zentimeter breit, die Breite ist oberhalb der Mitte am größten. Sie weist beiderseits zwei bis vier Blattlappen auf, deren Enden rund zulaufen. Die Einschnitte zwischen den Blattlappen reichen etwa ein Drittel bis sieben Achtel in die Blattspreite hinein; der Spreitengrund läuft keilförmig zu. Die Blattoberseite ist hellgrün bis grau-grün, die Unterseite heller bis weißlich und im Austrieb leicht behaart. Die Herbstfärbung ist purpur-rot bis braun-violett, die trockenen Blätter bleiben bis weit in den Winter am Baum haften.

Blütenstand, Blüte und Frucht

Die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche ist einhäusig getrenntgeschlechtig (monözisch). Die männlichen, gelblich-grünen Blüten sind zu locker herabhängenden, 5 bis 10 Zentimeter langen Blütenständen zusammengefasst, die aus Knospen an der Basis der neu austreibenden Zweige entspringen. Die weiblichen Blüten sind rötlich und stehen zu zweit oder dritt zusammen, sie stehen in Blattachseln entlang des neuen Austriebs. Die Blütezeit liegt im Frühjahr, etwa Ende März bis Ende Mai, gleichzeitig mit dem Laubaustrieb.

Die Früchte reifen noch im selben Jahr. Die Eicheln stehen einzeln oder zu zweit oder zu dritt zusammen, sie sind kurz oder gar nicht gestielt. Der rauschuppige Fruchtbecher (Cupula) umschließt weniger als ein Drittel der Eichel. Diese hat eine Länge von etwa 2 Zentimetern und ist hellbraun gefärbt. Erste Früchte werden im Alter von 20 bis 50 Jahren gebildet, reiche Fruchtbildung erfolgt alle vier bis zehn Jahre.

Chromosomenzahl

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 24.

Vorkommen

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Verbreitungsgebiet

Die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche hat ihr angestammtes und größtes Verbreitungsgebiet im östlichen Nordamerika. Die Nordgrenze der Verbreitung bildet ungefähr die kanadische Grenze bzw. die Großen Seen, im Westen reicht das Areal bis zur Prärie, ziemlich genau entlang des 95. Längengrades. Im Osten bildet der Atlantik die Grenze; im Süden ist der Baum mit Ausnahme eines schmalen Streifens an der Küste zum Golf von Mexiko und am Unterlauf des Mississippi zu finden.[1] Die besiedelten Höhenlagen reichen von Meereshöhe bis 1700 Meter.

Innerhalb dieses großen Areals werden unterschiedliche Bodenqualitäten besiedelt: die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche findet sich oft auf nährstoffärmeren und trockeneren Böden, die größten Exemplare wachsen jedoch auf gut drainierten, nährstoffreichen Lehm-Böden. Jahresdurchschnittstemperaturen werden von der Weiß-Eiche von 7 °C im Norden bis zu 21 °C im Süden toleriert; als Jahresniederschlag genügen 750 Millimeter, aber diese Baumart kann auch bis zu 2000 Millimeter aushalten.

Die größten Vorkommen finden sich im Tal des Ohio und im mittleren Mississippi-Tal bei einer Durchschnittstemperatur von 13 °C mit 1000 Millimetern Jahresniederschlag. In den höheren Lagen der nördlichen Appalachen, wo Nadelgehölze dominieren, fehlt diese Eichenart meist, ebenso in staunassen Niederungen.

Im gesamten Verbreitungsgebiet wächst die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche in sommergrünen Laubwäldern. Während sie im Norden ihres Verbreitungsgebietes selten oberhalb von 150 Metern anzutreffen ist, findet man sie in den südlichen Appalachen in Höhenlagen bis zu 1700 Metern. Im Norden kommt sie auch in Mischwäldern vor und ist mit Quercus ellipsoidalis, Quercus prinus, der Grau-Birke, Weymouths-Kiefer, Kanadischen Hemlocktanne und dem Zuckerahorn vergesellschaftet. Weiter südlich kommen verschiedene Rot-Eichen und Hickorys hinzu sowie der Amberbaum, Färber-Eiche und Quercus macrocarpa. Im Süden des Verbreitungsgebietes treten in Gesellschaft der Art auf trockenen Standorten verschiedene Kiefern-Arten auf, begleitende Eichen sind Quercus falcata, Scharlach-Eiche und Quercus michauxii. In der Wald-Klassifikation der Society of American Forresters sind drei Wald-Typen nach der Amerikanischen Weiß-Eiche benannt: White Oak – Black Oak (Färber-Eiche) – Northern Red Oak (Roteiche) (Typ 52), White Oak (Typ 53) und Yellow-Poplar (Tulpenbaum) – White Oak – Northern Red Oak (Typ 59).[2]

Ökologie

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Sogenannte „Igel-Galle“, wie sie von Gallwespen der Gattung Cynips hervorgerufen wird

Junge Pflanzen können im Halbschatten aufwachsen, ältere Bäume vertragen eine Beschattung schlechter. Keimlinge, die in sehr schattigen Bereichen stehen, können viele Jahre verharren, bis eine Lücke im Kronendach entsteht. Auf Beschädigung durch Feuer reagiert die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche mit starken Stockausschlägen. Die Früchte sind nicht bitter und werden von einer ganzen Reihe von Tierarten gefressen, unter anderem von Rotkopfspecht, Weißwedelhirsch, Zahnwachteln, Streifenhörnchen, Waschbär, Truthuhn sowie verschiedene Mäusen. Grauhörnchen und Blauhäher sorgen für die Verbreitung, indem sie Früchte als Vorrat im Boden verstecken. Der Weißwedelhirsch frisst auch die Blätter.

Misteln der Gattung Phoradendron wachsen auf den Ästen, während im Wurzelbereich die Pflanzenart Aureolaria flava wahrscheinlich als Epiparasit lebt. Ebenfalls im Wurzelbereich der Amerikanischen Weiß-Eiche finden sich diverse Pilze, etwa Russula vesca, Lactarius quietus, Cortinarius- und Hymenogaster-Arten. Das Holz der Eiche wird ebenfalls von Pilzen besiedelt. Wichtige Schädlinge sind der Igel-Stachelbart und Vertreter der Gattungen Chrysoplenium, Sclerotina, Helotium, Corticium und Strumella, diese besiedeln lebende Bäume. Auf totem Holz findet man noch eine Vielzahl weiterer Pilze, etwa Polyporus frondosus und Polyporus sulphureus sowie Vertreter der Gattungen Bulgaria und Mycena. Alle Teile der Weiß-Eiche werden von diversen Insekten besiedelt. Wirtschaftlich wichtig sind dabei vor allem Arten, die das Holz zerstören. Allein 400 verschiedene Insekten treten als Gallenbildner an der Amerikanischen Weiß-Eiche auf. Darunter finden sich Arten aus den Gattungen Callirhytis, Cynips, Cecidomyia, Taphrina, Dishlocaspis, Andricus und Neuroterus.[3]

Verwendung

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The Charter Oak, Gemälde von Charles De Wolf Brownell, 1857

Das Holz ist schwer und dauerhaft, es lässt sich gut bearbeiten und ist entsprechend geschätzt. Allerdings lässt es sich nur schwer imprägnieren und nimmt keine Flüssigkeit auf. Aus diesem Grund wird es gerne für Fässer, etwa Wein-, Rum- oder Whiskey-Fässer, verwendet. Da Roteichen schneller wachsen und ihr Holz sich imprägnieren lässt, werden sie im Forstbetrieb inzwischen häufiger gepflanzt.

Gelegentlich wird die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche als Zierbaum oder Alleebaum gepflanzt. Im Handel ist nur die Art, keine ausgelesenen Sorten. Von den Indianern wird die Verwendung der Rinde als Medizin berichtet. Die Eicheln wurden als Nahrungsmittel genutzt.[4]

Systematik

Die Erstveröffentlichung von Quercus alba erfolgte 1753 durch Carl von Linné in Species plantarum, 2, Seite 996.[5]

Quercus alba gehört zur Sektion Quercus in der Untergattung Quercus innerhalb der Gattung Quercus. Die Eichen-Arten dieser Sektion werden zusammenfassend auch Weiß-Eichen genannt. Hybride mit verschiedenen anderen Eichen aus dieser Sektion wurden in der Natur beobachtet.

Besondere Einzelexemplare

  • In einer Höhlung der Charter Oak versteckten die Siedler der Colony of Connecticut 1687 der Legende nach ihre Charta, als der königliche Gouverneur sie beschlagnahmen wollte.
  • Der Tree That Owns Itself (Englisch für „Baum, der sich selbst besitzt“) stand in der Stadt Athens im US-Bundesstaat Georgia. Dieses Baumexemplar wurde berühmt dafür, dass es „sich selbst als Besitz zurückgegeben“ wurde. An der gleichen Stelle wächst mittlerweile ein Nachfolgeexemplar Son of the Tree that Owns Itself, das aus einer Eichel des 1942 umgefallenen Baumes gezogen wurde. Der Baum stellt heute eine Touristenattraktion dar und ist mittlerweile über 15 Meter hoch.
  • Die beiden Council Oaks in Arkansas markierten das Zusammentreffen von Robert Crittenden und Anführern der Cherokee, bei dem die Indianer zusagten, das Südufer des Arkansas River zu verlassen.
  • Die Holly Halls White Oak in Maryland soll schon bei der Ankunft William Penns im Jahre 1682 gestanden haben.
  • Als größte Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche wurde die Wye Oak im Wye Oak State Park gelistet, mit einem Stammumfang von über neun Metern, einer Höhe von 30 m und einem Kronendurchmesser von 48 m. Sie wurde am 6. Juni 2002 durch ein Gewitter zerstört.[6]
  • Im Garten des Palacio de Viana in Córdoba (Spanien) steht eine über 400 Jahre alte Weiß-Eiche Palacio de Viana.

Belege und Weiterführendes

Einzelnachweise

  1. E. L. Little: Atlas of United States Trees, 1971. Quercus alba (PDF; 742 kB)
  2. F. H. Eyre (Hrsg.): Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 1980, 148 S. Zitiert in Rogers (1990)
  3. M. Mellinger: The Ecology of the White Oak. In: Chattooga Quarterly. Chattooga Conservancy, 2000, S. 7–8. Online (Memento vom 1. Februar 2014 im Internet Archive)
  4. Native American Ethobotany Database, University of Michigan Online, abgerufen am 6. September 2007 (Memento vom 22. September 2008 im Internet Archive)
  5. Carl von Linné: Species plantarum, 2, 1753, S. 996. Eingescannt bei botanicus.org.
  6. Mitteilung Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Weblinks

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Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche: Brief Summary ( Alemão )

fornecido por wikipedia DE

Die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche (Quercus alba) ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Eichen (Quercus) innerhalb der Familie der Buchengewächse (Fagaceae). Sie ist im östlichen Nordamerika verbreitet. Ihr großes Verbreitungsgebiet sowie etliche markante Einzelexemplare tragen zur Popularität der White Oak in Nordamerika bei. So ist die Amerikanische Weiß-Eiche der Staatsbaum der US-Bundesstaaten Connecticut, Illinois und Maryland. In Mitteleuropa ist sie als Parkbaum nur selten anzutreffen, obwohl sie winterhart ist.

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direitos autorais
Autoren und Herausgeber von Wikipedia
original
visite a fonte
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wikipedia DE

Quercus alba ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

Quercus alba, the white oak, is one of the preeminent hardwoods of eastern and central North America. It is a long-lived oak, native to eastern and central North America and found from Minnesota, Ontario, Quebec, and southern Maine south as far as northern Florida and eastern Texas.[3] Specimens have been documented to be over 450 years old.[4]

Although called a white oak, it is very unusual to find an individual specimen with white bark; the usual colour is a light grey. The name comes from the colour of the finished wood. In the forest it can reach a magnificent height and in the open it develops into a massive broad-topped tree with large branches striking out at wide angles.[5]

Description

Quercus alba typically reaches heights of 24 to 30 metres (80–100 feet) at maturity, and its canopy can become quite massive as its lower branches are apt to extend far out laterally, parallel to the ground. Trees growing in a forest will become much taller than ones in an open area which develop to be short and massive. The Mingo Oak was the tallest known white oak at over two hundred feet with a trunk height of 44.2 m (145 ft) before it was felled in 1938.[6] It is not unusual for a white oak tree to be as wide as it is tall, but specimens growing at high altitudes may only become small shrubs. The bark is a light ash-gray and peels somewhat from the top, bottom and/or sides.[7]

White oak may live 200 to 300 years, with some even older specimens known. The Wye Oak in Wye Mills, Maryland was estimated to be over 450 years old when it finally fell in a thunderstorm in 2002.[8]

Another noted white oak was the Great White Oak in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, estimated to have been over 600 years old when it died in 2016. The tree measured 8 m (25 ft) in circumference at the base and 5 m (16 ft) in circumference 1.2 m (4 ft) above the ground. The tree was 23 m (75 ft) tall, and its branches spread over 38 m (125 ft) from tip to tip.[9] The oak, claimed to be the oldest in the United States, began showing signs of poor health in the mid-2010s.[10] The tree was taken down in 2017.[11]

Sexual maturity begins at around 20 years, but the tree does not produce large crops of acorns until its 50th year and the amount varies from year to year. Acorns deteriorate quickly after ripening, the germination rate being only 10% for six-month-old seeds. As the acorns are prime food for insects and other animals, all may be consumed in years of small crops, leaving none that would become new trees.[12] The acorns are usually sessile, and grow to 15 to 25 mm (12–1 in) in length, falling in early October.

In spring, the young leaves are delicate, silvery pink, and covered with a soft blanket-like down. The petioles are short, and the clustered leaves close to the ends of the shoots are pale green and downy, resulting in the entire tree having a misty, frosty look. This condition continues for several days, passing through the opalescent changes of soft pink, silvery white, and finally, yellow green.[5][7] The leaves grow to be 127 to 216 millimetres (5–8+12 inches) long and 7 to 11.5 centimetres (2+344+12 in) wide and have a deep glossy green upper surface. They usually turn red or brown in autumn, but depending on climate, site, and individual tree genetics, some trees are nearly always red, or even purple in autumn. Some dead leaves may remain on the tree throughout winter until very early spring. The lobes can be shallow, extending less than halfway to the midrib, or deep and somewhat branching.

Quercus alba is sometimes confused with the swamp white oak, a closely related species, and the bur oak. The white oak hybridizes freely with the bur oak, the post oak, and the chestnut oak.[5]

Detailed description
  • Bark: Light gray, varying to dark gray and to white; shallow, fissured and scaly. Branchlets start out as bright green, later turn reddish-green, and finally, light gray. A distinguishing feature of this tree is that a little over halfway up the trunk, the bark tends to form overlapping scales that are easily noticed and aid in identification.[7]
  • Wood: Light brown with paler sapwood; strong, tough, heavy, fine-grained and durable. Specific gravity, 0.7470; weight of one cubic foot, 46.35 lbs; weight of one cubic meter 770 kg.[7][13]
  • Winter buds: Reddish brown, obtuse, 3 mm (18 in) long.[7]
  • Leaves: Alternate, 13–23 cm (5–9 in) long, 7.5–10 cm (3–4 in) wide. Obovate or oblong, seven to nine-lobed, usually seven-lobed with rounded lobes and rounded sinuses; lobes destitute of bristles; sinuses sometimes deep, sometimes shallow. On young trees the leaves are often repand. They come out of the bud conduplicate, are bright red above, pale below, and covered with white tomentum. The reddish hue fades in a week or less, and they become silvery greenish, white, and shiny; when mature, they are thin, bright yellow-green, shiny or dull above, pale, glaucous or smooth below; the midrib is stout and yellow, primary veins are conspicuous. In late autumn the leaves turn a deep red and drop, or on young trees, remain on the branches throughout winter. Petioles are short, stout, grooved, and flattened. Stipules are linear and caducous.[7]
  • Flowers: Appear in May when leaves are one-third grown. Staminate flowers are borne in hairy aments 6.5–7.5 cm (2+12–3 in) long; the calyx is bright yellow, hairy, and six to eight-lobed with lobes shorter than the stamens; anthers are yellow. Pistillate flowers are borne on short peduncles; involucral scales are hairy and reddish; calyx lobes are acute; stigmas are bright red.[7]
  • Acorns: Annual, sessile or stalked; nut ovoid or oblong, round at apex, light brown, shiny, 20–25 mm (34–1 in) long; cap is cup-shaped, encloses about one-fourth of the nut, tomentose on the outside, tuberculate at base, scales with short obtuse tips becoming smaller and thinner toward the rim.[5] White Oak acorns (referring to Q. alba and all its close relatives) have no epigeal dormancy and germination begins readily without any treatment. In most cases, the oak root sprouts in the fall, with the leaves and stem appearing the next spring. The acorns take only one growing season to develop unlike the red oak group, which require two years for maturation.[7]

Chemistry

Grandinin/roburin E, castalagin/vescalagin, gallic acid, monogalloyl glucose (glucogallin) and valoneic acid dilactone, monogalloyl glucose, digalloyl glucose, trigalloyl glucose, ellagic acid rhamnose, quercitrin and ellagic acid are phenolic compounds found in Q. alba.[15]

Distribution

White Oak in the Appalachian Foothills of SW Pennsylvania

Quercus alba is fairly tolerant of a variety of habitats, and may be found on ridges, in valleys, and in between, in dry and moist habitats, and in moderately acid and alkaline soils. It is mainly a lowland tree, but reaches altitudes of 1,600 m (5,249 ft) in the Appalachian Mountains. It is often a component of the forest canopy in an oak-heath forest.[16][17]

Frequent fires in the Central Plains region of the United States prevented oak forests, including Q. alba, from expanding into the Midwest. However, a decrease in the frequency of these natural fires after European settlement caused rapid expansion of oak forests into the Great Plains, negatively affecting the natural prairie vegetation.[18]

Uses

Cultivation

Quercus alba is cultivated as an ornamental tree somewhat infrequently due to its slow growth and ultimately huge size. It is not tolerant of urban pollution and road salt and due to its large taproot, is unsuited for a street tree or parking strips/islands.

Food

The acorns are much less bitter than the acorns of red oaks, but are small relative to most oaks. They can be eaten by humans but, if bitter, may need to have the tannins leached.[19] They are also a valuable wildlife food, notably for turkeys, wood ducks, pheasants, grackles, jays, nuthatches, thrushes, woodpeckers, rabbits, squirrels, and deer. The white oak is the only known food plant of the Bucculatrix luteella and Bucculatrix ochrisuffusa caterpillars.

The young shoots of many eastern oak species are readily eaten by deer.[20] Dried oak leaves are also occasionally eaten by white-tailed deer in the fall or winter.[21] Rabbits often browse twigs and can girdle stems.[20]

Woodcraft

White oak has tyloses that give the wood a closed cellular structure, making it water- and rot-resistant. Because of this characteristic, white oak is used by coopers to make wine and whiskey barrels as the wood resists leaking. It has also been used in construction, shipbuilding, agricultural implements, and in the interior finishing of houses.[5]

White oak logs feature prominent medullary rays which produce a distinctive, decorative ray and fleck pattern when the wood is quarter sawn. Quarter sawn white oak was a signature wood used in mission style oak furniture by Gustav Stickley in the Craftsman style of the Arts and Crafts movement.[22]

White oak is used extensively in Japanese martial arts for some weapons, such as the bokken and jo. It is valued for its density, strength, resiliency and relatively low chance of splintering if broken by impact, relative to the substantially cheaper red oak.

USS Constitution is made of white oak and southern live oak, conferring additional resistance to cannon fire. Reconstructive wood replacement of white oak parts comes from a special grove of Quercus alba known as the "Constitution Grove" at Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division.[23]

Musical instruments

Deering Banjo Company have made several 5-string banjos using white oak - including members of the Vega series, the White Lotus, and the limited edition 40th anniversary model. White Oak has a mellower timbre than more traditionally used maple, and yet still has enough power and projection to not require a metal tone ring.

Oak barrels

Barrels made of American white oak are commonly used for oak aging of wine, in which the wood is noted for imparting strong flavors.[24] Also, by federal regulation, bourbon whiskey must be aged in charred new oak (generally understood to mean specifically American white oak) barrels.[25]

Culture

White oak has served as the official state tree of Illinois after selection by a vote of school children.[26] There are two "official" white oaks serving as state trees, one located on the grounds of the governor's mansion, and the other in a schoolyard in the town of Rochelle. The white oak is also the state tree of Connecticut[27] and Maryland. The Wye Oak, probably the oldest living white oak until it fell because of a thunderstorm on June 6, 2002, was the honorary state tree of Maryland.

Being the subject of a legend as old as the colony itself, the Charter Oak of Hartford, Connecticut is one of the most famous white oaks in America. An image of the tree now adorns the reverse side of the Connecticut state quarter.[28]

The white oak from the movie The Shawshank Redemption, known as the "Shawshank tree" and the "Tree of Hope", was estimated to be more than 200 years old when it fell. The tree is seen during the last ten minutes of the movie. As the movie gained fame, the tree became popular as well, and used to attract tens of thousands of movie fans and tourists every year. A portion of the tree came down on July 29, 2011, when the tree was split by lightning during a storm. The remaining half of the tree fell during heavy winds just short of five years later, on July 22, 2016.

The Bedford Oak is a 500-year-old white oak tree that sits in the town of Bedford in New York. It is the mascot of the town. It sits at the corner of the Hook Road and the old Bedford Road (now Cantitoe Street). The ground the tree stands on was deeded to the Town of Bedford in 1942 by Harold Whitman in memory of his wife, Georgia Squires Whitman. It has seen Westchester history from Native American settlements to the Revolutionary War to modern times.[29][30]

See also

References

  1. ^ Kenny, L.; Wenzell , K. (2015). "Quercus alba". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T194051A2295268. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T194051A2295268.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ "Quercus alba". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew – via The Plant List. Note that this website has been superseded by World Flora Online
  3. ^ "Quercus alba". County-level distribution map from the North American Plant Atlas (NAPA). Biota of North America Program (BONAP). 2014.
  4. ^ "Eastern OLDLIST: A database of maximum tree ages for Eastern North America".
  5. ^ a b c d e Keeler, Harriet L. (1900). Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 328–332. ISBN 0-87338-838-0.
  6. ^ Encyclopedia, West Virginia. "September 23, 1938: Cutting of the Mingo Oak". www.wvpublic.org. Retrieved 2020-07-29.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Nixon, Kevin C. (1997). "Quercus alba". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 3. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  8. ^ "An American Champion: Maryland's Wye Oak". Special Collections. National Agricultural Library. June 12, 2002. Archived from the original on June 12, 2002.
  9. ^ "THSSH Profile – The Historic Basking Ridge Oak Tree". The Historical Society of Somerset Hills. Retrieved June 29, 2016.
  10. ^ Nutt, Amy Ellis (June 27, 2016). "The oldest white oak tree in the country is dying — and no one knows why". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 29, 2016.
  11. ^ Hutchinson, Dave (April 24, 2017). "N.J. community says goodbye to 600-year-old oak tree". Retrieved October 9, 2018.
  12. ^ Tirmenstein, D. A. (1991). "Quercus alba". Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service (USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Retrieved 2013-05-08.
  13. ^ Niche Timbers White Oak Archived October 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ "History of the Great White Bronte Oak". Ontario Urban Forest Council. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
  15. ^ Analysis of oak tannins by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry. Pirjo Mämmelä, Heikki Savolainen, Lasse Lindroos, Juhani Kangas and Terttu Vartiainen, Journal of Chromatography A, Volume 891, Issue 1, 1 September 2000, Pages 75-83, doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00624-5
  16. ^ The Natural Communities of Virginia Classification of Ecological Community Groups (Version 2.3), Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 2010 Archived January 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ Schafale, M. P. and A. S. Weakley. 1990. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina: third approximation. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation.
  18. ^ Abrams, Marc D. (May 1992). "Fire and the Development of Oak Forests". BioScience. 42 (5): 346–353. doi:10.2307/1311781. ISSN 0006-3568. JSTOR 1311781. S2CID 56082217.
  19. ^ Elias, Thomas S.; Dykeman, Peter A. (2009) [1982]. Edible Wild Plants: A North American Field Guide to Over 200 Natural Foods. New York: Sterling. pp. 228, 231. ISBN 978-1-4027-6715-9. OCLC 244766414.
  20. ^ a b Houston, David R. 1971. Noninfectious diseases of oaks. In: Oak symposium: Proceedings; 1971 August 16–20; Morgantown, WV. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 118-123. [9088]
  21. ^ Van Lear, David H.; Johnson, Von J. 1983. Effects of prescribed burning in the southern Appalachian and upper Piedmont forests: a review. Forestry Bull. No. 36. Clemson, SC: Clemson University, College of Forest and Recreation Resources, Department of Forestry. 8 p. [11755]
  22. ^ Betjemann, Peter J. (2011). Talking shop : the language of craft in an age of consumption. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. p. 159. ISBN 9780813931692. OCLC 785943089.
  23. ^ "Materials on USS Constitution". San Francisco National Maritime Park Association. Retrieved 2011-07-24.
  24. ^ D. Sogg "White Wines, New Barrels: The taste of new oak gains favor worldwide" Wine Spectator July 31, 2001
  25. ^ "27 C.F.R. sec 5.22(l)(1)". Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov. Archived from the original on 2012-08-17. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
  26. ^ "Illinois Native State Tree". netstate.com. netstate.com. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
  27. ^ "54 Connecticut Facts". Meet The USA. 2022.
  28. ^ "Connecticut State Quarter". theus50.com. theus50.com. Retrieved 27 March 2020. {{cite web}}: External link in |ref= (help)
  29. ^ "Bedford Oak - c. 1500". Bedford Historical Society. Retrieved 2020-07-29.
  30. ^ "The Martha Stewart Blog : Blog Archive : The mighty Bedford Oak". www.themarthablog.com. 4 May 2009. Retrieved 2020-07-29.

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Quercus alba: Brief Summary ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

Quercus alba, the white oak, is one of the preeminent hardwoods of eastern and central North America. It is a long-lived oak, native to eastern and central North America and found from Minnesota, Ontario, Quebec, and southern Maine south as far as northern Florida and eastern Texas. Specimens have been documented to be over 450 years old.

Although called a white oak, it is very unusual to find an individual specimen with white bark; the usual colour is a light grey. The name comes from the colour of the finished wood. In the forest it can reach a magnificent height and in the open it develops into a massive broad-topped tree with large branches striking out at wide angles.

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Quercus alba ( Espanhol; Castelhano )

fornecido por wikipedia ES

Quercus alba, el roble blanco americano[1]​ o, simplemente, roble blanco, es una especie de roble de la familia Fagaceae. Tienen los estilos cortos; las bellotas maduran en 6 meses y tienen un sabor dulce y ligeramente amargo, el interior de la bellota tiene pelo. Las hojas carecen de una mayoría de cerdas en sus lóbulos, que suelen ser redondeados.

 src=
Ilustración

Distribución

Es nativo del este de Norteamérica desde Quebec a Minnesota y de Florida a Tejas. Su madera es muy apreciada en carpintería.

Descripción

Aunque es llamado roble blanco, es inusual encontrar alguno con la corteza completamente blanca, el color es grisáceo. Está considerado como el roble más valioso y majestuoso de Norteamérica. En el bosque alcanza una gran altura y en campo abierto se convierte en un árbol amplio de frondosas ramas.

Alcanza una altura de 25-30 metros, no obstante alcanza una gran amplitud con sus ramas paralelas al suelo. El más alto encontrado llegó a los 44 metros de altura. No es inusual que sea tan ancho como alto. Se conocen robles que han llegado a vivir 500 años. La corteza es de color ceniza gris. Los peciolos son cortos y las hojas se agrupan en racimos cerca de los extremos. Las flores son de color amarillo brillante su cáliz y rojizo los estigmas.

Distribución y hábitat

Crece en diversidad de terrenos, prefiriendo los terrenos bajos, secos o húmedos, aunque se ha encontrado hasta los 1600 metros de altitud en las Montañas Apalaches.

Usos

Proporciona una de las maderas americanas más interesantes, por sus múltiples aplicaciones por su dureza, resistencia y durabilidad, especialmente en la fábrica de muebles y barricas, construcción naval y ferrocarriles. Sus bellotas son comestibles.

Taxonomía

Quercus alba fue descrita por Carlos Linneo y publicado en Species Plantarum 2: 996. 1753.[2]

Etimología

Quercus: nombre genérico del latín que designaba igualmente al roble y a la encina.

alba: epíteto latino que significa "blanco".[3]

Sinonimia
  • Quercus repanda Michx. (1801), pro syn.
  • Quercus nigrescens Raf. (1838).
  • Quercus retusa Raf. (1838).
  • Quercus candida Steud. (1841).
  • Quercus ramosa Dippel (1891).[4]

Referencias

  1. Nombre vulgar preferido en castellano, en Árboles: guía de campo; Johnson, Owen y More, David; traductor: Pijoan Rotger, Manuel, ed. Omega, 2006. ISBN 978-84-282-1400-1. Versión en español de la Collins Tree Guide.
  2. «Quercus alba». Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. Consultado el 16 de diciembre de 2013.
  3. En Epítetos Botánicos
  4. Sinónimos en Kew

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Quercus alba: Brief Summary ( Espanhol; Castelhano )

fornecido por wikipedia ES

Quercus alba, el roble blanco americano​ o, simplemente, roble blanco, es una especie de roble de la familia Fagaceae. Tienen los estilos cortos; las bellotas maduran en 6 meses y tienen un sabor dulce y ligeramente amargo, el interior de la bellota tiene pelo. Las hojas carecen de una mayoría de cerdas en sus lóbulos, que suelen ser redondeados.

 src= Ilustración
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Rinnevalkotammi ( Finlandês )

fornecido por wikipedia FI

Rinnevalkotammi[3][4] eli valkotammi (Quercus alba) on yksi monista Pohjois-Amerikan luonnonvaraisista tammilajeista. Sitä tavataan luonnonvaraisena aina eteläisestä Quebecista Pohjois-Floridaan saakka.[5]

Tuntomerkit

 src=
Valkotammen lehti keväällä.
 src=
Valkotammen lehvistöä.

Rinnevalkotammi on keskikokoinen puulaji, ja se kasvaa tavallisesti 20–25 metriä korkeaksi, kuitenkin korkein yksilö on ollut 44 metriä korkea.lähde? Vanhemmiten rinnevalkotammi kasvaa enimmäkseen paksuutta. Sen lehdet muistuttavat lähes täysin metsätammen lehtiä, mutta erojakin on. Rinnevalkotammen lehdet ovat aikaisin keväällä juuri puhjettuaan vaaleanpunertavat, kun taas monilla muilla tammilajeilla ne ovat vaalean vihreät. Myös lehtihanko on pidempi kuin metsätammella, ja lehdet ovat 7–11 senttimetriä pitkät. Puu kukkii toukokuussa, ja terhot ovat kypsiä syksyllä.

Lähteet

  1. Kenny, L. & Wenzell , K.: Quercus alba IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2016.2. 2015. International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Iucnredlist.org. Viitattu 2.10.2016. (englanniksi)
  2. ITIS: Quercus alba (englanniksi)
  3. Ella Räty: Viljelykasvien nimistö, s. 116. Helsinki: Puutarhaliiton julkaisuja, 2012. ISBN 978-951-8942-92-7.
  4. ONKI-ontologiapalvelu, Kassu (suomenkieliset nimet) Suomen Biologian Seura Vanamon putkilokasvien nimistötoimikunta. Viitattu 20.10.2012.
  5. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA): Quercus alba (englanniksi)

Aiheesta muualla

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Rinnevalkotammi: Brief Summary ( Finlandês )

fornecido por wikipedia FI

Rinnevalkotammi eli valkotammi (Quercus alba) on yksi monista Pohjois-Amerikan luonnonvaraisista tammilajeista. Sitä tavataan luonnonvaraisena aina eteläisestä Quebecista Pohjois-Floridaan saakka.

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Quercus alba ( Francês )

fornecido por wikipedia FR

Le chêne blanc ou chêne blanc d'Amérique (Quercus alba) est une espèce de chêne mesurant en général une trentaine de mètres, le plus grand connu atteint les 44 mètres de hauteur[réf. souhaitée]. Certains spécimens vivent plus de 500 ans[réf. souhaitée]. On le trouve principalement en Amérique du Nord dans un climat continental humide. Cet arbre a presque disparu du Québec à cause de sa surexploitation passée, et de la perte de son habitat. Son bois a été utilisé pour la construction maritime, et peut prendre une flexion de 90 degrés[réf. souhaitée]. Le bois du chêne à gros fruits, aux propriétés semblables, est utilisé aux mêmes fins.

On parle aussi de chêne blanc dans le sud de la France, particulièrement en Provence et en Ardèche où il a donné nombre de toponymes et patronymes : Blachère, Blanquere etc. Il s'agit alors en fait de chêne pubescent que l'on peut éventuellement confondre avec les photos de Quercus alba présentées ici.

Description

Les chênes blancs atteignent généralement une hauteur d'environ trente mètres[réf. souhaitée]. C'est une essence d'arbres qui s'autopollinisent[3]. Ils peuvent prendre jusqu'à 25 ans avant de produire des glands, les fruits du chêne[3]. Les glands du chêne blanc viennent à maturité l'année même de leur pollinisation[3]. Ils ont une cupule épaisse et une paroi lisse[3]. Malgré son nom de chêne "blanc", il est rare que cet arbre ait une écorce blanche et ses feuilles sont rouges à l'automne. C'est sa ressemblance avec un chêne européen qui lui aurait valu son nom.

Répartition et habitat

 src=
Aire de répartition naturelle de '''Quercus alba'''

Écologie

Les glands des chênes, mais en particulier des chênes blancs, sont très appréciés comme nourriture par les chevreuils[3]. Bien que l'appétence des animaux sauvages soit difficile à déterminer, il est généralement reconnu que les chevreuils préfèrent les glands des chênes blancs à ceux des chênes rouges puisqu'ils ont une teneur en tanin plus faible[3]. Aux États-Unis, c'est le chêne qui a la plus grande résistance au flétrissement américain du chêne, certains arbres étant même complètement résistants, et certains sujets faiblement atteints pouvant guérir complètement[réf. souhaitée].

Notes et références

  1. a b c d et e The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/, consulté le 14 mars 2020
  2. a et b BioLib, consulté le 14 mars 2020
  3. a b c d e et f Luc Brodeur, « Les chênes : une production en moins de huit ans », Aventure Chasse & Pêche, vol. 17, no 14,‎ hiver 2009, p. 12-14 (ISSN )

Annexes

Article connexe

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wikipedia FR

Quercus alba: Brief Summary ( Francês )

fornecido por wikipedia FR

Le chêne blanc ou chêne blanc d'Amérique (Quercus alba) est une espèce de chêne mesurant en général une trentaine de mètres, le plus grand connu atteint les 44 mètres de hauteur[réf. souhaitée]. Certains spécimens vivent plus de 500 ans[réf. souhaitée]. On le trouve principalement en Amérique du Nord dans un climat continental humide. Cet arbre a presque disparu du Québec à cause de sa surexploitation passée, et de la perte de son habitat. Son bois a été utilisé pour la construction maritime, et peut prendre une flexion de 90 degrés[réf. souhaitée]. Le bois du chêne à gros fruits, aux propriétés semblables, est utilisé aux mêmes fins.

On parle aussi de chêne blanc dans le sud de la France, particulièrement en Provence et en Ardèche où il a donné nombre de toponymes et patronymes : Blachère, Blanquere etc. Il s'agit alors en fait de chêne pubescent que l'on peut éventuellement confondre avec les photos de Quercus alba présentées ici.

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Hvíteik ( Islandês )

fornecido por wikipedia IS

Hvíteik (fræðiheiti: Quercus alba) er eikartegund sem er ættuð frá Norður Ameríku; frá Minnesota, Ontario, Quebec, og suður Maine, allt suður til norður Flórída og austur Texas.[2] Þetta er langlíf tegund og einstaka tré hafa náð yfir 450 ára aldri.[3] Nafnið hvíteik kemur ekki vegna barkarins sem er vanalega ljósgrár, heldur vegna viðarins.[4]

Hvíteik verður yfirleitt um 20 til 30 m hátt fullvaxin, en hærri til fjalla verður hún aðeins lítill runni.

Myndir

Tilvísanir

  1. Quercus alba, NatureServe Explorer, NatureServe, sótt 6. júlí 2007
  2. Quercus alba County-level distribution map from the North American Plant Atlas (NAPA). Biota of North America Program (BONAP). 2014.
  3. http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~adk/oldlisteast/#spp
  4. Keeler, Harriet L. (1900). Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them. New York: Charles Scriber's Sons. bls. 328–332. ISBN 0-87338-838-0.

Flokkun

  • Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). "Quercus alba" Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  • "Quercus alba L. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Erfðir

Útbreiðsla

Myndir

Viðbótarlesning

  • Chattooga Conservancy. The Ecology of the White Oak
  • Rogers, Robert (1990). Quercus alba In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. Hardwoods. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2 – via Southern Research Station (www.srs.fs.fed.us).
  • Native American Ethobotany Database, University of Michigan Quercus alba
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Hvíteik: Brief Summary ( Islandês )

fornecido por wikipedia IS

Hvíteik (fræðiheiti: Quercus alba) er eikartegund sem er ættuð frá Norður Ameríku; frá Minnesota, Ontario, Quebec, og suður Maine, allt suður til norður Flórída og austur Texas. Þetta er langlíf tegund og einstaka tré hafa náð yfir 450 ára aldri. Nafnið hvíteik kemur ekki vegna barkarins sem er vanalega ljósgrár, heldur vegna viðarins.

Hvíteik verður yfirleitt um 20 til 30 m hátt fullvaxin, en hærri til fjalla verður hún aðeins lítill runni.

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Quercus alba ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

La quercia bianca (Quercus alba L.) è un albero appartenente alla famiglia delle Fagaceae diffuso in America settentrionale.[2]

Descrizione

Portamento

Il portamento è arboreo; la pianta può raggiungere i 35 metri d'altezza.

Corteccia

La corteccia è di colore grigio chiaro e ha un aspetto squamoso; col progredire dell'età della pianta diventa via via più fessurata.

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Dettaglio della corteccia

Foglie

 src=
Foglie giovani con la caratteristica colorazione rosata
 src=
Dettaglio del fogliame

Le foglie sono lunghe circa 20 cm e larghe circa 10, più strette alla base, profondamente incise e con diversi lobi, inizialmente rosate e con una peluria biancastra, poi di colore verde intenso e lucide sulla pagina superiore e verde-bluastro su quella inferiore. La specie è decidua e in autunno le foglie assumono una colorazione rossa molto intensa prima di cadere.

Fiori

I fiori maschili sono amenti giallo-verdi, quelli femminili sono poco vistosi e separati. Appaiono verso la fine della primavera.

Frutti

 src=
Ghiande di Q. alba

I frutti sono ghiande lunghe circa 2,5 cm e sono racchiusi all'interno della capsula squamosa per circa un quarto della loro lunghezza.

Distribuzione e habitat

Cresce nei boschi aridi dell'America nord-orientale.

Note

  1. ^ (EN) Quercus alba, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020. URL consultato il 19 luglio 2018.
  2. ^ (EN) Quercus alba L., su Plants of the World Online, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. URL consultato il 19 gennaio 2021.

Bibliografia

  • Allen J. Coombes, Alberi - Guida fotografica a oltre 500 specie di alberi di tutto il mondo, Dorling Kindersley, ISBN 88-88666-71-0.

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Quercus alba: Brief Summary ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

La quercia bianca (Quercus alba L.) è un albero appartenente alla famiglia delle Fagaceae diffuso in America settentrionale.

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Baltasis ąžuolas ( Lituano )

fornecido por wikipedia LT
Binomas Quercus alba

Baltasis ąžuolas (lot. Quercus alba, angl. American white oak, vok. Weiß-Eiche) – bukinių (Fagaceae) šeimos dekoratyvinis, medieninis, vaistinis augalas, paplitęs Šiaurės Amerikoje.

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Baltasis ąžuolas: Brief Summary ( Lituano )

fornecido por wikipedia LT

Baltasis ąžuolas (lot. Quercus alba, angl. American white oak, vok. Weiß-Eiche) – bukinių (Fagaceae) šeimos dekoratyvinis, medieninis, vaistinis augalas, paplitęs Šiaurės Amerikoje.

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Baltais ozols ( Letão )

fornecido por wikipedia LV

Baltais ozols (latīņu: Quercus alba) ir daudzgadīgs dižskābaržu dzimtas koks. Baltais ozols savvaļā aug Ziemeļamerikas austrumdaļā. Atsevišķu koku dzīves ilgums sasniedz pat 600 gadus. Kaut arī sugas nosaukums ir baltais ozols, parasti koku miza ir pelnu pelēkā krāsā, lai gan ir īpatņi ar ļoti gaišu mizu. Rudenī koka lapas nokrāsojas sarkanas vai brūnas.

Baltā ozola koksne ir augstvērtīgs kokmateriāls. Bieži tiek izmantota mēbeļu un parketa izgatavošanā. Koksne ir samērā izturīga pret puvi. USS Constitution — pasaulē vecākais burinieks, kurš joprojām ir peldspējīgs, ir būvēts no baltā ozola. Baltais ozols plaši tiek izmantots japāņu cīņu mākslu ieroču izgatavošanā. No šā ozola koksnes izgatavo bokenus (japāņu zobena katanas koka atveidojums) un dzjo (koka kārts).

Vikikrātuvē par šo tēmu ir pieejami multivides faili. Skatīt: Baltais ozols
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Amerikaanse witte eik ( Neerlandês; Flamengo )

fornecido por wikipedia NL

De Amerikaanse witte eik (Quercus alba) is een bloeiende plant uit het geslacht eik (Quercus). De bladverliezende boom komt oorspronkelijk uit Noord-Amerika. De soort is de staatsboom van Connecticut, West-Virginia en Maryland. In Europa wordt de soort slechts weinig toegepast ondanks dat deze winterhard is.

Kenmerken

De soort is bladverliezend en vertoont overeenkomsten met de in Europa voorkomende zomereik (Quercus robur) en met de wintereik (Quercus petraea).

Wortels, stam en takken

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De stam van de Amerikaanse witte eik

Het wortelstelsel bestaat uit een penwortel die diep in de grond wortelt en zijwortels die slechts oppervlakkig wortelen. De soort is gevoelig voor bodemverdichting en overstromingen maar is zouttolerant. Hij kan tegen perioden van droogte omdat de penwortel zijn water en voedingsstoffen uit dieper gelegen waterbronnen kan halen.

De schors van de jongere twijgen heeft een roodachtige tot rood-groene kleur en is licht behaard. Naarmate de twijgen ouder worden wordt de schors grijs van kleur en verliest hij zijn beharing. De schors heeft een ruwe structuur en is onderverdeeld in platen.

De stam kan een diameter van 90 tot 120 centimeter bereiken en de soort kan tot 25 meter hoog worden wanneer de boom concurrentie ondervindt. Een solitair exemplaar kan een hoogte van 46 meter bereiken en een diameter van 260 centimeter. Wanneer de boom in een bos groeit is de kroon smal, wanneer hij solitair staat wordt het echter een brede kroon met veel zijtakken. In de hoger gelegen delen van de zuidelijke Appalachen groeit de Amerikaanse witte eik alleen als struik.

Knoppen en bladeren

De knoppen hebben een gladde textuur en zijn tussen de 3 en 4 millimeter groot. De kleur van de knoppen is bruin-rood en ze hebben een ovale vorm.

De bladeren staan verspreid op de takken en bestaan uit een bladsteel van tussen de 1 en de 3 centimeter en een bladschijf. De bladeren zijn tussen de 12 en 20 centimeter lang en ongeveer 9 centimeter breed. De bladeren zijn net boven het middelpunt aan de kant van de bladtop het breedst. Het blad heeft aan beide kanten 2 tot 4 lobben. De tussenruimte tussen de lobben is minimaal een derde deel van het blad tot maximaal zeven achtste deel van het blad. De bovenkant van het blad heeft een heldere groene kleur en de onderkant van het blad heeft een groene kleur met een witte tint erdoorheen. De herfstkleur is paars-rood tot bruin-violet en de bladeren blijven tot ver in de winter aan de boom hangen.

Bloemen en fruit

De Amerikaanse witte eik is eenhuizig. De mannelijke bloemen zijn geelgroen van kleur en staan gegroepeerd in trosjes die naar beneden hangen. De bloemen hebben een lengte van tussen de 5 en de 10 centimeter. Deze bloeiwijze komt voor uit knoppen die groeien op de plek waar de jonge twijgen uitlopen. De vrouwelijke bloemen zijn roodachtig van kleur en staan in groepjes van 2 of 3 bloemen. Ze groeien in de bladoksels van een nieuwe scheut. De bloeitijd loopt van eind maart t/m eind mei.

De vruchten zijn in hetzelfde jaar nog rijp en zijn kort gesteeld of helemaal niet gesteeld. De dop omsluit minder dan een derde deel van de eikel. De eikel heeft een lengte van ongeveer 5 centimeter en heeft een lichtbruine kleur. De eerste vruchten verschijnen op een leeftijd variërend van 20 tot 30 jaar. De vruchten vertonen geen kiemrust maar schieten hetzelfde jaar nog wortel en de lente erop ontspruiten de zaden.

Verspreiding

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Verspreidingsgebied van de Amerikaanse witte eik

De Amerikaanse witte eik beslaat een groot verspreidingsgebied binnen het noorden van de Verenigde Staten. De Noordelijke grens strekt zich uit tot over de Canadese grens tot aan de Grote Meren. In het westen strekt het verspreidingsgebied zich uit tot aan de prairie en de soort komt veel voor langs de 95e meridiaan. De soort komt slechts sporadisch voor langs de Golf van Mexico en het zuiden van de rivier de Mississippi. De Atlantische Oceaan is de oostelijkste grens van het verspreidingsgebied. De soort komt voor op een hoogte variërend van 0 tot 1700 meter.

Binnen het verspreidingsgebied komt de soort voor op plaatsen met verschillende standplaatsfactoren. Meestal komt de soort voor op voedselarme droge gronden. De grootste exemplaren groeien echter op voedselrijke, lemige gronden die waterdoorlatend zijn. De gemiddelde temperatuur binnen het verspreidingsgebied varieert van 7 graden Celsius in het noorden tot 21 graden in het zuiden. De gemiddelde neerslag in het verspreidingsgebied varieert van 750 tot 2000 millimeter. Grote aantallen van de soort zijn te vinden in het dal van Ohio en midden in de Vallei van de Mississippi waar de gemiddelde temperatuur 13 graden is en de gemiddelde neerslag 1000 millemeter. In de hogere delen in de noordelijke Appalachen komt de soort weinig voor.

Ecologie

De soort groeit voornamelijk in loofbossen. In het noorden van het verspreidingsgebied groeit de soort bijna nooit op plaatsen die hoger dan 250 meter boven de zeespiegel liggen maar in de zuidelijke Appalachen groeien ze tot op een hoogte van 1700 meter boven zeeniveau. De soort komt in het noorden voornamelijk voor in bossen gemengd met Quercus ellipsoidalis, Quercus prinus, De grijze berk (Betula populifolia), de weymouthden (Pinus strobus), de oostelijke hemlockspar (Tsuga canadensis) en de suikeresdoorn (Acer saccharum). In het zuiden komt de soort vaak voor op droge plaatsen in combinatie met Quercus falcata, Quercus michauxii en de Quercus coccinea.

De jonge zaailingen kunnen overleven op plaatsen met half-schaduw, wanneer de plant ouder wordt kan hij beter schaduw verdragen en zelfs in de volle schaduw staan. De zaden kunnen in schaduwrijke gebieden voor jaren in de zaadbank blijven totdat er een open plek ontstaat waardoor er voldoende licht beschikbaar is. Het zaad blijft jarenlang kiemkrachtig.

De vruchten hebben een bittere smaak en worden gegeten door onder andere de roodkopspecht, het witstaarthert, kwartels, wangzakeekhoorns, kalkoenen en diverse soorten muizen. De blauwe gaai en de grijze eekhoorn zorgen voor de distributie van de zaden. Het witstaarthert eet naast de bessen ook de bladeren van de Amerikaanse witte eik. Op de boom leven verschillende soorten schimmels en andere micro-organismen.

Gebruik

Het hout van de Amerikaanse witte eik kan gebruikt worden als hardhout en is duurzaam. Het hout is gemakkelijk te bewerken maar is lastig te impregneren. Het hout laat geen vloeistoffen door waardoor het hout gebruikt wordt voor de productie van wijn- en biervaten. De soort groeit echter langzamer dan de Amerikaanse eik en de houteigenschappen zijn vergelijkbaar. In de bosbouw wordt daarom steeds vaker voor de Amerikaanse eik gekozen.

De soort wordt soms gebruikt als sierboom en de indianen gebruikten de schors als medicijn.

Synoniemen

  • Quercus alba var. heterophylla
  • Quercus alba f. latiloba
  • Quercus alba var. latiloba
  • Quercus alba var. longigemma
  • Quercus alba var. microcarpa
  • Quercus alba f. pinnatifida
  • Quercus alba var. pinnatifida
  • Quercus alba var. repanda
  • Quercus alba f. repanda
  • Quercus alba var. ryderi
  • Quercus alba var. subcaerulea
  • Quercus alba var. subflavea
  • Quercus alba f. sublyrata
  • Quercus alba f. viridis
  • Quercus candida (Steud.)
  • Quercus nigrescens (Raf.)
  • Quercus ramosa (Dippel)
  • Quercus repanda (Michx.)
  • Quercus retusa (Raf.)[1]


Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
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Wikipedia-auteurs en -editors
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Amerikaanse witte eik: Brief Summary ( Neerlandês; Flamengo )

fornecido por wikipedia NL

De Amerikaanse witte eik (Quercus alba) is een bloeiende plant uit het geslacht eik (Quercus). De bladverliezende boom komt oorspronkelijk uit Noord-Amerika. De soort is de staatsboom van Connecticut, West-Virginia en Maryland. In Europa wordt de soort slechts weinig toegepast ondanks dat deze winterhard is.

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Wikipedia-auteurs en -editors
original
visite a fonte
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wikipedia NL

Kviteik ( Norueguês )

fornecido por wikipedia NO

Kviteik (Quercus alba) er et løvfellende tre som vokser i østlige deler av Nord-Amerika.

Den blir opptil 25 meter høy. Barken er lysegrå og oppsprukket med flak som løsner. Bladstilken er 10–25 mm lang. Bladene er omvendt eggformede med 4–6 store, avrundede fliker. De er 12–18 cm lange og 7–11 cm brede. De nyutsprungne bladene er rosa, men blir grønne etter noen dager. Undersidene av bladene er nesten hvit, og høstfargen er mørk purpur. Nøttene sitter 1–3 sammen på en kort stilk. Nøtteskåla omslutter en fjerdedel av nøtta.

Kviteik stiller ikke strenge krav til klima og jordsmonn. I nord er den knyttet til lavlandet, men i de sørlige Appalachene finnes den opp til 1370 moh. Den vokser sammen med mange andre treslag, som andre eikearter, hickory, tulipantre, svartlind, kvitask, ambratre, sumptre, amerikabøk, sukkerlønn, virakfuru, weymouthfuru og canadahemlokk.

Utbredelsen omfatter det meste av østlige USA, og arten mangler bare høyt i Appalachene, i nedre del av Mississippi-dalen, på kystsletta mot Mexicogolfen og i det meste av Florida. Nordgrensa går fra sørvestre Maine og lengst sør i Québec vestover gjennom sørlige Ontario og sentrale Michigan til sørøstlige Minnesota. Vestgrensa går gjennom vestlige Iowa, østlige Kansas, Oklahoma og østlige Texas.

Kviteik er en av de viktigste eikeartene i tømmerproduksjon, og trevirket brukes blant annet til vin- og whiskeytønner. Den blir av og til plantet i hager og parker, men ikke så ofte som rødeik på grunn av at veksten er sen, og den er vanskelig å plante om.

Kilder

Eksterne lenker

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Kviteik: Brief Summary ( Norueguês )

fornecido por wikipedia NO

Kviteik (Quercus alba) er et løvfellende tre som vokser i østlige deler av Nord-Amerika.

Den blir opptil 25 meter høy. Barken er lysegrå og oppsprukket med flak som løsner. Bladstilken er 10–25 mm lang. Bladene er omvendt eggformede med 4–6 store, avrundede fliker. De er 12–18 cm lange og 7–11 cm brede. De nyutsprungne bladene er rosa, men blir grønne etter noen dager. Undersidene av bladene er nesten hvit, og høstfargen er mørk purpur. Nøttene sitter 1–3 sammen på en kort stilk. Nøtteskåla omslutter en fjerdedel av nøtta.

Kviteik stiller ikke strenge krav til klima og jordsmonn. I nord er den knyttet til lavlandet, men i de sørlige Appalachene finnes den opp til 1370 moh. Den vokser sammen med mange andre treslag, som andre eikearter, hickory, tulipantre, svartlind, kvitask, ambratre, sumptre, amerikabøk, sukkerlønn, virakfuru, weymouthfuru og canadahemlokk.

Utbredelsen omfatter det meste av østlige USA, og arten mangler bare høyt i Appalachene, i nedre del av Mississippi-dalen, på kystsletta mot Mexicogolfen og i det meste av Florida. Nordgrensa går fra sørvestre Maine og lengst sør i Québec vestover gjennom sørlige Ontario og sentrale Michigan til sørøstlige Minnesota. Vestgrensa går gjennom vestlige Iowa, østlige Kansas, Oklahoma og østlige Texas.

Kviteik er en av de viktigste eikeartene i tømmerproduksjon, og trevirket brukes blant annet til vin- og whiskeytønner. Den blir av og til plantet i hager og parker, men ikke så ofte som rødeik på grunn av at veksten er sen, og den er vanskelig å plante om.

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Bark

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Bladverk om våren

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Bladverk og nøtt

 src=

Blad med galle

 src=

Høstfarge

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Dąb biały ( Polonês )

fornecido por wikipedia POL
Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons

Dąb biały (Quercus alba L.) – gatunek roślin z rodziny bukowatych (Fagaceae Dumort.). Występuje naturalnie w południowo-wschodniej Kanadzie (w prowincjach Ontario i Quebec) oraz wschodniej części Stanów Zjednoczonych (w Alabamie, Arkansas, Connecticut, Dystrykcie Kolumbii, Delaware, na Florydzie, w Georgii, Iowa, Illinois, Indianie, Kansas, Kentucky, Luizjanie, Massachusetts, Marylandzie, Maine, Michigan, Minnesocie, Missouri, Missisipi, Karolinie Północnej, Nebrasce, New Hampshire, New Jersey, stanie Nowy Jork, Ohio, Oklahomie, Pensylwanii, Rhode Island, Karolinie Południowej, Tennessee, Teksasie, Wirginii, Vermoncie, Wisconsin i Wirginii Zachodniej)[3][4][5].

Morfologia

 src=
Kora
 src=
Liście w jesiennych barwach
Pokrój
Zrzucające liście drzewo dorastające do 25 m wysokości[5]. Korona drzewa jest szeroko kulista[6]. Kora ma szarą barwę[5]. Korowina łuszczy się na pniu szerokimi płatami[6].
Liście
Blaszka liściowa ma kształt od odwrotnie jajowatego do eliptycznego. Mierzy 12–18 cm długości oraz 7–11 cm szerokości, jest mniej lub bardziej klapowana na brzegu, ma nasadę od ostrokątnej do klinowej[5]. Górna powierzchnia jest połyskująca i ma ciemnozieloną barwę, natomiast od spodu jest naga i niebieskawa lub sinozielona (młode liście są owłosione). Jesienią liście przebarwiają się na ciemnoczerwony, pomarańczowy lub fioletowoczerwony kolor[6].
Owoce
Orzechy zwane żołędziami o kształcie od jajowatego elipsoidalnego do podługowatego, dorastają do 15–21 mm długości i 9–18 mm średnicy. Orzechy osadzone są w półkulistych miseczkach do 25% ich długości[5].

Biologia i ekologia

Rośnie w lasach zrzucających liście. Występuje na wysokości do 1600 m n.p.m.[5]

Zastosowanie

Dawniej dąb biały ten był bardzo eksploatowany jako surowiec drzewny. Ponadto Indianie używali go w medycynie tradycyjnej[5].

Przypisy

  1. Stevens P.F.: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (ang.). 2001–. [dostęp 2017-03-13].
  2. a b Quercus alba L. (ang.). The Plant List. [dostęp 13 marca 2017].
  3. Discover Life: Point Map of Quercus alba (ang.). Encyclopedia of Life. [dostęp 13 marca 2017].
  4. Comprehensive Report Species - Quercus alba (ang.). NatureServe. [dostęp 13 marca 2017].
  5. a b c d e f g Quercus alba (fr.). Plantes & botanique. [dostęp 13 marca 2017].
  6. a b c Quercus alba (ang.). Flora of North America. [dostęp 2010-01-05].
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Dąb biały: Brief Summary ( Polonês )

fornecido por wikipedia POL
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Quercus alba ( Português )

fornecido por wikipedia PT

Quercus alba, o carvalho-branco, é uma das árvores proeminentes do leste da América do Norte. É um carvalho de longa vida da família Fagaceae, nativa do leste da América do Norte e encontrada na região limitada pelo Quebec, o Minnesota, a Flórida e o Texas oriental. Espécimes foram documentadas tendo mais de 450 anos de idade.

Embora chamado de carvalho branco, é muito raro encontrar um espécime individual com casca branca, a cor usual é de um cinza claro. Na floresta pode atingir uma altura magnífica e ao ar livre se desenvolve como uma árvore ampla com tampo maciço com grandes ramos golpeando para fora em ângulos largos.

Descrição

Normalmente não uma árvore muito alta, normalmente atingindo 19,5-25,5 m na maturidade, ainda assim torna-se bastante massiva e seus ramos mais baixos tendem a se estendem lateralmente, paralelamente ao chão. O carvalho branco mais alto conhecido tem 43 m de altura. Não é incomum para uma árvore de carvalho branco para ser tão grande como ele é alto, mas os espécimes crescendo em altitudes elevadas pode apenas tornar-se pequenos arbustos. Carvalhos brancos são conhecidos por viver até 600 anos. A casca é de cor cinza e descascada um pouco da parte superior, inferior e/ou nas laterais.

Na primavera as folhas jovens são de um rosa delicado, prateado e coberto com um pano macio, para baixo. Os pecíolos são curtos e as folhas que se agrupam perto do fim dos tiros são verde claro e felpudo com o resultado que toda a árvore tem uma aparência misteriosa. Essa condição continua por vários dias, passando pelas mudanças opalescentes do rosa, branco prateado e, finalmente, verde e amarelo.

As folhas crescem de 13–21 cm de comprimento e 7-11,5 cm de largura e tem uma profunda superfície verde brilhante superior. Elas geralmente ficam vermelhas ou marrons no outono, mas dependendo do local, clima, e genética de árvores individuais, algumas árvores são quase sempre vermelhas, ou até roxas no outono. Algumas folhas marrons mortas podem permanecer na árvore durante todo o inverno até a primavera. Os lobos podem ser superficiais, estendendo-se menos de metade do caminho para a nervura central, ou profundo e um pouco de ramificação. As bolotas são geralmente sésseis, e crescem para 1-2,5 cm de comprimento, caindo no início de outubro. Quercus alba é muitas vezes confundida com o carvalho branco do pântano, uma espécie estreitamente relacionada, e o carvalho broca. O carvalho branco hibridiza-se livremente com o carvalho broca, e o carvalho castanho.

Casca: cinzenta clara, variando de cinza escuro a branco; rasas fissuradas e escamosas. Ramos nascem na cor verde brilhante, depois verde-avermelhado e, finalmente, cinza claro. Uma característica distintiva desta árvore é que um pouco mais de meio caminho entre o tronco e a casca podem-se formar escamas sobrepostas que são facilmente notadas e auxiliam na identificação.

Madeira: Marrom com alburno pálido; forte, duro, pesado, de grão fino e durável. Gravidade específica, 0,7470; peso de um metro cúbico 770 kg. Gomos de inverno: Marrom avermelhado, obtuso, de 30 cm de comprimento.

Folhas: Alternadas, 13–23 cm de comprimento, 8–10 cm de largura. São oblongas, 7-9 lóbulos, geralmente de sete lóbulos com lóbulos arredondados e cavidades arredondadas; lóbulos destituídos de cerdas; cavidades, às vezes profundas, às vezes superficiais. Eles saem do broto duplicado, são vermelho brilhante em cima, pálido abaixo, e coberto com tomento branco, o vermelho desbota mais rapidamente e tornam-se esverdeados, brancos, prateados e brilhantes, quando adulta são finas, verde-amarelas brilhantes, brilhante ou fosca em cima, pálidas ou lisas abaixo; a nervura central é robusta e amarela, as veias principais são evidentes. No final do outono as folhas ficam de um vermelho profundo e caem, ou em árvores jovens permanecem nos ramos por todo o inverno. Pecíolos são curtos, robustos, ranhosos, e achatados. Estípulas são lineares e caducas.

Flores: aparecem em maio, quando as folhas estão um terço crescidas. Flores estaminadas nascem em aments peludos e tem de 6,3 a 7,5 cm de comprimento, o cálice é amarelo brilhante, peludo, 6-8 lóbulos, com lobos mais curtos do que os estames; as anteras são amarelas. Flores pistiladas são suportados em pedúnculos curtos, escamas involucrais são peludas, avermelhadas; lobos do cálice são agudos; estigmas são vermelho brilhante.

Bolotas: Anuais, sésseis ou com caule; nozes ovóides ou oblongas, redondas no ápice, castanho claro, brilhantes, 2 cm de comprimento; em forma de taça, anexando cerca de um quarto da noz, tomentosas do lado de fora, tuberculadas na base, com pontas obtusas curtas se tornando menores e mais finas em direção ao aro.

Distribuição

O carvalho branco é bastante tolerante a uma grande variedade de habitats, e pode ser encontrado em cumes, nos vales, e entre estes, em habitats secos e úmidos, e em solos moderadamente ácidos e alcalinos. É principalmente uma árvore de várzea, mas atinge altitudes de 1 600 metros, nas Montanhas Apalaches. Muitas vezes, é um componente do dossel da floresta em uma floresta de carvalhos e urzes.

Cultivo

O carvalho branco é uma excepcional árvore de sombra com uma cobertura excepcionalmente ampla e folhas que quase nunca caem. No entanto, não tolera bem as condições urbanas, devido à intolerância a compactação do solo e alterações nos níveis do solo. Pode prosperar em bairros residenciais, onde está protegido de tal mudança.

Uso

Carvalho branco tem tilos que dão a madeira de uma estrutura celular fechada, tornando-se resistente à água e a podridão. Devido a esta característica, o carvalho branco é usado em barris para a produção de vinho e uísque, uma vez que resiste ao vazamento. Também tem sido utilizado na construção civil, construção naval, tanoaria, implementos agrícolas, e no acabamento interior de casas. Foi uma madeira usado no mobiliário de carvalho de Gustav Stickley no estilo Craftsman do movimento Arts and Crafts. [Carece de fontes?] Carvalho branco é usado extensivamente em artes marciais japonesas para algumas armas, tais como o bokken e jo. É apreciada pela sua densidade, resistência, resiliência e chance relativamente baixa de fragmentação se quebrado pelo impacto, em relação ao carvalho vermelho, substancialmente mais barato. Lenda urbana japonesa atribui ao carvalho branco ("Kashi") como sendo a "madeira da escolha", mas, por lei, nenhuma carvalho branco é colhido no Japão. Praticamente todos os carvalhos brancos usado na fabricação de armas no Japão são importados do noroeste dos Estados Unidos. As bolotas são muito menos amargas do que as bolotas de carvalhos vermelhos. Eles são pequenos em relação à maioria dos carvalhos, mas são um alimento valioso dos animais selvagens, nomeadamente para os perus, patos, faisões, sabiás, pica-paus, coelhos, esquilos e veados. Eles também foram usados ​​para o alimento pelos índios americanos. O carvalho branco é o único alimento conhecido dos lagartos Bucculatrix Iuteella e Bucculatrix ochrisuffusa. Os brotos jovens de espécies de carvalhos orientais são facilmente comidos por veados. Folhas de carvalho secas são também, ocasionalmente, comido por veados de cauda branca no outono ou inverno. Coelhos freqüentemente andam pelos galhos e pelo caule. O USS Constitution é feito de carvalho branco, e a substituição da madeira vem de um bosque especial da Quercus alba conhecida como a "Constitution Grove" no Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division. Marceneiros deve estar cientes de que o metal ferroso reage com carvalho, causando corrosão e coloração da madeira. Latão ou acessórios em aço inoxidável devem ser utilizados no lugar.

Simbolismo

Carvalho branco tem servido como a árvore oficial do estado de Illinois após a seleção por um voto de crianças em idade escolar. Há dois carvalhos brancos "oficiais" servindo como árvores estaduais, uma localizada no terreno da mansão do governador, e o outro em um pátio na cidade de Rochelle. O carvalho branco é também a árvore dos estados de Connecticut e Maryland. O Oak Wye, provavelmente o mais antigo carvalho branco vivendo até que caiu por causa de uma tempestade em 6 de junho de 2002, era a árvore do estado honorário de Maryland. Ser objecto de uma lenda tão antiga quanto a própria colônia, a Charter Oak de Hartford, Connecticut é um dos mais famosos carvalhos brancos na América. Uma imagem da árvore agora adorna o verso da moeda do estado de Connecticut.

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Quercus alba: Brief Summary ( Português )

fornecido por wikipedia PT

Quercus alba, o carvalho-branco, é uma das árvores proeminentes do leste da América do Norte. É um carvalho de longa vida da família Fagaceae, nativa do leste da América do Norte e encontrada na região limitada pelo Quebec, o Minnesota, a Flórida e o Texas oriental. Espécimes foram documentadas tendo mais de 450 anos de idade.

Embora chamado de carvalho branco, é muito raro encontrar um espécime individual com casca branca, a cor usual é de um cinza claro. Na floresta pode atingir uma altura magnífica e ao ar livre se desenvolve como uma árvore ampla com tampo maciço com grandes ramos golpeando para fora em ângulos largos.

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Quercus alba ( Vietnamita )

fornecido por wikipedia VI

Quercus alba là một loài thực vật có hoa trong họ Cử. Loài này được Carl von Linné miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1753.[2]

Hình ảnh

Chú thích

  1. ^ Quercus alba, NatureServe Explorer (NatureServe), truy cập ngày 6 tháng 7 năm 2007
  2. ^ The Plant List (2010). Quercus alba. Truy cập ngày 4 tháng 6 năm 2013.

Tham khảo


Bài viết Họ Cử này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Wikipedia tác giả và biên tập viên
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
wikipedia VI

Quercus alba: Brief Summary ( Vietnamita )

fornecido por wikipedia VI

Quercus alba là một loài thực vật có hoa trong họ Cử. Loài này được Carl von Linné miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1753.

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cc-by-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
Wikipedia tác giả và biên tập viên
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
wikipedia VI

Дуб белый ( Russo )

fornecido por wikipedia русскую Википедию
Царство: Растения
Подцарство: Зелёные растения
Отдел: Цветковые
Надпорядок: Rosanae
Порядок: Букоцветные
Семейство: Буковые
Подсемейство: Буковые
Род: Дуб
Вид: Дуб белый
Международное научное название

Quercus alba L., 1753

Синонимы
Wikispecies-logo.svg
Систематика
на Викивидах
Commons-logo.svg
Изображения
на Викискладе
ITIS 19290NCBI 3513EOL 1151804GRIN t:316805IPNI 295763-1TPL kew-171499

Дуб бе́лый (лат. Quércus álba) — вид деревьев рода Дуб семейства Буковые (Fagaceae).

Ботаническое описание

Дерево до 25 м, иногда до 40 м высотой. Особенностью этого вида является его широкая крона, ветви которой широко раскидываются и идут параллельно земле. Кора светло-серая. Листья продолговато-овальные, 12—20 см длиной.

  •  src=

    Молодые листья весной.

  •  src=

    Побеги и листья.

  •  src=

    Кора взрослого дерева.

  •  src=

    Жёлуди.

Распространение и экология

В естественных условиях произрастает в восточной части Северной Америки от Квебека на севере до Флориды на юге.

Отдельные деревья достигают возраста 600 лет.

Применение

Древесина дуба белого традиционно считается лучшей для производства бочек для виски и вина[2].

В культуре

Дуб белый является природным символом — деревом штата Мэриленд в США.

Экземпляр белого дуба, произрастающий в городке Афины штата Джорджия, является местной туристической достопримечательностью.

Древесина особого белого дуба фигурирует в телесериале «Первородные/ Древние» как материал для убийства первородного вампира.[источник не указан 1055 дней][значимость факта?]

Примечания

  1. Об условности указания класса двудольных в качестве вышестоящего таксона для описываемой в данной статье группы растений см. раздел «Системы APG» статьи «Двудольные».
  2. Trees of the World Boreal Forests — Quercus alba — White Oak
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Дуб белый: Brief Summary ( Russo )

fornecido por wikipedia русскую Википедию

Дуб бе́лый (лат. Quércus álba) — вид деревьев рода Дуб семейства Буковые (Fagaceae).

licença
cc-by-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
Авторы и редакторы Википедии