dcsimg

Associations ( anglais )

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Animal / parasitoid / endoparasitoid
larva of Blondelia nigripes is endoparasitoid of larva of Symphyta

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / parasitoid / endoparasitoid
larva of Cleptes nitidulus is endoparasitoid of cocoon of Symphyta

Animal / parasitoid / endoparasitoid
larva of Cleptes semiauratus is endoparasitoid of pupa of Symphyta

Animal / parasitoid / endoparasitoid
larva of Compsilura concinnata is endoparasitoid of larva of Symphyta

Animal / pathogen
Conidiobolus tenthredinis infects larva of Symphyta

Animal / parasitoid / endoparasitoid
larva of Phryxe nemea is endoparasitoid of larva of Symphyta

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Brief Summary ( anglais )

fourni par Catalog of Hymenoptera in America North of Mexico
The suborder Symphyta, commonly known as sawflies and horntails, has also been recorded in the early literature under the names Chalastogastra, Sessiliventria, or Phyllophaga and Xylophaga. The suborder includes about 10,000 world species grouped into about 1,000 genera and 12 families. Representatives are found on all continents except for Antarctica, and they are also absent on many of the more isolated islands of the world such as Hawaii and many other Pacific islands. The most northern record is that for Pachynematus parvilabris (Thomson) on Ward Hunt Island in Canada, 83_ 05' N., and several species are found as far south as Tierra del Fuego. The North American fauna consists of around 1,000 species in 10 families. The two families that have no living representatives in North America are the Megalodontidae and Blasticotomidae, both of which are Palearctic, though the Blasticotomidae is represented in North America by the fossil species Paremphytus ostentatus Brues from the Miocene of Florissant, Colorado. The Blasticotomidae contains only several species, very secretive and rarely found, the larvae of which bore in the stems of ferns. Living forms may yet be discovered on this continent. Other than the families discussed here, a number of fossil families have been described, most all from the Old World. These are Anaxyelidae, Gigasiricidae, Karatavitidae, Myrmiciidae, Parapamphiliidae, Pararchexyelidae, Paroryssidae, Pseudosiricidae, Sepulcidae, Xyelotomidae, and Xyelydidae. ~The common name sawfly, applied to members of most families, is derived from their flylike appearance and the sawlike female ovipositor which is used to cut open plant tissue for insertion of eggs. The name horntail is usually applied to members of the family Siricidae, the females of which have a long slender ovipositor. Adults of the suborder may be distinguished from other Hymenoptera by the abdomen which is broadly joined to the thorax, the trochanters which are always two-segmented and the hindwing which usually has three closed basal cells. The larvae of most sawflies are entirely different from other Hymenoptera larvae and are most often confused with those of Lepidoptera, though sawfly larvae lack crochets on the prolegs, have only one pair of ocelli, and normally have more than five pairs of prolegs. Some larvae, especially those modified for an internal existence, resemble the grublike larvae of other Hymenoptera but normally have a projection at the apex of the abdomen and vestiges of thoracic legs. ~The higher classification of the Symphyta in most universal use at present is that proposed by Ross (1937) and Benson (1938). The suborder is divided into two major series, the Orthandria and Strophandria basically separated by the male genitalia which remains normal in the former but is turned 180_ prior to eclosion in the latter. The Strophandria is expressed as the superfamily Tenthredinoidea. The Orthandria have been further divided on the basis of characters of the mesosternum and head capsule into three superfamilies, the Megalodontoidea, Siricoidea, and Cephoidea. Some authors have recognized the superfamily Xyeloidea including only the family Xyelidae. This has some merit, as both positions of male genitalia are found, the orthandrous in the Macroxyelinae and strophandrous in the Xyelinae. ~All members of this suborder are phytophagous except for the family Orussidae which is parasitic on other wood-boring insects. Host plants and habits are various. Many larvae are external feeders on the foliage of the host, but others are leaf miners, gall formers on twigs, petioles, leaves, or buds, leaf-edge rollers, stem borers, wood borers, or petiole miners. Because of their plant feeding habits, many sawflies are pests of ornamental plants, agricultural crops, or forest stands. Their occurrence is normally local, but outbreaks in forests may be extensive, covering many thousands of acres and resulting in considerable growth loss or death of trees. Appearance in epidemic proportions is commonly sporadic, suddenly appearing for a year or more then practically disappearing for several years, probably being kept under control by their natural parasite-predator-disease complex. Some of the most destructive species are aliens which were accidentally introduced from abroad and found a vacuum for development without natural enemies. Many parasites have been introduced to help combat these pests. Some of the more important sawflies are those that feed on timber species, roses, apples, pears, peaches, and wheat and other grain crops. On the other hand, a few sawflies have been used beneficially, or at least have been attempted for use in the biological control of weeds. One species, Ucona acaenae Smith (=Antholcus varinervis of authors), was introduced into New Zealand from Chile in the early 1930's to help control the spread of Acaena. This attempt was only partially successful. Another species, Priophorus morio (Lepeletier), was released in Hawaii from the western United States to help control the spread of Rubus on the islands, but this attempt failed. ~The life cycle of many sawflies follows a similar pattern, though with many variations. Adults of most species fly in spring and early summer and are very short-lived. It is difficult to keep individual adults alive in captivity for much more than a few days although the actual flight of a species may extend over several weeks or months. Some adults may not feed but some may feed on moisture, nectar and pollen of flowers, leaf pubescence, or other insects. The most productive areas for collecting are in vegetation on edges of rivers or streams, marshes, open and scrubby woodland, or undisturbed meadows. The catkins of willows and alders are especially productive for many groups. Oviposition is in the foliage, stems, twigs, or wood, and the eggs are most always inserted in the plant tissue though some Pamphiliidae may glue their eggs to the leaf surface. Larval feeding time varies, but usually lasts about two weeks. Many larvae, especially Diprionidae, feed gregariously at first but later disperse to other parts of the host. After feeding is completed the larva molts into a non-feeding stage called the prepupa or resting stage. The prepupa normally leaves the host in search of a site for pupation. This may be in a cell in the ground or litter, in a papery cocoon in the ground, in some other substance such as wood, stems of the host or nearby plants, or fruits of other plants. The prepupal stage differs morphologically from the feeding stages, especially in the shape of the mandibles and sometimes color pattern. Some larvae with spines loose these in the final molt. If there is a single generation, the prepupa will remain in its cocoon or cell the rest of the summer and pupate the following spring. However, depending on the species, latitude, or diapause requirements, there may be several generations a year, or it may take several years to complete the cycle. ~The following references are to general articles on the Symphyta. Some, such as Maxwell, 1955, in morphology, pertain to many species and the reference is not repeated under each species. Under some species, such as Pristiphora erichsonii (Hartig), a listing of all biological references would take many more pages, and the references are selected or pertain to some recent synopsis which contains a good bibliography. Some of the new distribution records, hosts, and taxonomic changes are taken from unpublished notes. Only those taxonomic changes cited as being new have not before appeared in the literature. ~I am indebted to several colleagues for reviewing parts of this section and or providing some of the information contained herein: H. E. Milliron, formerly with the Biosystematics Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa and other authorities of the Institute for allowing study of their sawfly collection; H. R. Wong, Northern Forest Research Centre, Canadian Forestry Service Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; and H. Greenbaum, Department of Entomology, University of Arkansas Fayetteville.
licence
cc-by-nc
citation bibliographique
Catalog of Hymenoptera in America North of Mexico. 1979. Prepared cooperatively by specialists on the various groups of Hymenoptera under the direction of Karl V. Krombein and Paul D. Hurd, Jr., Smithsonian Institution, and David R. Smith and B. D. Burks, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Insect Identification and Beneficial Insect Introduction Institute. Science and Education Administration, United States Department of Agriculture.

Brief Summary ( anglais )

fourni par Catalog of Hymenoptera in America North of Mexico
The suborder Symphyta, commonly known as sawflies and horntails, has also been recorded in the early literature under the names Chalastogastra, Sessiliventria, or Phyllophaga and Xylophaga. The suborder includes about 10,000 world species grouped into about 1,000 genera and 12 families. Representatives are found on all continents except for Antarctica, and they are also absent on many of the more isolated islands of the world such as Hawaii and many other Pacific islands. The most northern record is that for Pachynematus parvilabris (Thomson) on Ward Hunt Island in Canada, 83_ 05' N., and several species are found as far south as Tierra del Fuego. The North American fauna consists of around 1,000 species in 10 families. The two families that have no living representatives in North America are the Megalodontidae and Blasticotomidae, both of which are Palearctic, though the Blasticotomidae is represented in North America by the fossil species Paremphytus ostentatus Brues from the Miocene of Florissant, Colorado. The Blasticotomidae contains only several species, very secretive and rarely found, the larvae of which bore in the stems of ferns. Living forms may yet be discovered on this continent. Other than the families discussed here, a number of fossil families have been described, most all from the Old World. These are Anaxyelidae, Gigasiricidae, Karatavitidae, Myrmiciidae, Parapamphiliidae, Pararchexyelidae, Paroryssidae, Pseudosiricidae, Sepulcidae, Xyelotomidae, and Xyelydidae. ~The common name sawfly, applied to members of most families, is derived from their flylike appearance and the sawlike female ovipositor which is used to cut open plant tissue for insertion of eggs. The name horntail is usually applied to members of the family Siricidae, the females of which have a long slender ovipositor. Adults of the suborder may be distinguished from other Hymenoptera by the abdomen which is broadly joined to the thorax, the trochanters which are always two-segmented and the hindwing which usually has three closed basal cells. The larvae of most sawflies are entirely different from other Hymenoptera larvae and are most often confused with those of Lepidoptera, though sawfly larvae lack crochets on the prolegs, have only one pair of ocelli, and normally have more than five pairs of prolegs. Some larvae, especially those modified for an internal existence, resemble the grublike larvae of other Hymenoptera but normally have a projection at the apex of the abdomen and vestiges of thoracic legs. ~The higher classification of the Symphyta in most universal use at present is that proposed by Ross (1937) and Benson (1938). The suborder is divided into two major series, the Orthandria and Strophandria basically separated by the male genitalia which remains normal in the former but is turned 180_ prior to eclosion in the latter. The Strophandria is expressed as the superfamily Tenthredinoidea. The Orthandria have been further divided on the basis of characters of the mesosternum and head capsule into three superfamilies, the Megalodontoidea, Siricoidea, and Cephoidea. Some authors have recognized the superfamily Xyeloidea including only the family Xyelidae. This has some merit, as both positions of male genitalia are found, the orthandrous in the Macroxyelinae and strophandrous in the Xyelinae. ~All members of this suborder are phytophagous except for the family Orussidae which is parasitic on other wood-boring insects. Host plants and habits are various. Many larvae are external feeders on the foliage of the host, but others are leaf miners, gall formers on twigs, petioles, leaves, or buds, leaf-edge rollers, stem borers, wood borers, or petiole miners. Because of their plant feeding habits, many sawflies are pests of ornamental plants, agricultural crops, or forest stands. Their occurrence is normally local, but outbreaks in forests may be extensive, covering many thousands of acres and resulting in considerable growth loss or death of trees. Appearance in epidemic proportions is commonly sporadic, suddenly appearing for a year or more then practically disappearing for several years, probably being kept under control by their natural parasite-predator-disease complex. Some of the most destructive species are aliens which were accidentally introduced from abroad and found a vacuum for development without natural enemies. Many parasites have been introduced to help combat these pests. Some of the more important sawflies are those that feed on timber species, roses, apples, pears, peaches, and wheat and other grain crops. On the other hand, a few sawflies have been used beneficially, or at least have been attempted for use in the biological control of weeds. One species, Ucona acaenae Smith (=Antholcus varinervis of authors), was introduced into New Zealand from Chile in the early 1930's to help control the spread of Acaena. This attempt was only partially successful. Another species, Priophorus morio (Lepeletier), was released in Hawaii from the western United States to help control the spread of Rubus on the islands, but this attempt failed. ~The life cycle of many sawflies follows a similar pattern, though with many variations. Adults of most species fly in spring and early summer and are very short-lived. It is difficult to keep individual adults alive in captivity for much more than a few days although the actual flight of a species may extend over several weeks or months. Some adults may not feed but some may feed on moisture, nectar and pollen of flowers, leaf pubescence, or other insects. The most productive areas for collecting are in vegetation on edges of rivers or streams, marshes, open and scrubby woodland, or undisturbed meadows. The catkins of willows and alders are especially productive for many groups. Oviposition is in the foliage, stems, twigs, or wood, and the eggs are most always inserted in the plant tissue though some Pamphiliidae may glue their eggs to the leaf surface. Larval feeding time varies, but usually lasts about two weeks. Many larvae, especially Diprionidae, feed gregariously at first but later disperse to other parts of the host. After feeding is completed the larva molts into a non-feeding stage called the prepupa or resting stage. The prepupa normally leaves the host in search of a site for pupation. This may be in a cell in the ground or litter, in a papery cocoon in the ground, in some other substance such as wood, stems of the host or nearby plants, or fruits of other plants. The prepupal stage differs morphologically from the feeding stages, especially in the shape of the mandibles and sometimes color pattern. Some larvae with spines loose these in the final molt. If there is a single generation, the prepupa will remain in its cocoon or cell the rest of the summer and pupate the following spring. However, depending on the species, latitude, or diapause requirements, there may be several generations a year, or it may take several years to complete the cycle. ~The following references are to general articles on the Symphyta. Some, such as Maxwell, 1955, in morphology, pertain to many species and the reference is not repeated under each species. Under some species, such as Pristiphora erichsonii (Hartig), a listing of all biological references would take many more pages, and the references are selected or pertain to some recent synopsis which contains a good bibliography. Some of the new distribution records, hosts, and taxonomic changes are taken from unpublished notes. Only those taxonomic changes cited as being new have not before appeared in the literature. ~I am indebted to several colleagues for reviewing parts of this section and or providing some of the information contained herein: H. E. Milliron, formerly with the Biosystematics Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa and other authorities of the Institute for allowing study of their sawfly collection; H. R. Wong, Northern Forest Research Centre, Canadian Forestry Service Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; and H. Greenbaum, Department of Entomology, University of Arkansas Fayetteville.
licence
cc-by-nc
citation bibliographique
Catalog of Hymenoptera in America North of Mexico. 1979. Prepared cooperatively by specialists on the various groups of Hymenoptera under the direction of Karl V. Krombein and Paul D. Hurd, Jr., Smithsonian Institution, and David R. Smith and B. D. Burks, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Insect Identification and Beneficial Insect Introduction Institute. Science and Education Administration, United States Department of Agriculture.

Symphyta ( asturien )

fourni par wikipedia AST

Symphyta

Urocerus gigas.jpg
Urocerus gigas
id="16" colspan="3" |Taxonomía Reinu:

Animalia

Filu:

Arthropoda

Clase:

Insecta

Orde:

Hymenoptera

Suborde:

Symphyta

id="53" colspan="3" |Superfamilies y families

Cephoidea

  • Cephidae

Megalodontoidea

  • Megalodontidae
  • Pamphiliidae

Orussoidea

  • Orussidae- aviespes parásites de la madera

Siricoidea

  • Siricidae

Tenthredinoidea

  • Argidae
  • Blasticotomidae
  • Cimbicidae
  • Diprionidae- Aviespes de sierra de les coníferes
  • Pergidae
  • Tenthredinidae- aviespes de sierra comunes

Xyeloidea

  • Anaxyelidae
  • Xyelidae
  • Xiphydriidae
[editar datos en Wikidata]

Los sínfitos (Symphyta) son un suborde d'himenópteros, probablemente parafiléticu, qu'inclúi los miembros más primitivos del orde.[1] Conócense col nome común de mosques de sierra o mosques portasierra pola apariencia del ovipositor que recuerda a la fueya d'una sierra. Les femes usen l'ovipositor pa tarazar les plantes onde van poner los sos güevos; delles especies, sicasí, tienen ovipositores delgaos para taladrar fondos furacos na madera.

Los sínfitos estrémense del restu de los himenópteros (Apocrita) porque escarecen de la cintura de viéspora" (conexón estrecha ente l'abdome y el tórax).

Los adultos, sacantes aquellos de la familia Cephidae, tienen estructures na parte inferior del ala qu'ayuden al sosten de les mesmes cuando l'inseutu ta en reposu. Estes estructures tán ausentes nos miembros del suborde Apocrita, y alcuéntrense detrás del escutelo nel tórax.

 src=
Bárabu de Nematus ribesii, familia Tenthredinidae.

Descripción

 src=
Aviespa xigante de la madera, Urocerus gigas, mímicu batesiano d'una aviespa poniendo güevos

Munches especies de sínfitos caltuvieron les sos carauterístiques ancestrales al traviés del tiempu, especialmente los sos vezos herbívoros, venación de les ales y abdome ensin cambeos, onde los dos segmentos primeros son asemeyaos a los siguientes.[2] L'ausencia d'una "cintura d'aviespa" estrema a los sínfitos de los otros miembros de Hymenoptera. Dalgunos presenten mimetismu batesianu con coloración similar a la d'abeyes y aviespes y con ovipositor que paez un aguiyón, magar son incapaces de picar. La mayoría son de vuelu débil.[4] Los sínfitos varien en tamañu. Unu de los más grandes ye Urocerus gigas, que puede algamar 20 mm de llargor. El sínfitu fósil más grande conocíu ye Hoplitolyda duolunica del Mesozoicu, con 55 mm de llargor y valumbu de 92 mm.[2][3] Les especies más pequeñes algamen 2,5 mm.[4]

 src=
Tártagu européu con franxa d'aviespa y con aguiyón, non un sínfito.

Les cabeces de los sínfitos varien en tamañu, forma y robustez, según na posición de los güeyos y antenes.[7] La cabeza ye hipognata, ye dicir que les pieces bucales diríxense escontra baxo. Pueden empobinales escontra alantre cuando xiren la cabeza en forma de pendilexu.[8] Les antenes tienen dende 6 segmentos na familia Accorduleceridae hasta 30 en Pamphiliidae.[9]

Ciclu biolóxicu

Los bárabos de sínfitos aseméyense a guxanos de caparines y polillas. Delles rasgos morfolóxicos estrémense d'elles. Amás de los trés pares de pates toráciques que dambos tipos de bárabos tienen, los guxanos presenten 5 pares de pates falses nos segmentos abdominales 3 a 6 (sacante los guxanos de Geometridae que tienen solu unu o dos pares de pates falses). Los bárabos de sínfitos tienen 7 pares nos segmentos 2 a 6. Otra diferencia ye que les pates falses de bárabos de sínfitos escarecen de pequeños ganchitos como les de guxanos. Les pates falses sumen gradualmente cuando s'avera'l momentu de pupar y eso fai más difícil la diferenciación. Los bárabos de sínfitos tienen un solu par de güeyos diminutos, mientres los guxanos tienen de cuatro a seis güeyos a cada llau de la cabeza.[11][5]

 src=
Bárabu de Abia sericea con coloración aposemática y con apariencia similar a los guxanos de lepidópteros

Los bárabos de sínfitos son herbívores, desenvolviéndose nuna amplia variedá de plantes, siendo bastante específiques nel tipu de planta utilizada como alimentu. Los bárabos d'unes poques families, por casu Orussidae, escarecen de güeyos y entá de pates o les tienen bien amenorgaes. Baltes bárabos faen túneles nel texíu de les plantes y entá en madera.[4] Los bárabos de munches especies tienen colores llamativos, blancu y negru o blancu y mariellu. Ye un casu d'aposematismu, alvirtiendo la so tosicidá a los depredadores.

Xeneralmente hai una sola xeneración per añu. Pasen l'iviernu en forma de bárabu maduru o de pupa envuelta nun brotu o en dalgún llugar refuxáu; los que son comedores esternos, nel suelu y los internos, nel interior de la planta. Delles especies, especialmente les de mayor tamañu, precisen más d'un añu para completar el so ciclu vital. Los adultos son depredadores, sobremanera d'otros inseutos, pero munchos tamién s'alimenten de néctar.

Distribución

Los sínfitos tán llargamente distribuyíos pel mundu. La familia más mumberosa, Tenthredinidae, con alredor de 5.000 especies, atópase en tolos continentes, sacante Antártida y Nueva Zelanda; son bien escasos n'Australia. Son más abondosos y diversos nes rexones templaes del hemisferiu norte. La segunda familia en númberu d'especies, Argidae, con alredor de 800 especies, tamién ye de distribución mundial, pero ye más común en rexones tropicales, especialmente n'África, onde s'alimenten d'anxospermes herbales. De les families restantes, Blasticotomidae y Megalodontidae son paleártiques; Xyelidae, Pamphilidae, Diprionidae, Cimbicidae y Cephidae son holártiques; mientres Siricidae ye principalmente holártica con delles especies tropicales. La familia parasítica Orussidae ye de distribución mundial, más común en rexones tropicales y subtropicales. La familia de los taladradores de madera, Xiphydriidae ye de distribución mundial, pero la mayoría viven en zones subtropicales d'Asia.[13][6]

Importancia económica

 src=
Diprion pini machu y fema, plaga forestal
 src=
Bárabos de Rhadinoceraea micans, plaga d'Iris pseudacorus, y dañu a la planta güéspede

Les viéspores sínfites causen serios daños forestales. Por casu, especies de Diprionidae, como Diprion pini y Neodiprion sertifer destrúin arbolees de pinos en rexones d'Escandinavia.[7] En casos en que los árboles son grandes o les poblaciones de bárabos son baxes el dañu ye mínimu.

Tamién causen serios problemes para la horticultura. Ciertes especies tán especializaes en ciertes plantes, por casu los bárabos de Rhadinoceraea micans aliméntense de llirios incluyendo'l lliriu mariellu (Iris pseudacorus).[8] Les viéspores sínfites de les roses, Arge pagana y Arge ochropus, devoren les rosales.[9]

El sírice xigante, Urocerus gigas, tien un ovipositor llargu y col so coloríu negru y mariellu ye un bon mímicu de les viéspores. A pesar de la so apariencia alarmante nun puede picar porque escarez d'aguiyón.[10] Deposita los sos güevos en pinos, "abetos" (Picea) o alerces. Los bárabos aliméntense de la madera abriendo túneles que causen daños económicos.[11]

Pueden tomase diverses midíes para combatir les aviespes de la madera. Puédense colectar los bárabos a mano y depositar n'agua hirviente o querosenu, anque esto nun ye prácticu en plantíos. Pueden usase depredadores o parasitoides como controles biolóxicos.[19] Tamién s'usa'l sulfatamientu con insecticides tales como malatión, dimethoate y carbaril.

Referencies

  1. Tree of Life, Hymenoptera
  2. International Wildlife Encyclopedia, 3rd 16, Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-7282-7.
  3. Gao, T.; Shih, C.; Rasnitsyn, A.P.; Ren, D.; Laudet, V. (2013). «Hoplitolyda duolunica gen. et sp. nov. (Insecta, Hymenoptera, Praesiricidae), the hitherto largest sawfly from the Mesozoic of China». PLoS ONE 8 (5): pp. e62420e62420. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062420. PMID 23671596. Bibcode: 2013PLoSO...862420G.
  4. Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects: VI Hymenoptera 2 Symphyta Section (b). Royal Entomological Society of London.
  5. «Metamorphosis: a remarkable changeMetamorphosis: a remarkable change» (9 de julio de 20099 de julio de 2009). Consultáu'l 8 de diciembre de 20168 de diciembre de 2016.
  6. Looney, C.; Smith, D.R; Collman, S.J.; Langor, D.W.; Peterson, M.A. (2016). «Sawflies (Hymenoptera, Symphyta) newly recorded from Washington State». Journal of Hymenoptera Research 49: pp. 129–159129–159. doi:10.3897/JHR.49.7104.
  7. Krokene, PaalKrokene, Paal (6 de diciembre de 20146 de diciembre de 2014). «The common pine sawfly – a troublesome relativeThe common pine sawfly – a troublesome relative». Science NordicScience Nordic. Consultáu'l 28 de noviembre de 201628 de noviembre de 2016.
  8. «Iris sawflyIris sawfly». Royal Horticultural SocietyRoyal Horticultural Society. Consultáu'l 28 de noviembre de 201628 de noviembre de 2016.
  9. «Large rose sawflyLarge rose sawfly». Royal Horticultural SocietyRoyal Horticultural Society. Consultáu'l 28 de noviembre de 201628 de noviembre de 2016.
  10. «Great Wood WaspsGreat Wood Wasps». UK SafariUK Safari. Consultáu'l 28 de noviembre de 201628 de noviembre de 2016.
  11. «Giant WoodwaspGiant Woodwasp». Massachusetts Introduced Pests Outreach ProjectMassachusetts Introduced Pests Outreach Project. Consultáu'l 28 de noviembre de 201628 de noviembre de 2016.
  • Arnett, R. H. Jr. (2000) Segunda edición. American insects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Londres,New York, Washington, D. C. ISBN 0-8493-0212-9
  • Borror, D. J., DeLong, D. M., Triplehorn, C. A.(1976) cuarta edición. An introduction to the study of insects. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York, Chicago. ISBN 0-03-088406-3

Xeneral

Taxonomía

  • Taxonomy of Hymenoptera – Chrysis.net
  • ECatSym - Electronic World Catalog of Symphyta (Insecta, Hymenoptera) – Información entomolóxica dixital
  • Checklist of British and Irish Hymenoptera - Sawflies, ‘Symphyta’ Biodiversity Data Journal 2: y1168

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wikipedia AST

Symphyta: Brief Summary ( asturien )

fourni par wikipedia AST

Los sínfitos (Symphyta) son un suborde d'himenópteros, probablemente parafiléticu, qu'inclúi los miembros más primitivos del orde. Conócense col nome común de mosques de sierra o mosques portasierra pola apariencia del ovipositor que recuerda a la fueya d'una sierra. Les femes usen l'ovipositor pa tarazar les plantes onde van poner los sos güevos; delles especies, sicasí, tienen ovipositores delgaos para taladrar fondos furacos na madera.

Los sínfitos estrémense del restu de los himenópteros (Apocrita) porque escarecen de la cintura de viéspora" (conexón estrecha ente l'abdome y el tórax).

Los adultos, sacantes aquellos de la familia Cephidae, tienen estructures na parte inferior del ala qu'ayuden al sosten de les mesmes cuando l'inseutu ta en reposu. Estes estructures tán ausentes nos miembros del suborde Apocrita, y alcuéntrense detrás del escutelo nel tórax.

 src= Bárabu de Nematus ribesii, familia Tenthredinidae.
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Oturaqqarıncıqlılar ( azéri )

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Oturaqqarıncıqlılar (lat. Symphyta) pərdəqanadlılar (lat. Hymenoptera) dəstəsinin yarımdəstəsi.

Ümumi məlumat

Pərdəqanadlıların arasında həm yetkin və sürfə formalarının quruluşuna, həm də həyat tərzinə görə ən ibtidai qrupdur. Yarımdəstənin nümayəndələri "mişarçılar" adı altında da tanınırlar. Belə ki, onların yumurtaqoyanı diş-diş aşağı kəsici səthi ilə mişarı xatırladır. Bunun köməyi ilə onlar bitki toxumalarında xüsusi kəsiklər açır və öz yumurtalarını ora qoyurlar. Yalançıtırtıllar ya açıq şəkildə bitkilərdə , ya da dənli bitkilərin toxumalarında, xüsusi halda saplağında yaşayırlar[1]

Təsnifatı

  • Cephoidea
  • Megalodontesoidea
  • Orussoidea
  • Siricoidea
  • Tenthredinoidea
  • Xiphydrioidea
  • Xyeloidea

İstinad

  1. Azərbaycanın heyvanlar aləmi. II cild. Buğumayaqlılar tipi. Bakı: Elm, 2004, (388 s.) səh. 290.

Mənbə

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Oturaqqarıncıqlılar: Brief Summary ( azéri )

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Oturaqqarıncıqlılar (lat. Symphyta) pərdəqanadlılar (lat. Hymenoptera) dəstəsinin yarımdəstəsi.

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Símfit ( catalan ; valencien )

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Els símfits (Symphyta) formen un dels dos subordres d'insectes himenòpters existents, al costat dels apòcrits (Apocrita). Es considera que són els himenòpters més primitius i es diferencien dels apòcrits perquè no presenten cintura entre el tòrax i l'abdomen; és a dir, no tenen la "cintura de vespa". Tampoc formen cap mena de societat ni fan servir el parasitisme. Hi ha consens en què es tracta d'una agrupació parafilètica.[1]

Característiques

L'oviscapte és molt semblant a la fulla d'una serra i per això en anglès els anomenen sawfly ("serra voladora"). En el cas dels apòcrits en molts casos s'ha modificat en una arma que és el fibló, però en els símfits no té aquesta funció defensiva. Les femelles usen l'oviscapte per tallar les plantes on pondran els seus ous. Algunes espècies tenen els oviscaptes prims per poder fer uns forats profunds en la fusta.

Les larves s'assemblen a les erugues, la fase larvària d'arnes i papallones. Els adults, llevat dels de la família Cephidae, tenen estructures a la part inferior de l'ala que ajuden al sostén de les mateixes quan l'insecte està en repòs. Els apòcrits no tenen aquestes estructures i es localitzen darrere del escutel, al tòrax.

Alimentació

L'aliment de les larves, que són herbívores, varia en funció de les espècies amb una relació bastant exclusiva pel que fa al tipus de planta. Per això les grans poblacions poden causar un important dany econòmic en les àrees de conreu i en els boscos. Els adults són carnívors i són depredadors d'altres insectes, però molts també s'alimenten de nèctar.

Sistemàtica

Els subordre dels símfids inclou 7 superfamílies i 14 famílies.[1]

Família Xyelidae
Família Megalodontesidae
Família Pamphiliidae
Família Argidae
Família Blasticotomidae
Família Cimbicidae
Família Diprionidae
Família Pergidae
Família Tenthredinidae
Família Cephidae
Família Anaxyelidae
Família Siricidae
Família Xiphydriidae
Família Orussidae

Referències

  1. 1,0 1,1 Sharkey, M.J. 2007: Phylogeny and classification of Hymenoptera. Pp. 521-548 in: Zhang, Z.-Q. & Shear, W.A. (Eds) Linnaeus tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa, 1668: 1–766. [1]

Enllaços externs

 src= A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Símfits Modifica l'enllaç a Wikidata



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Símfit: Brief Summary ( catalan ; valencien )

fourni par wikipedia CA

Els símfits (Symphyta) formen un dels dos subordres d'insectes himenòpters existents, al costat dels apòcrits (Apocrita). Es considera que són els himenòpters més primitius i es diferencien dels apòcrits perquè no presenten cintura entre el tòrax i l'abdomen; és a dir, no tenen la "cintura de vespa". Tampoc formen cap mena de societat ni fan servir el parasitisme. Hi ha consens en què es tracta d'una agrupació parafilètica.

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Pflanzenwespen ( allemand )

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Die Pflanzenwespen oder Sägewespen (Symphyta) sind eine der beiden traditionellen Unterordnungen der Hautflügler (Hymenoptera) mit rund 9000 bekannten Arten.[1] Im Gegensatz zu den weit artenreicheren Taillenwespen (Apocrita) verfügen sie nicht über den Hinterleibseinschnitt, die „Wespentaille“. Die Pflanzenwespen bilden jedoch keine natürliche Verwandtschaftsgruppe (Klade), sondern eine paraphyletische Zusammenfassung der urtümlicheren Hautflügler. Sie sind überwiegend Pflanzen- oder Nektarfresser; nur die knapp 90 Arten der Familie Orussidae entwickeln sich als Parasitoide von Larven anderer Insektenarten. Die Orussidae stellen die Schwestergruppe der Taillenwespen dar und lassen sich als evolutionäres Bindeglied zwischen den Unterordnungen ansehen.[2]

Die Larven leben meist auf Pflanzen und ähneln den Schmetterlingsraupen, man nennt sie auch „Afterraupen“. Die zahlreichen Arten der Pflanzenwespen sind vor allem in den gemäßigten Klimaregionen beheimatet. In Mitteleuropa kommen etwa 800 Arten der Pflanzenwespen vor; zu ihnen zählen zahlreiche als Schädlinge eingestufte Arten.

Die meisten Pflanzenwespen sind an bestimmte Wirtspflanzen gebunden. Insbesondere die Ablage der Eier erfolgt bei der Mehrzahl der Arten in das Pflanzengewebe.

Systematische Übersicht

Zu den Pflanzenwespen gehören folgende Familien:

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

  1. Identification of sawflies and horntails (Hymenoptera, ‘Symphyta’) through DNA barcodes: successes and caveats. Molecular Ecology Resources, 19. November 2016, abgerufen am 10. Februar 2018.
  2. M. J. Skvarla, A. Tripodi, A. Szalanski, A. Dowling: New records of Orussus minutus Middlekauff, 1983 (Hymenoptera: Orussidae) represent a significant western range expansion. In: Biodiversity data journal. Nummer 3, 2015, S. e5793, doi:10.3897/BDJ.3.e5793, PMID 26379466, PMC 4568401 (freier Volltext).
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Pflanzenwespen: Brief Summary ( allemand )

fourni par wikipedia DE

Die Pflanzenwespen oder Sägewespen (Symphyta) sind eine der beiden traditionellen Unterordnungen der Hautflügler (Hymenoptera) mit rund 9000 bekannten Arten. Im Gegensatz zu den weit artenreicheren Taillenwespen (Apocrita) verfügen sie nicht über den Hinterleibseinschnitt, die „Wespentaille“. Die Pflanzenwespen bilden jedoch keine natürliche Verwandtschaftsgruppe (Klade), sondern eine paraphyletische Zusammenfassung der urtümlicheren Hautflügler. Sie sind überwiegend Pflanzen- oder Nektarfresser; nur die knapp 90 Arten der Familie Orussidae entwickeln sich als Parasitoide von Larven anderer Insektenarten. Die Orussidae stellen die Schwestergruppe der Taillenwespen dar und lassen sich als evolutionäres Bindeglied zwischen den Unterordnungen ansehen.

Die Larven leben meist auf Pflanzen und ähneln den Schmetterlingsraupen, man nennt sie auch „Afterraupen“. Die zahlreichen Arten der Pflanzenwespen sind vor allem in den gemäßigten Klimaregionen beheimatet. In Mitteleuropa kommen etwa 800 Arten der Pflanzenwespen vor; zu ihnen zählen zahlreiche als Schädlinge eingestufte Arten.

Die meisten Pflanzenwespen sind an bestimmte Wirtspflanzen gebunden. Insbesondere die Ablage der Eier erfolgt bei der Mehrzahl der Arten in das Pflanzengewebe.

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Sawfly ( anglais )

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Larvae of Nematus miliaris

Sawflies are the insects of the suborder Symphyta within the order Hymenoptera, alongside ants, bees, and wasps. The common name comes from the saw-like appearance of the ovipositor, which the females use to cut into the plants where they lay their eggs. The name is associated especially with the Tenthredinoidea, by far the largest superfamily in the suborder, with about 7,000 known species; in the entire suborder, there are 8,000 described species in more than 800 genera. Symphyta is paraphyletic, consisting of several basal groups within the order Hymenoptera, each one rooted inside the previous group, ending with the Apocrita which are not sawflies.

The primary distinction between sawflies and the Apocrita – the ants, bees, and wasps – is that the adults lack a "wasp waist", and instead have a broad connection between the abdomen and the thorax. Some sawflies are Batesian mimics of wasps and bees, and the ovipositor can be mistaken for a stinger. Sawflies vary in length, most measuring 2.5 to 20 millimetres (332 to 2532 inch); the largest known sawfly measured 55 mm (2+14 in). The larvae are caterpillar-like, but can be distinguished by the number of prolegs and the absence of crochets in sawfly larvae. The great majority of sawflies are plant-eating, though the members of the superfamily Orussoidea are parasitic.

Predators include birds, insects and small animals. The larvae of some species have anti-predator adaptations such as regurgitating irritating liquid and clustering together for safety in numbers. Sawflies are hosts to many parasitoids, most of which are Hymenoptera, the rest being Diptera.

Adult sawflies are short-lived, with a life expectancy of 7–9 days, though the larval stage can last from months to years, depending on the species. Parthenogenetic females, which do not need to mate to produce fertilised eggs, are common in the suborder, though many species have males. The adults feed on pollen, nectar, honeydew, sap, other insects, including hemolymph of the larvae hosts; they have mouth pieces adapted to these types of feeding.[3]

Sawflies go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult. The female uses her ovipositor to drill into plant material (or, in the case of Orussoidea, other insects) and then lays eggs in groups called rafts or pods. After hatching, larvae feed on plants, often in groups. As they approach adulthood, the larvae seek a protected spot to pupate, typically in bark or the soil. Large populations of species such as the pine sawfly can cause substantial damage to economic forestry, while others such as the iris sawfly are major pests in horticulture. Outbreaks of sawfly larvae can defoliate trees and may cause dieback, stunting or death. Sawflies can be controlled through the use of insecticides, natural predators and parasitoids, or mechanical methods.

Sawflies first appeared 250 million years ago in the Triassic. The oldest superfamily, the Xyeloidea, has existed into the presents. Over 200 million years ago, a lineage of sawflies evolved a parasitoid lifestyle, with carnivorous larvae that ate the eggs or larvae of other insects. Sawflies are distributed globally, though they are more diverse in the northernmost hemispheres

Etymology

Sawfly laying eggs in a plant, using the serrated saw-like ovipositor for which the group is named

The suborder name "Symphyta" derives from the Greek word symphyton, meaning "grown together", referring to the group's distinctive lack of a wasp waist between prostomium and peristomium.[4] Its common name, "sawfly", derives from the saw-like ovipositor that is used for egg-laying, in which a female makes a slit in either a stem or plant leaf to deposit the eggs.[5] The first known use of this name was in 1773.[6] Sawflies are also known as "wood-wasps".[7]

Phylogeny

Carl Gerstaecker established the suborder Symphyta

In his original description of Hymenoptera in 1863, German zoologist Carl Gerstaecker divided them into three groups, Hymenoptera aculeata, Hymenoptera apocrita and Hymenoptera phytophaga.[8] But four years later in 1867, he described just two groups, H. apocrita syn. genuina and H. symphyta syn. phytophaga.[1] Consequently, the name Symphyta is given to Gerstaecker as the zoological authority. In his description, Gerstaecker distinguished the two groups by the transfer of the first abdominal segment to the thorax in the Apocrita, compared to the Symphyta. Consequently, there are only eight dorsal half segments in the Apocrita, against nine in the Symphyta. The larvae are distinguished in a similar way.[9]

The Symphyta have therefore traditionally been considered, alongside the Apocrita, to form one of two suborders of Hymenoptera.[10][11] Symphyta are the more primitive group, with comparatively complete venation, larvae that are largely phytophagous, and without a "wasp-waist", a symplesiomorphic feature. Together, the Symphyta make up less than 10% of hymenopteran species.[12] While the terms sawfly and Symphyta have been used synonymously, the Symphyta have also been divided into three groups, true sawflies (phyllophaga), woodwasps or xylophaga (Siricidae), and Orussidae. The three groupings have been distinguished by the true sawflies' ventral serrated or saw-like ovipositor for sawing holes in vegetation to deposit eggs, while the woodwasp ovipositor penetrates wood and the Orussidae behave as external parasitoids of wood-boring beetles. The woodwasps themselves are a paraphyletic ancestral grade. Despite these limitations, the terms have utility and are common in the literature.[11]

While most hymenopteran superfamilies are monophyletic, as is Hymenoptera, the Symphyta has long been seen to be paraphyletic.[13][14] Cladistic methods and molecular phylogenetics are improving the understanding of relationships between the superfamilies, resulting in revisions at the level of superfamily and family.[15] The Symphyta are the most primitive (basal) taxa within the Hymenoptera (some going back 250 million years), and one of the taxa within the Symphyta gave rise to the monophyletic suborder Apocrita (wasps, bees, and ants).[12][14] In cladistic analyses the Orussoidea are consistently the sister group to the Apocrita.[11][12]

The oldest unambiguous sawfly fossils date back to the Middle or Late Triassic. These fossils, from the family Xyelidae, are the oldest of all Hymenoptera.[16] One fossil, Archexyela ipswichensis from Queensland is between 205.6 and 221.5 million years of age, making it among the oldest of all sawfly fossils.[17] More Xyelid fossils have been discovered from the Middle Jurassic and the Cretaceous, but the family was less diverse then than during the Mesozoic and Tertiary. The subfamily Xyelinae were plentiful during these time periods, in which Tertiary faunas were dominated by the tribe Xyelini; these are indicative of a humid and warm climate.[18][19][20]

The cladogram is based on Schulmeister 2003.[21][22]

Symphyta within Hymenoptera Hymenoptera

Xyeloidea (Triassic-present) Xyelapusilla.jpg

Tenthredinoidea Diprionpini crop.jpg

Pamphilioidea Caenolyda reticulata (cropped).jpg

Cephoidea (stem sawflies) Hartigia linearis.jpg

Siricoidea (horntails or wood wasps) Hymenoptera Vielfalt Horntail.jpg

Xiphydrioidea (wood wasps) Xiphydria prolongata crop.jpg

parasitism

Orussoidea (parasitic wood wasps) Orussus coronatus.jpg

wasp waist

APOCRITA (ants, bees, wasps) Specimen of Podalonia tydei (Le Guillou, 1841).jpg

200mya 250mya
Symphyta
Symphyta (red bar) are paraphyletic as Apocrita are excluded.

Taxonomy

There are approximately 8,000 species of sawfly in more than 800 genera, although new species continue to be discovered.[23][24][25] However, earlier studies indicated that 10,000 species grouped into about 1,000 genera were known.[26] Early phylogenies such as that of Alexandr Rasnitsyn, based on morphology and behaviour, identified nine clades which did not reflect the historical superfamilies.[27] Such classifications were replaced by those using molecular methods, starting with Dowton and Austin (1994).[28] As of 2013, the Symphyta are treated as nine superfamilies (one extinct) and 25 families. Most sawflies belong to the Tenthredinoidea superfamily, with about 7,000 species worldwide. Tenthredinoidea has six families, of which Tenthredinidae is by far the largest with some 5,500 species.[2][29]

Extinct taxa are indicated by a dagger (†).

Superfamilies and families
  • Superfamily Anaxyeloidea Martynov, 1925
    • Family Anaxyelidae Martynov, 1925 (1 species) & †12 genera
  • Superfamily Cephoidea Newman, 1834 (1 & †1family)
    • Family Cephidae Newman, 1834 (21 genera, 160 spp. & †3 genera
  • †Superfamily Karatavitoidea Rasnitsyn, 1963 (1 family)
  • Superfamily Orussoidea Newman, 1834 (1 & †1 family)
    • Family Orussidae Newman, 1834 (16 genera, 82 spp.) & †3 genera
  • Superfamily Pamphilioidea Cameron, 1890 (2 & †1 families) (syn. Megalodontoidea)
    • Family Megalodontesidae Konow, 1897 (1 genera, 42 spp.) & †1 genus
    • Family Pamphiliidae Cameron, 1890 (10 genera, 291 spp.) & †3 genera
  • Superfamily Siricoidea Billberg, 1820 (2 & †5 families)
    • Family Siricidae Billberg, 1820 (11 genera, 111 spp.) & †9 genera
  • Superfamily Tenthredinoidea Latreille, 1803 (6 & †2 families)
    • Family Argidae Konow, 1890 (58 genera, 897 spp.) and †1 genus
    • Family Blasticotomidae Thomson, 1871 (2 genera, 12 spp.) & †1 genus
    • Family Cimbicidae W. Kirby, 1837 (16 genera, 182 spp.) & †6 genera
    • Family Diprionidae Rohwer, 1910 (11 genera, 136 spp.) & †2 genera
    • Family Pergidae Rohwer, 1911 (60 genera, 442 spp.)
    • Family Tenthredinidae Latreille, 1803 (400 genera, 5,500 spp.) & †14 genera
  • Superfamily Xiphydrioidea Leach, 1819
  • Superfamily Xyeloidea Newman, 1834
    • Family Xyelidae Newman, 1834 (5 genera, 63 spp.) & †47genera

Description

Giant horntail, Urocerus gigas, a Batesian mimic of a hornet, ovipositing.
It does not sting.
The European hornet is a wasp-waisted Apocritan with a sting, not a Symphytan.

Many species of sawfly have retained their ancestral attributes throughout time, specifically their plant-eating habits, wing veins and the unmodified abdomen, where the first two segments appear like the succeeding segments.[30] The absence of the narrow wasp waist distinguishes sawflies from other members of hymenoptera, although some are Batesian mimics with coloration similar to wasps and bees, and the ovipositor can be mistaken for a stinger.[31] Most sawflies are stubby and soft-bodied, and fly weakly.[32] Sawflies vary in length: Urocerus gigas, which can be mistaken as a wasp due to its black-and-yellow striped body, can grow up to 20 mm (34 in) in length, but among the largest sawflies ever discovered was Hoplitolyda duolunica from the Mesozoic, with a body length of 55 mm (2+14 in) and a wingspan of 92 mm (3+12 in).[31][33] The smaller species only reach lengths of 2.5 mm (332 in).[34]

Heads of sawflies vary in size, shape and sturdiness, as well as the positions of the eyes and antennae. They are characterised in four head types: open head, maxapontal head, closed head and genapontal head. The open head is simplistic, whereas all the other heads are derived.[35] The head is also hypognathous, meaning that the lower mouthparts are directed downwards. When in use, the mouthparts may be directed forwards, but this is only caused when the sawfly swings its entire head forward in a pendulum motion.[36] Unlike most primitive insects, the sutures (rigid joints between two or more hard elements on an organism) and sclerites (hardened body parts) are obsolescent or absent. The clypeus (a sclerite that makes up an insects "face") is not divided into a pre- and postclypeus, but rather separated from the front.[37] The antennal sclerites are fused with the surrounding head capsule, but these are sometimes separated by a suture. The number of segments in the antennae vary from six in the Accorduleceridae to 30 or more in the Pamphiliidae.[38] The compound eyes are large with a number of facets, and there are three ocelli between the dorsal portions of the compound eyes.[37] The tentorium comprises the whole inner skeleton of the head.[39]

Three segments make up the thorax: the mesothorax, metathorax and prothorax, as well as the exoskeletal plates that connect with these segments.[40] The legs have spurs on their fourth segments, the tibiae.[41] Sawflies have two pairs of translucent wings. The fore and hind wings are locked together with hooks.[42] Parallel development in sawfly wings is most frequent in the anal veins. In all sawflies, 2A & 3A tend to fuse with the first anal vein. This occurs in several families including Argidae, Diprionidae and Cimbicidae.[43]

The larvae of sawflies are easily mistaken for lepidopteran larvae (caterpillars). However, several morphological differences can distinguish the two: while both larvae share three pairs of thoracic legs and an apical pair of abdominal prolegs, lepidopteran caterpillars have four pairs of prolegs on abdominal segments 3-6 while sawfly larvae have five pairs of prolegs located on abdominal segments 2–6; crochets are present on lepidopteran larvae, whereas on sawfly larvae they are not; the prolegs of both larvae gradually disappear by the time they burrow into the ground, therefore making it difficult to distinguish the two; and sawfly larvae only have a single pair of minute eyes, whereas lepidopteran larvae have four to six eyes on each side of the head.[10][31] Sawfly larvae behave like lepidopteran larvae, walking about and eating foliage. Some groups have larvae that are eyeless and almost legless; these larvae make tunnels in plant tissues including wood.[32] Many species of sawfly larvae are strikingly coloured, exhibiting colour combinations such as black and white while others are black and yellow. This is a warning colouration because some larvae can secrete irritating fluids from glands located on their undersides.[31]

Distribution

Sawflies are widely distributed throughout the world.[44] The largest family, the Tenthredinidae, with some 5,000 species, are found on all continents except Antarctica, though they are most abundant and diverse in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; they are absent from New Zealand and there are few of them in Australia. The next largest family, the Argidae, with some 800 species, is also worldwide, but is most common in the tropics, especially in Africa, where they feed on woody and herbaceous angiosperms. Of the other families, the Blasticotomidae and Megalodontidae are Palearctic; the Xyelidae, Pamphilidae, Diprionidae, Cimbicidae, and Cephidae are Holarctic, while the Siricidae are mainly Holarctic with some tropical species. The parasitic Orussidae are found worldwide, mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The wood-boring Xiphydriidae are worldwide, but most species live in the subtropical parts of Asia.[23]

Behaviour and ecology

Rose stem sawfly (Hartigia trimaculata) larva in a rose stem

Sawflies are mostly herbivores, feeding on plants that have a high concentration of chemical defences. These insects are either resistant to the chemical substances, or they avoid areas of the plant that have high concentrations of chemicals.[45] The larvae primarily feed in groups; they are folivores, eating plants and fruits on native trees and shrubs, though some are parasitic.[5][46][47] However, this is not always the case; Monterey pine sawfly (Itycorsia) larvae are solitary web-spinners that feed on Monterey pine trees inside a silken web.[48] The adults feed on pollen and nectar.[46]

Anti-predator adaptation: spitfire sawfly larvae grouped together for safety in numbers

Sawflies are eaten by a wide variety of predators. While many birds find the larvae distasteful, some such as the currawong (Strepera) and stonechats (Saxicola) eat both adults and larvae.[49][50] The larvae are an important food source for the chicks of several birds, including partridges.[51] Sawfly and moth larvae form one third of the diet of nestling corn buntings (Emberiza calandra), with sawfly larvae being eaten more frequently on cool days.[52] Black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) chicks show a strong preference for sawfly larvae.[53][54] Sawfly larvae formed 43% of the diet of chestnut-backed chickadees (Poecile rufescens).[48] Small carnivorous mammals such as the masked shrew (Sorex cinereus), the northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) and the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) predate heavily on sawfly cocoons.[55] Insects such as ants and certain species of predatory wasps (Vespula vulgaris) eat adult sawflies and the larvae, as do lizards and frogs.[56][57] Pardalotes, honeyeaters and fantails (Rhipidura) occasionally consume laid eggs, and several species of beetle larvae prey on the pupae.[50]

The larvae have several anti-predator adaptations. While adults are unable to sting, the larvae of species such as the spitfire sawfly regurgitate a distasteful irritating liquid, which makes predators such as ants avoid the larvae.[5][58] In some species, the larvae cluster together, reducing their chances of being killed, and in some cases form together with their heads pointing outwards or tap their abdomens up and down.[50][59] Some adults bear black and yellow markings that mimic wasps.[31]

Parasites

Sawflies are hosts to many parasitoids, most of which are parasitic Hymenoptera; more than 40 species are known to attack them. However, information regarding these species is minimal, and fewer than 10 of these species actually cause a significant impact on sawfly populations.[60] Many of these species attack their hosts in the grass or in other parasitoids. Well known and important parasitoids include Braconidae, Eulophidae and Ichneumonidae. Braconid wasps attack sawflies in many regions throughout the world, in which they are ectoparasitoids, meaning that the larvae live and feed outside of the hosts body; braconids have more of an impact on sawfly populations in the New World than they do in the Old World, possibly because there are no ichneumonid parasitoids in North America. Some braconid wasps that attack sawflies include Bracon cephi, B. lisogaster, B. terabeila and Heteropilus cephi.[60][61][62] Female braconids locate sawfly larvae through the vibrations they produce when feeding, followed by inserting the ovipostior and paralysing the larva before laying eggs inside the host. These eggs hatch inside the larva within a few days, where they feed on the host. The entire host's body may be consumed by the braconid larvae, except for the head capsule and epidermis. The larvae complete their development within two or three weeks.[60]

Ten species of wasps in the family Ichneumonidae attack sawfly populations, although these species are usually rare. The most important parasitoids in this family are species in the genus Collyria. Unlike braconids, the larvae are endoparasitoids, meaning that the larvae live and feed inside the hosts body.[60] One well known ichneumonid is Collyria coxator, which is a dominant parasitoid of C. pygmaeus. Recorded parasitism rates in Europe are between 20 – 76%, and as many as eight eggs can be found in a single larva, but only one Collyria individual will emerge from its host. The larva may remain inside of their host until spring, where it emerges and pupates.[60]

Several species in the family Eulophidae attack sawflies, although their impact is low. Two species in the genus Pediobius have been studied; the two species are internal larval parasitoids and have only been found in the northern hemisphere. Parasitism of sawflies by eulophids in grass exceeds 50%, but only 5% in wheat. It is unknown as to why the attack rate in wheat is low.[63] Furthermore, some fungal and bacterial diseases are known to infect eggs and pupa in warm wet weather.[50]

Outbreaks of certain sawfly species, such as Diprion polytomum, have led scientists to investigate and possibly collect their natural enemies to control them. Parasites of D. polytomum have been extensively investigated, showing that 31 species of hymenopterous and dipterous parasites attack it. These parasites have been used in successful biological control against pest sawflies, including Cephus cinctus throughout the 1930s and 1950s and C. pygmaeus in the 1930s and 1940s.[64][65]

Life cycle and reproduction

Adult male newly emerged from its cocoon

Like all other hymenopteran insects, sawflies go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult.[66] Many species are parthenogenetic, meaning that females do not need fertilization to create viable eggs. Unfertilized eggs develop as male, while fertilized eggs develop into females (arrhenotoky). The lifespan of an individual sawfly is two months to two years, though the adult life stage is often very short (approximately 7 – 9 days), only long enough for the females to lay their eggs.[31][50][67] The female uses its ovipositor to drill into plant material to lay her eggs (though the family Orussoidea lay their eggs in other insects). Plant-eating sawflies most commonly are associated with leafy material but some specialize on wood, and the ovipositors of these species (such as the family Siricidae) are specially adapted for the task of drilling through bark. Once the incision has been made, the female will lay as many as 30 to 90 eggs. Females avoid the shade when laying their eggs because the larvae develop much slower and may not even survive, and they may not also survive if they are laid on immature and glaucous leaves. Hence, female sawflies search for young adult leaves to lay their eggs on.[31][50]

These eggs hatch in two to eight weeks, but such duration varies by species and also by temperature. Until the eggs have hatched, some species such as the small brown sawfly will remain with them and protects the eggs by buzzing loudly and beating her wings to deter predators. There are six larval stages that sawflies go through, lasting 2 – 4 months, but this also depends on the species. When fully grown, the larvae emerge from the trees en masse and burrow themselves into the soil to pupate. During their time outside, the larvae may link up to form a large colony if many other individuals are present. They gather in large groups during the day which gives them protection from potential enemies, and during the night they disperse to feed. The emergence of adults takes awhile, with some emerging anywhere between a couple months to 2 years. Some will reach the ground to form pupal chambers, but others may spin a cocoon attached to a leaf. Larvae that feed on wood will pupate in the tunnels they have constructed. In one species, the jumping-disc sawfly (Phyllotoma aceris) forms a cocoon which can act like a parachute. The larvae live in sycamore trees and do not damage the upper or lower cuticles of leaves that they feed on. When fully developed, they cut small perforations in the upper cuticle to form a circle. After this, they weave a silk hammocks within the circle; this silk hammock never touches the lower cuticle. Once inside, the upper-cuticle's disc separates and descends towards the surface with the larvae attaching themselves to the hammock. Once they reach the round, the larvae work their way into a sheltered area by jerking their discs along.[31][50]

The majority of sawfly species produce a single generation per year, but others may only have one generation every two years. Most sawflies are also female, making males rare.[50]

Relationship with humans

The pine sawfly Diprion pini is a serious pest of forestry.
Caterpillar-like larvae of Iris sawfly on yellow flag, showing damage to host plant

Sawflies are major economic pests of forestry. Species in the Diprionidae, such as the pine sawflies, Diprion pini and Neodiprion sertifer, cause serious damage to pines in regions such as Scandinavia. D. pini larvae defoliated 500,000 hectares (1,200,000 acres) in the largest outbreak in Finland, between 1998 and 2001. Up to 75% of the trees may die after such outbreaks, as D. pini can remove all the leaves late in the growing season, leaving the trees too weak to survive the winter.[68] Little damage to trees only occurs when the tree is large or when there is minimal presence of larvae. Eucalyptus trees can regenerate quickly from damage inflicted by the larvae; however, they can be substantially damaged from outbreaks, especially if they are young. The trees can be defoliated completely and may cause "dieback", stunting or even death.[50]

Sawflies are serious pests in horticulture. Different species prefer different host plants, often being specific to a family or genus of hosts. For example, Iris sawfly larvae, emerging in summer, can quickly defoliate species of Iris including the yellow flag and other freshwater species.[69] Similarly the rose sawflies, Arge pagana and A. ochropus, defoliate rose bushes.[70]

The giant woodwasp or horntail, Urocerus gigas, has a long ovipositor, which with its black and yellow colouration make it a good mimic of a hornet. Despite the alarming appearance, the insect cannot sting.[71] The eggs are laid in the wood of conifers such as Douglas fir, pine, spruce, and larch. The larvae eat tunnels in the wood, causing economic damage.[72]

Alternative measures to control sawflies can be taken. Mechanical methods include removing larvae from trees and killing them by squishing or dropping them into boiling water or kerosene, although this is not practical in plantations. Predators can also be used to eliminate larvae, as well as parasites which have been previously used in control programs.[50][64] Small trees can be sprayed with a number of chemicals, including maldison, dimethoate and carbaryl, if removing larvae from trees is not effective enough.[50]

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Bibliography

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Sawfly: Brief Summary ( anglais )

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Larvae of Nematus miliaris

Sawflies are the insects of the suborder Symphyta within the order Hymenoptera, alongside ants, bees, and wasps. The common name comes from the saw-like appearance of the ovipositor, which the females use to cut into the plants where they lay their eggs. The name is associated especially with the Tenthredinoidea, by far the largest superfamily in the suborder, with about 7,000 known species; in the entire suborder, there are 8,000 described species in more than 800 genera. Symphyta is paraphyletic, consisting of several basal groups within the order Hymenoptera, each one rooted inside the previous group, ending with the Apocrita which are not sawflies.

The primary distinction between sawflies and the Apocrita – the ants, bees, and wasps – is that the adults lack a "wasp waist", and instead have a broad connection between the abdomen and the thorax. Some sawflies are Batesian mimics of wasps and bees, and the ovipositor can be mistaken for a stinger. Sawflies vary in length, most measuring 2.5 to 20 millimetres (3⁄32 to 25⁄32 inch); the largest known sawfly measured 55 mm (2+1⁄4 in). The larvae are caterpillar-like, but can be distinguished by the number of prolegs and the absence of crochets in sawfly larvae. The great majority of sawflies are plant-eating, though the members of the superfamily Orussoidea are parasitic.

Predators include birds, insects and small animals. The larvae of some species have anti-predator adaptations such as regurgitating irritating liquid and clustering together for safety in numbers. Sawflies are hosts to many parasitoids, most of which are Hymenoptera, the rest being Diptera.

Adult sawflies are short-lived, with a life expectancy of 7–9 days, though the larval stage can last from months to years, depending on the species. Parthenogenetic females, which do not need to mate to produce fertilised eggs, are common in the suborder, though many species have males. The adults feed on pollen, nectar, honeydew, sap, other insects, including hemolymph of the larvae hosts; they have mouth pieces adapted to these types of feeding.

Sawflies go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult. The female uses her ovipositor to drill into plant material (or, in the case of Orussoidea, other insects) and then lays eggs in groups called rafts or pods. After hatching, larvae feed on plants, often in groups. As they approach adulthood, the larvae seek a protected spot to pupate, typically in bark or the soil. Large populations of species such as the pine sawfly can cause substantial damage to economic forestry, while others such as the iris sawfly are major pests in horticulture. Outbreaks of sawfly larvae can defoliate trees and may cause dieback, stunting or death. Sawflies can be controlled through the use of insecticides, natural predators and parasitoids, or mechanical methods.

Sawflies first appeared 250 million years ago in the Triassic. The oldest superfamily, the Xyeloidea, has existed into the presents. Over 200 million years ago, a lineage of sawflies evolved a parasitoid lifestyle, with carnivorous larvae that ate the eggs or larvae of other insects. Sawflies are distributed globally, though they are more diverse in the northernmost hemispheres

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Symphyta ( espéranto )

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Ovodemeta simfito.

Simfitojsegilmuŝoj estas la komuna nomo por insektoj kiuj apartenas al subordo Symphyta de la ordo Himenopteroj. Simfitoj estas distingeblaj el plje aliaj Himenopteroj pro la larĝa konekto inter la abdomeno kaj la torako, kaj pro ties raŭpecaj larvoj. La komuna nomo segilmuŝoj devenas el la segileca aspekto de la ovodemetilo, kiun inoj uzas por eltranĉi en plantojn por ovodemeti. Grandaj populacioj de kelkaj specioj de segilmuŝoj povas kaŭzi ekonomian damaĝon ĉe arbaroj kaj terkultivejoj.

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Symphyta ( espagnol ; castillan )

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Los sínfitos (Symphyta) son un suborden de himenópteros, probablemente parafilético,[1]​ que incluye los miembros más primitivos del orden. Se conocen con el nombre común de moscas de sierra o moscas portasierra por la apariencia del ovipositor que recuerda a la hoja de una sierra. Las hembras usan el ovipositor para cortar las plantas donde pondrán sus huevos; algunas especies, no obstante, tienen ovipositores delgados para taladrar profundos agujeros en la madera.

Los sínfitos se diferencian del resto de los himenópteros (Apocrita) porque carecen de la "cintura de avispa" (conexión estrecha entre el abdomen y el tórax).

Los adultos, salvo aquellos de la familia Cephidae, tienen estructuras en la parte inferior del ala que ayudan al sostén de las mismas cuando el insecto está en reposo. Estas estructuras están ausentes en los miembros del suborden Apocrita, y se localizan detrás del escutelo en el tórax.

 src=
Larva de Nematus ribesii, familia Tenthredinidae.

Descripción

 src=
Sirice gigante de la madera, Urocerus gigas, mímico batesiano de una avispa poniendo huevos

Muchas especies de sínfitos han mantenido sus características ancestrales a través del tiempo, especialmente sus hábitos herbívoros, venación de las alas y abdomen sin modificaciones, donde los dos segmentos primeros son semejantes a los siguientes.[2]​ La ausencia de una "cintura de avispa" distingue a los sínfitos de los otros miembros de Hymenoptera. Algunos presentan mimetismo batesiano con coloración similar a la de abejas y avispas y con ovipositor que parece un aguijón, si bien son incapaces de picar.[3]​ La mayoría son de vuelo débil.[4]​ Los sínfitos varían en tamaño. Uno de los más grandes es Urocerus gigas, que puede alcanzar 20 mm de longitud. El sínfito fósil más grande conocido es Hoplitolyda duolunica del Mesozoico, con 55 mm de longitud y envergadura de 92 mm.[3][5]​ Las especies más pequeñas alcanzan 2,5 mm.[6]

 src=
Avispón europeo con cinturón de avispa y con aguijón, no un sínfito.

Las cabezas de los sínfitos varían en tamaño, forma y robustez, así como en la posición de los ojos y antenas.[7]​ La cabeza es hipognata, es decir que las piezas bucales se dirigen hacia abajo. Pueden dirigirlas hacia adelante cuando giran la cabeza en forma de péndulo.[8]​ Las antenas tienen desde 6 segmentos en la familia Accorduleceridae hasta 30 en Pamphiliidae.[9]

Ciclo biológico

Las larvas de sínfitos se asemejan a orugas de mariposas y polillas (se llaman larvas eruciformes).[10]​ Varios rasgos morfológicos las distinguen de ellas. Además de los tres pares de patas torácicas que ambos tipos de larvas tienen, las orugas presentan 5 pares de patas falsas en los segmentos abdominales 3 a 6 y 10(excepto las orugas de Geometridae que tienen solo uno o dos pares de patas falsas). Las larvas de sínfitos generalmente tienen 8 pares en los segmentos abdominales 2 a 8 y en el 10. Otra diferencia es que las patas falsas de larvas de sínfitos carecen de pequeños ganchitos como las de orugas. Las patas falsas desaparecen gradualmente cuando se acerca el momento de pupar y eso hace más difícil la diferenciación. Las larvas de sínfitos tienen un solo par de ojos diminutos, mientras las orugas tienen de cuatro a seis ojos a cada lado de la cabeza.[11][3]

 src=
Larva de Abia sericea con coloración aposemática y con apariencia similar a las orugas de lepidópteros

Las larvas de sínfitos son herbívoras, desarrollándose en una amplia variedad de plantas, siendo bastante específicas en el tipo de planta utilizada como alimento. Las larvas de unas pocas familias, por ejemplo Orussidae, carecen de ojos y aun de patas o las tienen muy reducidas. Tales larvas hacen túneles en el tejido de las plantas y aun en madera.[4]​ Las larvas de muchas especies tienen colores llamativos, blanco y negro o blanco y amarillo. Es un caso de aposematismo, advirtiendo su toxicidad a los depredadores.[3]

Generalmente hay una sola generación por año. Pasan el invierno en forma de larva madura o de pupa envuelta en un capullo o en algún lugar refugiado; los que son comedores externos, en el suelo y los internos, en el interior de la planta. Algunas especies, especialmente las de mayor tamaño, necesitan más de un año para completar su ciclo vital. Los adultos son de vida muy corta, algunos viven de 7 a 9 días no necesitan alimentarse. Se alimentan de una inmensa variedad de fuentes, hongos, plantas u otros insectos; savia, polen o néctar, material en descomposición, etc. Las piezas bucales están adaptadas a todos eso tipos de alimentación, desde mandíbulas trituradoras a tubos para beber néctar o savia.[12]

Ciclo biológico de Cladius difformis

Distribución

Los sínfitos están ampliamente distribuidos por el mundo.[13]​ La familia más mumerosa, Tenthredinidae, con alrededor de 5000 especies, se encuentra en todos los continentes, excepto Antártida y Nueva Zelanda; son muy escasos en Australia. Son más abundantes y diversos en las regiones templadas del hemisferio norte. La segunda familia en número de especies, Argidae, con alrededor de 800 especies, también es de distribución mundial, pero es más común en regiones tropicales, especialmente en África, donde se alimentan de angiospermas herbáceas. De las familias restantes, Blasticotomidae y Megalodontidae son paleárticas; Xyelidae, Pamphilidae, Diprionidae, Cimbicidae y Cephidae son holárticas; mientras Siricidae es principalmente holártica con algunas especies tropicales. La familia parasítica Orussidae es de distribución mundial, más común en regiones tropicales y subtropicales. La familia de los taladradores de madera, Xiphydriidae es de distribución mundial, pero la mayoría viven en zonas subtropicales de Asia.[14]

Importancia económica

 src=
Diprion pini macho y hembra, plaga forestal
 src=
Larvas de Rhadinoceraea micans, plaga de Iris pseudacorus, y daño a la planta huésped

Las avispas sínfitas causan serios daños forestales. Por ejemplo, especies de Diprionidae, como Diprion pini y Neodiprion sertifer destruyen arboledas de pinos en regiones de Escandinavia.[15]​ En casos en que los árboles son grandes o las poblaciones de larvas son bajas el daño es mínimo.

También causan serios problemas para la horticultura. Ciertas especies se especializan en ciertas plantas, por ejemplo las larvas de Rhadinoceraea micans se alimentan de lirios incluyendo el lirio amarillo (Iris pseudacorus).[16]​ Las avispas sínfitas de las rosas, Arge pagana y Arge ochropus, devoran los rosales.[17]

El sírice gigante, Urocerus gigas, tiene un ovipositor largo y con su colorido negro y amarillo es un buen mímico de las avispas. A pesar de su apariencia alarmante no puede picar porque carece de aguijón.[18]​ Deposita sus huevos en pinos, "abetos" (Picea) o alerces. Las larvas se alimentan de la madera abriendo túneles que causan daños económicos.[19]

Se pueden tomar diversas medidas para combatir las avispas de la madera. Se pueden colectar las larvas a mano y depositar en agua hirviente o queroseno, aunque esto no es práctico en plantaciones. Se pueden usar depredadores o parasitoides como controles biológicos.[20]​ También se usa la fumigación con insecticidas tales como malatión, dimethoate y carbaril.

Referencias

  1. Tree of Life, Hymenoptera
  2. Goulet y Huber, 1993, pp. 5–6.
  3. a b c d Burton, M.; Burton, R. (2002). International Wildlife Encyclopedia 16 (3rd edición). Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2240-2241. ISBN 978-0-7614-7282-7.
  4. a b Goulet y Huber, 1993, p. 6.
  5. Gao, T.; Shih, C.; Rasnitsyn, A.P.; Ren, D.; Laudet, V. (2013). «Hoplitolyda duolunica gen. et sp. nov. (Insecta, Hymenoptera, Praesiricidae), the hitherto largest sawfly from the Mesozoic of China». PLoS ONE 8 (5): e62420. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...862420G. PMC 3643952. PMID 23671596. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062420.
  6. Benson, R.B. (1952). Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects: VI Hymenoptera 2 Symphyta Section (b). London: Royal Entomological Society of London. p. 51. OCLC 429798429. Archivado desde el original el 24 de septiembre de 2015.
  7. Ross, 1937, p. 11.
  8. Ross, 1937, p. 9.
  9. Ross, 1937, p. 21.
  10. Australian Museum (9 de julio de 2009). «Metamorphosis: a remarkable change». Consultado el 8 de diciembre de 2016.
  11. Goulet y Huber, 1993, p. 5.
  12. Jervis, M. Mouthpart evolution in adults of the basal, ‘symphytan’, hymenopteran lineages. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, Volume 70
  13. Looney, C.; Smith, D.R; Collman, S.J.; Langor, D.W.; Peterson, M.A. (2016). «Sawflies (Hymenoptera, Symphyta) newly recorded from Washington State». Journal of Hymenoptera Research 49: 129-159. doi:10.3897/JHR.49.7104.
  14. Capinera, 2008, pp. 3250–3252.
  15. Krokene, Paal (6 de diciembre de 2014). «The common pine sawfly – a troublesome relative». Science Nordic. Archivado desde el original el 29 de noviembre de 2016. Consultado el 28 de noviembre de 2016.
  16. «Iris sawfly». Royal Horticultural Society. Consultado el 28 de noviembre de 2016.
  17. «Large rose sawfly». Royal Horticultural Society. Consultado el 28 de noviembre de 2016.
  18. «Great Wood Wasps». UK Safari. Consultado el 28 de noviembre de 2016.
  19. «Giant Woodwasp». Massachusetts Introduced Pests Outreach Project. Consultado el 28 de noviembre de 2016.
  20. Capinera, 2008, p. 1828.
  • Arnett, R. H. Jr. (2000) Segunda edición. American insects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Londres,New York, Washington, D. C. ISBN 0-8493-0212-9
  • Borror, D. J., DeLong, D. M., Triplehorn, C. A.(1976) cuarta edición. An introduction to the study of insects. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York, Chicago. ISBN 0-03-088406-3

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Symphyta: Brief Summary ( espagnol ; castillan )

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Los sínfitos (Symphyta) son un suborden de himenópteros, probablemente parafilético,​ que incluye los miembros más primitivos del orden. Se conocen con el nombre común de moscas de sierra o moscas portasierra por la apariencia del ovipositor que recuerda a la hoja de una sierra. Las hembras usan el ovipositor para cortar las plantas donde pondrán sus huevos; algunas especies, no obstante, tienen ovipositores delgados para taladrar profundos agujeros en la madera.

Los sínfitos se diferencian del resto de los himenópteros (Apocrita) porque carecen de la "cintura de avispa" (conexión estrecha entre el abdomen y el tórax).

Los adultos, salvo aquellos de la familia Cephidae, tienen estructuras en la parte inferior del ala que ayudan al sostén de las mismas cuando el insecto está en reposo. Estas estructuras están ausentes en los miembros del suborden Apocrita, y se localizan detrás del escutelo en el tórax.

 src= Larva de Nematus ribesii, familia Tenthredinidae.
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Pidevkehalised ( estonien )

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Pidevkehalised

Lehevaablane

Taksonoomia Riik
Loomad Animalia Hõimkond
Lülijalgsed Arthropoda Klass
Putukad Insecta Selts
Kiletiivalised Hymenoptera Alamselts
Pidevkehalised Symphyta

Pidevkehalised (Symphyta) on alamselts kiletiivaliste seltsist, kuhu kuuluvad putukad, kelle rindmik on tagakehaga laialt ja jäigalt ühendatud.

Pidevkehaliste valmikud on üsna väheliikuvad ja ilma astlata, emastel on hästi arenenud muneti. Pidevkehaliste vastsed arenevad taimekudede sees või taimede peal. Paljudel liikidel ongi vastseteks ebaröövikud.

Männikutes võib võrdlemisi sageli kohata männivaablast, kelle vastsed arenevad männiokastel. Võrgendivaablaste ebaröövikud elavad koos ühises võrgendpesas, mille nad valmistavad oksi võrgendiniidiga kokku põimides. Suured puiduvaablased arenevad nii elavas kui surnud puidus. Oma tugeva munetiga saeb emane puitu kuni 2 sentimeetri sügavuse käigu, kuhu muneb munad.

Taksonoomia

Galerii

Vaata ka

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Pidevkehalised: Brief Summary ( estonien )

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Pidevkehalised (Symphyta) on alamselts kiletiivaliste seltsist, kuhu kuuluvad putukad, kelle rindmik on tagakehaga laialt ja jäigalt ühendatud.

Pidevkehaliste valmikud on üsna väheliikuvad ja ilma astlata, emastel on hästi arenenud muneti. Pidevkehaliste vastsed arenevad taimekudede sees või taimede peal. Paljudel liikidel ongi vastseteks ebaröövikud.

Männikutes võib võrdlemisi sageli kohata männivaablast, kelle vastsed arenevad männiokastel. Võrgendivaablaste ebaröövikud elavad koos ühises võrgendpesas, mille nad valmistavad oksi võrgendiniidiga kokku põimides. Suured puiduvaablased arenevad nii elavas kui surnud puidus. Oma tugeva munetiga saeb emane puitu kuni 2 sentimeetri sügavuse käigu, kuhu muneb munad.

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Sahapistiäiset ( finnois )

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Sahapistiäiset (Symphyta) on pistiäisten alalahko. Sahapistiäisiä on 14 heimoa ja noin 10 000 lajia, joista Suomessa elää noin 700.[3]. Suomessa eläviä lajeja ovat muun muassa kääpiösahiainen, loissahiainen ja useat havupistiäiset. Sahapistiäisten suomenkielistä nimistöä vasta valmistellaan.[4]

Nimi sahapistiäinen tulee sahareunaisesta munanasettimesta, joka useimmilla lajeilla on takaruumiinsa kärjessä. "Pistintä" eläin ei käytä hyökkäykseen tai puolustukseen, vaan siirtää sen avulla munansa kasvin solukkoon tai isäntäeläimeen.[4][3]

Useimmat lajit liikkuvat keväällä ja varhaiskesällä. Aikuiset ovat lyhytikäisiä. Joidenkin lajien aikuiset eivät syö lainkaan, toiset imevät mettä kukista ja jotkin syövät pieniä hyönteisiä. Naaraat munivat yleensä lehtiin, oksiin tai puunrunkoihin. Puussa elävien lajien aikuistuminen saattaa kestää vuosia, lehdellä elävien vain pari viikkoa. Eräät lajit ovat kovakuoriaisten toukkien sisäloisia. Jotkut pistiäiset voivat olla toisten sahapistiäislajien toukkien loisia, esimerkiksi mäntypistiäislamuri, mäntypistiäispiinuri ja ahmaspistäiset.[3][5]

Sahapistiäisten ruumiinrakenne on pysynyt nykyisen kaltaisena ainakin 225 miljoonaa vuotta ja eläimet ovat nykyisistä pistiäisistä alkeellisimpia. Sahapistiäisten keski- ja takaruumiin välissä ei ole selvää ampiaisvyötäröä, vaan ne ovat melko tasapaksuja koko pituudeltaan (vertaa sisartaksoni hoikkatyviset). Siipien suonitus on monimutkainen. Toukilla on jaokkeiset raajat keski- ja takaruumissa, paitsi kaivautuneina elävillä lajeilla, joilla raajat ovat lähes surkastuneet. Useimpien lajien toukat muistuttavat perhostoukkia, mutta niillä on vähintään kuusi paria käsnäjalkoja ja vain yksi pari pistesilmiä.[3]

Monet sahapistiäiset, varsinkin mäntypistiäiset, aiheuttavat vahinkoa talousmetsille. Ruskomäntypistiäisen toukat voivat syödä männyistä useimmat vanhat neulaset, jolloin puun kasvu kärsii, vaikka uusimmat neulaset yleensä jäävätkin jäljelle. Yksittäinen tuho voi aiheuttaa 3–4 vuoden kasvua vastaavan menetyksen.[4][6]

Lähteet

  • Fauna Europaea
  • Maailman eläimet – Selkärangattomat. Mikkola, Kauri (päätoim.). Tammi. Helsinki. 1989.
  • Metsiemme pistiäisiä. UPM Metsä. 2009.
  • Varama, Martti & Niemelä, Pekka. Männiköiden neulastuholaiset. Metsätieteen aikakauskirja 2/2001. PDF.

Viitteet

  1. Fauna Europaea: Symphyta (taksonomian lähde)
  2. Laji.fi: Sahapistiäiset (Symphyta) (suomenkielisten nimien lähde)
  3. a b c d Maailman eläimet: 122–123
  4. a b c Metsiemme pistiäisiä: 2–3
  5. Metsiemme pistiäisiä: 18
  6. Varama & Niemelä: 275–276 (PDF: 1–2)
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Sahapistiäiset: Brief Summary ( finnois )

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Sahapistiäiset (Symphyta) on pistiäisten alalahko. Sahapistiäisiä on 14 heimoa ja noin 10 000 lajia, joista Suomessa elää noin 700.. Suomessa eläviä lajeja ovat muun muassa kääpiösahiainen, loissahiainen ja useat havupistiäiset. Sahapistiäisten suomenkielistä nimistöä vasta valmistellaan.

Nimi sahapistiäinen tulee sahareunaisesta munanasettimesta, joka useimmilla lajeilla on takaruumiinsa kärjessä. "Pistintä" eläin ei käytä hyökkäykseen tai puolustukseen, vaan siirtää sen avulla munansa kasvin solukkoon tai isäntäeläimeen.

Useimmat lajit liikkuvat keväällä ja varhaiskesällä. Aikuiset ovat lyhytikäisiä. Joidenkin lajien aikuiset eivät syö lainkaan, toiset imevät mettä kukista ja jotkin syövät pieniä hyönteisiä. Naaraat munivat yleensä lehtiin, oksiin tai puunrunkoihin. Puussa elävien lajien aikuistuminen saattaa kestää vuosia, lehdellä elävien vain pari viikkoa. Eräät lajit ovat kovakuoriaisten toukkien sisäloisia. Jotkut pistiäiset voivat olla toisten sahapistiäislajien toukkien loisia, esimerkiksi mäntypistiäislamuri, mäntypistiäispiinuri ja ahmaspistäiset.

Sahapistiäisten ruumiinrakenne on pysynyt nykyisen kaltaisena ainakin 225 miljoonaa vuotta ja eläimet ovat nykyisistä pistiäisistä alkeellisimpia. Sahapistiäisten keski- ja takaruumiin välissä ei ole selvää ampiaisvyötäröä, vaan ne ovat melko tasapaksuja koko pituudeltaan (vertaa sisartaksoni hoikkatyviset). Siipien suonitus on monimutkainen. Toukilla on jaokkeiset raajat keski- ja takaruumissa, paitsi kaivautuneina elävillä lajeilla, joilla raajat ovat lähes surkastuneet. Useimpien lajien toukat muistuttavat perhostoukkia, mutta niillä on vähintään kuusi paria käsnäjalkoja ja vain yksi pari pistesilmiä.

Monet sahapistiäiset, varsinkin mäntypistiäiset, aiheuttavat vahinkoa talousmetsille. Ruskomäntypistiäisen toukat voivat syödä männyistä useimmat vanhat neulaset, jolloin puun kasvu kärsii, vaikka uusimmat neulaset yleensä jäävätkin jäljelle. Yksittäinen tuho voi aiheuttaa 3–4 vuoden kasvua vastaavan menetyksen.

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Symphyta

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Les Symphytes (Symphyta) ou mouches à scie forment un sous-ordre d'insectes, sous-classe des néoptères, super-ordre des mécoptéroïdés, de l'ordre des hyménoptères. En français les espèces portent des noms vernaculaires comme tenthrède, diprion, sirex

Ce taxon paraphylétique regroupait les hyménoptères ne présentant pas d'étranglement du thorax.

Description

Ces holométaboles sont caractérisés par :

  • un abdomen dans le prolongement du thorax, sans rétrécissement intermédiaire ;
  • une alimentation phytophage (à l'exception des Orussoidea qui sont des parasitoïdes) ; de ce fait, certains d'entre eux sont considérés comme des ravageurs ;
  • des larves, appelées « fausses-chenilles » en raison de leur forte ressemblance superficielle avec la chenille des papillons (présence de pattes et de fausses-pattes, mais ces dernières en plus grand nombre — au moins 6 paires — que pour les chenilles de papillons — au plus 5 paires) ;
  • des femelles possédant un ovipositeur en forme de scie qui leur permet d'insérer leurs œufs dans les tissus des plantes dont se nourrissent les larves ; c'est l'origine de l'appellation « mouches à scie » aussi employée pour dénommer les Symphytes.

Classification

Les Symphytes sont représentés en Europe par plus de 1 000 espèces regroupées en super-familles.

Selon ITIS (26 déc. 2017)[1], ils comprennent :

Phylogénie

Les Symphytes forment un groupe paraphylétique vis-à-vis des Apocrites.
Phylogénie des hyménoptères détaillant les super-familles de Symphytes, d'après Schulmeister (2003)[2] :

Hymenoptera

Xyeloidea




Tenthredinoidea




Pamphilioidea



Unicalcarida

Cephoidea




Siricoidea




Xiphydrioidea



Vespina

Orussoidea



Apocrita (térébrants, guêpes, fourmis et abeilles)











Notes et références

  1. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS), www.itis.gov, CC0 https://doi.org/10.5066/F7KH0KBK, consulté le 26 déc. 2017
  2. (en) Schulmeister, S., « Simultaneous analysis of basal Hymenoptera (Insecta), introducing robust-choice sensitivity analysis », Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol. 79, no 2,‎ 2003, p. 245–275 (DOI )

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Symphyta: Brief Summary

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Les Symphytes (Symphyta) ou mouches à scie forment un sous-ordre d'insectes, sous-classe des néoptères, super-ordre des mécoptéroïdés, de l'ordre des hyménoptères. En français les espèces portent des noms vernaculaires comme tenthrède, diprion, sirex

Ce taxon paraphylétique regroupait les hyménoptères ne présentant pas d'étranglement du thorax.

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Lalat gergaji ( indonésien )

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 src=
Lalat gergaji spesies Melaleuca.

Lalat gergaji adalah nama umum untuk serangga yang termasuk dalam subordo Symphyta dari ordo Hymenoptera. Lalat gergaji dibedakan dari Hymenoptera kebanyakan oleh hubungan yang luas antara perut dan dada, dan oleh larva ulat seperti mereka. Populasi besar spesies lalat gergaji tertentu dapat menyebabkan kerusakan ekonomi yang besar terhadap hutan dan tanaman budidaya.

Blue morpho butterfly.jpg Artikel bertopik biologi ini adalah sebuah rintisan. Anda dapat membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya.
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Sagvespur ( islandais )

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Sagvespur (fræðiheiti: Symphyta)eru annar af tveimur undirættbálkum æðvængna. Þær eru breiðari um mittið en broddvespur. Flestar sagvespur eru jurtaætur. Varppípa sagvespna hefur ummyndast í eins konar sagarblað en með því getur vespan gert raufir í plöntustöngla og verpt þar.

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Symphyta ( italien )

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I Symphyta sono uno dei due sottordini degli Hymenoptera (Insecta).

Descrizione

Sono imenotteri di dimensioni medie, raramente piccole o grandi. L'apparato boccale è di tipo masticatore, ali con venulazione di tipo normale, torace che si continua direttamente con l'addome, senza strozzatura. Femmine con ovopositore a valve generalmente larghe; quelle del primo paio di solito denticolate (da qui il nome popolare di "imenotteri dalla sega"); quelle del secondo paio di solito carenate.
Larve polipode, di rado apode, ma a volte profondamente modificate in funzione di particolari regimi di vita, fitofaghe o, molto di rado, zoofaghe.

Biologia

Non poche di esse hanno abitudini e tendenze gregarie. In generale, per compiere la loro metamorfosi si tessono un bozzolo. Gli adulti sono in grande maggioranza diurni e si nutrono di nettare, ma, in qualche raro caso, si nutrono di prede vive, in particolare stadi larvali di ditteri e di altri imenotteri.
La loro esistenza è di solito breve; dopo l'accoppiamento le femmine si recano sulle piante, scavano un'apertura col loro ovopositore e vi depongono in media 100 uova, ma talvolta, come nei Siricidi, anche 1000. Il volume di queste uova, in molti casi, può notevolmente aumentare per l'assorbimento di liquidi dall'ambiente esterno.
Nei Sinfiti è abbastanza comune la partenogenesi o arrenotoca o telitoca.

Tassonomia

Il sottordine comprende 9 superfamiglie e 21 famiglie:[1]

Note

  1. ^ Alexandre P. Aguiar, Andrew R. Deans, Michael S. Engel, Mattias Forshage, John T. Huber, John T. Jennings, Norman F. Johnson, Arkady S. Lelej, John T. Longino, Volker Lohrmann, István Mikó, Michael Ohl, Claus Rasmussen, Andreas Taeger e Dicky Sick Ki Yu, Order Hymenoptera, in Zootaxa, n. 1, 30 August 2013 volume=3703, pp. 51–62, DOI:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.12., in Zhang, Z.-Q. (ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)

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Symphyta: Brief Summary ( italien )

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I Symphyta sono uno dei due sottordini degli Hymenoptera (Insecta).

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Lalat gergaji ( malais )

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Lalat gergaji (bahasa Inggeris: Sawfly) ialah nama biasa untuk serangga yang tergolong dalam suborder Symphyta dalam order Hymenoptera. Lalat gergaji dapat dibezakan daripada hampir semua Hymenoptera oleh sambungan lebar di antara abdomen dan toraks, dan oleh larvanya seperti ulat bulu. Nama biasanya berasal daripada ovipositornya yang seperti gergaji, yang betina gunakan untuk memotong ke dalam tumbuhan di mana ia bertelur. Populasi besar spesies lalat gergaji tertentu dapat menyebabkan kemusnahan ekonomi yang cukup besar pada hutan dan tanaman.

Pautan luar

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Lalat gergaji: Brief Summary ( malais )

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Lalat gergaji (bahasa Inggeris: Sawfly) ialah nama biasa untuk serangga yang tergolong dalam suborder Symphyta dalam order Hymenoptera. Lalat gergaji dapat dibezakan daripada hampir semua Hymenoptera oleh sambungan lebar di antara abdomen dan toraks, dan oleh larvanya seperti ulat bulu. Nama biasanya berasal daripada ovipositornya yang seperti gergaji, yang betina gunakan untuk memotong ke dalam tumbuhan di mana ia bertelur. Populasi besar spesies lalat gergaji tertentu dapat menyebabkan kemusnahan ekonomi yang cukup besar pada hutan dan tanaman.

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Bladwespen ( néerlandais ; flamand )

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De bladwespen of zaagwespen (Symphyta) zijn een onderorde van de vliesvleugeligen, met zo'n 6000 soorten. De meeste soorten komen voor in de gematigde streken. In Midden-Europa komen ongeveer 800 soorten voor.

Bladwespen onderscheiden zich van andere vliesvleugeligen door de brede verbinding van het achterlijf met het borststuk (geen wespentaille) en door hun op rupsen gelijkende larven. Soms wordt ook de naam "zaagwespen" gebruikt; die verwijst naar de op een zaag lijkende ovipositor, waarmee de vrouwtjes planten binnendringen voor het leggen van hun eitjes. Grote populaties van bepaalde bladwespsoorten kunnen grote economische schade toebrengen aan bossen en cultuurplanten.

Taxonomie

 src=
Eileggende zaagwesp

Bladwespen zijn een groep van hoofdzakelijk fytofage insecten. Deze groep van superfamilies wordt beschouwd als de meest primitieve binnen de Hymenoptera (sommige gaan terug tot 200 miljoen jaar). Veel deskundigen menen dat de Orussoidea, de enige Symphyta-groep die parasitair is, een zustertaxon van de Apocrita zijn, en dat de Symphyta dus een paraphyletische groep vormen, omdat dan strikt genomen ook de Apocrita erbinnen moeten worden geplaatst, maar de naam wordt nog algemeen gebruikt en behandeld als onderorde.

Onderverdeling

 src=
Bladwesp
Superfamilie Cephoidea
Superfamilie Megalodontoidea
Superfamilie Orussoidea
Superfamilie Siricoidea
Superfamilie Tenthredinoidea
Superfamilie Xyeloidea

Larve

De larve van de zaagwesp is een bastaardrups die lijkt op een rups met echter twee duidelijke verschillen:

  • de larve heeft zes of meer paar propoten op het achterlijf (een rups maximaal vijf) en
  • er zijn twee enkelvoudige ogen in plaats van zes zoals bij de rups.

De larven van de verschillende soorten voeden zich met uiteenlopende planten. Individuele soorten voeden zich echter alleen met specifieke plantensoorten. Larven van verschillende soorten zaagwespen mineren, veroorzaken het oprollen van het blad of gallen. Drie families zijn zuiver xylofaag en worden "houtwespen" genoemd. Eén familie is parasitair. Larven die niet op maar in het plantenweefsel zitten lijken op maden en hebben geen propoten.

Volwassen insect

Volwassen zaagwespen met uitzondering van de familie Cephidae hebben een haakachtige structuur tegen de onderkant van de vleugels ter ondersteuning van de vleugels tijdens de rustperioden van het insect. Deze "cenchri", die ontbreken bij de onderorde Apocrita zitten achter het schildje op het borststuk. Volwassen zaagwespen van sommige soorten zijn vleesetend en eten andere insecten maar ook voeden ze zich met nectar.

Externe links

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Bladwespen: Brief Summary ( néerlandais ; flamand )

fourni par wikipedia NL

De bladwespen of zaagwespen (Symphyta) zijn een onderorde van de vliesvleugeligen, met zo'n 6000 soorten. De meeste soorten komen voor in de gematigde streken. In Midden-Europa komen ongeveer 800 soorten voor.

Bladwespen onderscheiden zich van andere vliesvleugeligen door de brede verbinding van het achterlijf met het borststuk (geen wespentaille) en door hun op rupsen gelijkende larven. Soms wordt ook de naam "zaagwespen" gebruikt; die verwijst naar de op een zaag lijkende ovipositor, waarmee de vrouwtjes planten binnendringen voor het leggen van hun eitjes. Grote populaties van bepaalde bladwespsoorten kunnen grote economische schade toebrengen aan bossen en cultuurplanten.

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Plantekvefsar ( norvégien )

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Plantekvefsar (Symphyta) er ein underorden i ordenen kvefsar der dei fleste artane et plantar. Artane vert rekna som primitive. Det er kjent kring 8 000 artar globalt, fordelte på 14 levande familiar. Plantekvefsar er oppdaga på alle kontinenta utanom Antarktis, og det er òg nokre øyar der dei ikkje er kjende.

Bladkvefsane er den største gruppa plantekvefsar. Familien Orrusidae (ikkje kjend frå Noreg) er den einaste som snyltar på andre insekt.

I Noreg er det rekna med at det finst opp mot 700 artar plantekvefs, og 10 familiar er kjende herifrå.

Kjelder

  • CC-BY-icon-80x15.png Denne artikkelen nyttar som kjelde og kan innehalda tekst og formuleringar frå artikkelen Plantevepser - Symphyta skriven av Ole Jørgen Lønnve, Erik Heibo og Andreas Taeger. Artikkelen vart utgjeven av BioFokus, Sweco og Senckenberg Deutsches Entomologisches Institut Müncheberg under lisensen CC BY 4.0. Henta 24. juli 2016.
    Spire Denne dyreartikkelen er ei spire. Du kan hjelpe Nynorsk Wikipedia gjennom å utvide han.
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Plantekvefsar: Brief Summary ( norvégien )

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Plantekvefsar (Symphyta) er ein underorden i ordenen kvefsar der dei fleste artane et plantar. Artane vert rekna som primitive. Det er kjent kring 8 000 artar globalt, fordelte på 14 levande familiar. Plantekvefsar er oppdaga på alle kontinenta utanom Antarktis, og det er òg nokre øyar der dei ikkje er kjende.

Bladkvefsane er den største gruppa plantekvefsar. Familien Orrusidae (ikkje kjend frå Noreg) er den einaste som snyltar på andre insekt.

I Noreg er det rekna med at det finst opp mot 700 artar plantekvefs, og 10 familiar er kjende herifrå.

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Plantevepser ( norvégien )

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 src=
Plantevepser mangler «midjen» og har en jevn tykk kropp.
Foto: André Karwath
 src=
En av artene i slekten Melaleuca (Pergidae), har snittet opp randen på et blad. Med det knivformede eggleggningsrøret legger hun noen egg inne i bladet. Her er eggene beskyttet mot rovdyr.
Foto: Ellmist
 src=
Larve av bladveps.
Foto: © Entomart
 src=
Masseutbrudd forkommer hos enkelte arter, og disse kan være alvorlige skadedyr.
Foto: Lilly M.

Plantevepser («Symphyta» eller «Chalastogastra») er en samlebetegnelse for alle årevinger som ikke er stilkvepser. Gruppen utgjør en parafyletisk gruppe siden den også er opphav til stilkvepsene. Det er nær 800 norske arter fordelt i 8 familier.

Det norske navnet henspiller på at de fleste arter av plantevepser lever av planter. Noen arter er alvorlige skadedyr i skog- og landbruket. Blant annet arter fra gruppene (familiene) bartrevepser, bladvepser og barvepser.

Utseende

Plantevepser har i motsetning til stilkveps en jevnt bred bakkropp, uten noen tydelig innsnevring eller «midje».

Hunnene har ikke stikkebrodd, men eggleggingsrør, og kan derfor ikke stikke, i motsetning til noen av broddvepsene. Eggleggingsrøret brukes til eggleggning er hos plantevepsene vanligvis utformet som en sag (knivformet) , bestående av fire sagblader. Med dette kutter hunnen et lite snitt i planten. I dette snittet eller lommen plasseres egget. Her er det beskyttet mot rovdyr.

Larvene ligner de hos sommerfuglene. De har i likhet med sommerfugllarver seks korte ben, men i tillegg mer enn fem par vorteføtter, men antallet ben varierer mellom de forskjellige gruppene. Sommerfugl-larver har ikke mer enn fire par vorteføtter.

Systematisk inndeling

Slektskapsforholdene mellom plantevepsenes delgrupper er avklart i ulik grad. Derfor finnes det flere måter å systematisk dele de inn i ulike grupper.

I nyere systematikk er plantevepser (Symphyta) en parafyletisk gruppe fordi noen plantevepser er nærmere beslektet med stilkvepser enn andre plantevepser. Xyelidae er f.eks. søstergruppen til alle andre årevinger, mens Orussidae er søstergruppen til stilkvepsene.

Et latinsk familienavn ender med ...idae, og et navn på en overfamilie på ...oidea.

Tradisjonell systematikk

Treliste

Hierarkisk skrivemåte

Denne oversikten er skrevet i hierarkisk skrivemåte. Du kan lese mer om dette her : System (biologi) og Gruppe (biologi).

Kilder

Eksterne lenker

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Plantevepser: Brief Summary ( norvégien )

fourni par wikipedia NO
 src= Plantevepser mangler «midjen» og har en jevn tykk kropp. Foto: André Karwath  src= En av artene i slekten Melaleuca (Pergidae), har snittet opp randen på et blad. Med det knivformede eggleggningsrøret legger hun noen egg inne i bladet. Her er eggene beskyttet mot rovdyr. Foto: Ellmist  src= Larve av bladveps. Foto: © Entomart  src= Masseutbrudd forkommer hos enkelte arter, og disse kan være alvorlige skadedyr. Foto: Lilly M.

Plantevepser («Symphyta» eller «Chalastogastra») er en samlebetegnelse for alle årevinger som ikke er stilkvepser. Gruppen utgjør en parafyletisk gruppe siden den også er opphav til stilkvepsene. Det er nær 800 norske arter fordelt i 8 familier.

Det norske navnet henspiller på at de fleste arter av plantevepser lever av planter. Noen arter er alvorlige skadedyr i skog- og landbruket. Blant annet arter fra gruppene (familiene) bartrevepser, bladvepser og barvepser.

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Rośliniarki ( polonais )

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Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons

Rośliniarki (Symphyta) – podrząd owadów z rzędu błonkoskrzydłych.

Na świecie stwierdzono ponad 8600 gatunków zaliczanych do rośliniarek, zgrupowanych w ponad 800 rodzajów[1].

Opis

Owady dorosłe wyróżniają się od innych błonkówek odwłokiem połączonym sztywno i szeroko (bez przewężenia) z tułowiem, piłkowanym pokładełkiem samic oraz bardziej kompletnym użyłkowaniem skrzydeł[2].

Larwy rośliniarek przypominają gąsienice motyli, różniąc się jednak od nich m.in.: wyraźnie członowanymi obiema parami głaszczków, tylko jedną parą przyoczek bocznych oraz obecnością co najmniej 6 par posuwek na odwłoku (u form minujących posuwki mogą jednak nie występować)[2].

Biologia i ekologia

Larwy większości gatunków są fitofagmi, często żerującymi na liściach. W lasach półkuli północnej są drugą najliczniejszą grupą foliofagów po motylach. Jedyną rodziną, w której larwy są parazytoidami są wnikowate[2].

Samice wykonują nacięcia piłkowanym pokładełkiem w tkance roślin żywicielskich i do nich składają jaja. Z niezapłodnionych jaj wylęgają się samce, a z zapłodnionych samice. W większości przypadków larwy samców przechodzą 5, a larwy samic 6 stadiów rozwojowych. W pełni wyrośnięta larwa zwykle zakopują się w glebie lub ściółce, gdzie przechodzą stadium przedpoczwarki i poczwarki[2].

Systematyka

Podrząd rośliniarek dzielony jest na nadrodziny i rodziny[1]:
obeliskiem () oznaczono rodziny wymarłe

Przypisy

  1. a b Stephan M. Blank, Eckhard K. Groll, Andrew D. Liston, Andreas Taeger: ECatSym: Electronic World Catalog of Symphyta (ang.). [dostęp 2014-11-04].
  2. a b c d Christopher Asaro: Sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta). W: Encyclopedia of Entomology. John L. Capinera (red.). Wyd. 2. Springer, 2008, s. 3250-3252. ISBN 978-1-4020-6242-1.
  3. a b Wiesław Piotrowski, Henryk Szołtys. Rośliniarki (Hymenoptera: Syrnphyta) w zbiorach Muzeum Górnośląskiego w Bytomiu. Część 1: rodziny Xyeloidae, Pamphiliidae, Megalontesidae, Xiphydriidae, Siricidae, Cephidae, Orussidae. „Acta entomologica sitesia”. 14-15, s. 45-54, 2007. ISSN 1230-7777 (pol.).
  4. a b WIESŁAW PIOTROWSKI, ROBERT ROZWAŁKA, DANUTA SOŁTYK. [http://pte.au.poznan.pl/we/2006/16.pdf Dane o występowaniu przedstawicieli rodzin okrzeszowatych Xyelidae, niesnujowatych Pamphiliidae i szarżnikowatych Megalodontesidae (Hymenoptera: Symphyta) w Polsce]. „Wiadomości Entomologiczne”. 25 (2), s. 89-96, 2006. Poznań. ISSN 0138-0737.
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Rośliniarki: Brief Summary ( polonais )

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Rośliniarki (Symphyta) – podrząd owadów z rzędu błonkoskrzydłych.

Na świecie stwierdzono ponad 8600 gatunków zaliczanych do rośliniarek, zgrupowanych w ponad 800 rodzajów.

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Symphyta ( portugais )

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Symphyta é uma subordem de insectos himenópteros, provavelmente parafilético,[1] que incluem os membros mais primitivos da ordem (alguns com 200 milhões de anos). Os membros da subordem são distintos de outros himenópteros pela conexão entre o tórax e o abdómen, que carece do estreitamento comum em vespas, e pelas larvas semelhantes a lagartas de outros artrópodes.

Podem ser referidos pelo nome comum de moscas-serra, devido à aparência do ovopositor, utilizado pelas fêmeas para perfurar as plantas para depositar os ovos. Algumas populações de várias espécies podem causar danos económicos substanciais em florestas e plantas de cultivo. Outras espécies possuem porém ovopositores afilados para perfurar a madeira.

Os adultos, os da família Cephidae, possuem estruturas na parte inferior da asa que ajudam à sustentação das mesmas quando o insecto está em repouso. Estas estruturas estão ausentes nos membros da subordem Apocrita, que se localizam atrás do escutelo, no tórax.

Um dos táxons dentro dos Symphyta terá dado origem à subordem Apocrita (vespas, abelhas e formigas, provavelmente da família Orussidae, o único grupo da subordem que tem membros parasitas.

 src=
Larva de Nematus ribesii, família Tenthredinidae.

Ciclo vital

As larvas são semelhantes às lagartas de lepidópteros. Diferem delas por possuírem seis pares de pernas em vez de cinco ou menos. As pernas falsas carecem de garras. As larvas de algumas famílias, como por exemplo Orussidae, alimentam-se no interior das plantas e carecem de pernas ou têm-nas muito reduzidas. Outra diferença é que possuem um só par de olhos simples ou ocelos, enquanto que as lagartas possuem mais. São herbívoros, desenvolveram-se numa ampla variedade de plantas, sendo bastante específicas no tipo de planta utilizada como alimento. No geral, alimentam-se no exterior das plantas, com a excepção mencionada.

As larvas de várias espécies exibem o comportamento de minar folhas, de as enrolar, ou de formar galhas. Três famílias são estritamente xilófagas e uma família é parasita.

Geralmente têm uma única geração por ano. Passam o inverno em forma de larva madura ou de pupa envolta num casulo ou em algum lugar refugiado; os que se alimentam externamente comedores externos no solo e os internos no interior da planta. Algumas espécies, especialmente as de maior tamanho, necessitam mais de um ano para completar seu ciclo vital. Os adultos são predadores, sobretudo de outros insectos, mas outros também se alimentam de néctar.

Superfamílias e famílias

Segundo o ITIS, possui as seguintes superfamílias e famílias:[2]

Referências

  1. Tree of Life, Hymenoptera
  2. Symphyta - consultado a 5 de Janeiro de 2014, da base de dados online Integrated Taxonomic Information

Bibliografia

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Symphyta: Brief Summary ( portugais )

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Symphyta é uma subordem de insectos himenópteros, provavelmente parafilético, que incluem os membros mais primitivos da ordem (alguns com 200 milhões de anos). Os membros da subordem são distintos de outros himenópteros pela conexão entre o tórax e o abdómen, que carece do estreitamento comum em vespas, e pelas larvas semelhantes a lagartas de outros artrópodes.

Podem ser referidos pelo nome comum de moscas-serra, devido à aparência do ovopositor, utilizado pelas fêmeas para perfurar as plantas para depositar os ovos. Algumas populações de várias espécies podem causar danos económicos substanciais em florestas e plantas de cultivo. Outras espécies possuem porém ovopositores afilados para perfurar a madeira.

Os adultos, os da família Cephidae, possuem estruturas na parte inferior da asa que ajudam à sustentação das mesmas quando o insecto está em repouso. Estas estruturas estão ausentes nos membros da subordem Apocrita, que se localizam atrás do escutelo, no tórax.

Um dos táxons dentro dos Symphyta terá dado origem à subordem Apocrita (vespas, abelhas e formigas, provavelmente da família Orussidae, o único grupo da subordem que tem membros parasitas.

 src= Larva de Nematus ribesii, família Tenthredinidae.
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Simfite ( roumain ; moldave )

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Simfitele (Symphyta) numite popular muște cu ferăstrău sau viespi ferăstrău, viespi de plante, este un subordin de insecte himenoptere la care abdomenul se prinde cu o bază largă de torace. Simfitele cuprind un număr relativ mic de specii în comparație cu apocritele, aici fiind incluse circa 8000 de specii de himenoptere grupate in 14 familii actuale. Se recunosc prin abdomenul lor cilindric sau turtit dorsoventral, uneori lateral, care se prinde de torace printr-o suprafață lată (fără gâtuitură). Abdomenul nu este mobil față de torace; propodeumul lipsește. La aripa anterioară este prezentă nervura subanală; aripile sunt totdeauna prezente. Femelele au un ovopozitor cu dinți ca la ferăstrău, de unde și numele de "muște cu ferăstrău". Cu ajutorul acestui ovipozitor, denumit terebră, femela taie frunzele sau sfredelește lemnul, depunând acolo ouăle. Larvele sunt de tip eruciform (asemănătoare cu omizile), se deosebesc însă de larvele de lepidoptere, în primul rând prin faptul că au mai mult de cinci perechi de pedespurii (picioare false) abdominale, iar pe de altă parte au pe fiecare parte a capului numai câte un singur ocel, în timp ce omizile lepidopterelor au de fiecare parte a capului câte un grup de oceli. Adulții nu se hrănesc, sau se hrănesc foarte puțin cu sucuri, uneori chiar carnivor, cu insecte. Larvele sunt fitofage sau xilofage, atacând frunzele, mugurii sau tulpinile plantelor. Cele care mănâncă lemn, trăiesc în simbioză cu ciupercile, pe care femela le însămînțează acolo o dată cu depunerea ouălor. Multe dintre ele sunt foarte dăunătoare.[1][2][3]

Printre speciile mai importante se numără:

  • Urocerus gigas (= Sirex gigas) - "viespea mare de lemn" sau "viespea lemnului de rășinoase", de 3-4 cm lungime, remarcabilă prin mărimea sa, prin coloritul său de viespe și prelungirea posterioară a abdomenului, ca un țep gros. Își depune ouăle în trunchiuri de molid bolnave sau căzute.
  • Diprion pini (= Lophyrus pini) - "viespea ferăstrău a acelor de pin", de 6-7 mm lungime, cu masculii remarcabili prin antenele foarte pectinate și prin culoarea lor neagră. Atacă frunzele de pin.
  • Cephus pygmaeus - "viespea grâului" sau "viespea paiului", de culoare neagră, de 10-12 mm lungime, atacă tulpinile de grâu, orz etc., iar Cephus compressus, strică mugurii la peri.
  • Hoplocampa testudinea - "viespea merelor", de 6-7 mm lungime, colorată în galben și negru, atacă fructele tinere de măr, care astfel cad pe jos în mare număr.

Note

  1. ^ Mihail A. Ionescu, Matilda Lăcătușu. Entomologie. Editura Didactică și Pedagogică, București, 1971
  2. ^ Radu V. Gh. Zoologia nevertebratelor. Vol. II. Editura didactică și pedagogică. București 1972
  3. ^ Marius Skolka. Taxonomie animală. Nevertebrate. Constanța 2011
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Simfite: Brief Summary ( roumain ; moldave )

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Simfitele (Symphyta) numite popular muște cu ferăstrău sau viespi ferăstrău, viespi de plante, este un subordin de insecte himenoptere la care abdomenul se prinde cu o bază largă de torace. Simfitele cuprind un număr relativ mic de specii în comparație cu apocritele, aici fiind incluse circa 8000 de specii de himenoptere grupate in 14 familii actuale. Se recunosc prin abdomenul lor cilindric sau turtit dorsoventral, uneori lateral, care se prinde de torace printr-o suprafață lată (fără gâtuitură). Abdomenul nu este mobil față de torace; propodeumul lipsește. La aripa anterioară este prezentă nervura subanală; aripile sunt totdeauna prezente. Femelele au un ovopozitor cu dinți ca la ferăstrău, de unde și numele de "muște cu ferăstrău". Cu ajutorul acestui ovipozitor, denumit terebră, femela taie frunzele sau sfredelește lemnul, depunând acolo ouăle. Larvele sunt de tip eruciform (asemănătoare cu omizile), se deosebesc însă de larvele de lepidoptere, în primul rând prin faptul că au mai mult de cinci perechi de pedespurii (picioare false) abdominale, iar pe de altă parte au pe fiecare parte a capului numai câte un singur ocel, în timp ce omizile lepidopterelor au de fiecare parte a capului câte un grup de oceli. Adulții nu se hrănesc, sau se hrănesc foarte puțin cu sucuri, uneori chiar carnivor, cu insecte. Larvele sunt fitofage sau xilofage, atacând frunzele, mugurii sau tulpinile plantelor. Cele care mănâncă lemn, trăiesc în simbioză cu ciupercile, pe care femela le însămînțează acolo o dată cu depunerea ouălor. Multe dintre ele sunt foarte dăunătoare.

Printre speciile mai importante se numără:

Urocerus gigas (= Sirex gigas) - "viespea mare de lemn" sau "viespea lemnului de rășinoase", de 3-4 cm lungime, remarcabilă prin mărimea sa, prin coloritul său de viespe și prelungirea posterioară a abdomenului, ca un țep gros. Își depune ouăle în trunchiuri de molid bolnave sau căzute. Diprion pini (= Lophyrus pini) - "viespea ferăstrău a acelor de pin", de 6-7 mm lungime, cu masculii remarcabili prin antenele foarte pectinate și prin culoarea lor neagră. Atacă frunzele de pin. Cephus pygmaeus - "viespea grâului" sau "viespea paiului", de culoare neagră, de 10-12 mm lungime, atacă tulpinile de grâu, orz etc., iar Cephus compressus, strică mugurii la peri. Hoplocampa testudinea - "viespea merelor", de 6-7 mm lungime, colorată în galben și negru, atacă fructele tinere de măr, care astfel cad pe jos în mare număr.
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Växtsteklar ( suédois )

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Växtsteklar (Symphyta) är den ena underordningen av insektsordningen steklar och omfattar cirka 10 000[1] arter. Det vetenskapliga namnet Symphyta kommer från latin och betyder "sammanvuxen", vilket åsyftar frånvaron av den tydliga avsmalningen (getingmidjan) i övergången mellan bak- och mellankroppen som kännetecknar den andra underordningen inom ordningen steklar, midjesteklarna. Växtsteklar förekommer huvudsaklig i områden med tempererat klimat. Tropikerna är betydligt fattigare på arter av denna grupp. I Sverige finns 661 bofasta arter.[2]

De har brett huvud och vanligen en bred bakkropp. Honan har ofta ett långt äggläggningsrör med vars hjälp hon lägger sina ägg i sådan levande växtvävnad (löv, barr, bladskaft, skott, ved med mera) som sedan kommer att utgöra föda åt larverna.[3] Oftast lägger honan bara ett ägg för varje ”inborrning” i värdväxten.[3] Det första bakkroppssegmentet är hos vuxna individer bra utvecklat och lika brett och tjockt som de övriga segmenten, vilket gör växtsteklarna mindre rörliga i bakkroppen än andra steklar.

Som larver lever de flesta växtsteklar av löv eller barr, men i Sverige finns det även en del, nämligen vedsteklar och halssteklar, som lever av död ved och utnyttjar rötsvampar som symbionter.

Flera arter är betydande skadedjur på växter. Honornas äggläggningsapparat är sågtandad och den största familjen, Tenthredinidae, i denna underordning kallas därför även för sågsteklar.

Familjer

Referenser

Small Sketch of Owl.pngDen här artikeln är helt eller delvis baserad på material från Nordisk familjebok, 1904–1926.

Noter

  1. ^ ”Symphyta”. Royal Entomological Society. https://www.royensoc.co.uk/publications/handbooks/symphyta-except-tenthredinidae-hymenoptera. Läst 4 oktober 2017.
  2. ^ Symphyta - växtsteklar i Dyntaxa
  3. ^ [a b] Åke Sandhall, Karl-Johan Hedqvist (1977) Humlor, bin och andra steklar : Naturguide med 147 foton i färg. ICA bokförlag. ISBN 91-534-0420-3.

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Växtsteklar: Brief Summary ( suédois )

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Växtsteklar (Symphyta) är den ena underordningen av insektsordningen steklar och omfattar cirka 10 000 arter. Det vetenskapliga namnet Symphyta kommer från latin och betyder "sammanvuxen", vilket åsyftar frånvaron av den tydliga avsmalningen (getingmidjan) i övergången mellan bak- och mellankroppen som kännetecknar den andra underordningen inom ordningen steklar, midjesteklarna. Växtsteklar förekommer huvudsaklig i områden med tempererat klimat. Tropikerna är betydligt fattigare på arter av denna grupp. I Sverige finns 661 bofasta arter.

De har brett huvud och vanligen en bred bakkropp. Honan har ofta ett långt äggläggningsrör med vars hjälp hon lägger sina ägg i sådan levande växtvävnad (löv, barr, bladskaft, skott, ved med mera) som sedan kommer att utgöra föda åt larverna. Oftast lägger honan bara ett ägg för varje ”inborrning” i värdväxten. Det första bakkroppssegmentet är hos vuxna individer bra utvecklat och lika brett och tjockt som de övriga segmenten, vilket gör växtsteklarna mindre rörliga i bakkroppen än andra steklar.

Som larver lever de flesta växtsteklar av löv eller barr, men i Sverige finns det även en del, nämligen vedsteklar och halssteklar, som lever av död ved och utnyttjar rötsvampar som symbionter.

Flera arter är betydande skadedjur på växter. Honornas äggläggningsapparat är sågtandad och den största familjen, Tenthredinidae, i denna underordning kallas därför även för sågsteklar.

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Сидячечеревні ( ukrainien )

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Опис

Крила з повним жилкуванням (у передньому крилі зазвичай не менше 9-11 осередків і 2 анальних жилки). Основними відмінностями групи від інших перетинчастокрилих є наявність широкої перемички між грудьми і черевцем комахи, а також форма личинок, схожих на гусінь. латинська назва групи пов'язана з формою яйцекладу комахи, що нагадує полотно пили. Деякі види мають довгий тонкий яйцеклад, використовуваний для проникнення глибоко в деревину.

Значення

Травоїдні, багато видів є шкідниками сільськогосподарських і лісових культур. Наприклад, ріпаковий пильщик (Athalia rosae L. =A. colibri Christ), хлібні пильщики (Cephus pygmaeus L. і Trachelus tabidus F.), соснові і інші.

Поширення

 src=
Пилильщик Macrophya montana

Поширені всюди. Найбагатше представлені пильщики в помірних і північних широтах Голарктики, де по біомасі вони порівнянні, а на півночі значно перевершують Lepidoptera. Наприклад, у фауні Фінляндії, налічується понад 700 видів (Viitasaari, Vikberg, 1985).

Класифікація

Близько 800 родів і більше 8300 видів в 14 сучасних і декількох викопних родинах. Вимерлі родини †Sinoryssidae (1 вид) і †Xyelydidae,Rasnitsyn, 1968 мають незрозуміле систематичне положення. Іноді Xyelidae включають в надродину Pamphilioidea, а до надродини Siricoidea відносять Orussidae.[1]. Філогенетичний аналіз морфологічних і молекулярних ознак надродин перетинчастокрилих показав (Sharkey et al., 2012), що Xyeloidea монофілетичні, Cephoidea сестринська група по кладі Siricoidea +[Xiphydrioidea + (Orussoidea + Apocrita)]; Anaxyelidae відносяться до Siricoidea, і разом вони сестринська група по кладі Xiphydrioidea + (Orussoidea + Apocrita); Orussoidea сестринська група до Apocrita [2].

 src=
Гусениці Craesus septentrionalis

Примітки

  1. Taeger, A.; Blank, S. M.; Liston, A. D. World Catalog of Symphyta (Hymenoptera). // Zootaxa. — 2010. — Т. 2580. — С. 1-1064.
  2. Sharkey, M. J., Carpenter, J. M., Vilhelmsen, L., Heraty, J., Liljeblad, J., Dowling, A.P., Schulmeister, S., Murray, D., Deans, A.R., Ronquist, F., Krogmann, L. & Wheeler, W.C. (2012). Phylogenetic relationships among superfamilies of Hymenoptera. — Cladistics, Volume 28, Issue 1, pages 80-112, (February 2012) DOI 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00366.x.

Джерела

Посилання

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Phân bộ Ong cắn lá ( vietnamien )

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Bài này viết về phân bộ côn trùng. Đối với bài về chi bướm đêm cùng danh pháp khoa học, xem Symphyta.

Phân bộ Ong cắn lá, tên khoa học Symphyta, là một phân bộ côn trùng trong bộ cánh màng. Symphyta được phân biệt với hầu hết các loài cánh màng khác bởi eo (bộ phận giữa ngực và bụng) lớn, và ấu trùng có hình dạng giống như sâu bướm của chúng. Tên tiếng Anh Sawfly bắt nguồn từ việc cơ quan đẻ trứng của con cái có hình dạng giống như cái lưỡi cưa, dùng để cắt thân cành cây và đẻ trứng vào trong vết cắt đó.

Phân loại

Họ Cephidae

Họ Megalodontesidae
Họ Pamphiliidae
Họ Orussidae
Họ Anaxyelidae
Họ Siricidae
Họ Argidae
Họ Blasticotomidae
Họ Cimbicidae
Họ Diprionidae
Họ Pergidae
Họ Tenthredinidae
Họ Xyelidae
Họ Xiphydriidae

Chú thích

Tham khảo

 src= Wikispecies có thông tin sinh học về Phân bộ Ong cắn lá
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Phân bộ Ong cắn lá: Brief Summary ( vietnamien )

fourni par wikipedia VI
Bài này viết về phân bộ côn trùng. Đối với bài về chi bướm đêm cùng danh pháp khoa học, xem Symphyta.

Phân bộ Ong cắn lá, tên khoa học Symphyta, là một phân bộ côn trùng trong bộ cánh màng. Symphyta được phân biệt với hầu hết các loài cánh màng khác bởi eo (bộ phận giữa ngực và bụng) lớn, và ấu trùng có hình dạng giống như sâu bướm của chúng. Tên tiếng Anh Sawfly bắt nguồn từ việc cơ quan đẻ trứng của con cái có hình dạng giống như cái lưỡi cưa, dùng để cắt thân cành cây và đẻ trứng vào trong vết cắt đó.

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Symphyta ( vietnamien )

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Bài này viết về chi bướm đêm. Đối với bài về phân bộ côn trùng có cùng danh pháp khoa học, xem Phân bộ Ong cắn lá.

Symphyta là một chi nhậy trong họ Lasiocampidae.[1][2]

Hình ảnh

Chú thích

  1. ^ Symphyta - Nomen.at - animals and plants
  2. ^ [1][Tham khảo


    Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết về Bộ Cánh vẩy này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Symphyta: Brief Summary ( vietnamien )

fourni par wikipedia VI
Bài này viết về chi bướm đêm. Đối với bài về phân bộ côn trùng có cùng danh pháp khoa học, xem Phân bộ Ong cắn lá.

Symphyta là một chi nhậy trong họ Lasiocampidae.

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Сидячебрюхие ( russe )

fourni par wikipedia русскую Википедию
Царство: Животные
Подцарство: Эуметазои
Без ранга: Первичноротые
Без ранга: Линяющие
Без ранга: Panarthropoda
Надкласс: Шестиногие
Класс: Насекомые
Надотряд: Hymenopterida
Подотряд: Сидячебрюхие
Международное научное название

Symphyta Gerstäcker, 1867

Надсемейства Wikispecies-logo.svg
Систематика
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Изображения
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ITIS 152742EOL 48147FW 70706

Сидячебрю́хие[1] (лат. Symphyta) — подотряд насекомых из отряда перепончатокрылые, включающий группу семейств пилильщиков и рогохвостов. Представляет собой искусственное объединение части надсемейств, имеющих общего предка (парафилетическая группа). Более 8000 видов[2].

Описание

Крылья с полным жилкованием (в переднем крыле обычно не менее 9—11 ячеек и 2 анальные жилки). Основными отличиями группы от остальных перепончатокрылых является наличие широкой перемычки между грудью и брюшком насекомого, а также форма личинок, похожих на гусениц. Название группы связано с формой яйцеклада насекомого, напоминающего полотно пилы. Некоторые виды имеют длинный тонкий яйцеклад, используемый для проникновения глубоко в древесину. Имеют грызущий ротовой аппарат.

Значение

Травоядны, многие виды являются вредителями сельскохозяйственных и лесных культур. Например, рапсовый пилильщик (Athalia rosae L. =A. colibri Christ), хлебные пилильщики (Cephus pygmaeus L. и Trachelus tabidus F.), сосновые и другие.

Распространение

 src=
Рогохвост Urocerus gigas

Распространены повсеместно[3]. Наиболее богато представлены пилильщики в умеренных и северных широтах Голарктики, где по биомассе они сравнимы, а на севере значительно превосходят Lepidoptera. Например, в фауне Финляндии насчитывается свыше 700 видов Symphyta (Viitasaari, Vikberg, 1985), а в России — около 2000 видов.

Из 14 современных семейств в Палеарктике и в фауне России не представлены Anaxyelidae (Syntexidae) с 1 рецентным видом из США (Калифорния), а также Pergidae (Pterygophoridae); последние распространены преимущественно в Австралии и Южной Америке. Из остальных семейств для Палеарктики эндемичны Megalodontesidae; Blasticotomidae также известны сейчас только в Евразии, 1 вид был описан из миоцена Северной Америки.

Распределение видов по зоогеографическим областям (2008):

Классификация

Около 800 родов и более 8300 видов в 14 современных и нескольких ископаемых семействах. Вымершие семейства † Sinoryssidae (1 вид) и † Xyelydidae Rasnitsyn, 1968 имеют неясное систематическое положение. Иногда Xyelidae включают в надсемейство Pamphilioidea, а к надсемейству Siricoidea относят Orussidae. С другой стороны, А. П. Расницын (Rasnitsyn, 2002) переносит семейство Orussidae в подотряд Apocrita, а семейство Diprionidae рассматривает в составе Tenthredinidae. В 1980-х годах с учётом ископаемых форм были выделены инфраотряды (Расницын, 1980, 1988): сидячебрюхие Xyelomorpha, Siricomorpha, Tenthredinomorpha, Orussomorpha; стебельчатобрюхие Evaniomorpha, Ichneumonomorpha, Ceraphronomorpha, Proctotrupomorpha, Stephanomorpha, Vespomorpha (все жалящие Aculeata)[4][5]. Семейства † Ephialtitidae и † Karatavitidae, ранее включаемые в состав подотряда Symphyta, в 2010 году включили в подотряд Apocrita[2]. В 2013 году Karatavitidae снова вернули к сидячебрюхим[6]. Филогенетический анализ морфологических и молекулярных признаков надсемейств перепончатокрылых показал (Sharkey et al., 2012), что Xyeloidea монофилетичны, Cephoidea — сестринская группа к кладе Siricoidea + [Xiphydrioidea + (Orussoidea + Apocrita)]; Anaxyelidae относятся к Siricoidea' и вместе они образуют сестринскую группу к кладе Xiphydrioidea + (Orussoidea + Apocrita); Orussoidea — сестринская группа к Apocrita[7]. По современным представлениям объединяет 9 надсемейств и 25 семейств[6] (указано число современных таксонов, а в скобках отдельно после † — известные ископаемые):

  • Anaxyeloidea
    • Anaxyelidae Martynov, 1925 — 1 современный вид (†12 родов и более †30 видов)[6]
  • Cephoidea
    • Cephidae Newman, 1834 — 21 род и более 160 видов (†3 и †6)[6]
    • Sepulcidae Rasnitsyn, 1968 (†15 родов и †38 видов)
  • Karatavitoidea
  • Orussoidea
    • Orussidae Newman, 1834 — 16 родов и более 80 видов (†2 и †3)[6]
    • Paroryssidae Martynov, 1925 (†4 и †10: Microryssus Rasnitsyn, 1968, Paroryssus Martynov, 1925, Praeoryssus Rasnitsyn, 1968)
    • ? † Sinoryssidae — Sinoryssus Hong, 1984
  • Pamphilioidea Cameron, 1890 (syn. Megalodontoidea)
    • Megalodontesidae Konow, 1897 — 1 род и около 40 видов (†1 и †1): Megalodontes Latreille, 1802
    • Pamphiliidae Cameron, 1890 — 10 родов и более 300 видов (†3 и †5): Acantholyda Costa, 1894, Neurotoma Konow, 1897, Pamphilus Latreille, 1802
    • Xyelydidae Rasnitsyn, 1968 — (†20 видов и †8 родов: Ferganolyda Rasnitsyn 1983, Mesolyda Rasnitsyn 1963, Prolyda Rasnitsyn, 1968, Sagulyda Rasnitsyn, 1983, Strophandria Rasnitsyn 1968, Xyelyda Rasnitsyn, 1968)
  • Siricoidea (? + Anaxyeloidea)
  • Tenthredinoidea — более 7000 видов
    • Argidae Konow, 1890 — 58 родов и 897 видов (†1 и †7)
    • Blasticotomidae Thomson, 1871 — 2 рода и 12 видов (†1 и †1)
    • Cimbicidae W. Kirby, 1837 — 16 родов и 182 вида) (†6 и †19)
    • Diprionidae Rohwer, 1910 — 11 родов и 136 видов (†2 и †2)
    • Electrotomidae Rasnitsyn, 1977 — (†1 род и †1 вид: Electrotoma)
    • Pergidae Rohwer, 1911 — 60 родов и более 440 видов
    • Tenthredinidae Latreille, 1803 — 400 родов и более 5500 видов (†14 родов и †79 видов)
    • Xyelotomidae Rasnitsyn, 1968 (†14 родов и †21 видов)
  • Xiphydrioidea
    • Xiphydriidae Leach, 1819 — 28 родов и более 140 видов[6]
  • Xyeloidea (? + Xiphydrioidea)
    • Xyelidae Newman, 1834 — 5 родов и более 60 видов (†47 родов и †93 вида)[6]
  • incertae sedis

Филогения

Современные представления о филогенетических связях различных групп основаны на использовании как палеонтологиченских, так и молекулярно-генетических данных[8]. Кладограмма по данным Schulmeister 2003 (все группы кроме Apocrita, традиционно выделяют в подотряд Сидячебрюхие)[9][10]:

Hymenoptera, 250 млн лет

Xyeloidea (триас — ныне) Xyelapusilla.jpg




Tenthredinoidea (пилильщики) Diprionpini crop.jpg




Pamphilioidea (пилильщики-ткачи) Caenolyda reticulata.jpg




Cephoidea (стеблевые пилильщики) Hartigia linearis.jpg




Siricoidea (рогохвосты) Hymenoptera Vielfalt Horntail.jpg




Xiphydrioidea (остробрюхие рогохвосты) Xiphydria prolongata crop.jpg


паразитизм

Orussoidea (паразитические рогохвоты) Orussus coronatus.jpg


стебельчатобрюхие 200 млн лет

APOCRITA (муравьи, пчёлы, осы, наездники) Specimen of Podalonia tydei (Le Guillou, 1841).jpg









Личинки

 src=
Личинки Nematus ribesii, Tenthredinidae

Пилильщики относятся к насекомым с полным метаморфозом. Личинки пилильщиков называют ложногусеницами — из-за внешнего сходства с гусеницами бабочек, от которых отличаются двумя признаками: (1) они имеют 6 и более пар ног на брюшке (у настоящих гусениц их 5 пар или менее), и (2) они имеют две стемматы (простые глазки) (у гусениц их 6).

Как правило, личинки травоядны, питаются на различных видах растений. Отдельные виды могут быть очень специфичны в выборе пищевых растений. Личинки могут минировать или скатывать листья, а также образовывать галлы. Три семейства являются ксилофагами (древесные осы), одно семейство — паразитическое.

Фотогалерея

  •  src=

    Пилильщик (Tenthredinidae)

  •  src=

    Tenthredinidae

  •  src=

    Личинки пилильщика Tenthredo marginella

  •  src=

    Craesus septentrionalis

  • Sawfly 003.jpg
  • Dolerus nitens.jpg
  • StAnIMGP2438.jpg

Примечания

  1. Стриганова Б. Р., Захаров А. А. Пятиязычный словарь названий животных: Насекомые (латинский-русский-английский-немецкий-французский) / Под ред. д-ра биол. наук, проф. Б. Р. Стригановой. — М.: РУССО, 2000. — С. 273. — 1060 экз.ISBN 5-88721-162-8.
  2. 1 2 Taeger A., Blank S. M., Liston A. D. World Catalog of Symphyta (Hymenoptera) (англ.) // Zootaxa : Журнал. — Auckland, New Zealand: Magnolia Press, 2010 том = 2580. — P. 1—1064. — ISSN 1175-5326.
  3. Looney, C.; Smith, D.R; Collman, S.J.; Langor, D.W.; Peterson, M.A. (2016). “Sawflies (Hymenoptera, Symphyta) newly recorded from Washington State”. Journal of Hymenoptera Research. 49: 129—159. DOI:10.3897/JHR.49.7104.
  4. Аннотированный каталог насекомых Дальнего Востока России. Том I. Перепончатокрылые. / Лелей А. С. (гл. ред.) и др. — Владивосток: Дальнаука, 2012. — 635 с. — 300 экз.ISBN 978-5-8044-1295-2.
  5. Rasnitsyn A. P. (1988). An outline of evolution of the hymenopterous insects (order Vespida). Oriental Insects, 22, 115—145.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Aguiar, A. P. et al. «Order Hymenoptera». — In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) «Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)». (англ.) // Zootaxa / Zhang, Z.-Q. (Chief Editor & Founder). — Auckland: Magnolia Press, 2013. — Vol. 3703, no. 1. — P. 1—82. — ISBN 978-1-77557-248-0 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-77557-249-7 (online edition). — ISSN 1175-5326.
  7. Sharkey M. J., Carpenter J. M., Vilhelmsen L., Heraty J., Liljeblad J., Dowling A. P., Schulmeister S., Murray D., Deans A. R., Ronquist F., Krogmann L., Wheeler W. C. Phylogenetic relationships among superfamilies of Hymenoptera // Cladistics. — 2012. — Vol. 28, no. 1. — P. 80—112. — DOI:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00366.x.
  8. Dowton M., Austin A. D. (1994). “Molecular phylogeny of the insect order Hymenoptera: apocritan relationships”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (21): 9911—9915. Bibcode:1994PNAS...91.9911D. DOI:10.1073/pnas.91.21.9911. PMC 44927. PMID 7937916.
  9. Schulmeister, S. (2003). “Simultaneous analysis of basal Hymenoptera (Insecta), introducing robust-choice sensitivity analysis”. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 79: 245—275. DOI:10.1046/j.1095-8312.2003.00233.x.
  10. Schulmeister, S. 'Symphyta' (неопр.). Проверено 28 ноября 2016.
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Сидячебрюхие: Brief Summary ( russe )

fourni par wikipedia русскую Википедию

Сидячебрю́хие (лат. Symphyta) — подотряд насекомых из отряда перепончатокрылые, включающий группу семейств пилильщиков и рогохвостов. Представляет собой искусственное объединение части надсемейств, имеющих общего предка (парафилетическая группа). Более 8000 видов.

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广腰亚目 ( chinois )

fourni par wikipedia 中文维基百科

广腰亚目(學名:Symphyta)是膜翅目昆虫之下的一個亚目,常被称为叶蜂科锯蝇)。在此总科主要是食植性昆虫。总体是并系类群,但名称仍在共同使用,并视为目,尽管有可能在未来的分类会被淘汰。 这些总科被视为最原始的类群内部的小蜂(有些甚至可回溯至2亿年前),其中的一个广腰亚目的分类引到细腰亚目蜜蜂蚂蚁 -这个小组被认为是单系类群)。许多专家们认为,可能细腰亚目的姐妹类群尾蜂总科,广腰亚目唯一的组是寄生虫

 src=
叶蜂产卵中

广腰亚目有别于其他大部分膜翅目的特点是腹節胸節(见图片),和毛虫样的幼虫(见下文)。 他们共同的特点是外露的产卵器,看起来很像锯齿。 细腰亚目的一些种类会把产卵器进化成一个“刺”,但不会用来作为武器。 雌性使用产卵器刺入植物产卵。另一些则有细长的产卵器可以钻到树裡去。大量此类昆虫可造成耕地和森林的经济损失。

 src=
缘螺属 叶蜂(Tenthredo marginella)的幼虫

广腰亚目的幼虫看起来很像鳞翅目的幼虫,但有两个显著的差异:

  1. 叶蜂幼虫是6-8对腹足(也有的完全无足的),鳞翅目幼虫通常是5对腹足;
  2. 它们的头上左右两边各有一个单眼,鳞翅目的幼虫头上左右两边各有6个。

广腰亚目幼虫一般是草食性的,这一类昆虫可以吃很多种植物。不过,各个种的食性常常是特定的。有许多中的幼虫能够导致叶上斑纹或叶片卷曲,或导致虫瘿。有三个科是食木的,称为木蜂;还有一个科是寄生的。不在植物外部进食的幼虫像蛴螬,没有腹足。

成年的踞蜂,除了茎蜂科家族的以外,具有在其休息时能将翅膀固定在前一对翼下的结构。这种在膜翅亚目上已经消失的淡膜区(膜翅目的后胸背板),位于胸部的小盾板后面。某些成年的种类是肉食性的,以捕食其它昆虫为生,但也有部分吸食树液为生。

参考

外部链接

 src= 维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源:广腰亚目 物種識別信息
 title=
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广腰亚目: Brief Summary ( chinois )

fourni par wikipedia 中文维基百科

广腰亚目(學名:Symphyta)是膜翅目昆虫之下的一個亚目,常被称为叶蜂科(锯蝇)。在此总科主要是食植性昆虫。总体是并系类群,但名称仍在共同使用,并视为目,尽管有可能在未来的分类会被淘汰。 这些总科被视为最原始的类群内部的小蜂(有些甚至可回溯至2亿年前),其中的一个广腰亚目的分类引到细腰亚目蜜蜂蚂蚁 -这个小组被认为是单系类群)。许多专家们认为,可能细腰亚目的姐妹类群尾蜂总科,广腰亚目唯一的组是寄生虫

 src= 叶蜂产卵中

广腰亚目有别于其他大部分膜翅目的特点是腹節胸節(见图片),和毛虫样的幼虫(见下文)。 他们共同的特点是外露的产卵器,看起来很像锯齿。 细腰亚目的一些种类会把产卵器进化成一个“刺”,但不会用来作为武器。 雌性使用产卵器刺入植物产卵。另一些则有细长的产卵器可以钻到树裡去。大量此类昆虫可造成耕地和森林的经济损失。

 src= 缘螺属 叶蜂(Tenthredo marginella)的幼虫

广腰亚目的幼虫看起来很像鳞翅目的幼虫,但有两个显著的差异:

叶蜂幼虫是6-8对腹足(也有的完全无足的),鳞翅目幼虫通常是5对腹足; 它们的头上左右两边各有一个单眼,鳞翅目的幼虫头上左右两边各有6个。

广腰亚目幼虫一般是草食性的,这一类昆虫可以吃很多种植物。不过,各个种的食性常常是特定的。有许多中的幼虫能够导致叶上斑纹或叶片卷曲,或导致虫瘿。有三个科是食木的,称为木蜂;还有一个科是寄生的。不在植物外部进食的幼虫像蛴螬,没有腹足。

成年的踞蜂,除了茎蜂科家族的以外,具有在其休息时能将翅膀固定在前一对翼下的结构。这种在膜翅亚目上已经消失的淡膜区(膜翅目的后胸背板),位于胸部的小盾板后面。某些成年的种类是肉食性的,以捕食其它昆虫为生,但也有部分吸食树液为生。

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ハバチ亜目 ( japonais )

fourni par wikipedia 日本語
ハバチ亜目(広腰亜目) マツハバチの一種Monoctenus sp.01.JPG
Monoctenus sp.
(マツハバチ科)
分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 節足動物門 Arthropoda : 昆虫綱 Insecta : ハチ目(膜翅目) Hymenoptera 亜目 : ハバチ亜目広腰亜目Symphyta 上科

ハバチ亜目(ハバチあもく、Symphyta)、または、広腰亜目(こうようあもく、ひろこしあもく)は、昆虫綱ハチ目(膜翅目)を構成する2亜目のうちのひとつ。

他方の細腰亜目(ハチ亜目)に比べ原始的なハチ類であると考えられている。ヤドリキバチ科以外は全て植物に依存しており、食草が限られる単食性や狭食性のものが多い。栽培植物樹木を食害するものは農林害虫として防除の対象となることもある。

成虫は基本的に肉食であるが、水分以外にはほとんど食物をとらずに次世代を残し短期間で死ぬものから、小型の昆虫を捕食して卵巣成熟の栄養源となるタンパク質を摂取したり、アブラムシ類やカイガラムシ類の排泄する甘露から活動のエネルギー源である分を摂ったりしながら一定期間産卵し続けるものまである。また、成虫が捕食者を避けるための不快な味や臭いを発する物質を、植物から摂取するもの(例:カブラハバチ属 Athalia によるクサギ幼葉の毛茸(もうじょう)からのジテルペンの一種クレロデンドリン(clerodendrin)の摂取)も知られている。

特徴[編集]

原始的なハチ[編集]

6本の、4枚の、3個の単眼、2個の複眼といった有翅型昆虫の基本構造をよく保っており、完全変態をする。最大の特徴は、胸部と腹部が広い面積で繋がっていることで、そのためくびれのない寸胴型の体型をしている。アシナガバチやミツバチなどが属するくびれをもつ細腰亜目とはこの点で見分けられる。広腰亜目という名もこのことに由来するが、学名のSymphytaはギリシャ語のsyn(σύν:~と共に)+phyton(φυτόν:植物)に由来し、本亜目のもう一つの特徴である植物への依存を表している。ハバチ(葉蜂)という呼び方もまた同様である。

細腰亜目のハチに比べ翅には網目状の翅脈がよく発達し、その本数も多い。また、クキバチ科以外は後胸背面に一対の背粒(単:cenchrus・複:cenchri)と呼ばれる構造をもつ。これは閉じた前翅を固定するためのものとも言われるが、広腰亜目に特徴的なものである。幼虫には細腰亜目では消失している胸脚や腹脚(いぼあし)が発達しているイモムシ形のものが多く、それらは一見チョウ目(チョウやガ)の幼虫によく似ている。しかし長いをもたないことや、腹脚が通常5対以上あることなどから見分けられる。また細腰亜目に見られる社会性の種や、翅が消失した種なども広腰亜目には見られない。

これらの特徴の多くは、これらの昆虫がハチ目の中でも原始であることを示す特徴とみなされている。また、その食性が植物に強く依存していることから、ハチ目は広腰亜目の植物食をのものを起源とし、細腰亜目の寄生蜂を経て肉食性を獲得、狩り蜂へと進化したと考える研究者が多い。この場合、ハナバチ類は肉食のものから二次的に植物食に変化したと考える。

毒針を持たない[編集]

人を刺すハチ(それらは細腰亜目に属する)の毒針は産卵管が変化したものである。従って毒針を持つ種でも刺すのは雌だけであるが、広腰亜目では産卵管が毒針になっていないため、雌と言えども人を刺すことはない。亜目の代表ともいえるハバチ上科の産卵管は平たいノコギリ状で、英名をsawflyと言い、キバチ科のように木に産卵するものでは錐状の産卵管を持ち、英名をhorntailというが、彼女たちの持つ産卵管はいずれも植物体に切れ込みを入れたり穴を穿ったりして産卵をするためのものであり、他の動物を刺すためのものではない。そのため、もちろん毒もない。中には捕まえると腹部を曲げて刺す真似をするものもあるが、上述のように実際には刺すことができない。このような行動はハチに擬態した他の昆虫でも見られることがあり、捕食者が驚いて離す場合も多いと考えられ、行動による一種の擬態とみなされる。

分類[編集]

各科について記してあるの数はあくまでもおおまかな目安である。日本に産するものでさえまだ解明されていないと言われ、十分に解明されれば日本産だけで軽く1,000種を超えると考えられている。環境の悪化によっては記載される前に絶滅してしまう種がいる可能性さえあるという。当然世界全体では無数の名前のない種がおり、今後も長期間にわたり多くの種類が追加され続けるはずである。

広腰亜目(ハバチ亜目)Symphyta[編集]

世界に約14科10,000種、そのうち日本産約11科720種

  • ナギナタハバチ上科 Xyeloidea(1科)
    • ナギナタハバチ科 Xyelidae
      • 世界に約6属50種。うち日本産は約4属10種。マツの雄花やモミなどの新梢に穿孔するものと、広葉樹の葉を食うものがある。中生代三畳紀の化石が知られ、これはハチ目の確実な記録としては最も古いものとされる。微小な種が多く、ナギナタハバチは3mm程度。
  • アギトハバチ上科 Megalodontoidea(2科)(別名:クシヒゲヒラタハバチ上科)
    • アギトハバチ科 Megalodontidae(別名:クシヒゲヒラタハバチ科)
    • ヒラタハバチ科 Pamphilidae
      • 世界ではユーラシアと北米に約200種。うち日本産は約6属70種以上。幼虫は植物の葉を食い、群れとなることがある。口から糸を吐き足場や巣を作る。群れによる巣の様子はある種のガの幼虫のそれによく似る。
 src=
ミフシハバチ科ツツジ類に来たルリチュウレンジ。触角は3節で、根元の小さい2節の先に大部分を占める長い第3節がある。幼虫はツツジ類の葉を食べる。
 src=
コンボウハバチ科:外国産のモモブトハバチ属の一種(Cimbex sp.)の幼虫
  • ハバチ上科 Tenthredinoidea(世界に6科)♀の産卵管はノコギリ状。
    • ヨフシハバチ科 Blasticotomidae
      • 世界ではユーラシアの温帯に約2属10種。うち日本産約2属6種。触角は普通4節で3節目が非常に長く4節目は極めて短い。幼虫はシダ類の葉柄に穿孔する。古生代リンボクの化石に本科の幼虫の糞の可能性のある化石が含まれていたという。これが本科のものであるならハチ目の歴史は古生代までさかのぼることになる。
    • ミフシハバチ科 Argidae
      • 熱帯を中心に数十属800種。うち日本産約5属40種。触角は3節で3節目が非常に長い。幼虫は種々の植物を食う。チュウレンジバチ、クワガタハバチなど。
    • コンボウハバチ科 Cimbicidae
      • 世界に約20属130種。うち日本産約10属30種。触角の先端が膨んだ棍棒状。幼虫は広葉樹を食うが、群れにはならない。中型から大型の種が多く、キイロアシブトハバチは30mm以上。
    • マツハバチ科 Diprionidae
      • 世界に約7属100種。うち日本産約6属30種。触角は13節以上。幼虫は針葉樹を食う。
    • ハバチ科 Tenthredinidae
      • 世界では北半球を中心に百数十属6000種以上。日本産は約109属500種以上。広腰亜目で最大種数を誇り7亜科に分けられる。触角は7~12節。幼虫は種々の植物を食い、潜葉性のものや虫こぶを作るものもいる。カブラハバチなどの幼虫はアブラナ科の葉を食害し、菜の黒虫(なのくろむし)として知られる。
    • ペルガハバチ科 Pergidae
      • 北米に少数種がいるほかは主としてオーストラリア・中南米を中心に約50属400種以上。日本産なし。幼虫は広葉樹を食い、潜葉性の種も少数ある。
  • クキバチ上科 Cephoidea(世界に1科)
    • クキバチ科 Cephidae
      • ユーラシアを中心に世界に約12属100種。日本産約8属15種。幼虫はイネ科の茎内部や広葉樹の新梢内部を食う。
  • キバチ上科 Siricoidea(世界に1科)
    • キバチ科 Siricidae
      • 世界に広く分布し約9属100種。日本産約6属20種。産卵管は錐状。産卵時に体内に持つ腐朽菌を共に注入することで木を腐らせ、幼虫は菌により分解された木の幹内を食う。そのため森林害虫とされる。大型の種が多くニホンキバチは40mm近い。
  • ヤドリキバチ上科 Orussoidea(世界に1科)
    • ヤドリキバチ科 Orussidae
      • 世界で約16属80種。日本産約2属5種。特にアフリカで種類が多い。カミキリムシ科、タマムシ科、キバチ科などの木材穿孔性幼虫に外部寄生する。広腰亜目では唯一寄生性で、産卵管が非常に長く、卵もきわめて大きい特異な群。
  • 上科不詳
    • クキバチモドキ科 Anaxyelidae
      • 世界に1属1種で日本産なし。中生代に栄えた科で、北米産の唯一の現生種Syntexis libocedrii生きている化石といわれる。幼虫はヒノキ科の針葉樹の内部を食う。
    • クビナガキバチ科 Xiphydriidae
      • 世界に約22属80種。日本産約7属20種。広葉樹の木部を食う。

ギャラリー[編集]

  •  src=

    幼虫。単眼と7対の腹脚が見える。(森吉山、2015年8月中旬)

関連項目[編集]

外部リンク[編集]

 src= ウィキスピーシーズにハバチ亜目に関する情報があります。  src= ウィキメディア・コモンズには、ハバチ亜目に関連するカテゴリがあります。
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ハバチ亜目: Brief Summary ( japonais )

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ハバチ亜目(ハバチあもく、Symphyta)、または、広腰亜目(こうようあもく、ひろこしあもく)は、昆虫綱ハチ目(膜翅目)を構成する2亜目のうちのひとつ。

他方の細腰亜目(ハチ亜目)に比べ原始的なハチ類であると考えられている。ヤドリキバチ科以外は全て植物に依存しており、食草が限られる単食性や狭食性のものが多い。栽培植物樹木を食害するものは農林害虫として防除の対象となることもある。

成虫は基本的に肉食であるが、水分以外にはほとんど食物をとらずに次世代を残し短期間で死ぬものから、小型の昆虫を捕食して卵巣成熟の栄養源となるタンパク質を摂取したり、アブラムシ類やカイガラムシ類の排泄する甘露から活動のエネルギー源である分を摂ったりしながら一定期間産卵し続けるものまである。また、成虫が捕食者を避けるための不快な味や臭いを発する物質を、植物から摂取するもの(例:カブラハバチ属 Athalia によるクサギ幼葉の毛茸(もうじょう)からのジテルペンの一種クレロデンドリン(clerodendrin)の摂取)も知られている。

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잎벌아목 ( coréen )

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잎벌아목(Symphyta)은 벌목곤충의 아목으로 식물의 잎이나 나무의 속을 갉아먹는 원시적인 벌이다. 대부분의 잎벌들은 식물의 잎에 알을 낳고, 부화한 애벌레는 잎을 갉아먹으면서 자란다. 이를테면 겊은잎벌의 애벌레는 원시식물인 쇠뜨기의 잎을 갉아먹는다. 하지만, 송곳벌의 경우는 산란관으로 나무속에 알을 낳는다. 천적으로는 알에 기생하는 기생벌인 알좀벌등이 있다.

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