曼陀羅

Datura metel, denomada popularmente como trompeta del diañu, ye un parrotal añal con grandes flores en forma de trompeta de color blancu o mariellu. Son naturales del sur de China y de la India pero anguaño utilízase como planta ornamental en xardínes y güertos de Norteamérica.

Descripción

Ye un parrotal d'hasta 3 metros d'altor. Les fueyes d'ovalaes y llanceolaes, con llongures peciolos. Les flores son grandes, blanques con forma de trompeta y bien golioses. El frutu ye una cápsula que contién numberoses granes.

Detalle de les flores

Vista de la planta

Usos

Plantar pa delimitar les güertes o finques. Los alcaloides que tien esta planta confiéren-y efeutos narcóticos, allucinóxenos y antidepresivos.^[1]

Propiedaes

• D. metel ye una de les 50 yerbes fundamentales usaes nel yerboleru chinu, onde se llamen: yáng jīn huā (洋金花).
• Usar en China pa tratar el asma bronquial y dolores reumáticos.
• Pol so conteníu en alcaloide si consumir en grandes cantidaes ye tóxicu y produz convulsiones ya inclusive el coma.

Tosicidá

Toles partes de les plantes del xéneru Datura contienen niveles peligrosos d'alcaloides (bien venenosos) y pueden ser fatales si inxerir los humanos y otros animales. En dellos llugares ta prohibíu vender, mercar o cultivar plantes del xéneru Datura.^[2]

Datura metel puede provocar síntomes ente los que s'inclúin el dolor de cabeza, allucinaciones, convulsiones y coma .

Taxonomía

Datura metel describióse por Linneo y espublizóse en Species Plantarum 1: 179, nel añu 1753.^[3]

Etimoloxía

Datura: nome xenéricu que provién del hindi dhatūrā ("mazana espinosa") pol aspeutu de los frutos, llatinizáu. El nome utilizábase yá en sánscritu.

metel: epítetu

Sinonimia

• Brugmansia waymannii Paxton
• Datura aegyptiaca Vis.
• Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees
• Datura bojeri Delile
• Datura chlorantha Hook.
• Datura cornucopia auct.
• Datura dubia Rich.
• Datura campanuda L.
• Datura fruticosa Hornem.
• Datura humilis Desf.
• Datura hummatu Bernh.

• Datura laevis Schkuhr
• Datura muricata Link
• Datura nanakii Pandeya & A.B.Bhatt
• Datura nigra Hassk.
• Datura nilhummatu Dunal
• Datura timoriensis Zipp. ex Span.
• Stramonium datura Noronha
• Stramonium fastuosum Moench
• Stramonium globosum Bubani
• Stramonium infernale Noronha
• Stramonium metel Moench^[4]

Ver tamién

• Terminoloxía descriptiva de les plantes
• Cronoloxía de la botánica
• Historia de la Botánica
• Carauterístiques de solanacees

Referencies

Bibliografía

1. L. 1753. Species Plantarum 1: 179.
2. Report (Annual) of the Board of Regents, Smithsonian Institution. Washington, DC 1920:547, t. 2. 1922
3. AFPD. 2008. African Flowering Plants Database - Base de Donnees des Plantes a Fleurs D'Afrique.
4. CONABIO. 2009. Catálogu taxonómicu d'especies de Méxicu. 1. In Ca. nat. Méxicu. CONABIO, Mexico City.
5. Flora of China Editorial Committee. 1994. Fl. China 17: 1–378. Science Press & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing & St. Louis.
6. Funk, V. A., P. Y. Berry, S. Alexander, T. H. Hollowell & C. L. Kelloff. 2007. Checklist of the Plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazones, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contr. O.S. Natl. Herb. 55: 1–584.
7. Hokche, O., P. Y. Berry & O. Huber. 2008. Nuev. Cat. Fl. Vas. Venezuela 1–860. Fundación Instituto Botánicu de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela.
8. Pérez, A., M. Sousa Sánchez, A. M. Hanan-Alipi, F. Chiang Cabrera & P. Tenorio L. 2005. Vexetación terrestre. 65–110. In Biodivers. Tabasco. CONABIO-UNAM, Méxicu.
9. Stevens, W. D., C. O. O., A. Pool & O. M. Montiel. 2001. Flora de Nicaragua. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 85: i–xlii, 1–2666.

Enllaces esternos

• Wikimedia Commons acueye conteníu multimedia sobre Datura metel.

• Poisonous Plants of North Carolina: Datura Metel

Hindistan dəlibəngi (lat. Datura metel) - badımcankimilər fəsiləsinin dəlibəng cinsinə aid bitki növü.

Mənbə

Datura metel és una espècie de planta arbustiva perenne, també es coneix simplement com metel o trompeta de la mort.

Datura metel creix silvestre a totes les parts càlides del món i es cultiva a tot al món com a planta medicinal i com a ornamental. No es coneix amb exactitud d'on prové originàriament.^[1]

Arriba a fer 90 cm d'alt. Les seves fulles són ovals i sovint són de color viola fosc. Les flors són molt variades i poden ser simples o dobles de colors que van del blanc a crema, groc, vermell i violeta. Les llavors es troben dins de càpsules amb algunes espines.^[1] És similar a D. inoxia, però D. metel té les fulles gairebé glabres i els fruits no són espinosos.

Ús medicinal

D. metel és una de les 50 plantes fonamentals de la fitoteràpia xinesa, tanmateix la seva ingestió en qualsevol forma és perillosa i ha de ser tractada amb precaució extrema.

Toxicitat

Totes les parts de les plantes del gènere Datura contenen nivells perillosos d'alcaloides tropane (molt verinosos) i poden ser fatals si els ingereixen els humans i altres animals. En alguns llocs està prohibit vendre, comprar o cultivar plantes del gènere Datura.^[1]

Datura metel pot provocar símptomes, entre els quals s'inclouen el maldecap, al·lucinacions, convulsions i el coma.

Datura metel 'Fastuosa'

Un cultivar de D. metel, Datura metel 'Fastuosa', amb una tija polida i negra es fa servir com planta ornamental, les seves flors normalment tenen una corol·la doble o triple.

Es coneix sota diversos noms de cultivars com 'Black', 'Blackcurrant Swirl', 'Cornucopaea', 'Double Blackcurrant Swirl', 'Double Purple', i 'Purple Hindu'. També rep diversos noms científics els quals no s'haurien d'usar per a un cultivar:

• Datura hummatu var. fastuosa (L.) Bernh.
• Datura fastuosa L.
• Datura metel f. fastuosa (L.) Danert
• Datura metel var. fastuosa (L.) Saff.
• Stramonium fastuosum (L.) Moench

Una planta jove de black Datura Metel. Israel, 2001.

Referències

Enllaços externs

• A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Datura metel
• USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN): Datura metel L.
• American Brugmansia and Datura Society
• Poisonous Plants of North Carolina: Datura Metel

Kecubung iku tetuwuhan kang kalebu kulawarga Solanaceae, sakerabat karo terong lan kenthang. Kecubung racaké kembangé putih lan ungu, nanging hibridané ngembang manéka warna. Diprakirakaké tetuwuhan iki pisanan kanggo obat-obat ing abad kaping sepuluh. Kecubung ana kang asalé saka Asia Kidul-Wétan, nanging ana uga kang asalé saka Bawana Amérika.

Kecubung urip ing papan kang iklimé panas, lan dikultivasi ing saindhenging wilahan donnya amarga zat kimia kang dikandhung lan uga kanggo tetuwuhan hias. Pisanan ditepungaké déning Linnaeus ing taun 1753, nanging kanthi botanis isih durung pas ngenani gambaran lan panjlasan bab kecubung. Wewengkon asal kang dadi sumber tetuwuhan iki ora bisa dingertèni kanthi temenan.^[2]

Réferènsi

• Blanchan, Neltje (2005). Wild Flowers Worth Knowing. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.

Kucubung nyaéta tutuwuhan kembangan anggota kulawarga Solanaceae, nu miboga watang kai sarta kandel.^[1][2] Kucubung mimiti diwanohkeun ku Linnaeus dina taun 1753, tapi sacara botani pedaran jeung gambaran ngeunaan kucubung masih can merenah.^[1] Tutuwuhan ieu dipaké minangka ubar kurang leuwih dina abad ka-10.^[1] Kucubung aya nu asalna ti Asia Tenggara tapi aya ogé nu asalna ti Benua Amérika.^[1] Sanajan kitu wilayah asal ieu tutuwuhan can bisa dipikanyaho kalawan pasti.^[3]

Ciri-ciri Kucubung

Tutuwuhan ieu miboga loba cabang nu mekar ka katuhu jeung ka kénca.^[1][2] Jangkung kucubung téh biasana mah kurang ti 2 méter.^[1][2] Daun kucubung (Angel's Trumpet) warnana héjo, wangunna buleud siga endog sarta sisina gagarinjelan jeung posisina biasana pahareup-hareup.^[1][2] Salian ti éta tungtung daun kucubung biasana seukeut.^[1][2]

Kembang kucubung mirip jeung tarompét warna bodas atawa warna layung.^[1][2] Tapi kucubung hias mah bisa miboga warna kembang anu rupa-rupa.^[1][2] Makuta kembangna biasana warna ungu.^[1][2] Panjang kembangna kurang leuwih 12–18 cm.^[1][2] Kembang kucubung biasana mimiti mekar ti sore tepi ka peuting.^[1][2]

Buah kucubung wangunna buleud, warnana héjo, bagéan luarna sok aya cucukan sedengkeun bagéan jerona mah dieusian ku siki-siki laleutik anu garepéng warnana konéng kacoklat-coklatan.^[1][2]

Habitat Kucubung

Kucubung biasana hirup di daérah dataran rendah nepi ka ketinggian taneuh 800 méter di luhurun permukaan laut.^[1][2] Salian tumuwuh liar di leuweung jeung di huma, kucubung ogé mindeng dipelak minangka tutuwuhan hias di buruan imah.^[1][2] Cara ngamekarkeun ieu tutuwuhan téh ku cara sték atawa ngaliwatan siki.^[1][2]

Mangpaat jeung Racun Kucubung

Kucubung, utamana jenis Datura metel ngandung sababaraha senyawa kimia di antarana: hiosin, co-oksalat, zat lemak, atropin (hyosiamin) jeung skopolamin.^[1][2] Kandungan ieu nyababkeun kucubung bisa digunakeun minangka ubar tradisional pikeun ngubaran asma, reumatik, nyeri cangkéng, cararangkeul, bisul atawa éksim, nyeri huntu, totombé, nepi ka sumilangeun.^[1][2] Bagian nu mindeng dipaké pikeun ubar nyaéta daun kucubung.^[1][2]

Salian ti dipaké ubar, kucubung ogé ngandung racun mangrupa zat alkaloid nu miboga efek halusinogén utamana dina bagéan sikina.^[1][2] Dina sababaraha kasus kapanggih, siki kucubung dipaké maéhan manéh.^[2]

Referensi

Ing talampune, salampune o salumpune (Datura metel) metung yang yerbang pilmihan (perennial) a balamu palungpung a maki karaniwang lagyu king Ingles a angel's trumpet, devil's trumpet, ampong metel.

Tutubu ya king ilang ing talampune kareng anggang malisangan a dake ning yatu, at tatanam de king mabilug a yatu uling kareng kayang propiedad o katangian antimong sangkap (chemical property) ampong antimong tanaman a pampasanting o ornamental. Minuna yang milarawan kapamilatan nang Linnaeus anyang 1753. E siguradu nung nukarin ing orihinal nang karinan o lugal.^[1]

Ing tanaman metung yang banwahan (annual) a yerbang miraras king anggang 3 ft. kátas. Mabwak yang bagya, at maki maralumdum a kule ubing suli ampong bulung a malapad a tulungkaba (oval) a maralumdum muring ubi king kule. Mabanglu la reng sampagang 6-8 in. a miyayaliwa itsura, at malyaring lang tunggal (single) o dobli. Deng kule manibat la king maputi angga king cream, dilo, malutu ampong kule ubi. Ing The seed capsule mitatakpan yang dakal a bukul a katabas apa is covered with numerous (conical) ampong ditak a suksuk.^[1] Kawangis ne ning D. inoxia, oneng ing D. metel maki bulung yang alus makinis, ampong bungang bukul-bukul has almost glabrous leaves and fruits that are (knobby), oneng e masuksuk. Ing D. inoxia laganas yang mitatakpan yang malambut ampong makinis a bwak, at maki bunga yang masuksuk.

Lon la murin

• Chinese herbology 50 fundamental herbs
• Datura

Dalerayan

ধতুৰা (বৈজ্ঞানিক নামঃ Dutura metel) এক প্ৰকাৰৰ বিষাক্ত উদ্ভিদ। ইয়াৰ সমস্ত অংশই বিষাক্ত। ধতুৰাত বিপজ্জনক মাত্ৰাত tropane alkaloids নামৰ বিষ আছে। এই গাছৰ বিষক্ৰিয়াত মানুহ বা পশু-পক্ষীৰ মৃত্যু পৰ্যন্ত হব পাৰে । এই কাৰণে বহু দেশত ধতুৰাৰ উৎপাদন, বিপনন আৰু বহন নিষিদ্ধ। বনৰ মাজত বা বাটৰ কাষত বিনাযত্নে এই গছ বাঢ়ি আহে।

ধতুৰাৰ বীজৰ পৰা চেতনানাশক পদাৰ্থ তৈয়াৰ কৰা হয়। আয়ুৰ্বেদিক চিকিৎসাত ইয়াৰ ব্যবহাৰ হয় । চীনা পাৰম্পাৰিক চিকিৎসা শাস্ত্ৰত বৰ্ণিত পঞ্চাশটা প্ৰধান উদ্ভিদৰ এটা এই ধতুৰা।

Datura metel

তথ্য উৎস

கரு ஊமத்தை (Datura metel) மருத்துவ மூலிகைப் பயன்பாடுள்ள ஒரு தாவரமாகும். இது சீனாவைப் பிறப்பிடமாகக் கொண்டது. சீன மூலிகை மருத்துவத்தின் 50 முக்கிய மூலிகைகளுள் ஒன்றாகும். திருமணஞ்சேரி திருத்தலத்தின் தலமரமாக விளங்குவது ஊமத்தை ஆகும்.^[1]

மருத்துவ குணங்கள்

• தோல் நோய்கள், புண், அரிப்பு, கிருமி, நீர் கடுப்பு^[2] உள்ளிட்டவைகளுக்கு மருந்தாகப் பயன்படுகிறது.
• பொதுவாக நோய் தணிப்பானாகவும், சிறப்பாக இசிவு நோய் தணிப்பானாகவும் செயற்படும். அறுவை சிகிச்சைக்கும் மகப்பேறுக்கு மயக்க மருந்தாகவும் பயன்படுகிறது^[3]

பாரப்பா தங்க பற்பம் சொல்லக் கேளு

பாங்கான தங்கத்தின் காசு வாங்கி

நேரப்பா கருமத்தின் இலையரைத்து

நெகிழவே கவசித்து சீலை செய்து

சீரப்பா கசப்புடமே இட்டாயானால்

சிறப்புள்ள பற்பமது என்ன சொல்வேன்

காரப்பா பற்மதை லேகியத்தில் உண்ணும்

பாங்கான மண்டலம்தான் பத்தியம்தான் பாரே

கார்க்கவே திரேகம்தான் சட்டை தள்ளும்

பாங்கான திரேகமது வச்சிரகாயம்

தீர்க்கவே இறைச்சி வகை யாவும் கூட்டு

தெளிவாக நண்டு கறி கூட்டு கூட்டு

ஆற்கவே சேத்துமங்கள் தொண்ணூற்றாரும்

அகன்றுபோம் கூடுவிட்டு காசரோகம்

வேர்க்கவே சமம் ஈளை சுவாசங்காசம்

மிரண்டே ஓடிப்போகும் எனப் பேசினோமே.

மேலும் பார்க்க

• ஊமத்தம்

குறிப்புகளும் மேற்கோள்களும்

1. ↑ http://www.shaivam.org/sv/sv_umaththai.htm
2. ↑ "ஊமத்தையை -உன்மத்த ,கனகம்,ததூர". பார்த்த நாள் அக்டோபர் 24, 2012.
3. ↑ குப்புசாமி. "ஊமத்தை". பார்த்த நாள் அக்டோபர் 24, 2012.

Datura metel is a shrub-like annual (zone 5–7) or short-lived, shrubby perennial (zone 8–10), commonly known in Europe as Indian thornapple, Hindu Datura,^[3] or metel and in the United States as devil's trumpet or angel's trumpet. Datura metel is naturalised in all the warmer countries of the world. It is found notably in India, where it is known by the ancient, Sanskrit-derived, Hindi name dhatūra (धतूरा), from which the genus name Datura is derived.

The plant is cultivated worldwide, both as an ornamental and for its medicinal properties, the latter being due to its tropane alkaloid content. Like its hardier and smaller-flowered relative Datura stramonium, it is now of widespread occurrence, although showing a preference for warmer, humid climates.

Description

The plant is an annual or short-lived shrubby perennial herb. The roots are a branched tap root, and are not fleshy like roots found in perennial species such as Datura innoxia and Datura wrightii. The species can grow up to 6 ft (1.8 m) high. The stems are hollow, green or purple-black, somewhat woody, and have a strong odour. It is slightly pubescent, with green to dark violet shoots and oval to broad oval leaves that are often dark violet as well. The leaves are simple, alternate, petiolate, and exhibit entire or deeply lobed margins.

The pleasantly-scented 6–8 in (15–20 cm) flowers are immensely varied, and can be single or double. Corolla colour can range from white to cream, yellow, red, and violet. The seed capsule is covered with numerous conical warts or short, sparse spines.^[4] The fruits break up irregularly at maturity by not dehiscing in four equal valves like those of other Datura species. Seeds are endospermous.^[4][5]

D. metel was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, but few botanically correct illustrations were made until after the New World was settled. The original home of the plant, although long conjectured to have been India, is now known to have been somewhere in the Americas, probably the Greater Antilles.^[6][4] As late as 1992 it was still being claimed^[7] that the plant was "...native probably to the mountainous regions of Pakistan or Afghanistan westward..." While there now remains no doubt that the species originated in the New World, evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent - whether by human agency or some chance natural event is not known - at a date no later than the 4th century CE. This precedes the first arrival of European explorers in the Americas.^[8]

A wild form of D. metel as a distinct species is unknown. The species, as currently described, is essentially a collection of ancient cultivars likely attributable to pre-Columbian horticultural practices.^[6]

Similarities to D. innoxia

D. metel is similar, in its above-ground parts, to D. innoxia, but, while D. metel has almost glabrous leaves and fruits that can be nodding or erect and are warty, rather than spiny; D. innoxia is pilose (softly hairy) all over and has a markedly spiny, nodding fruit with a more prominently frilled and reflexed persistent calyx.

Symon and Haegi noted in 1991 the occurrence on Cuba of an apparently wild plant given the name Datura velutinosa V.R. Fuentes^[9] (no longer an accepted species and now listed as a form of D. innoxia), the capsules of which are tuberculate like those of D. metel.^[10]

Historically, single-flowered forms of D. metel have frequently been confused with the widely naturalised D. innoxia - from which it differs in its much less pubescent stems and foliage and shorter-spined and less densely-spined capsules.^[6] The reason for this confusion was finally discovered through genetic research carried out in 2000, where it was determined that D. metel is a domesticated form of D. inoxia that was originally derived from Central America and southeastern Mexico.^[10]

In support of this claim regarding domestication, Cavazos et al. list several pieces of evidence. While the flowers of wild Datura species are usually white or pale, thin in texture, single and short-lived, the flowers of D. metel have several distinctive strong colour forms, are thick in texture, often have double or triple flowers (trumpet-like corollas nested one within the other) and can last for up to a week before withering. Additionally, the seed capsules of wild Datura species are usually clad with sharp spines which protect them from premature predation, while those of D. metel bear short, sparse spines or tubercles. It is also found that regrowth of the perennial wild species sprouts from the top of the thick roots below ground level, while in D. metel such regrowth is sub-shrubby, sprouting from the woody stem base. It is those woody stems that are used in the vegetative propagation of this 'species' in the indigenous horticulture of southern Mexico. In the light of such evidence, it appears highly likely that humans have in the past undertaken selective breeding of the species ancestral to D. metel to produce mutant forms that flower for longer, have colourful corollas of curious shapes, fruits that lack hurtful spines and somewhat shrubby stems that lend themselves readily to the taking of cuttings.^[10]

Cultivars

D. metel 'Fastuosa' (flash photograph taken at night).

D. metel 'Fastuosa' showing glossy, purple-black stems. Note double (nested) corollas of the type depicted in image of Chola bronze Nataraja in section above.

Corolla mouth of a specimen of D. metel 'Chlorantha', Chicago Botanic Garden.

D. metel 'Chlorantha' in flower and fruit. Note curious, apparently three-valved capsules.

...it seems clear that D. metel is essentially a collection of cultivars and recent critical authors have found it impossible to recognise a wild type for the species. This view is supported by the tuberculate capsules found in D. metel (as compared with the spinose capsules of other species) and the retention of seeds on the placenta, at least in cultivars 'Fastuosa' and 'Chlorantha'. Both of these traits suggest cultivar selection...The variants of D. metel have been widely grown as ornamentals over a long period of time...There is no evidence that the variants arose from horticultural plant breeding in the Old World...These facts taken together strongly suggest that D. metel was a well-established cultivated species with a range of forms in its place of origin and that these forms arrived ready-made in Europe.^[6]

A cultivar of D. metel with a glossy, purple-black stem (Hindi: काला धतूरा kāla dhatūra - "black datura") has long existed as a garden plant under the obsolete name Datura fastuosa (coined originally by Linnaeus and featuring the Latin epithet fastuosa, meaning "haughty" or "proud"). Its flowers normally have a double or triple corolla, each corolla having a deep purple exterior and white or off-white interior. The same double or triple corolla is also a feature of the yellow-flowered cultivar 'Chlorantha'. The purple-flowered 'Fastuosa' has been reported to have become naturalised in Israel, where it may yet become as common a roadside weed as the related D innoxia.

D. metel 'Fastuosa' has in recent times become known under a variety of superfluous cultivar names such as 'Black', 'Blackcurrant Swirl', 'Cornucopaea', 'Double Blackcurrant Swirl', 'Double Purple', and 'Purple Hindu'. It has also received many scientific names which should not be used for a cultivar:

• Datura hummatu var. fastuosa (L.) Bernh.
• Datura fastuosa L.
• Datura metel f. fastuosa (L.) Danert
• Datura metel var. fastuosa (L.) Saff.
• Stramonium fastuosum (L.) Moench

Likewise the yellow-flowered D. metel 'Chlorantha' has acquired such superfluous cultivar names as 'Ballerina Yellow'.

Poison

All parts of Datura plants contain dangerous levels of highly poisonous tropane alkaloids Meteloidine and it's Angelate ester and Datumetine and may be fatal if ingested by humans or other animals, including livestock and pets. In some places, it is prohibited to buy, sell, or cultivate Datura plants.^[4]

Datura metel may be toxic if ingested in a tiny quantity, symptomatically expressed as flushed skin, headaches, hallucinations, and possibly convulsions or even a coma. The principal toxic elements are tropane alkaloids. Ingesting even a single leaf can lead to severe side effects.

Criminal poison in Thuggee

The Thugs, gangs of professional robbers and murderers who wandered the roads of central India, would sometimes use preparations of Datura metel to stupefy the rich merchants whom they favoured as victims, before strangling or stabbing them. The English word thug traces its roots to the Hindi ठग (ṭhag), which means 'swindler' or 'deceiver'.^[11][12] Accounts of the Thugs written by early 19th century colonial authors tend to evoke an orientalist fantasy of a bloodthirsty (quintessentially) Hindu cult offering human sacrifices to the goddess Kali, while modern scholars tend to perceive the reality of Thuggee to have been more a matter of criminal activity undertaken for gain by organised groups of disaffected and recently unemployed soldiers of both Hindu and Muslim faith.

There were also occasional reports, from the earliest times, of gangs [i.e. criminal gangs active long before the advent of Thuggee] who poisoned their victims with Datura, which was commonly used by many Indian highway robbers to stupefy their victims. It seems to have been used [by the Thugs] only intermittently. One Thug described this technique of using the drug as the tool of "mere novices", implying that an experienced strangler should have no need of such an aid to murder.^[12]

Medicinal use

Datura metel is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is called yáng jīn huā (洋金花). However, the ingestion of D. metel in any form is dangerous and should be treated with extreme caution. According to Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, Datura metel is banned in India except for use in Ayurvedic medicine.

Entheogen

Datura Linnaeus...The important narcotic species of the Old World is Datura metel. Early Sanskrit and Chinese writings report a hallucinogen that has been identified with this species, and it was probably D. metel that the Arabian Avicenna mentioned as a drug called jouz-mathel in the eleventh century...The epithet Datura was taken by Linnaeus from the vernacular name dhatura or dutra in India, where knowledge of the intoxicating effects of the plant go back to prehistory...This species, of which there are several rather distinctive types, is indigenous to Asia but now ranges widely in tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa and America.^[13]

Schultes and Hofmann in 1979 in the second edition of The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens were confident in their assertion of an Asiatic origin and history of use in India stretching back to Vedic period for Datura metel. Considering its allegedly recent introduction to the Old World from the New, beginning in the sixteenth century, Datura metel has indeed been integrated with remarkable thoroughness into the religious and magical practices of Asia and Africa as an intoxicant and entheogen.

Schultes and Hofmann later devote much of a chapter in their 1980 work Plants of the Gods on the use of Datura as a hallucinogen to Chinese, Indian and African practices involving the use of Datura metel as diverse as its employment in Taoist magic, in the worship of the Hindu deity Shiva and in the magical rites of the Eritrean Kunama people. They quote the oft-repeated idea that the plant is to be equated with the herb Jouz-mathal (= "metel-nut"), described in the eleventh-century writings of Persian polymath Avicenna (drawing in turn upon the work of Dioscorides), and thus has an Old World pedigree predating Columbus's arrival in the New. It is certainly the case that D. metel is not one of the species mentioned as being used in the ancient Datura cults of the southwestern U.S.A. and Mexico - a result possibly of its lacking the large, tuberous roots of the desert-adapted Datura species. A great deal of work undoubtedly still remains to be done on the unraveling of the early history and folklore of the plant and its wide dissemination in lands far from its place of origin.^[14]

Controversy over the country of origin

German expert on hallucinogenic plants Christian Rätsch asserts an Asiatic origin for Datura metel. Rätsch bases his contention on the research of Hungarian scholar Dr. Bulcsu Siklós, an authority on Vajrayana, the wrathful deity Bhairava and other aspects of Buddhism at London's SOAS.^[15] Siklós claims that references to the use of the plant may be found in the Vajra-mahabhairava-tantra (= "diamond-thunderbolt Tantra of the great and terrible one" (i.e. of the wrathful Shiva conceived of as a bodhisattva)), the Vamana Purana, the Garuda Purana, the Matsya Purana, the Amarakosha and the Kama Sutra of Vātsyāyana.

The occurrence of a plant known as da dhu ra is investigated in the pre-11th century Vajra-mahabhairava-tantra, an Indian Buddhist tantric text existent in Tibetan translation. Internal evidence from the texts, and linguistic evidence, identifying da dhu ra as Datura metel is given despite current certainty of the New World origin of the genus Datura.^[16]

The Vajra-mahabhairava-tantra deals with the rituals of the wrathful Buffalo-headed deity Vajrabhairava (a manifestation of the Buddhist Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī). Notable amongst these many and varied rituals are a set of five, three from the 2nd chapter and two from the 4th. These all contain references to a plant known in the Tibetan text as da dhu ra.^[16]

The argument for an Indian origin for D. metel advanced in Siklós's paper hinges on the identity of the plant da dhu ra and an unbroken continuity of nomenclature for the said plant. To establish his contention as fact, a researcher would have to prove that the plant first designated by the name da dhu ra was indeed D. metel (this necessarily involving, at the very least, a rudimentary description of the plant's anatomy) and that the name da dhu ra was not first applied to an unrelated plant and only later applied to D. metel at a time compatible with its introduction from the Americas by Europeans. None of the five extracts translated by Siklós provide a description of da dhu ra, although some mention its Datura-like effect of causing insanity. Of the extracts, the third ('C') is the most relevant in this context:

Then, if the mantrin wants to drive someone insane, he takes Datura fruit and, mixing it with human flesh and worm-eaten sawdust, offers it in food or drink. He recites the mantra and that person will instantly go insane and then die within seven days.^[16]

Siklós does offer a linguistically unbroken pedigree for the Indian word ancestral to Linnaeus's genus name Datura, beginning with the Prakrit form dhattūra, which can date from no later than the eighth century C.E., long before the time of Christopher Columbus. Siklós himself, however, acknowledges the weakness in his theory occasioned by the lack of the most rudimentary description of da dhu ra anywhere in the five extracts that he translates:

A member of the Solanaceae certainly suggests itself as a suitable candidate, but through lack of any physical description of the plant the quoted passages can at best only suggest the identification of da dhu ra as Datura metel on the basis of toxic effects common to other Indian Solanaceae. Nonetheless, the Vajra-mahabhairava-tantra occurrences at least provide a roughly datable (and definitely pre-Columbian) record of the word da dhu ra on the basis of which the linguistic evidence can be investigated.^[16]

However, the effect of causing insanity is not restricted to the Solanaceae. Furthermore, text extracts B and E refer to the lighting of fires the fuel of which is "Datura wood". Datura metel is a slightly woody species that would not yield enough wood for a substantial fire.

Siklós's paper approaches the question of origin from a cultural perspective, drawing on detailed knowledge of Tibetan Buddhism and the Sanskrit-derived languages of India, without addressing the botanical issues raised in such detail by Symon and Haegi.

Kew's Plants of the World Online continues to uphold Symon and Haegi's refutation of an Asiatic origin for Datura metel.

As commonly understood in current works, the drug plant genus Datura is very curious biogeographically. Seven to nine species are generally considered native to the southern part of the North American continent and adjacent islands, with five native to Mexico. The two remaining species are reputed to be native to other far-flung parts of the world: D. ferox in China and D. metel in Asia, while one of the American taxa D. leichhardtii is reputedly shared with Australia. A substantial body of circumstantial evidence is brought together to demonstrate that, like the other species, these last three are in fact native only to the Americas, from where they were introduced to the Old World by Europeans at an early date.^[6]

William Emboden, an expert on entheogens, voiced concerns similar to those of Siklós over the apparent antiquity of Indian use of Datura metel:

...our lack of knowledge of some of the earliest practices in the Old World, where the plant dates to prehistory...It is equally curious that the customs surrounding the use of Datura in temperate Asia at a very early date parallel those of contemporary native people of the New World.^[17]

However, Symon and Haegi point out two pieces of evidence showing that the supposed naturally disjunct distribution of the genus Datura is unnatural. First, the genus supposedly has a wide distribution and yet shows diversification only in the Americas, and second, the Old World species represent not a taxonomic unit in themselves, suggestive of independent evolution after isolation in Asia, but a cross-section of two sections of the genus Datura already present in the Americas: section stramonium (to which D. ferox belongs) and section dutra (to which belong D. metel and D. leichhardtii).^[18]

Introduction to India and Africa

10th century Nataraja sculpture. Note Datura flower (Sanskrit: शिवशखर Shiva-shekhara = "crest/crown/chaplet of Shiva") just visible protruding from right side of headdress.

Detail of 11th century chola bronze Nataraja sculpture. Note on the right (above crescent moon): clear depiction of the blossom of a double-flowered form of Datura metel.

Buds of triple-flowered D. metel 'Fastuosa', one of which at the approximately same stage of development as that portrayed in Chola bronze Nataraja shown above.

The only way of reconciling the religious/ethno-linguistic evidence of Siklós with the botanical perspectives of Symon and Haegi was the positing of a pre-Columbian introduction of Datura metel to India, satisfying the requirement for both a native distribution in the Americas and a cultural presence in India (and probably also Africa) of considerable antiquity. Such a solution that was hypothesized in 2007 in a paper by scholars R. Geeta (Stony Brook University) and Waleed Gharaibeh (Jordan University of Science and Technology),^[8] accessing evidence not hitherto available to western botanists (a lack freely acknowledged by Symon and Haegi in their paper of 1991 and noted by Siklós in his critique of their work). Such a hypothesis has seen precedent, the most notable case being that of the sweet potato Ipomoea batatas, for which there is widely accepted evidence for trans-Pacific introductions (both Polynesia-to-South America and vice versa).^[19][20]

Of the possible means of transport by wind, water, bird or human agency, the authors dismiss immediately scenarios involving dispersal by wind or via bird droppings as wholly implausible: the seeds of D. metel are not only heavy but also lack any specialised adaptation to wind dispersal such as a wing or a pappus, and the fruits of Datura are not juicy berries which invite consumption by birds. The authors settle upon transport by water as by far the most likely mode and, of the two scenarios involving water, human-mediated transportation being the more probable,^[21] although not ruling out a scenario whereby the buoyant fruits (and seeds possibly remaining viable after prolonged immersion in salt water) of Datura might have been carried to India by ocean currents.^[8] Another possibility is that Datura capsules might have been rafted naturally across the ocean on floating clumps of vegetation dislodged from their original locations, in the manner noted by Renner et al.^[21] to have occurred in the case of certain other plant species. As to specific ocean currents which could have transported plant material of D. metel from the New to the Old World, Geeta and Gharaibeh suggest that transport by the Gulf Stream followed by capture by the Canary Current could have brought the plant first across the Atlantic Ocean to Africa.^[8]

By contrast, a possible human-mediated route would involve first eminently feasible land transport from Mexico to Ecuador and Peru, borne out by observations of the ritual use of Datura in these South American countries.^[22] This would be followed by water transport across the Pacific Ocean from South America to Oceania (as is recognised to have taken place in the case of the sweet potato) and finally from Oceania to Southeast Asia and South Asia.^[8]

Sacred status in Africa

Map of the ethnic groups of Mozambique, showing, in yellow, the area inhabited by the Tsonga.

Tsonga river-rite: ritual bathing scene.

Young individuals of a species of Philothamnus, the genus to which belongs the sacred snake shihundje revered by the Tsonga and conjectured by Johnston to be seen in the mavala-vala vision of the initiatory Datura trance.

Documentation of the traditional use of hallucinogens in Africa has lagged behind that of such use in the Americas, so the use of Datura metel 'Fastuosa' by the Tsonga people (Shangana-Tsonga) of Mozambique and the Northern Transvaal in their khomba puberty school initiation rite - as recorded by Dr. Thomas F. Johnston - is of particular interest.^[23]

According to Johnston, Datura fastuosa (i.e. Datura metel 'Fastuosa') has the common name mondzo (alternative spelling mondjo, the name being shared also with the (unrelated) Combretum imberbe) in the Tsonga language and is a subspontaneous plant in the homeland of the Tsonga. Interestingly, in an (otherwise conventional) brief description of the plant he describes the seeds as being "blackish brown", rather than the pale, somewhat tawny shade of brown normal to those of Datura metel cultivars. The consumption by khomba neophytes of a potion prepared from the plant forms the culmination of three months of rituals which are timed to follow the May harvest and involve ritual bathing (immersion) and the performing of secret mimes, dances and songs.^[23]

The climactic Datura rite goes by the evocative name of rendzo ra mianakanyo (trans. : "journey of fantasy") and involves 'hearing' the voice of the fertility god and experiencing a hallucinatory vision of bluish-green colour patterns having the Tsonga name mavala-vala. This 'journey in spirit' is reinforced with tactile stimuli and vocal cues from one of their "schoolmothers" (acting in the role of psychopomp), the girls being ritually beaten with a Datura switch through the blankets in which they are lying swaddled, while being told repeatedly that it is the mavala-vala which they are seeing. Johnston hypothesises that the mavala-vala visions may be symbolic representations of a local (blue-green) snake belonging to the genus Philothamnus (Tsonga: shihundje), individuals of which the Tsonga believe to be manifestations of the divine. According this theory, the mavala-vala would be a vision of the serpent form of the very fertility god whose voice is 'heard' by the initiates of the khomba in their Datura-induced trance.^[23]

The rituals of the khomba puberty school are designed to prepare girls for child-bearing, playing out in highly-structured dramatic form the various aspects of female sexuality, with particular emphasis on fertility. A major symbolic theme in this transition from girlhood to womanhood is the crossing of a river, thoroughly in keeping with the sense in which initiation is always a symbolic death.^[24][23]

Further death symbolism is present in the Datura potion itself, which always contains a small amount either of human fat or powdered human bone - ingredients which traditionally feature in Tsonga witchcraft, but in this instance are intended to counter malign witchcraft aimed at blighting fertility. Johnston points out that it is this endocannibalistic element in the ritual and not Datura that has witchcraft associations in Tsonga culture, but points out that Solanaceous hallucinogens had very definite associations with witchcraft in Early Modern Europe.^[23] To this, however, might be added a further comparison with Early Modern European witchcraft, in which practitioners were accused of employing the fat from the corpses of unbaptised babies in the preparation of flying ointments infused with tropane-containing, hallucinogenic Solanaceous plants (and other toxic herbs).^[25] Again, the Tsonga and European practices are curiously reminiscent of the Tantric ritual to cause insanity.

Within a strictly Tsonga frame of reference, Johnston points out a marked similarity between a form of trial by ordeal known as mondjo (observed at the beginning of the 20th century by ethnographer of the Tsonga, Henri Alexandre Junod)^[26] and the Datura rite of the khomba puberty school which he observed himself in the course of the research he carried out during the period 1968-70:

In both instances, the Datura fastuosa potion was explained as containing either human fat or powdered human bone; the ceremony occurred by a river and involved a nearby tree; the patients formed a line along the ground; the officiant waved a head dress by vigorous shaking of the head...So far as is known, Tsonga use of Datura fastuosa is restricted to trial by ordeal (a suspect must survive a given dose in order to prove his innocence), and the described final rite of the girls' puberty school.^[23]

Johnston fails to note that the ordeal name mondjo is simply a variant spelling of the Tsonga name for Datura metel 'Fastuosa' as is made plain from a reading of Junod's account of this ritual, the full name of which is ku nwa mondjo (trans. "drinking the Datura (potion)"). The Tsonga consider their ordeal-by-Datura the supreme method for unmasking the supernatural witches known as baloyi. Baloyi are believed to inherit their uncanny powers through the maternal line, and these consist of the ability to separate their souls from their "bodies" and send them out to nocturnal gatherings where the working of all manner of evil is plotted - notably theft, murder and the enslaving of others. The 'noyi' or separable soul is believed to fly off to its evil assignation on great wings, like those of a bird or bat, while what remains behind on the sleeping mat appears to the uninitiated to be a sleeping human body, but is actually a second type of (material) soul - the ntjhuti or shadow, which Junod describes as "a wild beast, the one with which the noyi has chosen to identify himself". He cites an example in which a husband wounds such a spirit beast - in this instance a hyaena - at night, only to find that when his wife's wandering spirit returns in the morning it has been wounded in the leg, like the "hyaena". ^[26]

Junod does not actually fully identify the plant involved in the Tsonga witch-finding ritual:

The mondjo is a plant of the Solaneae [sic.] family which possesses intoxicating properties...it seems that the mondjo dries up the saliva of all who drink it, but, in the case of the truly guilty, this effect is greatly accentuated; the jaws become locked. They try to speak but can only say be-be-be-be (they stammer).^[26]

However, the intoxicating effect combined with a drying-up of the mouth referred to above points to a species containing tropane alkaloids, such as Datura, and the identity of the plant is established, many years later, by Johnston's linking of the name mondjo (under the variant spelling mondzo) specifically with Datura metel 'Fastuosa'.^[26][23]

In the early 1900s, the preparation of the mondjo drink was confined to a particular, small clan, the Shihahu, who lived on the left bank of the Nkomati river, not far from the sea and a little to the north of the Manyisa district of Maputo Province. The Shihahu cultivated the mondjo plant for use as the major active ingredient of their ordeal poison-cum-hallucinogen, although Junod notes that their recipe for the "magic philter" was "very complicated and intricate" and contained "several strange ingredients", of which the most macabre was purely symbolic, not psychotropic - namely a small amount of fat or bone from the body of a long-dead leper.^[26] If Johnston is correct in his conjecture that the Tsonga rite of female initiation is connected with the mondjo ordeal, the ingredients of the recipes for the respective potions involved may have been similar. In the context of active potion ingredients other than Datura metel 'Fastuosa', Johnston records the following of the fourth stage of the puberty school initiation which he witnessed:

Soon a screaming medium (a disguised "schoolmother") appears suddenly out of the bush, garbed in bandoliers of dried hallucinogenic agents (Datura fastuosa, toads' skins etc.)...^[23]

The potion employed in the puberty school rite was not necessarily a simple Datura infusion - the addition of toad skins would modify considerably a basic intoxication caused by tropane alkaloids, by the addition of bufotenine and other hallucinogenic tryptamines. Junod mentions only unspecified "strange ingredients" in the potion concocted by the Shihahu, but, in the light of Johnston's research, one such seems likely to have been toad skins, (and additional psychotropic plant species cannot be ruled out). Johnston does not specify the toad species involved and further research is needed to establish whether or not any of the species of amphibian native to Mozambique secretes psychotropic compounds in its skin.

Sacred status in Hinduism

The deity Shiva drinks the cosmic poison churned from the Ocean of Milk. Note the swollen blue spot in the throat of the god caused by transmutation of the Datura-engendering poison Halahala.

Devotees of Shiva making a milk offering of fruits and flowers on a yoni lingam. Note flowering bud of Datura metel on lip of carved yoni (below and left of small, brass pot).

Same ceremony as in image above. Note Datura metel fruit (prickly, green object, bottom centre, beside smooth, green fruit in channel at base of lingam).

Shiva remains in divine intoxication. Hence, his association with dhatūra or thorn-apple...which has hallucinogenic properties. Dhatūra is called shiva-shekhara, the crown of Shiva. It is believed to have emerged from Shiva's chest after he drank the deadly poison, halahal, produced during the churning of the cosmic ocean. Its leaves and fruit are offered to Shiva on special days.^[27]

The above is a quotation from a contemporary article devoted to Hindu liturgical practice and provides a rationale for the presentation of plant parts (often seed capsules) of Datura metel to the deity Shiva, integrated (no later, on evidence currently available, than the second century C.E.) into a much older mythological framework dating back to Vedic times. The Vedic myth referenced is that of The Churning of the Ocean of Milk (Sanskrit Samudra manthan), in which two groups of gods, the Devas and the Asuras, churn the Cosmic Ocean of Milk (Sanskrit Kshira Sagara) to bring forth treasures. In the course of the churning, the terrible, choking poison Halahala emerges from the ocean before the treasures and threatens to overwhelm the cosmos. Only the god Shiva is strong enough to swallow the poison, thus neutralising it, and, even in so doing, still requires the help of his consort, the goddess Parvati, who squeezes his throat to trap the poison there. Such is the potency of the poison that, even though Shiva is able to transmute it to make it harmless, it turns his throat permanently blue, so that, ever afterward one of his epithets has been Neelakanta - "the blue-throated one".

Gallery

• 

  Exposed root system of D. metel 'Fastuosa'

• 

  Glossy, black, forking stems bearing pale leaf scars

• 

  Underside of young leaf of D. metel 'Fastuosa' back-lit to show purplish pigmentation toward base of lamina

• 

  D. metel 'Fastuosa' developing bud, yet to open, showing characteristic purple striations of calyx

• 

  D. metel 'Fastuosa' - calyx lobes of bud open to reveal tightly-furled, pubescent, developing corolla

• 

  Detail of corolla of bursting bud, viewed from above, revealing pubescence

• 

  Triple-flowered D. metel 'Fastuosa' - first corolla fully extended, 3 corollas a tangle of claw-like teeth

• 

  Corollas part-open, stigma and stamens visible in centre

• 

  Datura metel 'Fastuosa' - fully-open, semi-double flower, showing protruding pistil

• 

  Extreme close-up of pollen-covered, three-lobed stigma, viewed in profile

• 

  Datura metel 'Fastuosa' - Mature flower, viewed from beneath to show ribbing of purple corolla tube

• 

  D. metel 'Fastuosa' - senescent flower, the yellowing calyx and drooping purple corolla soon to fall from young fruit

• 

  D. metel 'Fastuosa' detail of senescent flower: incipient abcission of faded fruiting calyx from frilled pedicel

• 

  Datura metel 'Fastuosa' - extreme close-up of base of fallen flower - calyx, corollas & pistil

• 

  D. metel 'Fastuosa': young, purple-black fruit, with purple pistil still attached, just after fall of senescent corolla and calyx

• 

  Extreme close-up of immature fruit of D. metel 'Fastuosa' shortly after fall of calyx, corolla and pistil

• 

  Datura metel 'Fastuosa' - tuberculate fruit nearing maturity

• 

  Ripening capsules of D. metel 'Fastuosa'

• 

  Single capsule (spiny variant) of D. metel 'Fastuosa'.

• 

  Irregular dehiscence of a ripe D. metel capsule, as described in the Sanskrit name छिद्रफल (chidráphala): "torn-apart fruit".

• 

  D. metel 'Fastuosa' Ripe capsules dehiscing irregularly by disintegration of fruit wall.

• 

  D. metel 'Fastuosa' in flower and fruit.

• 

  Pale-flowered form of D. metel 'Fastuosa' with particularly well-defined triple corollas, Thimmapuram, Tamil Nadu

See also

• Datumetine

References

Datura metel es un arbusto vivaz en zonas cálidas y anual en zonas con heladas que produce grandes flores en forma de trompeta de color blanco, amarillo o morado, muy vistosas y perfumadas. Son naturales del sur de China y de la India pero actualmente se utilizan como planta ornamental en jardines y huertos en todo el mundo.

Descripción

Es un arbusto que puede llegar como hasta el metro de altura. Las hojas de ovaladas y lanceoladas, con largos peciolos. Las flores son grandes, con forma de trompeta, erectas y muy olorosas. El fruto es una cápsula redonda y sin pinchos que contiene numerosas semillas.

Detalle de las flores

Vista de la planta

Usos

Se planta para delimitar las huertas o fincas. Los alcaloides que posee esta planta le confieren efectos narcóticos, alucinógenos y antidepresivos.^[1]​

Propiedades

• D. metel es una de las 50 hierbas fundamentales usadas en el herbolario chino, donde se llaman: yáng jīn huā (洋金花).
• Se usa en China para tratar el asma bronquial y dolores reumáticos.
• Por su contenido en alcaloide si se consume en grandes cantidades es tóxico y produce convulsiones e incluso el coma.

Toxicidad

Todas las partes de las plantas del género Datura contienen niveles peligrosos de alcaloides (muy venenosos) y pueden ser fatales si los ingieren los humanos y otros animales. En algunos lugares está prohibido vender, comprar o cultivar plantas del género Datura.^[2]​

Datura metel puede provocar síntomas entre los que se incluyen el dolor de cabeza, alucinaciones, convulsiones y coma .

Taxonomía

Datura metel fue descrita por Linneo y publicada en Species Plantarum 1: 179, en el año 1753.^[3]​

Etimología

Datura: nombre genérico que proviene del hindi dhatūrā ("manzana espinosa") por el aspecto de los frutos, latinizado. El nombre se utilizaba ya en sánscrito.

metel: epíteto

Sinonimia

• Brugmansia waymannii Paxton
• Datura aegyptiaca Vis.
• Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees
• Datura bojeri Delile
• Datura chlorantha Hook.
• Datura cornucopia auct.
• Datura dubia Rich.
• Datura fastuosa L.
• Datura fruticosa Hornem.
• Datura humilis Desf.
• Datura hummatu Bernh.

• Datura laevis Schkuhr
• Datura muricata Link
• Datura nanakii Pandeya & A.B.Bhatt
• Datura nigra Hassk.
• Datura nilhummatu Dunal
• Datura timoriensis Zipp. ex Span.
• Stramonium datura Noronha
• Stramonium fastuosum Moench
• Stramonium globosum Bubani
• Stramonium infernale Noronha
• Stramonium metel Moench^[4]​

Nombres comunes

• burladora, metel, talahiponai de Filipinas, túnica de Cristo.^[5]​

Referencias

Datura metel est une plante herbacée de la famille des Solanacées.

Elle est connue en France métropolitaine sous le nom de métel, à La Réunion d'herbe diable et aux Antilles françaises de gwo konkonb a chyen ou de karapat bata.

Synonymes :

• (=) Datura alba Nees
• (=) Datura chlorantha Hook.
• (=) Datura fastuosa L.
• (=) Datura metel var. fastuosa (L.) Saff.

L'origine du Datura metel est problématique parce que c'est une plante cultivée et sélectionnée par l'homme depuis très longtemps dont aucune forme sauvage n'est connue^[1] (c'est un cultigène).

Datura metel var Chlorantha : la fleur en fanant s'incline et tord plus ou moins le pétiole vers le bas, ce qui détermine l'inclinaison future du fruit

Historique

Sur la base des informations disponibles au milieu du XVIII^e siècle, Linné avait attribué une origine asiatique et africaine à Datura metel. Jusqu'à une époque récente, les études culturelles et historiques confirmaient que les divers Datura croissaient naturellement aussi bien dans le Nouveau que l'Ancien Monde.

Mais dans les années 1990, les études taxonomiques de David Symon et L. Haegi^[2] (1991) allaient entrer en conflit avec les données historiques. Ces travaux indiquent clairement que toutes les espèces de Datura sont apparues et se sont diversifiées dans le Nouveau Monde. Pour eux, les informations tirées des livres anciens reposaient sur des confusions et devaient être écartées. Les daturas de l'Ancien Monde n'auraient été transférés qu'à l'époque post-colombienne.

Dans la décennie suivante, les études mettent en évidence une similarité génétique et une relation phylogénétique forte avec Datura inoxia Mill., une espèce mexicaine. Si bien que cette similarité est tenue pour indiquer que l'espèce cultivée D. metel fut domestiquée à partir de l'espèce sauvage D. inoxia' ^[3],[1]. Cette domestication aurait eu lieu dans l'est de la Mésoamérique ou aux Caraïbes.

L'année 2007 marque le retour en force des historiens. Geeta et Gharaibeh^[1] produisent une analyse approfondie des textes arabes et indiens qui « conduit à la conclusion que Datura, probablement D. metel était présent en Asie du Sud vers le IV^e siècle, de nombreux siècles avant les premières visites des Européens en Amérique (inclus les voyages Viking, vers l'an 1000). De l'Inde, le Datura s'est répandu vers l'Asie de l'ouest et le monde musulman de la Méditerranée et a atteint l'Ibérie au XII^e siècle, soit trois bons siècles avant l'exploration de l'Amérique par Colomb. » Des graines de D. metel auraient donc été transférées de son aire d'origine vers l'Asie du Sud à l'époque pré-colombienne.

Description

Datura metel var. fastuosa, Jardin botanique de la reine Sirikit, Thaïlande

Datura metel est une plante herbacée ou subligneuse^[4],[5],[6], de 0,50 m à 1,50 m de haut, glabrescente. C'est une plante pérenne à racine tubéreuse^[1] qui est cultivée comme annuelle. Les tiges sont généralement teintées de violet ou de rouge noirâtre. Seules les jeunes pousses sont pubescentes, à poils simples, à la différence de D. inoxia dont les tiges et feuilles sont tomenteuses, à poils glanduleux.

Les feuilles portées par des pétioles de 2-6 cm sont elliptiques à largement ovales, entières ou à contour anguleux, à marge plus ou moins sinuée, membraneuses, à base tronquée, asymétrique. Elles font 5-20 × 4-15 cm.

Capsule avec graines ocre, jardin en Charente, France

Ses grandes fleurs solitaires ont une gamme de couleur impressionnante : blanc pur, crème, rouge ou violacé. Elles comportent un calice tubuleux de 4-9 cm de long, finement pubescent, une corolle infundibuliforme à 5 lobes, de 8 à 20 cm de long, souvent double chez les plantes cultivées, blanc crème ou à stries rougeâtres ou mauves. Elles sont donc de dimension très supérieure à la stramonium commune dans les champs de la métropole.

Durant le jour, les fleurs exhalent un parfum agréable.

Le fruit est une capsule, subglobuleuse, de 3-4 cm de diamètre, tuberculée ou portant de courtes épines de 2-5 mm, avec les restes de calice à la base formant une collerette haute de 2-5 mm. Il est en position dressée ou plus ou moins penchée. Les graines sont ocres à brun pale, de 3-5 mm.

Datura metel var. 'Chlorantha'

Écologie

Son pays d'origine reste débattu^[4]. Les études taxonomiques de David Symon et L. Haegi^[2]. (1991) suggèrent que l'origine doit être cherchée dans le Nouveau Monde. Mais les solides données historiques et culturelles que Geeta et Gharaibeh^[1] ont rassemblé à partir des sources arabes et indiennes militent pour une dispersion des graines, de son aire d'origine (la Mésoamérique ou la Caraïbe) vers l'Asie du Sud avant le IV^e siècle.

Naturalisée dans de nombreuses régions, le Datura metel pousse dans les terrains vagues et au bord des routes.

Il est cultivé comme plante ornementale en raison de la richesse de ses couleurs et de ses formes et comme plante industrielle pour l'extraction des alcaloïdes tropaniques.

Composition

Comme tous les daturas, le métel est riche en alcaloïdes tropaniques. Les feuilles renferment environ 0,5 % d'alcaloïdes totaux constitués principalement de norscopolamine, d'hyoscyamine et de météloïdine^[7]. La fleur^[8] contient 0,50 % de scopolamine, peu de hyoscyamine (0,03 %). La graine a le contenu le plus riche en alcaloïde.

Outre les alcaloïdes, les phytoconstituants^[9] principaux sont des flavonoïdes, des phénols, tanins, saponines, stérols (durastérol) et des agents antibactériens^[10]. Parmi les stéroïdes, il a été trouvé de nombreux withanolides^[11] (withametelins, withafastuousin A et B etc), des lactones stéroïdiques de la série ergostane.

Doncheva et coll^[12]. (2006) ont procédé à une analyse de 64 alcaloïdes tropaniques chez 7 espèces de Datura (et 5 espèces de Brugmansia) par Chromatographie en phase gazeuse-spectrométrie de masse ; le tableau ci-dessous donne un petit échantillon de leur travail.

Les racines manifestent un spectre d'alcaloïdes beaucoup plus large que les parties aériennes parce qu'elles sont le lieu où leur biosynthèse s'effectue.

Le composant principal des racines est l'hyoscyamine suivi par le 3α-tiglyoloxy-6β-hydroxytropane. Dans les feuilles, on trouve principalement des époxytropanes avec une substitution sur le carbone 3 : la norscopolamine, l'aposcopolamine et l'aponorscopolamine.

Utilisations

Le Datura metel est utilisé suivant la dose, en médecine traditionnelle, dans les rituels religieux ou pour l'ivresse récréative qu'il procure. La distinction des différentes espèces n'était en général pas faite dans les usages traditionnels mais la distribution régionale des espèces permet d'avancer des hypothèses.

D'après Symon et Haegi^[2], l'identification de Struchnon manicon du médecin grec Dioscoride (I^er siècle) avec un datura, faite au XVI^e siècle est erronée. Geeta et Gharaibeh^[1] confirment, après examen des sources arabes et indiennes, que les anciens Grecs ne pouvaient connaître le datura puisque la plante n'aurait été introduite en Asie de l'ouest que vers le IX^e siècle.

Fruit de Datura metel

• Médicinales

Datura metel et D. stramonium ont des usages médicinaux semblables un peu partout dans le monde^[13].

A Madagascar et en Afrique tropicale, le Datura metel est traditionnellement utilisé pour traiter l'asthme, la toux, la tuberculose et la bronchite. Les feuilles, les fleurs séchées sont fumées sous forme de cigarettes. La plante entre aussi dans diverses préparations sédatives pour calmer les patients atteints de troubles mentaux.

En Afrique de l'ouest (Sénégal, Guinée, Ghana, Nigeria), des cataplasmes de feuilles broyées sont prescrits pour les œdèmes inflammatoires ou les rhumatismes.

En Éthiopie, l'huile confectionnée avec les graines sert à masser les parties douloureuses.

Les graines sont aussi utilisées comme raticide (en mélange avec de la farine de sorgho) ou pesticide (contre les chenilles ravageuses, les puces, les chiques etc.).

En Inde^[14], une préparation faite de jus de feuilles de datura, de nimba (Azadirachta indica) et de taambula (Piper bettle) est appliquée sur l'eczéma (syndrome). Le jus des feuilles est aussi donné comme anthelmintique et antipyrétique.

En Chine, le Datura metel (yangjinhua 洋金花) est utilisé en médecine traditionnelle^[15] comme antitussif, sédatif de l'asthme et analgésique. Les feuilles séchées sont fumées à la pipe pour apaiser les crises d'asthme sans glaires. Avant l'apparition des anesthésiques modernes, de nombreuses préparations à base principalement d'aconit et de datura, étaient utilisées pour soulager les douleurs.

Au Mexique^[16] , les anciens Aztèques utilisaient toloatzin (datura) comme hallucinogène sacré et plante médicinale pour traiter les rhumatismes et les inflammations.

Le datura (toloache) est utilisé par les Huichol à des fins médicinales multiples. Seules les personnes respectant l'esprit de la plante étaient habilitées à l'utiliser.

• Rituels religieux

En Amérique du nord, les Navajos utilisaient le datura^[17] pour produire des visions et des prophéties. « Les shamans navajo employaient le Datura pour entrer en transe afin de communiquer avec l'esprit et d'obtenir un diagnostic et la prescription d'un chant nécessaire à la guérison » (Pratt^[16] 2007).

Le datura était aussi utilisé dans les rituels initiatiques par les Yokuts (Californie). Les initiés en prenaient pour que leur vie soit « bonne et longue ».

En Inde, le datura est associé au dieu hindou Shiva. Suivant Geeta et Gharaibeh (2007), dans le sud de l'Inde, où le datura est connu sous le nom tamoul de unmattan, il joua un rôle important dans l'adoration de Shiva aux IX^e - XIII^e siècle, durant la dynastie Chola. Shiva Nataraja, le danseur cosmique, est souvent représenté avec dans sa coiffure une fleur de datura. La pratique de consommer des boissons toxiques à base de feuilles de datura et d'offrir au dieu Shiva des fleurs de cette plante est toujours active dans le Maharashtra actuel.

• Culture ornementale

'Black Currant Swirl', Jardin botanique de l'Université de technologie de Delft, Pays-bas

Plusieurs cultivars^[18] aux fleurs doubles ou triples et aux superbes couleurs mauves ou jaunes ont été sélectionnées. On peut citer :

• 'Fastuosa' ou 'Black', 'Black Currant Swirl' aux fleurs mauves
• 'Chlorantha' aux fleurs jaune pale

Il se multiplie à partir de semis et se ressème spontanément.

Il préfère les sols argileux ou limoneux, bien drainés et fertiles, en position très ensoleillée. Parfaitement adapté à la sécheresse, il est sensible à l'excès d'eau qui provoque la pourriture du collet. On doit éviter les apports de fumier qui favorise le développement des champignons pathogènes des racines et du collet^[4].

• Plantation industrielle

La culture industrielle de Datura metel a été développée dans certains pays africains, en Inde, en Chine et Australie pour produire des alcaloïdes tropaniques^[13].

Environ 4 mois après le semis, lorsque la floraison débute, la récolte des rameaux et des jeunes feuilles s'effectue. Les fruits se récoltent à maturité. La teneur en alcaloïdes atteint un pic pendant la saison chaude car un éclairement intense et de longue durée favorise l'accumulation de scopolamine^[19].

Notes et références

Kecubung (Datura metel) adalah tumbuhan berbunga anggota suku Solanaceae, tumbuhan ini masih sekerabat dengan datura, tumbuhan hias dengan bunga berbentuk terompet yang besar. Kecubung biasanya berbunga putih dan atau ungu, tetapi hibridanya berbunga aneka warna. Diperkirakan tanaman ini pertama kali dipakai sebagai obat-obat pada abad kesepuluh. Kecubung ada yang berasal dari Asia Tenggara, tetapi ada juga yang berasal dari Benua Amerika.

Kecubung tumbuh di tempat yang beriklim panas dan dibudidayakan di seluruh belahan dunia karena khasiat yang dikandungnya dan juga untuk tanaman hias. Pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Linnaeus pada tahun 1753, tetapi secara botani masih belum tepat mengenai gambaran dan penjelasan tentang kecubung. Wilayah asal yang menjadi sumber tanaman ini tidak dapat diketahui secara pasti.^[1] Bagian-bagian kecubung, tetapi terutama bijinya, mengandung alkaloid yang berefek halusinogen.

Galeri

• tumbuhan kecubung

• Bunga

• Buah kecubung

• Bunga (lebih dekat)

Referensi

• Blanchan, Neltje (2005). Wild Flowers Worth Knowing. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.

Pranala luar

• Media yang berhubungan dengan Kecubung di Wikimedia Commons.
• Photos of Datura metel
• USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN): Datura metel L.
• American Brugmansia and Datura Society
• Poisonous Plants of North Carolina: Datura Metel

La tromba del Diavolo o noce metella (Datura metel L.) è una pianta a fiore appartenente alla famiglia delle Solanacee (Angiosperme Dicotiledoni).^[1]

Datura metel var. fastuosa

Come altre specie del genere Datura (Datura stramonium, Datura inoxia etc.) è una pianta altamente velenosa a causa dell'elevata concentrazione di potenti alcaloidi tropanici, presenti in tutti i distretti della pianta e principalmente nei semi.

Descrizione

Originaria della Cina, detta la tromba del Diavolo a causa della sua foggia e della sua alta tossicità, erbacea perenne dalle radici carnose, il fusto raggiunge i 2 m, con grandi foglie di colore grigio-verde, i fiori semplici profumati, a forma di tromba, con corolla a 10 lobi di colore bianco a volte sfumato viola, o in alcune varietà a fiore doppio di colore viola o porpora scuro, con l'interno candido.

Note

Pokok Kecubung ialah sejenis pokok renek herba semusim dalam famili Solanaceae yang berasal dari China. Nama sainsnya Datura Metel (Linn).

Tinggi Pokok Kecubung selalunya kurang daripada 2 meter. Batangnya keras berkayu dan cabangnya membentuk rumpun. Bunga kecubung membentuk serombong yang besar dan boleh dijumpai dalam saiz dan warna yang berbeza. Warnanya yang biasa dijumpai ialah ungu dan putih; ada juga yang berwarna kuning dan oren. Buahnya pula berwarna coklat dan mempunyai duri-duri halus di luarnya. Ia membiak melalui biji benih dan keratan batang.

Kini Pokok Kecubung banyak ditanam sebagai tumbuhan hiasan kerana bunganya yang cantik dan unik. Jenis yang biasa dijumpai ialah:

• Pokok Kecubung
• Pokok Kecubung Kecil
• Pokok Kecubung Putih (Datura stramonium).

Kegunaan perubatan

Pokok Kecubung ialah salah satu daripada 50 herba asas yang digunakan dalam herbologi Cina dan dipanggil mereka sebagai yáng jīn huā (洋金花).

Kecubung adalah beracun jika dimakan pada jumlah yang besar. Gejala-gelajanya termasuk kulit yang merah, sakit kepala, halusinasi, dan mungkin konvulsi (iaitu menggigil-gigil dan terkejang-kejang) serta juga keadaan koma. Unsur-unsur toksiknya yang utama ialah alkaloid-alkaloid tropana.

Kandungan kimia dalam kecubung ialah: hiosin, oksalik, lemak, dan hyosiamin. Kecubung putih ialah kecubung yang paling beracun sekali kerana ia mengandungi sebatian alkaloid beladona. Penggunaan segala ubat dari kecubung terhad untuk kegunaan luar sahaja.

Lihat juga

• Senarai pokok

Pautan luar

• http://melur.com/myherba.asp?plant_id=99

Bieluń surmikwiat (Datura metel L.) – gatunek rośliny jednorocznej z rodziny psiankowatych. Występuje w strefie międzyzwrotnikowej obu Ameryk, od dawna introdukowany i zdziczały w krajach tropikalnych i subtropikalnych Azji i Afryki^[3].

Morfologia

Owłosiona roślina o wysokości do 1,2 m, z łodygą często fioletowo nabiegłą. Duże liście osadzone są na ogonkach długości 2-6 cm, a ich sercowata lub jajowata blaszka liściowa o asymetrycznej nasadzie osiąga do 20 cm długości i 15 cm szerokości. Liście na brzegu są nieregularnie zatokowo-ząbkowane, na szczycie zaostrzone. Kwiaty okazałe, wzniesione. Wyrastają na szypułce długości 1 cm. Kielich rurkowaty o długości 4–9 cm. Korona kwiatowa w górnej części lejkowato poszerzona, barwy białej, żółtej lub jasno purpurowej, osiąga do 20 cm długości i 6–10 cm średnicy. W kwiecie znajduje się 5 pręcików i 1 słupek. Kwitnięcie trwa od lipca do października. Owocem jest torebka zwisająca, kulistawa, o średnicy ok. 3 cm. Nasiona o średnicy ok. 3 mm, jasnobrązowe^[3].

Zastosowanie

Roślina uprawiana do celów ozdobnych na rabaty i kwiat cięty oraz w celach leczniczych. Rozmnażanie za pomocą nasion^[4].

Przypisy

Datura metel é uma espécie de planta herbácea da família Solanaceae, anual ou bienal, de aspecto arbustivo, com até 3 m de altura, com grandes flores em forma de trombeta de coloração branca, violácea ou amarelada. A espécie é natural do sul da China e da Índia, mas encontra-se disseminada por diversas regiões temperadas e subtropicais onde é utilizada como planta medicinal^[1] e como planta ornamental em jardins e hortos. Encontra-se localmente naturalizada em diversas regiões temperadas. As suas folhas são ricas em alcalóides, sendo utilizadas na composição de diversos produtos fitoterapêuticos.

Descrição

D. metel é uma planta herbácea, arbustiva, com até 3 metros de altura. As folhas são de ovaladas a lanceoladas, com longos pecíolos. As flores são grandes, em forma de trombeta, brancas, amareladas ou violáceas, com forte odor desagradável. O fruto é uma cápsula espinhosa, com numerosas sementes achatadas de cor cinzento-claro.

As folhas são utilizadas em fitoterapêutica pela sua riqueza em alcalóides, sendo ricas em escopolamina, a qual em geral reprecenta aproximadamente 0.2% em peso seco. Apresenta pequenas concentrações de atropina e hiosciamina e de alguns alcalóides menores, como a datumetina (um éster do tropanol com o ácido p-metoxibenzóico).

Estes alcalóides conferem à planta efeitos narcóticos, alucinogénicos e antidepressivos. ^[2]

D. metel é uma das 50 ervas fundamentais usadas na ervanária chinesa, na qual recebe a designação de yáng jīn huā (洋金花). Nessa tradição clínica, é utilizada para tratar a asma bronquial e as dores reumáticas. ^{[3] [4]}

Devido ao seu conteúdo em alcalóides, quando consumidos em grandes quantidades os produtos derivados desta planta são tóxicos, produzindo convulsões e coma.

Taxonomia

Datura metel foi descrita por Lineu e publicado em Species Plantarum 1: 179, no ano de 1753.^[5] A espécie foi tendo ao longos dos anos diferentes posições sistemáticas que, associado à sua polimorfia, levou a uma rica Sinonimia:

• Brugmansia waymannii Paxton
• Datura aegyptiaca Vis.
• Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees
• Datura bojeri Delile
• Datura chlorantha Hook.
• Datura cornucopia auct.
• Datura dubia Rich.
• Datura fastuosa L.
• Datura fruticosa Hornem.
• Datura humilis Desf.
• Datura hummatu Bernh.

• Datura laevis Schkuhr
• Datura muricata Link
• Datura nanakii Pandeya & A.B.Bhatt
• Datura nigra Hassk.
• Datura nilhummatu Dunal
• Datura timoriensis Zipp. ex Span.
• Stramonium datura Noronha
• Stramonium fastuosum Moench
• Stramonium globosum Bubani
• Stramonium infernale Noronha
• Stramonium metel Moench^[6]

Referências

1. L. 1753. Species Plantarum 1: 179.
2. Report (Annual) of the Board of Regents, Smithsonian Institution. Washington, DC 1920:547, t. 2. 1922
3. AFPD. 2008. African Flowering Plants Database - Base de Donnees des Plantes a Fleurs D'Afrique.
4. CONABIO. 2009. Catálogo taxonómico de especies de México. 1. In Ca. nat. México. CONABIO, Mexico City.
5. Flora of China Editorial Committee. 1994. Fl. China 17: 1–378. Science Press & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing & St. Louis.
6. Funk, V. A., P. E. Berry, S. Alexander, T. H. Hollowell & C. L. Kelloff. 2007. Checklist of the Plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb. 55: 1–584.
7. Hokche, O., P. E. Berry & O. Huber. 2008. Nuev. Cat. Fl. Vas. Venezuela 1–860. Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela.
8. Pérez, A., M. Sousa Sánchez, A. M. Hanan-Alipi, F. Chiang Cabrera & P. Tenorio L. 2005. Vegetación terrestre. 65–110. In Biodivers. Tabasco. CONABIO-UNAM, México.
9. Stevens, W. D., C. U. U., A. Pool & O. M. Montiel. 2001. Flora de Nicaragua. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 85: i–xlii, 1–2666.

Indisk spikklubba (Datura metel) är en art i familjen potatisväxter och trots det svenska namnet är den troligen ursprunglig i Västindien. Numera är arten naturaliserad i många varma områden. Den odlas i Sverige som ettårig utplanteringsväxt, vanligen som fylldblommiga sorter. Hela växten är giftig, särskilt fröna^[1].

Indisk spikklubba liknar mexikansk spikklubba (D. inoxia), men den senare är tätt luden, medan den indiska är mer eller mindre kal och har mindre taggar på frukterna.

Grupper

^[2]

Arten förekommer i ett antal urvalsformer, då dessa ofta förökas med frö och endast är delvis frökonstanta kan man lättast begriva dem som grupper, snarare än sorter. De sortnamn som förekommer på marknaden tycks vara ett virrvarr och det förekommer ingen registrering av namnen.

• Atropurpurea-Gruppen - blommorna är enfärgat rödaktiga, fylldblommiga.
• Chlorantha-Gruppen - blommorna är gula, fylldblommiga. Förekommande sortnamn är 'Aurea', 'Double Golden Queen', 'Double Yellow', 'Golden Queen', 'Golden Queen Frilled Double'.
• Fastuosa-Gruppen - blommorna är vita med violett utsida, fylldblommiga. Förekommande sortnamn är 'Black', 'Blackcurrant Swirl', 'Cornucopaea', 'Double Blackcurrant Swirl', 'Double Purple', 'Purple Hindu'.
• Flaviflora-Gruppen - blommorna är gula, enkelblommiga.
• Malabarica-Gruppen - blommorna är vita med rödaktig utsida, fylldblommiga
• Muricata-Gruppen - blommorna är vita, fylldblommiga. Förekommande sortnamn är 'Alba', 'Triple Whit', 'Triple Whit'.
• Obscura-Gruppen - blommorna är enfärgat violetta, fylldblommiga
• Rubra-Gruppen - blommorna är violetta, enkelblommiga.
• Sanguinea-Gruppen, blommorna är rödaktiga, enkelblommiga.

Sorterna 'Mr. Purple' och 'Violet Queen' liknar sorterna i Fastuosa-Gruppen, men är enkelblommiga.

Synonymer

• Datura alba Rumphius ex Nees
• Datura fastuosa var. alba (Rumphius ex Nees) Clarke
• Datura metel f. alba Chou

Atropurpurea-Gruppen

• Datura metel f. atropurpurea Danert

Fastuosa-Gruppen

• Datura hummatu var. fastuosa (L.) Bernh.
• Datura fastuosa L.
• Datura metel f. fastuosa (L.) Danert
• Datura metel var. fastuosa (L.) Saff.
• Stramonium fastuosum (L.) Moench

Flaviflora-Gruppen

• Datura fastuosa var. flaviflora O.E. Schulz
• Datura metel var. flaviflora (O.E. Schulz) Moldenke

Malabarica-gruppen

• Datura metel f. malabarica Danert

Muricata-Gruppen

• Datura hummatu var. muricata
• Datura metel var. muricata (Bernh.) Danert
• Datura muricata Bernh.

Obscura-Gruppen

• Datura metel f. obscura Danert
• Datura metel var. obscura Danert

Rubra-Gruppen

• Datura hummatu var. dubia (Pers.) Bernh.
• Datura hummatu var. rubra Bernh.
• Datura metel f. rubra (Bernh.) Danert
• Datura metel var. rubra (Bernh.) Danert

Sanguinea-Gruppen

• Datura metel f. sanguinea Danert
• Datura nilhummatu Dun.

Referenser

Noter

1. ^ Wigander, Millan (1976). Farliga växter. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell Förlag. sid. 78. ISBN 91-20-04445-3
2. ^ American Brugmansia & Datura Society Inc.

Webbkällor

• Flora of Pakistan - Datura fastuosa
• Svensk Kulturväxtdatabas

• Wikimedia Commons har media som rör Indisk spikklubba.
  Bilder & media

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Cà độc dược còn gọi là mạn đà la (hoa trắng), tên khoa học là Datura metel, thuộc họ Cà (Solanaceae).

Thân thảo, cao 1–2 m, sống quanh năm. Phần gốc của thân hoá gỗ. Thân và cành non màu xanh lục hay tím, có nhiều lông tơ. Lá đơn, mọc so le, phiến lá nguyên hình trứng nhọn, gốc phiến lá không đều nhau. Hoa mọc đơn độc ở nách lá. Cánh hoa màu trắng hay vàng, dính liền nhau thành hình phễu, dài 16–18 cm. Quả hình cầu, đường kính khoảng 3 cm, mặt ngoài có nhiều gai mềm, chứa nhiều hạt màu vàng.

Dược học

Trong cây (ở lá và hạt có hàm lượng cao nhất) có chứa nhiều ancaloit (hàm lượng toàn phần từ 0,2-0,5%), chủ yếu là scopolamin, còn có hyoscyamin, atropin và các saponin, flavonoit, tanin... với số lượng không đáng kể. Tác dụng dược lý chủ yếu là do các ancaloit: làm giãn phế quản, giãn đồng tử, giảm nhu động ruột và bao tử nếu những cơ quan này co thắt, làm khô nước bọt, dịch vị, mồ hôi.

Trong y học cổ truyền Trung Hoa, nó là một trong 50 vị thuốc cơ bản, với tên gọi dương kim hoa (洋金花).

Theo Đông y, hoa cà độc dược có vị cay, tính ôn, có độc, có tác dụng ngừa suyễn, giảm ho, chống đau, chống co giật, phong thấp đau nhức. Lá là vị thuốc ngừa cơn hen, giảm đau bao tử, chống say tàu xe. Ngoài ra còn điều trị phong tê thấp, đau dây thần kinh toạ, đau răng... Người ta thường dùng lá cuộn thành điếu hay thái nhỏ vấn thành điếu thuốc để hút (chữa ho, hen suyễn), dùng lá hơ nóng đắp điều trị đau nhức, tê thấp, hoặc phơi khô tán bột mịn.

Vì cây có độc tính cao nên chỉ dùng theo sự hướng dẫn của thầy thuốc. Khi bị ngộ độc, có hiện tượng giãn đồng tử, mờ mắt, tim đập nhanh, giãn phế quản, môi miệng khô, khô cổ đến mức không nuốt và không nói được. Chất độc tác động vào hệ thần kinh trung ương, có thể gây tử vong do hôn mê.

Hình ảnh

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Bài viết liên quan đến phân họ thực vật Solanoideae này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.

• x
• t
• s

• 1 Название
  • 1.1 Синонимы
• 2 Ареал
• 3 Ботаническое описание
• 4 Химический состав
• 5 Применение
  • 5.1 Лекарственное применение
  • 5.2 Ритуальное применение
• 6 Примечания
• 7 Ссылки

洋金花（學名：Datura metel）屬茄科植物，是中醫學常用的草藥，但具有毒性，不能過量服用。洋金花多數生長於村邊、路旁、荒地，在濕潤向陽的土地較為常見。此花有可能原產自東印度^[1]或美洲，在北美洲視為觀賞植物，而香港則稱之為「香港四大毒草」之一。^[2]

形態特徵

洋金花為一年生直立草本，約高0.5-1.5米，全株近乎無毛，莖呈深紫色。

葉互生，在莖上部呈假對生，葉柄長2-6厘米，葉身成卵形或寬卵形，長5-20厘米，寬4-l5厘米，葉身基部不對稱，頂端漸尖，側脈每邊約4-6條；葉邊全緣、微波狀、或具不規則短齒。

花直立而單生，一般生長於葉腋或枝叉間，花梗長約1厘米，花萼圓筒形，長4-9厘米，直徑2厘米；花冠呈漏斗形，有白色、淡黃色、淡紫色之分，長14-20厘米，檐部直徑6-10厘米，野生類種為單瓣，培植的種類則有二重瓣或三重瓣，裂片有短尖，短尖下有3條縱脈紋。

雄蕊有5枚（培植的種類可達15枚），花絲貼生於花冠筒內，長1-1.2厘米，而雌蕊則有1枚，子房疏生短剌毛，花柱11-16厘米，頭呈棒狀。蒴果近球形，直徑約3cm，外殼刺疏而短，不規則4瓣裂。種子近腎形，顏色淡褐，直徑3毫米。花期及果期為3月至12月。^[3]

與曼陀羅花的分別

洋金花（Datura metel L）與曼陀羅花（Datura stramonium）是生物分類法中的同一屬，外形亦十分相似。不過，曼陀羅花的蒴果是規則4瓣裂，花萼有5棱，洋金花蒴果則為不規則4瓣裂，花萼沒有棱。另外曼陀羅花的花冠亦比較細小。^[4]

醫藥用途及其毒性

维基百科中的醫療相关内容仅供参考，詳見醫學聲明。如需专业意见请咨询专业人士。

洋金花全株皆含莨菪烷類生物鹼，包括東莨菪鹼（hyoscine）、莨菪鹼（hyoscyamine）、阿托品（Atropine）這些物質有麻醉、止痛、鬆弛肌肉等作用。經製煉的洋金花的花可用作麻醉，只需口服3-5克，5分鐘就會發作，效力可長達5-6小時。如果服用過多，就會出現幻覺、中毒等病徵，嚴重者會致命。由於使用稍微過量便可致毒，故必須慎用。 從中醫角度，多數以花入藥，果、葉、根亦可，常於夏秋採集，洗淨曬乾備用。洋金花味苦、辛，性溫，有大毒，主治麻醉鎮痛、平喘止咳。而在古時印度，因為洋金花含有麻醉作用，能減輕症狀，所以會廣泛用作治療癲癇症、精神病、心臟病，甚至腹瀉等病症。而在越南有人將洋金花的干花和葉子卷成香煙吸食。^[5]

分佈

野生的洋金花常見於熱帶和亞熱帶地區，而溫帶地區則以人工栽種為主。在中華地區，台灣、香港、福建、廣東、廣西、雲南、貴州等地都常見野生洋金花，而江蘇、浙江，甚至北方城市都有人工培植。

別名

• 中文：白花曼陀羅、曼陀羅花、廣東鬧洋花、風茄花、大喇叭花
• 英文：Hindu Datura、Devil's Trumpet、Metel、Downy Thorn-Apple

图片展示

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• 
• 
• 
• Datura Metel L. 或 Matura fastuosa L.

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• 

參考

主要來源：

• 莊兆祥; 李甯漢. 《香港中草藥 第三輯》 1993年12月第5次印. 商務印書館（香港）有限公司. 1983年: 142–143. ISBN 962-07-3034-9 请检查|isbn=值 (帮助). 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)

外部連結

• 洋金花 Yangjinhua 藥用植物圖像數據庫 (香港浸會大學中醫藥學院) （中文）（英文）
• 洋金花 Yangjinhua 中藥材圖像數據庫 (香港浸會大學中醫藥學院) （中文）（英文）
• 洋金花 Yang Jin Hua 中藥標本數據庫 (香港浸會大學中醫藥學院) （繁体中文）（英文）
• L-天仙子胺 L-hyoscyamine 中草藥化學圖像數據庫 (香港浸會大學中醫藥學院) （中文）（英文）

チョウセンアサガオ（朝鮮朝顔、学名：Datura metel）は、ナス科の植物。園芸用にはダチュラの名で広く流通しているほか、マンダラゲ（曼陀羅華）、キチガイナスビ（気違い茄子）の異名もある。原産地は南アジアであって、「チョウセン」は、後述の通り特定の地域を表すものではなく、朝鮮半島原産という意味は持たない。日本へは、江戸時代（1684年）に薬用植物としてもたらされ、現在は本州以南で帰化・野生化したものが見られる。日本に渡来したのはシロバナヨウシュチョウセンアサガオよりも前だが、国内の個体数は少ない傾向にある^[1]。

形態[編集]

一年草。草丈は1mほどで茎はよく枝分かれする。葉は大型の卵型で、長さ10～20センチメートル、幅7～15センチメートル。夏から秋にかけて長さ10～15センチメートルほどの漏斗状の白い花を咲かせる。がくは筒状で、長さ4～5センチメートル、先が5つに分かれる。果実は球形で直径3～5センチメートル。短いとげが多数付いており、中に多くの種子が入っている^[1]。熟すと割れて種子を飛ばす。

毒性[編集]

経口後30分程度で口渇が発現し，体のふらつき、幻覚、妄想、悪寒など覚醒剤と似た症状が現れる。 ヒヨスチアミン Hyoscyamine， スコポラミン Scopolamine などのトロパンアルカロイド。毒性は他の幻覚薬物とは比較にならないほど強く、薬物中毒者ですら手を出さないレベルであるという。^[要出典]

中毒事例[編集]

• 家の畑から引き抜いた植物の根を使って調理したきんぴらを食べた人（2名）が、約30分後にめまい、沈鬱となり、以後瞳孔拡大・頻脈・幻視等の症状を呈して入院。ゴボウと「チョウセンアサガオの根」を間違えて採取・調理し食べていた。
• 1家族3名がチョウセンアサガオを誤食し、意識障害・幻覚などの症状を訴える。チョウセンアサガオの開花前のつぼみをオクラと間違え、かき揚にして食べていた。
• 家庭菜園でチョウセンアサガオを台木としてナスを接ぎ木し、実ったナスを加熱調理し喫食したところ意識混濁などの中毒症状を発症した^[2]。

人間との関係[編集]

薬用植物[編集]

チョウセンアサガオの薬効は、古くから知られており、中国明代の医学書「本草綱目」にも、患部を切開する際、熱酒に混ぜて服用させれば苦痛を感じないとの記述がある。 ベラドンナやハシリドコロなどと同様にアトロピンを含んでおり、過去には鎮痙薬として使用された。世界初の全身麻酔手術に成功した江戸時代の医学者である華岡青洲は、本種を主成分としていた精製した麻酔薬「通仙散」を使用していた^[1]。このことから日本麻酔科学会のシンボルマークに本種の花が採用されている。

薬用植物ではあるが毒性も著しく強く、「キチガイナスビ」といった別名を持つ。近年ではオウム真理教が「ダツラの技法」と称して信者を洗脳、自白させるための薬物原料に本種を用いたため、園芸名の「ダチュラ」にもマイナスイメージが付いた。^[要出典] 近年ではエンジェルズ・トランペットの名で園芸店で販売されている場合が多い。^[要出典]

名称など[編集]

和名のチョウセンは特定の地域を表すものではなく、単に海外から入ってきたものの意味とされる。また、アサガオの名を冠してはいるがチョウセンアサガオはナス科に属し、ヒルガオ科に属するアサガオとは別種である。単に花がアサガオに似ていることによる命名である。

注意点として、園芸関係ではキダチチョウセンアサガオ属（ブルグマンシア属、いわゆる「エンジェルズ・トランペット」の類）の植物をひっくるめて、区別せずに「ダチュラ」「チョウセンアサガオ」などと呼ぶ場合もある^[要出典]が、キダチチョウセンアサガオ属は木本化する多年草のグループであり、明確に種類の異なるものである。

出典[編集]

関連項目[編集]

• チョウセンアサガオ属

흰독말풀은 키가 작은 다년생 허브로서, 일반적으로 '악마의 나팔'(devil's trumpet) 또는 'metel'로 알려져 있다. 흰독말풀은 인도와 같은 전 세계 모든 온대 지역의 야생에서 성장하고 화학 및 인공 성분을 채취하기 위해 전 세계적으로 재배된다. 린네가 1753년 흰독말풀에 대해 처음으로 기술하였고, 식물학적으로 제대로 된 삽화나 설명은 아메리카 정착 이후에 이뤄졌으며, 원산지에 대해서는 정확히 알 수 없다.

초본은 한해살이로 약 1 미터 정도 자란다. 어린 잎은 잔털이 나고 종종 어두운 보라색을 띄고, 잎은 타원형 또는 넓은 타원형이고 종종 어두운 보라색을 띄기도 한다. 꽃은 직경 15~20 센티미터 정도이고, 상쾌한 향이 나며, 모양이 엄청나게 다양하다. 꽃은 단일 또는 이중 화관을 이룬다. 색상은 흰색에서 크림색, 노란색, 빨간색, 보라색에 이르기까지 다양하다. 씨방은 수많은 원추형 돌기로 덮여있다. Datura inoxia(가시사과)와 유사하지만 흰독말풀은 잎이 반들반들하고 열매는 우툴두툴하지만 가시는 없다. Datura inoxia(가시사과)는 곳곳에 털이 나고 열매에 가시가 있다.

약용

흰독말풀은 중국의 전통 의학에서 사용되는 50 가지 기본적인 약초 중 하나이다. 양 진 지앙(洋金花)으로 불린다. 그러나 흰독말풀은 어떤 형태로든 섭취하면 위험하며 매우 주의를 기울여 다뤄야 한다.

독성

흰 독말풀의 모든 부분은 위험 수준의 트로판 알칼로이드(매우 독성이 강함)를 포함하고 있다. 가축과 반려 동물을 포함하여 사람이나 다른 동물에 의해 섭취되면 치명적일 수있다. 어떤 곳에서는 흰독말풀의 구매, 판매 또는 경작을 금지하고 있다.

흰독말풀은 작은 양을 섭취해도 독성이 있다 증상으로는 피부 홍조, 두통, 환각, 그리고 아마도 경련 또는 심지어는 혼수 상태에 이를 수도 있다. 주요 독성 요소는 트로판 알칼로이드이다. 심지어 잎 한 개를 섭취하는 것만으로도 심각한 부작용을 초래할 수 있다.

블랙 다투라

흰독말풀(D. metel )의 품종 중 하나로, 광택나는 새까만 줄기를 가진 원예종이다. 꽃은 일반적으로 이중 또는 삼중 화관이며, 바깥 쪽 화관은 짙은 보라색을 띄고, 안 쪽 화관은 흰색 또는 미색을 띈다. 이스라엘에서는 이 원예종이 야생에서도 자라는 것으로 보고되었다(그림 참조). 블랙 품종은 그 조상인 흰색 꽃처럼 길가 어디서나 보게 될 지도 모른다.

'블랙', '블랙 커런트(까막까치밥나무) 소용돌이', '풍요의 뿔(Cornucopaea)', '더블 블랙 커런트 소용돌이', '더블 퍼플' 및 '퍼플 힌두' 등 여러 가지 품종이 알려져 있다. 붙여진 학명도 다음처럼 다양하다:

• Datura hummatu var. fastuosa (L.) Bernh.
• Datura fastuosa L.
• Datura metel f. fastuosa (L.) Danert
• Datura metel var. fastuosa (L.) Saff.
• Stramonium fastuosum (L.) Moench

특징

이 식물은 다음과 같은 특징을 갖고 있다.

• 체형 - 크고 곧바로 서고, 땅딸막함.
• 뿌리 - 잔뿌리가 달린 곧은뿌리.
• 줄기 - 속이 비었고, 녹색을 띠고 초본이며 강한 냄새가 남.
• 잎 - 단엽, 호생(어긋나기), 잎자루 있음, 전연(매끈하고 톱니가 없는 모양) 또는 심열(깊게 갈라짐), 반들반들하고, 단일 중앙맥의 그물 잎맥. 탁엽(턱잎) 없음.
• 꽃차례 - 취산 화서.
• 꽃 - 크고 녹색 빛 도는 흰색, 포엽 있음, 소포엽 없음, 꽃자루 있음, 갖춘꽃, 양피화(꽃받침과 꽃부리를 모두 갖춤), 오예화(꽃잎이 다섯 갈래로 갈라진), 바른모양, 방사상 대칭, 양성 및 씨방상위.
• 꽃받침 - 다섯 갈래의 녹색 통꽃받침, 겹치지 않으면서 맞닿은, 후방꽃받침.
• 화관(꽃부리) - 통꽃, 다섯 갈래로 갈라짐, 녹색 빛 도는 흰색, 주름 있음, 나선형 개엽(꽃잎의 한쪽 가장자리는 맞닿은 꽃잎의 안쪽으로 겹치고, 다른 한쪽 가장자리는 맞닿은 꽃잎의 바깥쪽으로 겹치는 모양), 입이 10개로 갈라진 넓은 깔때기 모양.
• 수술 - 수술 5개, 서로 분리, 꽃부리착생, 꽃잎을 대체하고 화관의 중앙 내부에 삽입. 저착꽃밥, 긴 수술대를 가진 꽃밥.
• 암술 - 이심피의 합성심피, 상위씨방. 기본적으로 2실이지만 거짓격막으로 4실이다. 심피는 비스듬히 있고 밑씨는 중축태좌에 불룩 쏫아 있다. 암술대는 길고 실모양임. 암술머리는 두 쪽으로 갈라져 있음.
• 과일 - 가시가 있는 캡슐 정수리 부분에서 네 쪽으로 갈라지고 꽃받침이 붙어 있음.
• 씨 - 배젖 있음.

참고 자료

• Wikipedia Datura metel