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Cascade Fir

Abies amabilis Douglas ex J. Forbes

Associations

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Foodplant / parasite
pycnium of Milesina blechni parasitises needle of Abies amabilis

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Description

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Trees to 75m; trunk to 2.6m diam.; crown spirelike, with age becoming flat topped, cylindric. Bark gray, thin, smooth, with age breaking into scaly plates. Branches diverging from trunk at right angles, short, stiff; twigs mostly opposite, darker brown abaxially, light brown adaxially, pubescence tan. Buds hidden by leaves or exposed, brown, globose, small, resinous (at least apically), apex rounded; basal scales short, broad, triangular, densely pubescent, usually not resinous, margins entire, apex sharp-pointed. Leaves (0.7--)1--2.5cm ´ 1--3mm, mostly 2-ranked, flexible, ± concealing the adaxial surface of the twigs (especially in mid to upper crown), some leaves forwardly directed, others usually longer and spreading horizontally, proximal portion ± straight; cross section flat, prominently grooved adaxially; odor pungent; abaxial surface with 5--6 stomatal rows on each side of midrib; adaxial surface dark, lustrous green, lacking stomates; apex prominently notched; resin canals small, near margins and abaxial epidermal layer. Pollen cones at pollination red, becoming reddish yellow. Seed cones cylindric, 8--10(--13) ´ 3.5--5cm, purple, sessile, apex round to nipple-shaped; scales ca. 2 ´ 2cm, pubescent; bracts included. Seeds 10--12 ´ 4mm, body tan; wing about as long as body, rose to tan; cotyledons 4--7.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Habitat & Distribution

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Moist, coastal coniferous forests; 0--2000m; B.C.; Alaska, Calif., Oreg., Wash.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
source
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
editor
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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eFloras.org
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eFloras

General Ecology

provided by EOL authors
The dense growth of Pacific silver fir provides cover and protection during the winter for wildlife. Old-growth stands provide habitat for mountain goat, northern spotted owl, Vaux’s swift, western red-backed vole, and the Olympic salamander. Seeds provide food for birds, rodents, and squirrels, while the leaves of growing shoots are browsed by elk.
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Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Pacific silver fir
amabilis fir
Cascades fir
lovely fir
silver fir
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Value

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More info for the term: cover

The dense growth of Pacific silver fir provides hiding, cover, and
thermal protection for wildlife [22].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Description

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More info for the term: monoecious

Pacific silver fir is a monoecious, long-lived, native conifer
[14,24,38,66,68]. At maturity, it can reach heights of 100 to 230 feet
(30-70 m) and diameters of 36 to 44 inches (90-110 cm) [24,26,38]. The
average maximum age for Pacific silver fir is 400 to 500 years on good
sites, and 250 to 350 years on more adverse sites. The maximum recorded
age is 540 years [14,59]. As Pacific silver fir becomes older, growth
is commonly deformed [57]. The crown is rigid and symmetrical with
lateral branches perpendicular to the stem [14]. Young trees have
resin-filled blisters protruding from the smooth, thin bark. The bark
of older trees is rough textured and flaky [6].

The needles grow from opposite sides of the branch, spreading
horizontally or brushed forward. The top is flat, grooved, and
"lustrous green", and the underside is stomatiferous and silvery white
[6,38]. Pacific silver fir has a second type of foliage on the
uppermost, cone-bearing branches. These needles are very sharp and
curved. The cones are stiffly erect, barrel shaped, and 3.5 to 6 inches
(8.9-15.2 cm) long [6].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

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Pacific silver fir occurs from extreme southeastern Alaska south through
western British Columbia, the Cascade Range of Washington and Oregon, to
northwestern California [6,7,51,55,60]. Pacific silver fir is also
found in the Olympic Mountains of Washington [6,7,38].
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Ecology

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More info for the terms: fire frequency, fire interval, fire regime, frequency, mean fire interval, severity

In the Pacific silver fir zone, fires are infrequent (fire interval is
500 years) because of the humidity and the high levels of precipitation.
Surface fires are usually of low severity [69]. Some stands of Pacific
silver fir show no evidence of having burned. Fire frequency is a
limiting factor in the range of Pacific silver fir [69]. Pacific silver
fir is a fire-avoiding species throughout all stages of its life [72].
It is extremely fire sensitive primarily because its thin bark and
shallow roots [26]. Its foliage is highly flammable [50]. The mean
fire interval for Pacific silver fir as a primary dominant is 192 years
[1].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Management Considerations

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More info for the term: natural

Slash burning and stump removal decrease site preparation cost [56] but
have considerable repercussions. Slash burning has negative effects on
higher elevation ecosystems because of their low productivity and the
difficulty of replanting [57]. It also destroys advance regeneration
and delays natural regeneration [23]. Ruth [57] states, "it is good
insurance" to protect advance regeneration in these higher elevation
stands. These areas have a short burning season.

Miller and Bigley [46] found that slash burning decreases the number of
conifers, including Pacific silver fir. Logging of Pacific silver fir
leaves a high residue volume which can become a high fire hazard. Some
ways to reduce slash loadings and fire hazard are to cut lower volume or
younger stands, and use more volume or yard cull logs to encourage
utilization (which is currently practiced on federal lands). These
practices may reduce the effects of slash burning on site productivity
and stand development [46].
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat characteristics

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More info for the terms: fern, herbaceous, shrub, vine

The climate throughout the range of Pacific silver fir is maritime to
submaritime [14,41]. Pacific silver fir is usually submontane to
subalpine [27,41]. It thrives in areas that receive a great deal of
precipitation. Average annual precipitation ranges between 38 and 262
inches (965-6650 mm), mostly in the form of snow [14,22,27,42]. The
average winter temperature is 26 to 29.8 degrees Fahrenheit (-3.2 to
-1.7 deg C), and the average summer temperature is 57.2 to 58.8 degrees
Fahrenheit (14-14.9 deg C) [14,71]. Pacific silver fir is absent in
coastal areas with dry summers [59]. There is a correlation between
growth, snow-free period, days above a certain temperature, absence of
frost pockets, and preferable sites for Pacific silver fir [32].
Pacific silver fir has a mild frost tolerance and poor frozen soil
tolerance because of its need for water during the winter [22,51].

Pacific silver fir is an indicator of very moist soils. It occurs on
soils in the orders Alfisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Histosols, and
Spodosols [51,67]. Soil parent materials include basalt, glacial till,
volcanic ash, pumice, and sedimentary rock [31,51,52]. Pacific silver
fir can grow where the water table is near the surface during the
growing season if the soil is well aerated, thick, and/or with wood
accumulations on top of the mineral soil [59]. Growth is successful
with thick humus present [59]. Soils are generally shallow, but soil
depth varies from 1.2 to 12 inches (3-30 cm) [27]. Soils are acidic in
the rooting zone (pH 5) [41]. Whatever the soil type, an adequate,
year-round water supply is very important. Often nitrogen and
occassionally sulfur are limiting elements in soils [32]. Soils rich in
magnesium and calcium indicate good sites for Pacific silver fir [42].

The elevation at which Pacific silver fir grows is quite variable. It
is more common at higher elevations but grows faster at lower elevations
[59]. Pacific silver fir occurs at a maximum of 7,000 feet (2,120 m) in
the southern part of its range and at a maximum of 1,000 feet (330 m) in
the northern part of its range [14,22,24,27,51].

Overstory associates not mentioned in Distribution and Occurrence
include noble fir (Abies procera), Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis), Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis), and
western larch (Larix occidentalis) [9.14,27,51,60]. Shrub understory
includes huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), Cascades azalea (Rhododendron
albiflorum), devils club (Oplopanax horridum), copper bush (Cladothanus
pyrolaeflorus), rustyleaf menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), salal
(Gaultheria shallon), vine maple (Acer circatum), and Oregon-grape
(Berberis nervosa) [9,12,15,28,52]. Herbaceous species are beargrass
(Xerophyllum tenax), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), twinflower (Linnea
borealis), queenscup beadlily (Clintonia uniflora), dwarf blackberry
(Rubus lasiococcus), rosy twistedstalk (Streptopus roseus), coolwort
foamflower (Tiarella unifoliata), deer fern (Blechnum spicant),
salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), vanillaleaf (Achlys spp.), and
evergreen violet (Viola sempervirens) [9,12,14,28,52].
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
221 Red alder
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Immediate Effect of Fire

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More info for the term: forest

Pacific silver fir has a low fire tolerance and is usually killed by any
forest fire [6,50,69].
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

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More info for the term: selection

Old-growth stands provide good mountain goat habitat [70]. Northern
spotted owls are dependent on the availability of old-growth stands for
nest site selection and sufficient prey [54]. Other species with a
preference for old-growth stands include Vaux's swift, fisher, western
red-backed vole, and Olympic salamander [60]. Small nongame birds
prefer late seral or old-growth Pacific silver fir stands [39].

The seeds of Pacific silver fir are eaten by birds, rodents, and
squirrels [59,63]. Pacific silver fir is the least preferred of trees
browsed by elk [33].
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Key Plant Community Associations

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More info for the terms: association, climax, codominant, forest

Pacific silver fir commonly occurs in late seral or climax mixed-conifer
stands [52]. Throughout its range the most commonly associated conifer
is western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). Pacific silver fir also
reportedly grows in extensive pure stands in parts of the southern
Washington Cascade Range [14]. Below are publications in which Pacific
silver fir is listed as a dominant or codominant species:

Preliminary plant associations of the southern Oregon Cascade Province [9]
Preliminary classification of forest communities in the central portion
of the western Cascades in Oregon [16]
Forest communities of Mount Rainier National Park [28]
Plant association of Mount Hood and Willamette National Forests of Oregon [35]
Forest communities of northern California [55]
Plant associations for the western hemlock zone [64]
Preliminary classification systems for the vegetation of Alaska [68].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Life Form

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More info for the term: tree

Tree
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: association, cone, density, duff, forest, phase, presence, root collar, seed, selection, severity, stratification, tree, tussock

Rotation periods for Pacific silver fir vary, depending on management
objectives. For mountain goat habitat, the recommended rotation period
is 90 to 110 years [70]. For other nontimber (i.e. recreational, etc.)
benefits, the suggested rotation period is 150 to 200 years. Commercial
rotations are seldom longer than 110 years [70]. After release by
logging or windfall, suppressed trees respond with immediate and
substantial growth [59]. At lower elevations in the Pacific silver fir
zone, Pacific silver fir usually sun scalds when used as leave tree in
shelterwood cuttings [26]. Sudden exposure to sunlight temporarily
reduces growth. By the third season, the exposed trees are growing
faster than those trees at the stand edge. As many as seven growing
seasons may be needed for Pacific silver fir to reach maximum rates of
branch and height growth [65]. The shade tolerance of Pacific silver
fir makes it a good choice for the selection method. The disadvantage
of this practice is that it appears to encourage disease [36].

The timing of cone collection (mid to late August) is important because
cones disintegrate as they mature. Felling and topping are not
successful collection methods. The cones are susceptible to molding and
heat build-up if sacked when wet [18]. Calcid flies (Pregastigmus spp.)
infect cones of Pacific silver fir [59]. Franklin [24] discusses a cone
drying schedule and seed storage conditions. Seeds are delicate and
their coats may be damaged when drying [16]. Edwards [17] reviews
techniques of seed extraction, viability, and germination testing.
Cleaned seeds range from 17,200 to 45,860 seeds per pound (7,800-20,800
seeds/kg) [14], and average 11,000 to 13,800 seeds per pound
(4,590-6,210 seeds/kg) [24]. A stratification period of 21 to 28 days
is required. Seeds should be sown in spring at a density of 62.5 to 125
per acre (25-50 per ha) and approximately 0.25 inch (0.64 cm) deep,
depending on the site [24]. Arnott and Mathews [7] discuss nursery
practice for Pacific silver fir. Highest stocking can be achieved on
bare soil [34]. Seedlings planted in logged areas have done poorly [6].

Gessel and Klock [31] report that fertilizer contributes significantly
to growth of Pacific silver fir on poor sites, but Packee and others
[51] disagree. During the seedling stage when growth is slow,
fertilizer may be more effective than during other stages [52]. The
application of nitrates are more beneficial to Pacific silver fir than
ammonia compounds [31,42,51]. Fertilizer combined with thinning results
in accelerated volume and radial growth [31].

Herbicides have various effects on Pacific silver fir. The effect of
glyphosate and granular and liquid hexazinone had little effect. 2,4-D
ester, when applied at maximum rates in spring and late summer, had a
moderate effect on Pacific silver fir. Triclopyr ester had no effect
when applied in summer [10].

Pacific silver fir is damaged by mountain beaver, black bear, and
porcupine, which increases susceptibility to pathogens [56]. Wounds
result in wetwood, circular or radial shake, and frost cracks [3].

Pacific silver fir is among those species that are most seriously
affected by annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum). The
incidence of fungal infestations is higher in stands 200 years or older
than in younger stands [14]. Often a rotation of 40 to 120 years and
minimization of wounding trees will reduce intermediate entry of the
pathogen [22]. Airborne infection of Pacific silver fir is high
year-round [14]. Annosus root disease infects trees when roots grow in
contact with infected fungus food base. Other trees become infected
through root contacts. Air-borne spores colonize wounds up to 1 month
old [62]. Trees with this fungus show butt rot, retarded leader growth,
sparse and chloritic foliage, and distress cone crops; mortality may
occur [22,55]. Young stands can have high infection levels with low
severity damage [70]. The fungus and tree can "wall off" each other,
but once the tree becomes weakened, the fungus will invade [22].

After being weakened by annosus root disease, infestation by
fir-engraver beetle (Scolylus ventralis), silver fir beetle
(Pseudohylesinus sericeus), or fir root bark beetle (Pseudohylesinus
granulalus) is frequent [14,22,55]. When beetle populations are high,
Pacific silver fir may be attacked and killed before symptoms of
infection are found. These effects are enhanced during a drought [55].
Annosus root disease also causes stem decay [22].

The most reliable way to diagnose Annosus root disease is by the
presence of conks, or fruiting bodies, found in the duff layer at the
root collar on the outer bark. Ectotrophic mycelium on the roots cannot
be used in diagnosing annosus root disease [55].

To prevent damage to trees during logging, options include using
rubber-tired skidders, working with a proven crew, and afterwards,
treating remaining stumps with a registered pesticide to prevent its use
as a food source [62]. At the time of logging, stump removal to reduce
innoculum in the soil is useful in preventing further contamination
[62]. Borax application can be part of timber sales contracts when this
treatment is considered appropriate [70]. Saplings and pole-sized trees
are too small to be effective innoculum sources. Management should
involve reducing mortality, thinning fir trees at least 25 feet (7.5 m)
from dead trees, and minimizing wounding during salvage logging [22].

Armillaria (Armillaria ostoyae) is often a secondary pathogen of trees
infected with annosus root disease [55]. Pacific silver fir is
moderately susceptible to Armillaria. In stands with smaller trees,
thinning those within 25 feet (7.5 m) of dead trees, reducing mortality,
and minimizing wounding is helpful. Prescribed burning may slow
Armillaria growth [22]. Shoestring rot (Armillaria mellea) is also
detrimental to Pacific silver fir [14].

Fungi found in advance regeneration of Pacific silver fir are Indian
paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) and Stereum sanguinolentum [20].
Indian paint fungus has been located on healthy stems and encased branch
piths of suppressed Pacific silver fir. Decay is commonly found near
wounds [4]. Infection sites include small diameter branch stubs between
50 and 60 years of age [4]. Indian paint fungus has a dormant phase,
which occurs when wounded tissues heal [4]. When trees receive a new
injury, the fungus resumes growth [3]. Indian paint fungus is most
easily recognized by the presence of conks or slow decay in old large
wounds [22]. Stand rotation should be 150 years or less and wound
reduction activities should be practiced [22]. Filip and Schmitt [2]
discuss color recognition of Indian paint fungus and planning and
operational activities.

Pacific silver fir is moderately susceptible to laminated root rot
(Phellinus weirii), which creates forest patches of damaged or dead
trees when abundant [15]. Infected trees in sawtimber-sized stands
should be removed, followed with stump removal or replacement with
disease-tolerant species. Air-drying the stumps kills the fungi. Fire
is ineffective against annosus root disease, Armillaria, and laminated
root rot [56].

Potebniamyces dieback (Phacidium balsamicola) causes small branch
dieback and swelling at the girdling point but does not cause
significant losses. Treatment involves spacing severely infected trees
at precommercial thinning levels. For white-spored rusts (Uredinopsis
spp.), site preparation procedures should avoid encouraging the growth
of alternate hosts. In severe cases, it may be necessary to apply
herbicide to alternate hosts. There is no management practice known for
Virgilla robusta and Abies rust (Pucciniatrum spp.), except to minimize
the number of alternate hosts of Abies rust during site preparation.
Other fungi prevalent in fir stands include Caloscypha fulgens,
Sirococcus blight, and Sirococcus strobilinus [62].

Pacific silver fir is also susceptible to western spruce budworm
(Choristeneura occidentalis), Douglas-fir tussock moth (Orygia
pseudotsugata), and fir-engraver beetle [22,35]. The effects of these
pests can be alleviated by the application of fertilizer, and minimized
by variation of stand structure and by planting pest-tolerant species
[22]. At sites of western spruce budworm infestation, treatment should
decrease the number of vulnerable trees and should increase the number
of young trees by lowering maximum tree sizes. Ambrosia beetles
(Trypodendron lineatum and Gnathotrichus sulcatus) can be captured with
pheromone, multifunnel traps in late June when the beetles are flying.
Harvesting should be planned so that logs are not left on the ground to
be attacked by ambrosia beetles [45]. One of the most devastating pests
to Pacific silver fir is balsam woolly aphid (Adelges piceae) [14,57].
Infested trees appear swollen, with gouty twigs, poor crowns, and little
growth; death occurs within 2 to 3 years [22]. Infested trees have
mottled-red foliage, distinct "crown lean", and appear to die from the
top down. Trees greater than 28 inches (71 cm) in d.b.h. sustain the
most damage among the dominant crown classes [29]. In order to protect
nearby stands, the advance regeneration must be destroyed and the site
should be returned to a seral habitat, such as western hemlock [56].

Pacific silver fir is a secondary host for dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium
tsugense and Arceuthobium abietinum) [14]. Dwarf mistletoes cause
growth loss and tree mortality when in association with canker fungi
(Cytospora abietis). The key management practices should be detection,
evaluation, prevention, and suppression. Living infected residues
should be killed before susceptible regeneration reaches 3 feet (0.9 m)
or 10 years of age [22]. Ruth [57] suggests removing the overstory and
burning seedlings and other residue material in seedling infected
stands. Slash burning may be one of the most effective tools to
eliminate dwarf mistletoe. Special site preparation and herbicides may
also be useful tools for treatment [56].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

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AK CA OR WA BC
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Other uses and values

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Pacific silver fir is grown as an ornamental [51]. It is a major
component of recreational and wilderness areas [14].
license
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bibliographic citation
Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Phenology

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More info on this topic.

More info for the term: seed

Pacific silver fir has a 2-year reproductive cycle. In May of the first
year, buds are initiated; differentiation follows in July.
Megagametophytes and ovuliferous scales are initiated in mid-July and
mid-August, respectively. Both are dormant by November and remain
dormant until April of the second year, at which time development of the
pollen-cone and seed-cone buds is resumed [63]. Pollination occurs in
May and is well synchronized with female receptivity [14,63].
Fertilization occurs in early July, 4 to 5 weeks after pollination. In
early August, meristems and cotyledons of embryos develop and mature by
the end of the month. Cones change from green to purple at maturity
[6,63]. As cones mature, they disintegrate before the seed can be
dispersed, which occurs in September and October [24,63].

Germination occurs in the spring [14]. Juvenile growth ranges from 4 to
16 inches (10-40 cm) per year [14]. Advance regeneration is quite
sturdy but grows slowly. Terminal growth averages 19.9 (49.7 cm) per
year [14].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Plant Response to Fire

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More info for the term: seed

Pacific silver fir germinates on exposed mineral soils, but its seed
often travels only a short distance onto the site [56]. Burned soils
have radical temperature fluctuations, which may prevent Pacific silver
fir from establishing on burned sites. One year after the 1978 Hoh fire
in the Olyumpic Mountains, Pacific silver fir seedlings were found at a
great concentration, but they did not appear as healthy as other
seedlings [2]. Slash burning increases the time for Pacific silver fir
to reach 60 percent stocking rate [23].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Post-fire Regeneration

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More info for the terms: root crown, secondary colonizer

Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: cone, dispersion, frequency, fresh, litter, seed

Pacific silver fir reproduces only from seed [14]. Seed production
begins at 20 to 30 years of age [14]. There are approximately 400 seeds
per cone; percentage of sound seed ranges from 6.3 to 35 percent
[14,24]. Good seed crops are generally produced every 2 to 3 years
[14,59], but intervals between good seed crops may be as long as 6 years
according to some reports [17,25]. Production of seed is poor due to
the high frequency of low pollen production years [14]. Complete crop
failures sometimes occur [59].

Pacific silver fir requires 2 years to complete its reproductive cycle
[63]. It is capable of self-fertilization [14,38]. Wind dispersion of
seed is inefficient because of seed size and cone disintegration [59].
Germination occurs in the spring. Germination can occur on a variety of
substrates such as litter, rotten wood, moss, organic and mineral soils,
and fresh volcanic tephra. Cool, moist sites are optimal for
germination, but full sunlight produces maximum growth [14]. Pacific
silver fir takes 9 years to reach breast height on average sites [14], 5
to 9 years on more favorable sites, and up to 80 years when severely
suppressed [36].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
4 Sierra Mountains
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Successional Status

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More info for the terms: climax, dispersion, forest, seed

Obligate Climax Species

Pacific silver fir is a late seral or climax species in most habitats
[41]. In the mountain hemlock zone, Pacific silver fir succeeds species
such as Shasta red fir, subalpine fir, and grand fir [27].

Pacific silver fir is very shade tolerant and has low spatial
requirements [14,15,22,26,71]. Pacific silver fir can survive in the
shade and emerge in stands that are uneven-aged [51]. Due to
ineffecient dispersion of seed by wind, migration is slow [56].

Following disturbance, Douglas-fir and noble fir become established.
Pacific silver fir is the last to invade, sometimes 400 to 500 years
after the disturbance. After extensive forest fires, Pacific silver fir
may not become important among the large trees for 700 to 800 years
[61,69]. Eventually, Douglas-fir and noble fir fail to reproduce [27].
Often, almost all understory species are eliminated by shade, resulting
in an open forest floor [51]. Pacific silver fir is common in mixed
stands and rare in even-aged stands [59].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy

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The currently accepted scientific name for Pacific silver fir is Abies
amabilis (Doug) ex. Loud. Pacific silver fir does not hybridize with
its true fir associates. Some morphological intermediates of Pacific
silver fir and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) have been reported [42],
but these have proved not to be hybrids [14].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites

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More info for the term: tree

Pacific silver fir is a good choice among tree species for planting in
watersheds and locations with large amounts of mountain snowpack
[22,24,26,41]. It is also well suited for developments such as
campgrounds and trails [28].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Wood Products Value

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The wood of Pacific silver fir is soft, light in weight and color, and
has little odor or resin [14,26]. The wood is weak and has low
durability [26]. The most common uses of Pacific silver fir are light
construction frames, subfloor, construction plywood, sheaths, container
veneer, and pulpwood [14,24,26]. As a "white wood", Pacific silver fir
is a major export to Japan for business construction [24]. It is used
for Christmas trees and decorative greenery [14,24,26].
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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Chile Central
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Associated Forest Cover

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Western hemlock is a common associate throughout most of the range of Pacific silver fir, in the Abies amabilis zone and portions of the Tsuga heterophylla zone (9). Noble fir (Abies procera) is an important associate in southern Washington and northern Oregon. Other associates west of the Cascade Range are Douglas-fir, western redcedar (Thuja plicata), and grand fir (Abies grandis), with Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) important near the coast. At subalpine elevations in the Tsuga mertensiana zone (9), Pacific silver fir is associated with mountain hemlock, Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). Toward the eastern limits of its range, it grows with a mixture of coastal and interior species: western larch (Larix occidentalis), western white pine (Pinus monticola), lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, grand fir, and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii). Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis) is an associate in the extreme southern portion of its range. Extensive pure stands of Pacific silver fir have been reported in the Mount Baker and Mount Rainier regions and elsewhere in the southern Washington Cascade Range (40).

Pacific silver fir is a major species in the forest cover type Coastal True Fir-Hemlock (Society of American Foresters Type 226) (5). It is also found in the following types:

205 Mountain Hemlock
206 Engelmann Spruce-Subalpine Fir
223 Sitka Spruce
224 Western Hemlock
225 Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce
227 Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock
228 Western Redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-Fir
230 Douglas-Fir-Western Hemlock

Shrubs associated with Pacific silver fir are primarily ericaceous. Blueleaf huckleberry (Vaccinium deliciosum), Cascades azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum), and rustyleaf menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea) are common understory species at higher elevations; copper bush (Cladothamnus pyrolaeflorus) is important in subalpine British Columbia (2). Alaska huckleberry (Vaccinium alaskaense), big huckleberry (V. membranaceum), ovalleaf huckleberry (V. ovalifolium), and devilsclub (Oplopanax horridum) are widespread associates. At its lower limits of elevation, Pacific silver fir is found with salal (Gaultheria shallon) and Oregongrape (Berberis nervosa).

Common herbaceous associates are common beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), queenscup (Clintonia uniflora), dwarf blackberry (Rubus lasiococcus), strawberryleaf blackberry (R. pedatus), rosy twistedstalk (Streptopus roseus), coolwort foamflower (Tiarella unifoliata), and deerfern (Blechnum spicant). Rhytidiopis robusta is a constant bryophyte associate.

Major habitat types include Abies amabilis-Tsuga mertensiana/Vaccinium membranaceum-Rhododendron albiflorum on cold, wet sites at high elevations and Abies amabilis/Xerophyllum tenax on shallow coarse-textured soils at various elevations. Abies amabilis / Vaccinium alaskaense is a widespread type on modal sites. Abies amabilis/Rubus lasiococcus, Abies amabilis/Streptopus roseus, Abies amabilis / Tiarella unifoliata, and Tsuga heterophylla-Abies amabilis/Blechnum spicant are herb-dominated types found in moist habitats. The Abies amabilis / Oplopanax horridum type occupies wet, alluvial habitats (2,9).

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Climate

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Climate throughout the range of Pacific silver fir is distinctly maritime. Summers are cool, with mean daily temperatures of 13° to 16° C (55° to 61° F), and winter temperatures are seldom lower than -9° C (16° F) (35). Mean number of frost-free days ranges from 40 near tree line to more than 250 at low elevations (26). Length of growing season also differs from year to year at a given location. Mean annual precipitation varies greatly, ranging from 6650 mm (262 in) on the west coast of Vancouver Island to an extreme low of 965 mm (38 in) on the eastern side of Vancouver Island. Average annual precipitation in the Cascade Range is more than 1500 mm (59 in); winter snowpacks are as much as 7.6 m (25 ft) deep (9). A summer dry season is characteristic of this region, but Pacific silver fir is dependent on adequate soil moisture during the growing season. It is most abundant on sites where summer drought is minimal, such as areas of heavy rainfall, seepage, or prolonged snowmelt.

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Damaging Agents

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Pacific silver fir is easily killed by fire because of its shallow rooting habit and thin bark. It has lower resistance to windthrow than Douglas-fir, western hemlock, or western redcedar. It is susceptible to windthrow after heavy partial cuts (9), on the borders of clearcuts or partial cuts, and even in closed canopy stands during strong winds. Resistance to breakage from snow and damage by frost is moderate. The foliage of Abies amabilis and other true firs is more easily damaged by volcanic tephra than is the foliage of associated conifers (22). Several types of animal damage have been reported: heavy browsing by Roosevelt elk (34), bark stripping by bears in pole-size stands, clipping of terminal buds by grouse and rodents (13), and cutting of cones and cone buds by squirrels.

Pacific silver fir is susceptible to many types of insect damage. Seed chalcids (Megastigmus pinus and M. lasiocarpae) and cone maggots (Earomyia abietum) have been known to infest a high proportion of cones during good seed years (17). Western hemlock looper (Lambdina fiscellaria lugubrosa) and western blackheaded budworm (Acleris gloverana) are serious defoliators of mixed Pacific silver fir and western hemlock stands in British Columbia. Many other loopers are of minor importance; two species that cause periodic outbreaks the greenstriped forest looper (Melanolophia imitata) and saddleback looper (Ectropis crepuscularia). The western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) also feeds on Pacific silver fir in pure and mixed stands.

The silver fir beetle (Pseudohylesinus sericeus) and fir root bark beetle (P. granulatus) can be very destructive together and in combination with the root rotting fungi Armillaria mellea, Heterobasidion annosum, Phellinus weiri, and Poria subacida. The last major outbreak of silver fir beetles lasted from 1947 to 1955; it killed 2.5 million m³ (88 million ft³) of timber in Washington (12).

An imported pest, the balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae), is the most devastating killer of Pacific silver fir. Attacks on the crown by this insect result in swelling or "gouting" of branch nodes, loss of needles, and reduced growth for many years; attacks on the stem usually cause a tree to die within 3 years. Trees of all ages and vigor are susceptible, although some individuals seem to have natural resistance. In southern Washington, damage has been heavy on high-quality sites at low elevations, such as benches and valley bottoms (28). In British Columbia, heaviest damage is on similar sites below 610 m (2,000 ft). Pacific silver firs growing with subalpine firs at high elevations are relatively immune and suffer only temporary gouting. Spread of the aphid has been slow since the major outbreak of 1950-57, but infested areas remain a problem. No effective direct control methods have been found for forest stands.

Pacific silver fir is a secondary host for hemlock dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium tsugense) and can be infected in mixed stands containing western or mountain hemlock. A. abietinum also attacks Pacific silver fir and western hemlock; it is more common in central Oregon in the Cascade Range. Needle casts (Lophodermium uncinatum, Phaeocryptopus nudus, Virgella robusta) and rusts (Uredinopsis spp.) are common on reproduction in some localities in British Columbia.

Thinning studies on the west coast of Vancouver Island indicated that Pacific silver fir is more susceptible to Heterobasidion annosum root and butt rots than are western hemlock, Douglas-fir, or Sitka spruce. Airborne infection of Pacific silver fir stumps was not seasonal as in other species, and infection rates were high throughout the year (29). Pacific silver fir is also one of the Northwest conifers most susceptible to laminated root rot (Phellinus weiri) (27) and shoestring rot (Armillaria mellea).

Overmature Pacific silver firs are highly prone to heart rot, primarily by the Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) and the bleeding conk fungus (Haematostereum sanguinolentum). In British Columbia, Pacific silver firs were free of decay to age 75; then incidence increased with age to 11 percent at 275 years, 40 percent at 375 years, and 100 percent in trees more than 400 years (6). Released advance regeneration scarred by logging is rarely infected by heart rot fungi. In one instance, E. tinctorium was nearly absent in young stands 30 years after release, even though adjacent unlogged stands were heavily infected. Lack of suitable branch stubs for entry by fungi and rapid closing of wounds because of accelerated growth are believed to prevent infection (20).

Deterioration is rapid after logging, windthrow, or death caused by insects or diseases. Within 5 years of death, loss in cubic volume can be from 50 to 100 percent. Primary decay fungi on dead wood are Fomitopsis pinicola, Ganoderma applanatum, Hirschioporus abietinus, and Poria subacida.

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Flowering and Fruiting

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Pacific silver fir is monoecious; self-fertilization is possible because times of pollen dispersal and seed cone receptivity overlap on the same tree. Flowers differentiate from axillary buds of current-year lateral shoots in early July of the year before seed development (32). When receptive to pollination, the seed cones appear purple, erect, and 8 to 16 cm (3 to 6 in) tall on the upper surfaces of 1-year-old branches in the upper parts of tree crowns. Just before pollination, the pollen cones appear red, pendent, and usually abundant on the lower surfaces of the branches somewhat lower on the crowns than the seed cones. Cone buds burst the following May, and pollination occurs about 2 weeks later-before vegetative bud burst. The pollen does not germinate and begin forming its pollen tube until 4 to 5 weeks later, resulting in a 6-week delay between pollination and fertilization (7,33).

Initiation of phenological events varies with latitude, altitude, aspect, weather, and snowpack and is apparently related to mean soil and air temperatures. For example, pollination may occur in mid-May at 900 m (2,960 ft) in central Washington but is delayed until mid-June at 1600 m (5,250 ft) and until late May in southern British Columbia (7,32,33).

Seeds are fully mature in late August, and dissemination begins in mid-September- one of the earliest dispersal times for Pacific Northwest conifers. Initiation of dispersal is apparently independent of altitude or latitude (7); most seeds are shed by the end of October but may be shed until the following April (21,33).

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Genetics

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Despite its extensive range, Pacific silver fir is not a highly variable species. Cortical oleoresin analyses of sample trees from northern California to the Alaska border revealed no chemical variants, and variation among populations was similar to that within populations (51). Similar results were obtained from analyses of bark blister and leaf and twig oils.

No artificial hybrids of Pacific silver fir and any other species have been described. It does not hybridize with any of its true fir associates even though pollen shedding and cone receptivity periods may overlap in some localities (7). Some morphological intermediates of Pacific silver fir and subalpine fir have been described, but these proved not to be hybrids (36).

The only known cultivated variety of Pacific silver fir is Abies amabilis var. compacta, a dwarf form that has current branches 2 to 3 cm (0.8 to 1.2 in) long.

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Growth and Yield

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There is a broad range of height growth rates of Pacific silver fir because of the wide variation of climates with elevation and latitude. Site index values (at 100 years) in southern British Columbia range from 12 to 46 m (40 to 150 ft) (26) and have been negatively correlated with elevation in Washington (16). In subalpine tree clumps at higher elevations, Pacific silver firs reach heights of 18 to 24 m (60 to 80 ft).

The largest Pacific silver fir tree known was in the Olympic National Park, WA. It was 256 cm (101 in) in d.b.h. and 74.7 m (245 ft) tall. Trees 55 to 61 m (180 to 200 ft) tall and more than 60 cm (24 in) in d.b.h. are common in old-growth stands. Trees 500 to 550 years old have been found on Vancouver Island and in the North Cascades National Park, WA. Maximum age reported is 590 years (48).

Early height growth from seeds is generally considered very slow; 9 or more years are usually required to reach breast height. Juvenile height growth ranges from 10 to 40 cm (4 to 16 in) per year, depending on length of the growing season (50). Planted seedlings also grow slowly, with height increments of 3 to 15 cm (I to 6 in) for the first few years after planting (47). On productive sites at low elevations, Pacific silver fir is capable of much greater rates, averaging 90 cm (35 in) per year above breast height on some 30-year-old trees (16). Growth of released advance regeneration is more rapid than early growth from seeds (20,49). After an initial lag following overstory removal (as by avalanche, windstorm, or clearcutting), growth rates of 50 cm (20 in) or more per year can occur (49). When released from suppression, advance regeneration trees change from flat-topped to more conical crowns (41).

Pacific silver fir occasionally shows an abnormal height growth pattern, in which various sapling and pole-size trees curtail height growth for at least 1 year while adjacent trees grow normally. Causes of this phenomenon are not known.

Height-age and site index curves for Pacific silver fir have recently been constructed (23); however, little information on yield of second-growth stands is available. Data from sample plots on a variety of sites (table 1) indicate that large volumes can be expected from Pacific silver fir in pure stands or mixed with hemlocks. Close spacing and lack of taper are partly responsible for high volumes found in pure, even-aged stands of Pacific silver fir.

Table 1- Volume yield of second-growth stands in Washington and British Columbia, dominated
by Pacific silver fir, based on sample plot data.
Plot location
and elevation Proportion
of Pacific silver fir¹

Age

Density

Volume pct yr trees/ha m³/ha Washington:   King County, 975 m 100 47 1,850 980   Whatcom County, 760 m 95 70 2,879 875 Vancouver Island, BC (28):   Santa Maria Lake, 533 m 85 100 1,361 1593   Labor Day Lake, 922 m 65 125 1,016 1505   Haley Lake, 1204 m 64 108 1,011 950   Haley Lake, 1119 m 59 92 1,302 1197   Sarah Lake, 116 m 53 111 420 1220 pct yr trees/acre ft³/acre Washington:   King County, 3,200 ft 100 47 749 14,004   Whatcom County, 2,500 ft 95 70 1,165 12,504 Vancouver Island, BC (28):   Santa Maria Lake, 1,750 ft 85 100 551 22,764   Labor Day Lake, 3,025 ft 65 125 411 21,506   Haley Lake, 3,950 ft 64 108 409 13,576   Haley Lake, 3,670 ft 59 92 527 17,105   Sarah Lake, 380 ft 53 111 170 17,434 ¹Based on the total nymber of trees in sample plots. Volume in old-growth stands is extremely variable, depending on the mix of species and degree of stand deterioration. One densely stocked plot at 1100 m (3,600 ft) in the north Cascades had 1813 m³/ha (25,895 ft³/acre), 83 percent Pacific silver fir by volume. An older, more open stand in the same area had 840 m³/ha (12,000 ft³/acre).

Stands at upper elevations (predominantly Pacific silver fir) in western Washington carry large amounts of leaf biomass- 18 to 25 t/ha (8 to 11 tons/acre); total standing biomass ranges up to 500 t/ha (223 tons/acre) in mature and older forests. Leaf area indexes of 14 have been reported (14). A large proportion of the net primary production is below ground in subalpine stands; this is apparently a characteristic of the cool sites and low nutrient mobilization rates rather than the species itself. Values of net primary production in two upper elevation Pacific silver fir stands in western Washington were determined (15). In the 23-year-old stand, total net primary production was 18 000 kg/ha (16,060 lb/acre); in the 180-year-old stand it was 17 000 kg/ha (15,170 lb/acre). Of this, the above-ground portion was 6500 kg/ha (5,800 lb/acre) and 4500 kg/ha (4,010 lb/acre) for the two stands, respectively. Woody growth made up 65 percent of this amount in the younger stand, and 50 percent in the older stand. The below-ground portion was 11 500 kg/ha (10,260 lb/acre) and 12 500 kg/ha (11,150 lb/acre) for the two stands, respectively. Small conifer roots and mycorrhizae made up 65 percent of this amount in the younger stand and 73 percent in the older stand.

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Reaction to Competition

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Pacific silver fir can grow in a variety of stand development conditions. It can seed onto outwash after glacial retreat (35), seed into burned areas, develop from advance regeneration after removal of the overstory, and grow slowly from a suppressed tree into an overstory tree in more uneven-aged stands where disturbances are minor.

Advance regeneration may have a cone-shaped crown or can become flat topped, with lateral branch growth greatly exceeding height growth. After extensive removal of the overstory, some (but not all) advance regeneration can accelerate in diameter and height growth and form a new forest (20).

Even-aged, pure, or mixed stands vary in stocking but can have more than 2,470 stems per hectare (1,000/acre). When crowns close during the sapling and pole stages, understory vegetation is almost completely eliminated by shade, causing an open forest floor. Lower limbs become shaded and die, creating branchfree boles. This condition may last 200 years (31).

Eventually the overstory crowns abrade and let more light into the understory, allowing development of shrubs and advance regeneration. This may occur after one to three centuries-probably depending on site quality, spacing, and disturbance history-and has been observed to last to age 500 years (31). Individual overstory trees eventually die and advance regeneration grows slowly upward, creating a multi-aged, old-growth forest with a major component of Pacific silver fir that will be self-perpetuating, barring a major disturbance. Pacific silver fir is referred to as the climax species at mid-elevations of its range (9) because of its ability to survive in the shade and to emerge in all-aged stands.

Because of its slow early height growth, associated species such as western hemlock, Douglas-fir, and noble fir initially overtop Pacific silver fir when grown in the open. After the initial overtopping, on many sites Pacific silver fir appears to outgrow and become taller than western hemlock after 100 years (19). On cool, moist sites at the upper extremes of the range of Douglas-fir, Pacific silver fir can stratify above Douglas-fir as well (40). Noble fir appears to maintain a height advantage over Pacific silver fir indefinitely on all sites where both species grow.

Pacific silver fir is one of the most shade-tolerant trees in the Northwest. There is confusion regarding its relative shade tolerance compared with western hemlock. It has been described as equal, greater, and less shade tolerant than hemlock (26,40). It can most accurately be classed as very tolerant of shade.

Most silvicultural treatments of Pacific silver fir have dealt with regeneration and early stocking levels after old-growth stands were logged. Regeneration practices vary from clearcutting followed by burning and planting to clearcutting with reliance on natural advance and postlogging regeneration. Each practice successfully obtains regeneration for certain sites and management regimes. Early stocking control-thinning sapling and pole-size trees to 495 to 740/ha (200 to 300/acre)- is practiced to increase growth rates of individual trees. Trees left in pole-size stands after thinning markedly increase in diameter growth and apparently respond to fertilization. Possible commercial thinning regimes, rotation ages, and regeneration plans for managed stands (where advance regeneration may not be prevalent) are primarily in the planning stages.

Young, post-harvest stands can develop densely from advance regeneration. These stands may require thinning to maintain diameter growth, to keep from buckling in heavy snow or wind, and to ensure advance regeneration before the next harvest.

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Rooting Habit

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Pacific silver fir seedlings have roots that more closely resemble a true taproot system than do western hemlock seedlings (38), and the roots can penetrate more compact soils than can the roots of western redcedar, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock (27). Seedlings can develop adventitious roots where volcanic tephra covers the original soil surface (1). Advance regeneration has, small root-to-shoot ratios, and the roots are predominantly in the organic layers. Mature Pacific silver fir can have a relatively flat, shallow, platelike root system on poorly drained or shallow soils or in areas where there is nutrient immobilization in the forest floor (15). On soils where podzolization develops and organic matter accumulates, feeding roots become concentrated in organic horizons as a stand ages.

Peak growth of seedling roots occurs when shoots are least active. Activity is high in early spring and late autumn even in cold soils. Roots can also be active during the winter when soil temperatures are just above freezing; however, water conductance is dramatically reduced after seedlings are preconditioned to cold temperatures (39). At upper elevations in both young and mature stands, a large proportion of annual biomass production is in the root systems (15). Roots are intensely mycorrhizal at upper elevations, and Cenococcum graniforme is a major mycorrhizal symbiont (45).

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Seed Production and Dissemination

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Cone production begins at years 20 to 30 (33,37). Good seed years vary from region to region; a good seed crop generally occurs every 3 years (8). Pacific silver fir is not considered a good seed producer; this condition is attributed to frequent years of low pollen, the extended period between pollination and fertilization, and archegonial abortion producing empty seeds (33). Percentage of sound seed varies, with reports of 6.7 to 35 percent and 51 percent in one location (4). Germinative capacity varies widely from 3 to 70 percent- but averages 20 to 30 percent. Cleaned seeds range from 17,200 to 45,860/kg (7,800 to 20,800/lb) (37).

The seeds are heavier than seeds of most Pacific Northwest conifers except noble fir. Seeds each contain a single wing but often fall from the upright cone axis by pairs on ovuliferous scales, as the bracts contort and tear themselves from the cone-a process that does not require wind. When the seeds are dispersed by the wind, they do not carry far; unsound seeds are carried farther than sound seeds. In one study, only 9 percent of the sound seeds were found more than 114 m (375 ft) from the stand edge, compared with 41 percent at the stand edge and 34 percent more than 38 m (125 ft) (4).

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Seedling Development

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Pacific silver fir germinates in the spring after overwintering under snow. Germination is epigeal (37). Seedlings germinating on snow because of early snowfall or late seed fall are generally short lived. Germination can occur on a variety of media: on litter humps and in moist depressions in the subalpine zone; on edges of melting snowpack in subalpine meadows; and in litter, rotten wood, moss, organic soils, mineral soils, and fresh volcanic tephra (2,11,25). Survival is better on mineral seedbeds than on organic seedbeds. Early mortality of seedlings is attributable more to germination on snow, adverse climatic effects, and competing vegetation than to disease (18).

Cool, moist habitats are best for germination, but full sunlight produces maximum subsequent growth. Seedlings can also grow under dense shade; seedlings 8 to 12 years old and about 10 cm (4 in) tall can frequently be found beneath older, closed forest canopies. Seedlings that survive continue to grow very slowly, existing as advance regeneration that can be 65 to 110 years old and only 45 to 200 cm tall (18 to 80 in). When existing as advance regeneration, Pacific silver fir has flat-topped crowns caused by slow height growth relative to lateral branch growth.

Seedlings are sturdy and erect and resist being flattened by litter and heavy, wet snow. Survival of Pacific silver fir as advance regeneration at middle elevations, where western hemlock is primarily found in openings, is attributed partly to its ability to resist being buried by litter after snowmelt (40). At the highest elevations, Pacific silver fir is found primarily in openings and less frequently beneath the canopy (38). Stems of seedlings growing on slopes often have a "pistol-butted" sweep, caused by heavy snow creeping downhill.

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Soils and Topography

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Pacific silver fir grows on soils developed from nearly every type of parent material found in the Northwest. Layering in soil profiles caused by successive deposits of volcanic ejecta, colluvium, or glacial till is especially common (1,43). The greatest known growth rates for Pacific silver fir occur at low elevations on fine-textured residual soils from sedimentary and basaltic rocks (16). Growth is reduced on poorly drained or shallow rocky soils.

In northern Washington and British Columbia, podzolization is the dominant process in well-drained soils under Pacific silver fir. A typical podzol is characterized by strong acidity of organic (pH 3.3 to 4.0) and mineral horizons, moderate to thick (3 to 45 cm; 1 to 18 in) surface accumulations of organic matter, and moderate to extremely low base saturation. In Oregon, podzolization is less strongly expressed and soils are more shallow and rocky. Pacific silver fir has been found on many soil suborders throughout its range: Folists in the order Histosols; Aquents, Fluvents, Orthents in the order Entisols; Andepts, Aquepts, Ochrepts, Umbrepts in the order Inceptisols; and Aquods, Humods, and Orthods in the order Spodosols (35).

At upper elevations in Washington, soils beneath Pacific silver fir stands are generally low in available nitrogen, with availability decreasing with age (44). External nutrient cycling is slow; a mean nitrogen residence time as long as 120 years has been found in old-growth forest floors (24). Nitrification has not been found to occur. Availability of phosphorus tends to be low but availability of base elements does not appear to limit plant growth (42). Internal cycling meets much of the annual nutrient requirements. Foliar nitrogen concentrations between 0.7 and 1.2 percent and foliar phosphorus concentrations of 0.11 to 0.20 percent have been reported (3,42,52). Pacific silver fir differs significantly from western hemlock in its ability to accumulate specific elements (46).

Pacific silver fir grows at sea level along the coast from Alaska to the Olympic Peninsula; farther inland, it is absent at lower elevations. Its range in elevation is narrowest in Alaska, 0 to 300 m (0 to 1,000 ft), and greatest in the western Cascade Range of Washington, where Pacific silver fir may be found from 240 to 1830 m (800 to 6,000 ft). In British Columbia it is found from 0 to 1525 m (0 to 5,000 ft) in elevation on western Vancouver Island and from 180 to more than 1680 m (600 to more than 5,500 ft) on the lower mainland. Pacific silver fir grows on the highest ridges and peaks in the Coast Ranges of Washington, from 365 to 850 m (1,200 to 2,800 ft). In the Olympic Mountains, it is the predominant montane species up to 1400 m (4,600 ft), with lower limits at sea level on the west side and at 360 m (1,200 ft) in the central mountains. It is found between 610 and 1830 m (2,000 and 6,000 ft) in the Cascade Range in Oregon as far south as the divide between the Rogue and Umpqua Rivers. On the east side of the Cascade Range, it is confined to high elevations, down to 1160 m (3,800 ft) in Oregon and 1000 m (3,300 ft) in Washington (30,35).

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Special Uses

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Pacific silver fir is marketed with western hemlock and is typically used for construction framing, subflooring, and sheathing. It is commonly used for construction plywood even though it is not as strong as Douglas-fir. Because of its light color and lack of odor, gum, and resin, Pacific silver fir is well suited for container veneer and plywood. It is occasionally used for interior finish and is suitable for poles. Good yields of strong pulp can be produced by both mechanical and chemical processes. It is a minor Christmas tree species, and its boughs are occasionally used for decorative greenery.

Because Pacific silver fir is common on midslopes of the Cascade Range, it is a large component of many municipal watersheds, wilderness areas, and recreation areas. Its beauty and ability to withstand or respond to human impact make it a suitable species for multiple-use management.

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Vegetative Reproduction

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Although Pacific silver fir can produce epicormic or adventitious sprouts, it does not regenerate by stump sprouting. Upturning of lower branches after tops of young trees are cut may resemble sprouting.

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Brief Summary

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Pinaceae -- Pine family

Peggy D. Crawford and Chadwick Dearing Oliver

Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), also known as silver fir and Cascades fir, has a gray trunk, a rigid, symmetrical crown, and lateral branches perpendicular to the stem. It contrasts strikingly with the more limber crowns, acute branch angles, and generally darker trunks of its common associates Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and mountain hemlock (T. mertensiana). The species name, amabilis, means lovely.

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Distribution

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Pacific silver fir is found in southeastern Alaska, in coastal British Columbia and Vancouver Island, and along the western and upper eastern slopes of the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon. It also grows throughout the Olympic Mountains and sporadically in the Coast Ranges of Washington and northern Oregon. Near Crater Lake, OR, Pacific silver fir disappears from the Cascade Range and then reappears at a few locations in the Klamath Mountains of northwestern California. The major portion of its range lies between latitudes 43° and 55° N. (35).


- The native range of Pacific silver fir.

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Physical Description

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Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Primary plant stem smooth, Tree with bark smooth, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins entire (use magnification), Leaf apex mucronulate, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves not blue-green, Leaves white-striped, Needle-like leaves flat, Needle-like leaves not twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaf habit drooping, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 1, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs pubescent, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds tan, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings narrower than body, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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Jedle líbezná ( Czech )

provided by wikipedia CZ

Jedle líbezná (Abies amabilis) je jehličnatý strom z čeledi borovicovité, z rodu jedlí, jehož domovinou je Kanada a Spojené státy americké.

Synonyma

  • Abies grandis
  • Picea amabilis
  • Pinus amabilis

Popis

Stálezelený, jehličnatý a pomalu rostoucí strom, dorůstající až do výšky 75 m. Kmen může dosahovat průměru až 2,6 m[2]. Jedle líbezná se dožívá 500 let a více. Koruna je zpočátku úzce kuželovitá, později válcovitá, shora plochá a hustá. Větve jsou krátké a neohebné a vyrůstají z kmenu v pravých úhlech. Borka je zprvu světlešedá a hladká vyjma pryskyřičných puchýřů, později rozpraskaná do červenošedých plátů. Pupeny jsou malé, kulovité, hnědé a 6-9 mm v průměru. Letorosty jsou ze spodní strany tmavohnědé, z horní světlehnědé a chlupaté. Jehlice jsou 0,7–4 cm dlouhé a 1–3 mm široké, na konci tupé, seshora tmavě zelené, vespod se dvěma stříbrnými proužky. Samčí šištice jsou při opylování červené, později červenožluté. Samičí šištice (šišky) jsou vejčitě válcovité, 8–18 cm dlouhé a 3,5–7 cm široké, zpočátku purpurově šedé, později hnědé. Semena jsou 10–12 mm dlouhá a 4 mm široká s 10–12 mm dlouhým křídlem. Děložních lístků je 4-7 .

Příbuznost

Jedle líbezná je blízce příbuzná s jedlí Mariesovou.

Výskyt

Domovinou stromu je Kanada (provincie Britská Kolumbie) a Spojené státy americké (státy Aljaška, Kalifornie, Oregon, Washington).

Ekologie

Jedle líbezná roste na Aljašce v nadmořských výškách od hladiny moře blízko pobřeží až do 330 m, a v Oregonu od 250-1830 m, na západních svazích Kaskádového pohoří, ve studeném a vlhkém, přímořském (pobřežním) klimatu s ročními srážkovými úhrny 1500-4000 mm, často ve formě sněhu. Preferuje půdy jílovité, roste v horských vlhčích půdách ledovcového původu, na druhou stranu půdy nesmí být příliš nasáklé vodou. tj. musí být dobře odvodňované. pH půdy je kolem 5 (kyselá půda), strom snese také půdu s neutrální reakcí. Jedle líbezná má poměrně mělce umístěné kořeny, při silných větrech trpí vývraty, z tohoto důvodu je třeba ji sázet do před větrem chráněných poloh. Nesnáší znečištění ovzduší. Taktéž je velmi citlivá na lesní požáry mimo jiné pro tenkou borku a hořlavé jehličí. Na světlo není příliš náročná, dokáže růst ve stínu, v polostínu i na plném slunci a je mrazuvzdorná do −28 °C.

Jedle líbezná tvoří jehličnaté lesy dohromady s jedlovcem západním, smrkem sitkou, douglaskou tisolistou, zeravem obrovským, cypřiškem nutkajským (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), jedlí obrovskou, jedlí nádhernou, jedlí plstnatoplodou a jedlovcem Mertensovým (Tsuga mertensiana). Jedle líbezná poskytuje (především staré stromy) díky své husté koruně úkryt, přístřeší a tepelnou ochranu, popř. i kořist mnoha volně žijícím zvířatům: horským kozám, puštíku západnímu (Strix occidentalis caurina), kuně rybářské, norníku západoamerickému (Myodes californicus), rorýsovi srpokřídlému (Chaetura vauxi), mlokánkovi olympskému (Rhyacotriton olympicus) a dalším. Semena jedle líbezné jsou důležitou potravou pro ptáky, hlodavce a veverky. Los ho spásá také, nicméně mu strom moc nechutná.

Choroby a nepřátelé

Strom je obecně extrémně citlivý na houbové choroby a mšice. Například na rozdíl od většiny jedlí je velmi náchylná k nákaze houbou kořenovník vrstevnatý (Heterobasidion annosum), která způsobuje zpomalení růstu stromu, poškození jehličí a šišek a někdy i smrt stromu. Po oslabení touto chorobou, se často přidávají sekundární infekce houbou václavkou obecnou, broukem Scolylus ventralis a jinými. Strom je často napadán mšicemi Adelges piceae, bobruškou, medvědem baribalem a jinými. Zraněné stromy (i mladé) jsou často napadány houbou Echinodontium tinctorium.

Využití člověkem

Dřevo stromu se používá ve stavebnictví na nepříliš náročné aplikace (lehké rámy, pomocná konstrukční překližka aj.), je lehké, měkké, nevoní příliš silně, obsahuje málo pryskyřice, je málo trvanlivé. Jedle líbezná se používá též jako vánoční stromek. Jako potravina a lék: Tento strom byl často používán domorodými severoameričany (Indiány)[3]: odvar z borky jako posilující lék (takzvané tonikum), též na nemoci žaludku, hemoroidy a jiné; pryskyřici (lidově smolu) proti nachlazení a krčním nemocem a jako žvýkačku; větve jako lůžkovinu; křehké dřevo hlavně jako palivové dříví.

Ohrožení

I přes časté kácení v minulosti není strom ohrožen, díky jeho rozlehlému výskytu a výborným regeneračním schopnostem jeho populace. Nemoci, nepřátelé a požáry sice představují ohrožení, nicméně pouze místní. Jedle líbezná se vyskytuje v mnoha milionech [4] dospělých jedinců, stav její populace je stabilní.

Galerie

Reference

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-09]
  2. http://www.conifers.org/pi/Abies_amabilis.php
  3. http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Abies+amabilis
  4. https://web.archive.org/web/http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/42271/0

Externí odkazy

Rod jedle (Abies) Evropa Afrika Asie Amerika
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Jedle líbezná: Brief Summary ( Czech )

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Jedle líbezná (Abies amabilis) je jehličnatý strom z čeledi borovicovité, z rodu jedlí, jehož domovinou je Kanada a Spojené státy americké.

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Purpur-Tanne ( German )

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Die Purpur-Tanne (Abies amabilis) ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Tannen (Abies) in der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae). Man findet sie entlang der Westküste Kanadas und der USA. Das lateinische Artepitheton amabilis bedeutet so viel wie „lieblich“.[1]

Beschreibung

Erscheinungsbild

Die Purpur-Tanne ist ein immergrüner Baum, der Wuchshöhen von 25, in Extremfällen auch bis zu 70 Metern sowie Brusthöhendurchmesser von 60 bis 260 Zentimetern erreichen kann. Junge Bäume haben eine spitze Krone, die mit zunehmendem Alter abflacht. Die kurzen und steifen Äste gehen horizontal vom geraden Stamm ab und stehen sich meist gegenüber.[1]

Die glatte Borke ist bei Jungbäumen hellgrau gefärbt und weist meist Harzblasen auf. Bei älteren Bäumen bricht die Borke in Platten auf und verfärbt sich rötlich grau. Die behaarte Rinde der Zweige ist an der Zweigoberseite hellbraun und an der Unterseite dunkelbraun gefärbt.[1]

Die Sämlinge bilden vier bis sieben Keimblätter (Kotyledonen) aus.[1]

Wurzelsystem

Während die Sämlinge noch über eine Pfahlwurzel verfügen, besitzen ausgewachsene Bäume meist ein flaches, weitreichendes Wurzelsystem. Wenn der Boden von pyroklastischen Sedimenten bedeckt ist, kann es zur Bildung von Adventivwurzeln kommen. Als Mykorrhizapartner tritt meist Cenococcum graniforme auf.[2]

Knospen und Nadeln

 src=
Zweig mit Nadeln

Die kugeligen Knospen von 6 bis 9 Millimeter Durchmesser sind braun gefärbt und können von einer violetten Harzschicht bedeckt sein.[1]

Die an der Spitze eingekerbten Nadeln werden zwischen 0,7 und 4 Zentimeter lang und 1 bis 3 Millimeter breit. An der Nadeloberseite sind sie glänzend grün und an der Unterseite silbrigweiß gefärbt. Auf der Nadelunterseite findet man beiderseits der Mittelrippe 5 bis 6 Stomatareihen. Die Nadeln stehen in zwei Reihen dicht gedrängt an den Zweigen und überlappen sich dabei häufig.[1]

Blüten, Zapfen und Samen

 src=
Zapfen

Die Purpur-Tanne ist einhäusig-getrenntgeschlechtig (monözisch) und wird mit 20 bis 30 Jahren mannbar[2]. Während des Pollenfluges, der sich je nach Standort von Mitte Mai bis Mitte Juni[2] erstreckt, sind die männlichen Blütenzapfen rot gefärbt. Später verfärben sie sich rötlich gelb. Die aufrecht stehenden, oval-zylindrischen Zapfen werden zwischen 8 und 18 Zentimeter lang und 3,5 bis 7 Zentimeter dick. Sie sind anfangs purpurgrau, zur Reife im späten August[2] hin braun gefärbt. Sie besitzen keinen Stiel und sind harzig.[1]

Die hellbraunen Samen sind 10 bis 12 Millimeter lang und rund 4 Millimeter breit. Sie besitzen einen rötlich bis hellbraunen Flügel der etwa gleich lang ist wie das Samenkorn.[1]

Chromosomenzahl

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 24.[3]

Verbreitung und Standort

 src=
Verbreitungsgebiet
 src=
Purpur-Tanne (Abies amabilis) mit Zapfen

Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet der Purpur-Tanne erstreckt sich vom südöstlichen Alaska und vom westlichen British Columbia im Norden über das westliche Washington und Oregon bis zum nordwestlichen Kalifornien im Süden. Sie besiedelt dabei beide Seiten der Kaskadenkette sowie Teile der Coast Mountains, der Olympic Mountains und der Klamath Mountains.[2]

Man findet die Purpur-Tanne je nach Standort von Meereshöhe bis an die Baumgrenze in eine Höhenlage von rund 2300 Meter. Sie ist eine Baumart des maritimen Klimas. Man findet die Art häufig auf tiefgründigen, gut drainierten und feuchten Böden. Die jährliche Niederschlagsmenge liegt je nach Standort zwischen 965 und 6650 mm.[2] Die Purpur-Tanne gilt als einer der schattentolerantesten Nadelbäume und überlebt selbst Jahrzehnte extremer Beschattung.[1]

Ökologie

Am natürlichen Standort bildet die Purpur-Tanne sowohl Rein- als auch Mischbestände. Reinbestände findet man vor allem in den Gebieten um Mount Baker und Mount Rainier sowie in anderen Gebieten der Kaskadenkette im Süden Washingtons. Im gesamten Verbreitungsgebiet werden Mischbestände mit der Westamerikanischen Hemlocktanne (Tsuga heterophylla) gebildet. In Süd-Washington und Nord-Oregon gesellt sich auch die Edel-Tanne (Abies procera) häufig hinzu. In den Küstengebieten westlich der Kaskadenkette vergesellschaftet sich die Purpur-Tanne mit der Sitka-Fichte (Picea sitchensis), der Küsten-Kiefer (Pinus contorta), der Douglasie (Pseudotsuga menziesii) und dem Riesen-Lebensbaum (Thuja plicata). In subalpinen Lagen treten auch die Felsengebirgs-Tanne (Abies lasiocarpa), die Berg-Hemlocktanne (Tsuga mertensiana) sowie die Nootka-Scheinzypresse (Xanthocyparis nootkatensis) häufig auf. In den östlichen Randbereichen des natürlichen Verbreitungsgebietes vergesellschaftet sich die Art zudem auch mit der Westamerikanischen Lärche (Larix occidentalis), der Engelmann-Fichte (Picea engelmannii) und der Westlichen Weymouth-Kiefer (Pinus monticola). In Nordwest-Kalifornien kommt es auch zur Bestandsbildung mit der Pracht-Tanne (Abies magnifica).[2]

Die Strauchschicht wird im gesamten Verbreitungsgebiet größtenteils durch die Igelkraftwurz (Oplopanax horridus), Vaccinium membranaceum und Vaccinium ovalifolium gebildet. In höheren Lagen treten zudem Elliottia pyroliflora, Menziesia ferruginea, Rhododendron albiflorum und Vaccinium deliciosum auf. Die Nervige Mahonie (Mahonia nervosa) und die Shallon-Scheinbeere (Gaultheria shallon) findet man vor allem in tieferen Lagen des Verbreitungsgebietes.[2]

In der Krautschicht herrschen vor allem der Rippenfarn (Blechnum spicant), Clintonia uniflora, der Kanadische Hartriegel (Cornus canadensis), das Moosglöckchen (Linnaea borealis), Rubus lasiococcus, Rubus pedatus sowie das Bärengras (Xerophyllum tenax) vor.[2]

Nutzung

Das helle, weiche und spröde Holz wird hauptsächlich als Konstruktionsholz, Sperrholz sowie zur Zellstoffgewinnung genutzt. Es eignet sich auch als Furnier, als Unterbodenbelag sowie als Verkleidung. Nur gelegentlich findet die Purpur-Tanne als Weihnachtsbaum Verwendung. Manchmal wird sie als Park- oder Zierbaum gepflanzt.[2]

Krankheiten und Schädlinge

Abiotische Schadfaktoren

Die Purpur-Tanne ist in großem Umfang von abiotischen Schadfaktoren betroffen. Aufgrund des flachen Wurzelsystems und der dünnen Borke ist die Art anfällig für Waldbrände. Wegen des flachen Wurzelsystems ist sie windwurfgefährdet. Windbrüche können bei starken Stürmen auch in geschlossenen Beständen auftreten. Die Äste können bereits bei leichter Schneelast brechen.[2]

Schadpilze

An der Purpur-Tanne tritt eine Vielzahl von Schadpilzen auf. Häufig tritt ein Befall mit dem Wurzelschwamm (Heterobasidion annosum) auf, wobei eine Infektion ganzjährig erfolgen kann. In ihrem natürlichen Verbreitungsgebiet gilt die Art als einer der anfälligsten Bäume gegenüber dem Gemeinen Hallimasch (Armillaria mellea) und Phellinus weiri, welche beide die Wurzeln befallen. Altbäume sind anfällig für Kernfäule, die durch Echinodontium tinctorium und Haematostereum sanguinolentum verursacht wird. Während die beiden Arten in jungen Beständen nicht auftreten, steigt das Befallsrisiko mit zunehmendem Alter an. Die Nadeln werden hauptsächlich von Lophodermium uncinatum, Phaeocryptopus nudus, Virgella robusta sowie verschiedenen Arten der Gattung Uredinopsis befallen. Gefällte Bäume verrotten sehr schnell und werden hauptsächlich vom Fichtenporling (Fomitopsis pinicola), dem Flachen Lackporling (Ganoderma applanatum), Hirschioporus abietinus und Poria subacida befallen. Das Gesamtvolumen der liegenden Stämme nimmt innerhalb von 5 Jahren zwischen 50 und 100 Prozent ab.[2]

Pflanzliche Schädlinge

Für Arceuthobium tsugense stellt die Purpur-Tanne einen Sekundärwirt dar. Sie tritt in Mischbeständen mit Hemlocktannen auf. Ein Befall mit Arceuthobium abietinum tritt hauptsächlich in Zentral-Oregon auf.[2]

Tierische Schädlinge

Die Purpur-Tanne wird von einer Vielzahl an Schadinsekten befallen. Die größte Rolle spielt dabei die aus Europa eingeschleppte Tannenstammlaus (Adelges piceae), die Bäume aller Altersklassen befällt. Bei einem Befall der Krone treten über mehrere Jahre Triebverformungen, Nadelverluste sowie ein vermindertes Wachstum auf. Ein Befall am Stamm kann zum Absterben des Baumes führen. An niedrig gelegenen Standorten ist die Tannenstammlaus häufig anzutreffen, während sie an subalpinen Standorten kaum auftritt.[2]

Zu den wichtigsten Zapfenschädlingen zählen die Hautflügler Earomyia abietum, Megastigmus pinus sowie Megastigmus lasiocarpae, die große Samenverluste hervorrufen können. Die beiden Schmetterlingsarten Acleris gloverana und Lambdina fiscellaria treten vor allem in Mischbeständen in British Columbia auf und rufen Entnadelungen hervor. Zu den Nadelschädlingen mit geringer Bedeutung zählen unter anderem der Zackenbindige Rindenspanner (Ectropis crepuscularia) und Melanolophia imitata. Choristoneura freemani tritt sowohl in Rein- als auch in Mischbeständen auf. Die beiden Käferarten Pseudohylesinus granulatus und Pseudohylesinus sericeus können große Schäden anrichten, wenn sie zusammen mit wurzelschädigenden Pilzen auftreten.[2]

Der Verbiss durch Wapitis (Cervus canadensis) kann große Ausmaße erreichen. Hühnervögel und Nagetiere fressen an den Knospen, während Eichhörnchen die Zapfen aufnagen, um an die Samen zu kommen. Gelegentlich werden Bäume von Bären entrindet.[2]

Systematik

Abies amabilis wird innerhalb der Gattung der Tannen (Abies) der Sektion Amabiles zugeordnet. Die Erstbeschreibung erfolgte 1838 als Picea amabilis durch John Claudius Loudon in "Arboretum et fruticetum Britannicum", Band 4: Seite 2342, einen Namen, den er David Douglas zuschrieb. In die Gattung Abies wurde sie durch James Forbes in seinem Werk "Pinetum Woburnense", S. 125, Tafel 44 gestellt. Synonyme für Abies amabilis (Douglas ex Loudon) J.Forbes sind unter anderem Abies grandis Hook. non Lindl. oder Pinus amabilis (Dougl. ex Loudon) Parl.[1]

Trotz des großen Verbreitungsgebietes treten kaum innerartliche Unterschiede zwischen einzelnen Populationen auf.[2]

Gefährdung und Schutz

Die Art wird in der Roten Liste der IUCN als „nicht gefährdet“ geführt. Es wird jedoch darauf hingewiesen, dass eine neuerliche Überprüfung der Gefährdung nötig ist.[4]

Quellen

  • Christopher J. Earle: Abies amabilis. In: The Gymnosperm Database. Abgerufen am 2. Dezember 2010 (englisch).
  • Peggy D. Crawford, Chadwick Dearing Oliver: Pacific Silver Fir. In: Silvics of North America, Vol. 1:Conifers. www.na.fs.fed.us, abgerufen am 18. Dezember 2010 (englisch).
  • Abies amabilis in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN 2010. Eingestellt von: Conifer Specialist Group, 1998. Abgerufen am 2. Dezember 2010.

Einzelnachweise

  1. a b c d e f g h i j Christopher J. Earle: Abies amabilis. In: The Gymnosperm Database. Abgerufen am 2. Dezember 2010 (englisch).
  2. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Peggy D. Crawford, Chadwick Dearing Oliver: Pacific Silver Fir. In: Silvics of North America, Vol. 1:Conifers. www.na.fs.fed.us, abgerufen am 18. Dezember 2010 (englisch).
  3. Tropicos. [1]
  4. Abies amabilis in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN 2010. Eingestellt von: Conifer Specialist Group, 1998. Abgerufen am 2. Dezember 2010.

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Purpur-Tanne: Brief Summary ( German )

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Die Purpur-Tanne (Abies amabilis) ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Tannen (Abies) in der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae). Man findet sie entlang der Westküste Kanadas und der USA. Das lateinische Artepitheton amabilis bedeutet so viel wie „lieblich“.

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Abies amabilis ( Udmurt )

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Abies amabilis

Abies amabilis (лат. Abies amabilis) – Pinaceae семьяысь Канадаын (Британ Колумбия) но Америкалэн Огазеяськем Штатъёсаз (Аляска, Вашингтон, Калифорния, Орегон) будӥсь ньылпу. Ӝуждалаез ог 30–45 м, модослэн диаметрез 1.2 м.

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Abies amabilis ( Komi )

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Abies amabilis

Abies amabilis (лат. Abies amabilis) – быдмассэзлӧн пожум котырись ньыв увтырын торья вид. Ньывпуыс быдмӧ 30–45 метра вылына да овлӧ 1.2 метра кыза диаметрын. Ньывпу пантасьӧ Канадаын (Британ Колумбия) да Америкаись Ӧтлаасьӧм Штаттэзын (Аляска, Вашингтон, Калифорния, Орегон).

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Abies amabilis

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Cone growth

Abies amabilis, commonly known as the Pacific silver fir, is a fir native to the Pacific Northwest of North America, occurring in the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range. It is also commonly referred to as the white fir, red fir, lovely fir, Amabilis fir, Cascades fir, or silver fir.[2][3] The species name is Latin for 'lovely'.[2]

Description

The tree is a large evergreen conifer growing to 30–45 metres (98–148 feet), exceptionally 72 m (236 ft) tall,[2] and with a trunk diameter of up to 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in), exceptionally 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in). The bark on younger trees is light grey, thin and covered with resin blisters.[4] On older trees, it darkens and develops scales and furrows. The leaves are needle-like, flattened, 2–4.5 centimetres (341+34 in) long and 2 millimetres (116 in) wide by 0.5 mm (132 in) thick, matte dark green above, and with two white bands of stomata below, and slightly notched at the tip.[5] The leaf arrangement is spiral on the shoot, but with each leaf variably twisted at the base so they lie flat to either side of and above the shoot, with none below the shoot. The shoots are orange-red with dense velvety pubescence. The cones are 9–17 cm (3+126+34 in) long and 4–6 cm (1+122+14 in) broad, dark purple before maturity;[4] the scale bracts are short, and hidden in the closed cone. The winged seeds are released when the cones disintegrate at maturity about 6–7 months after pollination.

The tree can live to over 400 years old.[4]

Pacific silver fir is very closely related to Maries' fir A. mariesii from Japan, which is distinguished by its slightly shorter leaves—1.5–2.5 cm (58–1 in)—and smaller cones, which are 5–11 cm (2–4+14 in) long.

Distribution and ecology

The species is native to the Pacific Northwest of North America, occurring in the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range from the extreme southeast of Alaska, through western British Columbia, Washington and Oregon, to the extreme northwest of California. It grows from sea level to 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in the north of the range, and to 610–2,000 m (2,000–6,560 ft) in the south of the range. Populations on the east slope of the Cascades are confined to elevations above 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in Washington and 1,160 m (3,810 ft) in Oregon.[6]

It is always found in temperate rainforests with relatively high precipitation and cool, humid summers. Growing in dense stands, it prospers in shade and snow.[4] Common associate trees are western hemlock in northern ranges, Douglas-fir[4] in central areas, and California buckeye in the extreme southern area of its range.[7] Western hemlock is equally shade tolerant, but Pacific silver fir saplings are more resilient of ground obstacles.[4] Though its thin bark makes it susceptible to fire, the slow-growing saplings succeed less shade-tolerant species.[4] It survives well at high elevation, but eventually succumbs to root or heart rot, in addition to diseases and insects such as Adelges piceae.[4]

Uses

Native Americans utilized the species for medicinal purposes.[4] After David Douglas discovered it in 1825, he brought seeds to England for cultivation.[4]

The wood is soft and not very strong; it is used for paper making, packing crates and other cheap construction work.[4] The lumber is often paired with that of western hemlock.[4] The foliage has an attractive scent and is sometimes used for Christmas decoration, including Christmas trees.

It is also planted as an ornamental tree in large parks, though its requirement for cool, humid summers limits the areas where it grows well; successful growth away from its native range is restricted to areas like western Scotland and southern New Zealand.

References

  1. ^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Abies amabilis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T42271A2968657. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42271A2968657.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c "Abies amabilis". Gymnosperm Database. 2011. Retrieved December 3, 2021. The epithet amabilis means 'lovely.
  3. ^ "Interactive Distribution Map of Abies amabilis".
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. (2020) [1977]. Northwest Trees: Identifying & Understanding the Region's Native Trees (field guide ed.). Seattle: Mountaineers Books. pp. 123–128. ISBN 978-1-68051-329-5. OCLC 1141235469.
  5. ^ "Abies amabilis in Flora of North America @ efloras.org". www.efloras.org.
  6. ^ Crawford, Peggy D.; Oliver, Chadwick Dearing (1990). "Abies amabilis". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Conifers. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Vol. 1. Retrieved 23 April 2023 – via Southern Research Station.
  7. ^ "California Buckeye (Aesculus californica) – photo/images/information". GlobalTwitcher.com. November 22, 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-11-22.
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Abies amabilis: Brief Summary

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Cone growth

Abies amabilis, commonly known as the Pacific silver fir, is a fir native to the Pacific Northwest of North America, occurring in the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range. It is also commonly referred to as the white fir, red fir, lovely fir, Amabilis fir, Cascades fir, or silver fir. The species name is Latin for 'lovely'.

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Gracia abio ( Esperanto )

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La gracia abio (Abies amabilis) estas abio, hejma je la Pacifika Nordokcidento de Nordameriko. Gi trovigas en la Pacifikaj Marbordaj Montaroj kaj Kaskada Montaro ekde la ekstrema sudoriento de Alasko, tra okcidenta Brita Kolumbio, Vaŝingtonio kaj Oregono, gis la ekstrema nordokcidento de Kalifornio [2]. Gi vegetas je altitudoj ekde marnivelo gis 1 500 m en la nordo de la arealo, kaj inter 1 000-2 300 m en la sudo de la arealo, ĉiam en la Pacifikaj moderaj pluvarbaroj kun relative alta precipitaĵo kaj malvarmetaj, humidaj someroj. Komunaj asociataj arboj estas Menzies-pseŭdocugo kaj kalifornia kastaneo ( Aesculus californica ) [3].

Priskribo

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Arboŝelo de gracia abio.
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Grandbildo de soso ekde suba flanko, montrante ŝosan haraĵon kaj blankajn stomajn striojn.

Gi estas granda ĉiamverda pinofita arbo altante gis 30–45 m ( escepte 72 m )[4] kaj kun trunka diametro gis 1,2 m ( escepte 2,3 m ). La arboŝelo ce pli junaj arboj estas hele griza, maldika kaj kovrita de rezinaj vezikoj. Ce pli maljunaj arboj, gi malheligas kaj disvolvigas skvamojn kaj sulkojn. La folioj estas pinglecaj, platigitaj, 2-4,5 cm longaj, 2 mm largaj, kaj 0,5 mm dikaj, supre nebrile malhele verdaj, kaj kun du blankaj stomaj strioj malsupre, kaj iomete nocitaj je la pinto [5]. La folia aranĝo estas spirala sur la soso, sed kun ĉiu folio varie turnigita je la bazo tiel ke ili estas plataj je ciu flanko kaj supre de la ŝoso, kun neniaj malsupre. La ŝosoj estas oranĝkolore-ruĝaj kun dense velura haraĵo. La strobiloj longas 9–17 cm kaj larĝas 4 - 6 cm. Ili estas malhele purpuraj antaŭ maturiĝo; la skvamaj brakteo mallongas, kaj estas kaŝitaj en la fermata strobilo. La flugiligitaj semoj estas liberigitaj kiam la strobiloj disfalas je matureco ĉirkaŭ 6–7 monatoj post polenado.

Tiu nearktisa specio estas intense parenca al Maries-abio (A. mariesii) el Japanujo, kiu estas diferenca per ĝiaj iomete pli mallongaj folioj (1,5-2,5 cm) kaj pli malgrandaj strobiloj (5–11 cm longaj).

Uzado

La ligno estas mola kaj ne tre forta; gi estas uzata por fabrikado de papero, enpakadaj kestoj kaj diversaj malmultekostaj konstruaĵoj. La foliaro havas allogan aromon, kaj kelkfoje servas kiel kristnaska ornamaĵo, inkluzive de kristnaskarboj.

Gi ankaŭ estas plantita kiel ornama arbo en grandaj ĝardenoj, kvankam sia postulaĵo por malvarmetaj, humidaj someroj limigas la areojn kie gi prosperas; sukcesa kreskado fore de sia hejma arealo estas limigita al areoj kiaj okcidenta Skotujo kaj suda Nova Zelando.

Vidu ankaŭ

Referencoj

  1. Conifer Specialist Group, 2006
  2. Abies amabilis, The Gymnosperm Database. Accessed 16 September 2010.
  3. C.M. Hogan, 2008
  4. Gymnosperm database, 2008
  5. Flora of North America, 2008

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Gracia abio: Brief Summary ( Esperanto )

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La gracia abio (Abies amabilis) estas abio, hejma je la Pacifika Nordokcidento de Nordameriko. Gi trovigas en la Pacifikaj Marbordaj Montaroj kaj Kaskada Montaro ekde la ekstrema sudoriento de Alasko, tra okcidenta Brita Kolumbio, Vaŝingtonio kaj Oregono, gis la ekstrema nordokcidento de Kalifornio . Gi vegetas je altitudoj ekde marnivelo gis 1 500 m en la nordo de la arealo, kaj inter 1 000-2 300 m en la sudo de la arealo, ĉiam en la Pacifikaj moderaj pluvarbaroj kun relative alta precipitaĵo kaj malvarmetaj, humidaj someroj. Komunaj asociataj arboj estas Menzies-pseŭdocugo kaj kalifornia kastaneo ( Aesculus californica ) .

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Abies amabilis ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Abies amabilis, el abeto del Pacífico[2]​ o abeto púrpura es una especie arbórea de conífera nativa del noroeste del Pacífico en Norteamérica.

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Follaje base
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Follaje final

Distribución

Se extiende entre la Cadena costera del Pacífico y la Cordillera de las Cascadas, desde el extremo sureste de Alaska, a través de Columbia Británica occidental, Washington y Oregón, hasta el extremo noroeste de California. Crece tanto a nivel del mar como en altitudes superiores a los 1500 m en el norte y a 1000-2300 m en el sur, siempre en bosques templados húmedos con veranos húmedos y frescos y precipitaciones relativamente altas.

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Brote visto por debajo, se aprecia la corta pubescencia y las dos bandas blancas de estomas.

Descripción

Es un gran árbol perenne que alcanza los 30-45 m (excepcionalmente 72 m) de altura y 1,2 m (excepcionalmente 2,3 m) de diámetro en el tronco. La corteza de los árboles jóvenes es de color gris claro cubierta de burbujas de resina, en los ejemplares viejos se oscurece y desarrolla escamas y grietas. Las hojas, aplanadas y en forma de aguja, miden de 2-4,5 cm de longitud y 2 mm de ancho, con el haz verde oscuro y dos bandas blancas de estomas en el envés. Las piñas son de 9-17 cm de longitud y 4-6 cm de ancho, son de color púrpura oscuro antes de madurar. Las semillas aladas son liberadas cuando las piñas se deshacen al madurar, alrededor de 6 o 7 meses después de la polinización.

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Corteza del Abies amabilis

Abies amabilis está estrechamente emparentado con Abies mariesii de Japón, que se distingue por sus hojas ligeramente más cortas (1,5-2,5 cm) y piñas más pequeñas (5-11 cm largo).

Usos y expansión

La madera es blanda, no demasiado fuerte, y se usa para pasta de papel, embalajes y otros empleos propios de la madera barata. Las hojas desprenden un aroma muy agradable. A veces se usa como decoración navideña. También se planta como árbol ornamental en parques de cierta extensión. Su entorno deber ser fresco, los veranos cálidos limitan su área de expansión. Ha sido acogido en áreas tan distantes como el oeste de Escocia y el sur de Nueva Zelanda. [3]

Taxonomía

Abies amabilis fue descrita por Douglas ex J.Forbes y publicado en Pinetum Woburnense 125, pl. 44. 1839.[4]

Etimología

Abies: nombre genérico que viene del nombre latino de Abies alba.[5]

amabilis: epíteto latino que significa "que merece ser amado".[6]

Sinonimia
  • Abies grandis Hook.
  • Picea amabilis (Douglas ex J.Forbes) Loudon
  • Pinus amabilis (Douglas ex J.Forbes) Parl.
  • Thuja gigantea Gordon[7][8]

Referencias

  1. Farjon, A. (2013). «Abies amabilis». Lista Roja de especies amenazadas de la UICN 2016.2 (en inglés). ISSN 2307-8235. Consultado el 16 de septiembre de 2016.
  2. Nombre vulgar preferido en castellano, en Árboles: guía de campo; Johnson, Owen y More, David; traductor: Pijoan Rotger, Manuel, ed. Omega, 2006. ISBN 978-84-282-1400-1. Versión en español de la Collins Tree Guide.
  3. w:en:Abies amabilis
  4. «Abies amabilis». Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. Consultado el 20 de enero de 2013.
  5. En Nombres Botánicos
  6. En Epítetos Botánicos
  7. Abies amabilis en PlantList
  8. «Abies amabilis». World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.

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Abies amabilis: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Abies amabilis, el abeto del Pacífico​ o abeto púrpura es una especie arbórea de conífera nativa del noroeste del Pacífico en Norteamérica.

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Õilis nulg ( Estonian )

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Õilis nulg (Abies amabilis) on männiliste sugukonda nulu perekonda kuuluv igihaljas okaspuu.

See puuliik on nulgude seas üks pikaealisemaid, elab üldjuhul 250–500 aasta vanuseks.

Õilsa nulu levila paikneb Põhja-Ameerika lääneosas, kus ta kasvab rannaäärses piirkonnas peamiselt 1300–1600 m kõrgusel üle merepinna. Selle levilas valitseb mereline kliima.

Kirjeldus

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Okkad
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Tüvi

Õilis nulg on nulgude seas üks pikaealisemaid, elab üldjuhul 250–500 aasta vanuseks. Vanim leitud puu oli üle 800 aasta vanune.[3]

Puu on üsna kõrge, kasvab 30–40, soodsates oludes ka 50–60 (75) m kõrguseks. Võra on väga korrapärane, koonusjas-kuhikjas, ulatub maapinnani (ka vanematel puudel). Tüve läbimõõt on 0,6–1,2 (1,8) m. Tüve koor on noortel puudel valkjashall, hiljem punakashall, rohkete vaigumahutitega, vanemas eas tekib tüve allosas rõmeline korp.[4]

Juurestik on maapinnalähedane, mistõttu võib tuultele avatud kasvukohtades esineda tormiheidet. Mükoriisat esineb peamiselt seeneliigiga Cenococcum graniforme.[5]

Okkad on 2–4 cm pikkused, tipus sisselõikega, all kaks valget õhulõheriba, noorena oliivrohelised, matid, kleepuvad. Okkad paiknevad võrsel spiraalselt. Kõik okkad käänduvad alusel, nii et õhulõheribad jäävad allapoole.[viide?]

Pungad on pruunid, ümarad, 6–9 mm läbimõõduga, vaigused. Võrsed on hallid või punakaspruunid, tihedalt pruunide karvadega kaetud.[4]

Isasõisikud on õitsemise ajal punased, hiljem kollakaspunased.[3] Käbid on suured, 9–12 (15) cm pikkused ja läbimõõduga 5–7 cm, pruunid kuni tumepurpurpunased, silinderjad. Seemnesoomused on kumeraservalised, kattesoomused varjatud.[4]

Seemned on 10–12 mm pikkused, ligikaudu sama pika tiivakesega. 1000 seemne mass on vahemikus 22–58 g. Idulehti on 4–7.[3]

Õilis nulg on väga lähedalt sugulane Jaapanis kasvava nuluga Abies mariesii, mis erineb õilsast nulust pisut lühemate okaste (15–25 mm) ja väiksemate käbide (5–11 cm) poolest.[viide?]

Levila ja ökoloogia

Õilsa nulu levila paikneb Põhja-Ameerika lääneosas, kus ta kasvab rannaäärses piirkonnas alates Kanada provintsist Briti Columbiast kuni California põhjaosani peamiselt 1300–1600 m kõrgusel üle merepinna.[4]

Õilsat nulgu on püütud kasvatada näiteks ilupuuna mitmel pool maailmas. See ei ole väga õnnestunud. Õilis nulg vajab kasvuks jahedaid suvesid ja mitte väga külmi talvi. Suved peavad olema niisked nagu pärismaises kasvukohas. Paremini vastavad nendele tingimustele Lääne-Šotimaa ja Uus-Meremaa Lõunasaar.[viide?]

Kliima

Õilsa nulu levilas valitseb mereline kliima. Suved on jahedad, päevased keskmised temperatuurid jäävad vahemikku 13...16 °C. Talvel langeb temperatuur harva alla −9 °C. Aasta keskmine sademete hulk areaalis varieerub väga suures ulatuses, jäädes vahemikku 6650 mm Vancouveri saare lääneosas kuni 965 mm sama saare idaosas. Levikuala Kaljumäestiku piirkonnas on aasta keskmine sademete hulk 1500 mm, lumikatte paksus võib selles piirkonnas ulatuda kohati 7,6 meetrini. Suvel võib esineda ka kuivaperioode, mil õilis nulg on sõltuv pinnasesse akumuleerunud niiskusest.[5]

Kasvupinnas ja topograafia

Kasvupinnase koostis sõltub piirkonna geoloogilisest aluspõhjast, milleks on peamiselt vulkaanilised kivimid (nt basalt), settekivimid. Samuti on piirkonnas levinud moreen ja purdmaterjal. Kasvukiirus jääb kesiseks halvasti vett läbilaskvatel ja õhukestel pinnastel. Erinevatest muldadest on enim levinud väga happelised leetunud mullad, mille pH on vahemikus 3,3–4,0.[5]

Õilis nulg kasvab merepinna lähedal Vancouveri saare põhjaosas ja oma levila põhjatipus. Areaali lõunaosas tõuseb puude levikupiirini, 1800–2300 meetri kõrgusele merepinnast.[3]

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Douglase orav õilsal nulul
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Orava läbinäritud käbi

Õilsa nulu metsad

Õilis nulg moodustab nii puhaspuistuid kui ka segametsi, kus kasvab peamiselt koos järgmiste puuliikidega, millest enamus on okaspuud: läänetsuuga (Tsuga heterophylla), hõbenulg (Abies procera), harilik ebatsuuga (Pseudotsuga menziesii), hiigel-elupuu (Thuja plicata), hiigelnulg (Abies grandis), sitka kuusk (Picea sitchensis), keerdmänd (Pinus contorta), mertensi tsuuga (Tsuga mertensiana), nutka ebaküpress (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), mäginulg (Abies lasiocarpa), läänelehis (Larix occidentalis), läänemänd (Pinus monticola), Engelmanni kuusk (Picea engelmannii) jt.[5]

Õilsa nulu vanades metsades elutsevad haruldased tähnikkakud (Strix occidentalis caurina), lääne-kammsabad (Chaetura vauxi), põhja-kuningkalurid (Megaceryle alcyon), leethiired jt.[6]

Paljunemine ja kasv

Õilis nulg on ühekojaline taim ning paljuneb peamiselt seemnete abil. Vähesel määral esineb ka vegetatiivset paljunemist alumiste okste juurdumisega mullas. Käbikandvus algab 20–30 aasta vanuselt. Heade seemneaastate sagedus sõltub kasvutingimustest ning nad korduvad tavaliselt iga kolme (harva ka kuni 8) aasta järel. Seemnete keskmine idanevus pole kuigi kõrge, olles vahemikus 20–30%.[5]

Õilis nulg tolmleb mais-juunis, sõltuvalt kasvukoha kõrgusest. Seemned valmivad augusti lõpus ning hakkavad varisema septembri keskel (selle regiooni nulgudest kõige varem). Enamus seemnetest on varisenud oktoobri lõpuks, viimased võivad jääda käbidele kuni järgneva kevade aprillini. Tuul võib kanda seemned puu juurest rohkem kui 100 m kaugusele. Seemneid levitavad ka nendest toituvad närilised (eelkõige oravad) ja linnud.[5]

Esimestel eluaastatel kasvavad puukesed üsna aeglaselt. Juveniilses staadiumis olevate taimede kasvukiirus looduslikes tingimustes on 10–40 cm aastas, sõltudes otseselt kasvuperioodi pikkusest. 1,3 m kõrguse saavutamiseks kulub puudel aega 9 ja rohkem aastat. 30 aasta vanuste puude kasvukiirus kasvuperioodi kohta võib soodsates tingimustes küündida kuni 90 cm. 100-aastased puud on tavaliselt 12–46 m kõrgused, sõltudes kasvukoha kliimaoludest. Õilsa nulu metsades on raieküpse puistu tagavara (vanus 100 aastat ja rohkem) tavaliselt vahemikus 840–1800 tm/ha.[5]

Avastamislugu

Võimalik, et esimesena mainisid õilsat nulgu USA maadeavastajad William Clark ja Meriwether Lewis. Vähemalt kirjeldasid nad oma ekspeditsiooni käigus 6. veebruaril 1806 okaspuud õilsale nulule iseloomulike tunnustega.[7]

Ametlikult peetakse õilsa nulu avastajaks šoti õpetlast David Douglast, kes 1831 tõi selle käbisid Suurbritanniasse. Kahjuks ei jätnud ta nende puude kohta mingeid kvalitatiivseid ega kvantitatiivseid hinnanguid.[8]

Teine šoti botaanik John Loudon andis 1838. aastal oma teoses "Arboretum et fruticetum britannicum" õilsale nulule teadusliku nime Picea amabilis.[1]

Järgmisel aastal andis inglise botaanik James Forbes oma teoses "Pinetum woburnense: or, a catalogue of coniferous plants in the collection of the Duke of Bedford at Wobburn Abbey, systematically arranged" esimesena õilsale nulule selle nime, mida ta tänapäeval kannab: Abies amabilis.[8]

Nii Loudon kui Forbes andsid puule nime amabilis, mis ladina keeles tähendab 'armastusväärne'. Sellest on mõjutatud tema nimi paljudes keeltes, sealhulgas eesti keeles. Ka ingliskeelne paralleelnimetus on lovely fir.[viide?]

Kasutamine

Õilsa nulu puit on pehme, kerge, helekollane, vähese vaigusisaldusega, väikse survetugevusega ja halbade säilivusomadustega. Puitu kasutatakse ehitusmaterjalina kergemates konstruktsioonides, põrandalaudadena, vineeritööstuses, toormaterjalina tselluloosi tootmiseks. Heledat puitu eksporditakse suures mahus Jaapanisse. Puid kasvatatakse haljastuses ja tarbitakse ka jõulupuudena.[6]

 src=
Tüve läbilõge
[9] Omadus Väärtus Tihedus, õhukuiv puit* 389 kg/m3 Erikaal, õhukuiv puit* 0,36 Kõvadus, ristikiudu/pikikiudu 1970 / 3710 N Elastsusmoodul, värske puit / õhukuiv puit* 9310 / 11 400 MPa Paindetugevus, värske puit / õhukuiv puit* 37,8 / 68,9 MPa Survetugevus õhukuiv puit*, pikikiudu/ristikiudu 40,8 / 3,61 MPa Nihketugevus, õhukuiv puit* 7,54 MPa Lõiketugevus, õhukuiv puit* 36,8 N/mm Ruumala kahanemine, õhukuiv puit* 7,5% * puidu niiskusesisaldus 12%

Kasvatamine Eestis

Eestis pole õilsa nulu kasvatamine kõige paremaid tulemusi andnud, peamiseks probleemiks on külmakindlus. Puu talub talvel külma kuni −23...–29 °C[10], mistõttu võiks temaga katsetada Lääne-Eesti rannikul ja saartel. Meie mandriosas on ta aga külmaõrn. Samuti ei kannata ta põuda, kuna on harjunud looduslikus levilas esineva suure sademete hulgaga. Suured ja vanad isendid Eestis puuduvad, aga Soomes Mustilas kasvab mitu suurt puud, millest vanimad on rohkem kui saja aasta vanused.[4]

Õilis nulg talub külma paremini siis, kui on üleni lumega kaetud, aga paljale tüvele mõjuvad kõvad külmad eriti halvasti.[11]

Pildid

Viited

  1. 1,0 1,1 "Conifer database: "Abies amabilis".". Catalogue of Life: 2010 Annual Checklist. Vaadatud 25.06.2010. Inglise.
  2. Conifer Specialist Group (1998). Abies amabilis. IUCNi punase nimistu ohustatud liigid. IUCN 2010.
  3. 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 ""Abies amabilis"". www.conifers.org. Vaadatud 30.03.2010. Inglise.
  4. 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 Endel Laas. "Dendroloogia", Tallinn: Valgus, 1987.
  5. 5,0 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6 "Pacific Silver Fir". www.na.fs.fed.us. Vaadatud 30.03.2010. Inglise.
  6. 6,0 6,1 ""Abies amabilis"". www.fs.fed.us. Vaadatud 30.03.2010. Inglise.
  7. The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition Online (inglise keeles). Vaadatud 23. detsembril 2009
  8. 8,0 8,1 "Pinetum woburnense: or, a catalogue of coniferous plants in the collection of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey, systematically arranged" London. James Moyes 1839 (inglise keeles)
  9. "Amabilis fir". www.naturallywood.com. FPInnovations – Forintek. Failitüüp: PDF. Vaadatud 25.06.2010. Inglise.
  10. Francine J. Bigras ja Stephen J. Colombo. "Conifer Cold Hardiness", Holland: Kluwer Academic Pulishers, 2001. ISBN 0-7923-6636-0.
  11. Pacific Silver Fir. Abies amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud.) Dougl (.pdf-fail, vaadatud 17. jaanuaril 2010, inglise keeles)

Välislingid

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Õilis nulg: Brief Summary ( Estonian )

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Õilis nulg (Abies amabilis) on männiliste sugukonda nulu perekonda kuuluv igihaljas okaspuu.

See puuliik on nulgude seas üks pikaealisemaid, elab üldjuhul 250–500 aasta vanuseks.

Õilsa nulu levila paikneb Põhja-Ameerika lääneosas, kus ta kasvab rannaäärses piirkonnas peamiselt 1300–1600 m kõrgusel üle merepinna. Selle levilas valitseb mereline kliima.

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Purppurapihta ( Finnish )

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Purppurapihta (Abies amabilis) on pihta, jota tavataan Pohjois-Amerikan luoteisosissa. Se on suuri aina vihanta paljassiemeninen puu, jonka runko on 30–45 metriä korkea, ja joka on halkaisijaltaan yli 1,2 metriä. Suurin mitattu puu on ollut 72 metriä korkea, ja suurin halkaisija on ollut 2,3 metriä. Purppurapihta viihtyy pohjoisessa 0–1500 metrin korkeudessa ja etelässä 1000–2300 metrin korkeudessa, sateisilla alueilla, joissa on viileät ja kosteat kesät.[2]

Purppurapihdan kaarna on nuoremmilla puilla vaaleanharmaa, ohut ja pihkainen. Vanhemmilla puilla kaarna on tummempaa ja paksumpaa ja siinä on suuremmat uurteet. Lehdet ovat neulanmuotoisia, littanoita neulasia ja ne ovat 2,0–4,5 senttimetriä pitkiä ja 2 millimetriä leveitä. Neulaset ovat mattapintaisia ja tummanvihreitä. Purppurapihdan kävyt ovat 9–17 senttimetriä pitkiä ja 4–6 senttimetriä leveitä. Purppurapihdan kävyt ovat purppuranvärisiä, kuten saattaa jo nimestä päätellä.

Käyttö

Purppurapihdan puuaines on pehmeää eikä kovin kestävää, joten sitä käytetään yleisesti paperin ja pahvin raaka-aineena. Lajia käytetään koristepuuna, mutta Suomessa sitä suositellaan vain Etelä-Suomen suojaisille kasvupaikoille vyöhykkeille I ja II.[3][4] Purppurapihdan lehdistöllä on miellyttävä tuoksu, joten sitä käytetään joskus joulukoristeina, kuten joulukuusina.

Näyttö

Suomessa Purppurapihta on näytteillä mm. Mynnilän arboretumissa Sysmässä.

Lähteet

  1. Farjon, A.: Abies amabilis IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2016.2. 2013. International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Iucnredlist.org. Viitattu 7.11.2016. (englanniksi)
  2. Purppurapihta Taimitarha PikkuPuu
  3. Metla
  4. Oma piha, sivu 180, toimitusneuvosto MMT Erkki Kaukovirta, MMM Asta Kuosmanen, MMT Martti Markkula, MMK Pekka Metsola, MML Marja Ylitalo, päätoimittaja agronomi Aretta Tiilimäki, toimittaja Ulla Elo, kuvatoimittaja Arto Rantanen, 1988, Weilin-Göös, WS Bookwell Oy, Porvoo, 2004, ISBN 951-35-6718-4

Aiheesta muualla

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Purppurapihta: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Purppurapihta (Abies amabilis) on pihta, jota tavataan Pohjois-Amerikan luoteisosissa. Se on suuri aina vihanta paljassiemeninen puu, jonka runko on 30–45 metriä korkea, ja joka on halkaisijaltaan yli 1,2 metriä. Suurin mitattu puu on ollut 72 metriä korkea, ja suurin halkaisija on ollut 2,3 metriä. Purppurapihta viihtyy pohjoisessa 0–1500 metrin korkeudessa ja etelässä 1000–2300 metrin korkeudessa, sateisilla alueilla, joissa on viileät ja kosteat kesät.

Purppurapihdan kaarna on nuoremmilla puilla vaaleanharmaa, ohut ja pihkainen. Vanhemmilla puilla kaarna on tummempaa ja paksumpaa ja siinä on suuremmat uurteet. Lehdet ovat neulanmuotoisia, littanoita neulasia ja ne ovat 2,0–4,5 senttimetriä pitkiä ja 2 millimetriä leveitä. Neulaset ovat mattapintaisia ja tummanvihreitä. Purppurapihdan kävyt ovat 9–17 senttimetriä pitkiä ja 4–6 senttimetriä leveitä. Purppurapihdan kävyt ovat purppuranvärisiä, kuten saattaa jo nimestä päätellä.

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Sapin gracieux ( French )

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Abies amabilis

Le Sapin gracieux (Abies amabilis) est une espèce d'arbres de la famille des Pinacées, originaire de la côte ouest de l'Amérique du Nord.

D'autres noms communs peuvent le désigner, tels que sapin amabilis, sapin argenté, sapin rouge ou sapin des Cascades.

Description

Organes végétatifs

C'est un arbre mesurant généralement entre 24 et 46 métres[5]. Le plus grand Abies amabilis actuel connu mesure près de 72 m et se situe dans la forêt nationale Olympique, État de Washington[5], mais certains auteurs pensent que cette espèce peut atteindre 75 m de hauteur[6]. Le port est pyramidal chez les jeunes individus, la cime devient tabulaire avec l'âge.

Le tronc atteint à maturité un diamètre variant généralement de 60 à 120 cm de diamètre[5]. Le record est actuellement détenu par un sapin gracieux situé dans le parc provincial Cypress en Colombie-Britannique, avec un diamètre de 233 cm[5], mais certains auteurs pensent que cette espèce peut atteindre 260 cm de diamètre[5],[6].

Cet arbre peut vivre environ 400 ans[7] mais le plus vieux sapin gracieux dont l'âge a été déterminé par dendrochronologie est officiellement un spécimen de 725 ans, situé dans le parc provincial Cypress en Colombie-Britannique[5].

L'écorce du tronc et des branches est fine, gris clair et lisse lorsqu'elle est jeune, et a tendance à rougir, s'épaissir et se détacher en plaques quand elle est âgée[5]. Les bourgeons sont petits (6 à 9 mm de diamètre[5]), bruns, globuleux et enrobés de résine au moins à leur extrémité. Les écailles de la base des bourgeons sont courtes et larges, de forme triangulaire, à marge lisse[5].

Les branches partent du tronc à angle droit ; les rameaux, généralement à disposition opposée, ont une tige d'un brun plus clair à son extrémité, et pouvant porter un duvet roussâtre.

Les feuilles (en forme d'aiguilles) mesurent généralement de 1 à 2,5 cm de longueur[5],[6], mais peuvent ne mesurer que 0,7 cm[5],[6] ; leur diamètre va de 1 à 3 mm[5],[6]. Elles sont disposées de façon distique le long du rameau, mais plutôt en brosse vers l'extrémité. Ces aiguilles ont un dessus vert sombre lustré, sans stomates, et présentant une rainure au niveau de la nervure centrale ; le dessous comporte 2 bandes blanches où se trouvent des rangées de stomates (généralement 5 ou 6 rangées[5],[6]). L'extrémité de l'aiguille porte une encoche bien visible.

Organes reproducteurs

Les cônes mâles sont de couleur rougeâtre à jaune-rougeâtre à maturité. Les cônes femelles sont ovoïdes, gris-violacé à brun, résineux, sessiles et dressés. Ils mesurent de 8 à 10 cm de longueur (jusqu'à 13 cm) pour 3,5 à 5 cm de largeur[5],[6]. Les écailles composant les cônes femelles mesurent approximativement 2 cm de côté et sont généralement couvertes d'un très fin duvet[5],[6].

Les graines, de couleur brun-roux, mesurent de 10 à 12 mm de longueur pour environ 4 mm de largeur[5],[6]. Elles sont portées par un aile membraneuse rosée à brun-roux à peine plus longue et plus large que la graine.

Espèces similaires

Plusieurs Sapins (genre Abies) peuvent être confondus avec le sapin gracieux, notamment le Sapin subalpin (Abies lasiocarpa), le Sapin de Vancouver (Abies grandis) et le Sapin noble (Abies procera).

Écologie

 src=
Aire de répartition naturelle du Sapin gracieux

Originaire de la côte ouest de l'Amérique du nord, aux États-Unis et au Canada, de l'extrême sud-est de l'Alaska à l'extrême nord-ouest de la Californie. cette espèce est très peu plantée en France.

C'est une espèce très exigeante en eau, qui nécessite une importante humidité atmosphérique. Son habitat favori est les forêts côtières de conifères bénéficiant d'un climat frais et humide. Elle préfère les sol bien drainés et profonds. Alors que cette espèce ne pousse guère plus en altitude que le niveau de la mer en Alaska, on peut la trouver jusqu'à 2300m d'altitude au sud de son aire de répartition[5]. Elle supporte le froid jusqu'à -29°C[5] mais est intolérante au feu.

Elle est souvent associées à d'autres espèces de conifères telles que la Pruche de l'Ouest (Tsuga heterophylla), la Pruche subalpine (Tsuga mertensiana), l'Épicéa de Sitka (Picea Sitchensis), le Douglas vert (Pseudotsuga menziensii), le Thuya géant (Thuja plicata), le Cyprès de Nootka (Cupressus nootkatensis), et différents sapins tels que le Sapin subalpin (Abies lasiocarpa), le Sapin de Vancouver (Abies grandis) et Sapin rouge (Abies magnifica)[8].

Utilisations

Son bois peut être utilisé en menuiserie, caisserie et comme matériau de production de pâte à papier. Le sapin gracieux peut aussi être utilisé comme espèce de reboisement, mais cet usage doit être réservé aux régions océaniques ou montagnardes humides.

La fumée des feuilles brûlées était utilisé pour soigner les rhumes par les Ojibwés qui occupaient le Nord du Midwest aux États-Unis et une partie du Canada[9]. La fumée des branches étaient inhalée par les Ditidahts de Colombie-Britannique pour éviter la maladie[9].

Notes et références

  1. IPNI. International Plant Names Index. Published on the Internet http://www.ipni.org, The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries and Australian National Botanic Gardens., consulté le 29 juillet 2020
  2. a b et c The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/, consulté le 15 juin 2017
  3. BioLib, consulté le 15 juin 2017
  4. USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN-Taxonomy). National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland., consulté le 15 juin 2017
  5. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q et r (en) Christopher J. Earle, « Abies amabilis », sur The Gymnosperm Database, Christopher J. Earle, 20 janvier 2015 (consulté le 16 juin 2017).
  6. a b c d e f g h et i EFloras, consulté le 15 juin 2017
  7. (en) Peggy D. Crawford, Chadwick Dearing Oliver, « Pacific Silver Fir », sur Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry - USDA Forest Service, 2004 (consulté le 17 juin 2017).
  8. UICN, consulté le 3 octobre 2020
  9. a et b Pennacchio et al 2010, p. 31

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Sapin gracieux: Brief Summary ( French )

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Abies amabilis

Le Sapin gracieux (Abies amabilis) est une espèce d'arbres de la famille des Pinacées, originaire de la côte ouest de l'Amérique du Nord.

D'autres noms communs peuvent le désigner, tels que sapin amabilis, sapin argenté, sapin rouge ou sapin des Cascades.

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Grimizna jela ( Croatian )

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Grimizna jela (lat. Abies amabilis), vrsta drveta, jela iz porodice borovki. Rasprostranjena je po sjevernoameričkoj pacifičkoj obali od Aljaske do sjeverozapadne Kalifornije, gdje je poznata kao pacifička srebrna jela.

To je vazdazelena četinjača, fanerofit koji naraste od 30 do 45 metara visine, iznimno do 72 metra. Drvo joj je mekano[1] pa se koristi za izradu papira i jeftinog građevnog drveta, i često kao ukrasna božična jelka.

Izvori

  1. Grimizna jela pristupljeno 26. studenog 2018
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Grimizna jela: Brief Summary ( Croatian )

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Grimizna jela (lat. Abies amabilis), vrsta drveta, jela iz porodice borovki. Rasprostranjena je po sjevernoameričkoj pacifičkoj obali od Aljaske do sjeverozapadne Kalifornije, gdje je poznata kao pacifička srebrna jela.

To je vazdazelena četinjača, fanerofit koji naraste od 30 do 45 metara visine, iznimno do 72 metra. Drvo joj je mekano pa se koristi za izradu papira i jeftinog građevnog drveta, i često kao ukrasna božična jelka.

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Silfurþinur ( Icelandic )

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Silfurþinur, fræðiheiti Abies amabilis, er tegund af þini frá Kyrrahafsströnd norðvestur Norður-Ameríka, þar er hann á "Pacific Coast Ranges" og Fossafjöllum frá suðaustasta hluta Alaska, gegn um vestur Bresku Kólumbíu, Washington og Oregon, til lengst norðvestur í Kaliforníu. Hann vex frá sjávarmáli til 1500metra hæð á norðurhluta svæðisins, og í 1000 til 2300 metra hæð á suðurhluta svæðisins, alltaf í tempruðum regnskógum með tiltölulega mikilli úrkomu og svölum, rökum sumrum. Vex oft með Degli og syðst á útbreiðslusvæðinu, Aesculus californica.[2]

Lýsing

 src=
Börkur silfurþins
 src=
Nærmynd af sprota að neðan, hæring sést og hvítar loftaugarákir

Þetta er stórt sígrænt tré sem verður 30 til 45 metra hátt, einstöku sinnum 72 metrar,[3] með stofnþvermál að 1.2 metruma, einstöku sinnum 2.3 metrar. Börkurinn á yngri trjám er ljósgrár, þunnur og þakinn kvoðublöðrum. Á eldri trjám dökknar hann og myndar hreistur og sprungur. Barrið er nálarlaga, flatt, 2 til 4.5 sm langt og 2 mm breitt og 0.5 mm þykkt, matt dökk-grænt að ofan, og með tvær hvítar loftaugarákir að neðan, og lítið eitt sýlt í endann.[4] Barrið er í spíral eftir sprotanum, en það er breytilega undið neðst svo þau liggja flöt til hvorrar hliðar og ofan á sprotanum, með engin undir. Sprotarnir eru rauðgulir með þétta flauelskennda hæringu. Könglarnir eru 9 til 17 sm langir og 4 til 6 sm breiðir, dökk purpurabláir fyrir þroska; hreisturblöðkurnar eru stuttar, og faldar í lokuðum könglinum. Vængjuð fræin losna er köngullinn sundrast við þroska um 6 til 7 mánuðum eftir frjóvgun. Silfurþinur er náskyldur gljáþini A. mariesii frá Kyrrahafsströnd Norður Ameríku, sem greinist frá silfurþin með aðeins styttra barri 1.5 til 2.5 sm og minni könglum: 5 til 11 sm langir.


Nytjar

Viðurinn er mjúkur og ekki sterkur; hann er notaður í pappírsmassa, flutnigskassa og annað ódýrt. Barrið hefur þægilegan ilm og er stundum notað í Jóla skreytingar, þar á meðal jólatré.

Honum er líka plantað sem yndistré í stórum görðum, þó að kröfur hans um svöl, rök sumur takmarki svæðin sem hann vex vel; velheppnaðar útplantanir utan útbreiðslusvæðisins eru helst í vestur Skotlandi og suður Nýja Sjálandi.

Tilvísanir

  1. Snið:IUCN2013.2
  2. C.M. Hogan, 2008
  3. Gymnosperm database, 2008
  4. Flora of North America, 2008

Ytri tenglar


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Silfurþinur: Brief Summary ( Icelandic )

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Silfurþinur, fræðiheiti Abies amabilis, er tegund af þini frá Kyrrahafsströnd norðvestur Norður-Ameríka, þar er hann á "Pacific Coast Ranges" og Fossafjöllum frá suðaustasta hluta Alaska, gegn um vestur Bresku Kólumbíu, Washington og Oregon, til lengst norðvestur í Kaliforníu. Hann vex frá sjávarmáli til 1500metra hæð á norðurhluta svæðisins, og í 1000 til 2300 metra hæð á suðurhluta svæðisins, alltaf í tempruðum regnskógum með tiltölulega mikilli úrkomu og svölum, rökum sumrum. Vex oft með Degli og syðst á útbreiðslusvæðinu, Aesculus californica.

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Abies amabilis ( Italian )

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L'abete amabile (Abies amabilis Douglas ex Loudon) J. Forbes, 1839 è una specie di abete originaria della regione costiera pacifica dell'America settentrionale, dal sud dell'Alaska alla California.[1][2]

Etimologia

Il nome generico Abies, utilizzato già dai latini, potrebbe, secondo un'interpretazione etimologica, derivare dalla parola greca ἄβιος = longevo.[3] Il nome specifico amabilis in latino significa amabile, grazioso.[4]

Descrizione

Portamento

Albero alto fino a 45 (75) m, con tronco di 1,2 (2,6) m di diametro, a portamento slanciato, conico, in età avanzata tendente a divenire cilindrico, con la cima piatta. I rami principali, corti e rigidi, divergono dal tronco ad angolo retto; i rami secondari sono marroni, disposti in maniera opposta l'uno all'altro.[5]

Foglie

Le foglie sono aghiformi, di colore verde scuro lucido superiormente, bianco argentate inferiormente, lunghe fino a 2,5 cm, rivolte verso l'alto, e disposte in maniera affollata tanto da ricoprire i ramoscelli.Le gemme, di aspetto violaceo, sono di forma rotondeggiante, lunghe meno di 1 cm; le perule che le rivestono sono corte, pubescenti, triangolari, con apice acuto.[5]

Fiori

Sono strobili maschili inizialmente rossi, poi giallo-rossastri.[5]

Frutti

Gli strobili femminili, grigio-violacei poi marroni, sono cilindrici-ovoidali, resinosi e lunghi fino a 10 cm, larghi fino a 5 cm, con scaglie di 2 cm, pubescenti. I semi, di colore marrone, sono lunghi circa 12 mm, con ali rosate o marroni di 1 cm. A germinazione, i cotiledoni sono 4-7.[5]

Corteccia

La corteccia, di colore grigio chiaro, liscia e con bolle resinose da giovane, con l'età si spacca in scaglie rossastre.[5]

Distribuzione e habitat

Questa specie è distribuita in un vasto areale, dall'Alaska sud-orientale, attraverso la Columbia Britannica occidentale nel Canada, infine nella parte occidentale di Washington e Oregon e nella parte nord-occidentale della California.[6] Si rinviene dal livello del mare ai 1.000 m di quota nella parte più settentrionale del suo vasto areale, al di sopra dei 1.000 m di quota dall'Oregon verso sud; predilige i suoli ben drenati delle foreste umide e fresche costiere, a clima marittimo con inverno lungo e nevoso. Le formazioni boschive sono sia esclusive che miste, in combinazione con Abies lasiocarpa, Abies magnifica, Abies procera, Abies grandis, Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Tsuga heterophylla, Tsuga mertensiana e Cupressus nootkatensis. Tra gli arbusti del sottobosco, tipica è l'associazione con Vaccinium alaskaense.[5]

Usi

Il suo legno, chiaro e facilmente lavorabile, è utilizzato nella fabbricazione di compensati, impiallacciature, sottofondi e rivestimenti, e nell'industria della cellulosa. Il suo uso come pianta ornamentale non è comune, a causa delle sue elevate esigenze climatiche.[7]

Conservazione

L'abete amabile oltre ad avere un areale molto vasto, coincidente con molte aree protette, possiede buone capacità di riproduzione. L'insostenibile sfruttamento del suo legno registrato in passato, è attualmente regolamentato su livelli sostenibili; parassiti e incendi costituiscono dei rischi solamente a livello locale. È classificata pertanto come specie a rischio minimo di estinzione nella Lista rossa IUCN.[1]

Note

  1. ^ a b c (EN) Farjon, A. 2013., Abies amabilis, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020.
  2. ^ (EN) Abies amabilis (Douglas ex Loudon) J.Forbes, su Plants of the world online. URL consultato il 26 aprile 2020.
  3. ^ Pier Luigi Nimis, Nevio Agostini, Marco Verdecchia e Elias Ceccarelli, Guida agli alberi del Parco Nazionale delle Foreste Casentinesi (PDF), su Dryades project Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita Università di Trieste, Parco Nazionale delle Foreste Casentinesi. URL consultato il 21 marzo 2019.
  4. ^ Etimologia dei nomi botanici e micologici, su Actaplantarum. URL consultato il 12 aprile 2019 (archiviato dall'url originale il 4 agosto 2014).
  5. ^ a b c d e f (EN) Abies amabilis Douglas ex J. Forbes 1839, su The Gymnosperm Database. URL consultato il 12 aprile 2019.
  6. ^ (EN) Abies amabilis, su American Conifer Society. URL consultato il 23 novembre 2016.
  7. ^ (EN) Aljos Farjon, A Handbook of the World's Conifers (2 vols.), Brill, 2010, p. 61. URL consultato il 12 aprile 2019.

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Abies amabilis: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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L'abete amabile (Abies amabilis Douglas ex Loudon) J. Forbes, 1839 è una specie di abete originaria della regione costiera pacifica dell'America settentrionale, dal sud dell'Alaska alla California.

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Purpurinis kėnis ( Lithuanian )

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Binomas Abies amabilis
Sinonimai
  • Abies grandis Hook.
  • Picea amabilis (Douglas ex J.Forbes) Loudon
  • Pinus amabilis (Douglas ex J.Forbes)
    Parl.
  • Thuja gigantea Gordon
Abies amabilis range map.svg
Paplitimas:

natūralaus savaiminio paplitimo arealo
interaktyvus žemėlapis
(alternatyvų variantą žiūrėti čia)

Purpurinis kėnis (lot. Abies amabilis, angl. Pacific Silver Fir) – pušinių (Pinaceae) šeimos, kėnių (Abies) genties visžalių spygliuočių medžių rūšis.

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Purpurinio kėnio viršūnė
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Spygliukų šakelė iš viršaus
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Spygliukų šakelė iš apačios
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Spygliukai ir jų pagrindas iš arčiau
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Kankorėžis ir sėklytės. Iliustracija iš Forbes J., „Pinetum woburnense“ pušūnų katalogo
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Ant ankstyvo sniego iškrytę sėklos ir kankorėžio žvyneliai
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Po katastrofinio Šv. Elenos kalne ugnikalnio išsiveržimo 1980 metais, išlikęs jaunas purpurinio kėnio medelis, kuris išsiveržimo metu išliko dėl jį apgaubusios sniego dangos
 src=
Kamieno skersinis pjūvis
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Duglaso voveraitė (Tamiasciurus douglasii) - mėgėja palukštenti purpurinių kėnių kankorėžius

Paplitimas ir augavietės

Savaime paplitęs Šiaurės Amerikos žemyno vakaruose esančiuose kalnų regionuose, o pagrindinės jo populiacijų augavietės yra tarp 43° ir 55° šiaurės patumos. JAV paplitę Aliaskos pietrytiniame pakraštyje, Vašingtono, Oregono valstijų vakaruose esančiuose kalnų grandinėse bei Kalifornijos šiaurės vakarų dalies kelete vietovių. Taip pat plačiai išplitęs Kanados Britų Kolumbijos provincijos pietvakariniuose kanuotuose regionuose palei Ramųjį vandenyną.

Augti mėgsta giliame, gerai pratakiame dirvožemyje, vėsaus, drėgno klimato, tvyrančio rūko sąlygomis Šiaurės Amerikos vakarinių pakrančių miškuose. Reljefo aukštis jų augimo natūraliame areale yra, Vankuverio saloje susilyginantys su jūros paviršiumi, toliau nuo jos į šiaurę žemyninėje dalyje įprastai virš 1000 m, Oregone ir piečiau nuo jo, įskaitant Kalifornijos šiaurės rytų pakraštyje iki 2300 m aukštyje.

Gryni purpurinių kėnių miškai nėra retenybė, o priežastis tai kad vieni labiausiai toleruojančių paunksmę rūšių. Esant tankiam medžių lajos skliautui ir pro jas nedaug prasiskverbiančiai šviesai, sunku po jais pilnai išaugti ir kitiems augalams, įskaitant net pačius purpurinių kėnių medelius. Tad net jų medeliai kartais būna paaugę tik iki dviejų metrų aukščio, nors būna sulaukę daugiau kaip šimto metų ir dar dažnai tenka jiems pralaukti keletą šimtmečių, kol pasiekia medžių viršutinį ardą praretėjus ir susenėjus aplinkiniams medžiams.

Purpuriniai kėniai kurie auga mažomis medžių grupėmis ar aukštikalnių (Alpinės zonos) zonose netoli medžių augimo ribos, šalia jų paprastai pasitaiko nemažai kitų pušūnų rūšių, tai visų pirma subalpiniai kėniai (Abies lasiocarpa), didingieji kėniai (Abies magnifica), kvapieji kėniai (Abies procera), kaliforniniai kėniai (Abies grandis), sitkinės eglės (Picea sitchensis), didžiosios pocūgės (Pseudotsuga menziesii), kaliforninės cūgos (Tsuga heterophylla), juodosios cūgos (Tsuga mertensiana) ir Callitropsis nootkatensis. Apatiniame arde dažniausiai pasitaiko Vaccinium ovalifolium krūmas, su kuriuo sudaro savitą augalijos tipą, kuris plačiai paplitęs Kaskadiniuose ir Olimpo (Olympic Mountains) kalnuose.

Klimatas

Purpurinio kėnio savaiminio augimo areale jūrinis klimatas su ilgomis, sniegingomis žiemomis. Vasaros vėsokos su vidutine paros temperatūra +13 °C +16 °C, o žiemomis čia retai kada nukrenta žemiau kaip -9 °C. Be šalnų į metus būna apie 40 dienų zonose arti medžių augimo ribos, arba nepasitaiko daugiau kaip 250 dienų (į metus) šalnų žemose altitudėse. Šių medžių vegetacijos periodas jų augimo vietovėse taip pat priklauso nuo geografinės padėties, reljefo bei kritulių kiekio. Pavyzdžiui, kritulių kiekis į metus svyruoja nuo 6650 mm vakarinėje Vankuverio salos dalyje iki 965 mm į metus tos pačios nedidelės salos rytinėje dalyje. Metinis kritulių kiekis Kaskadiniuose kalnuose 1500 mm, o žiemomis susidaro storas sniego dangos sluoksnis, kartais vietomis iki 7,6 m storio. Nors jo augimas vegetacijos periodu ir priklauso nuo pakankamo drėgmės kiekio dirvožemyje, bet vasaromis sausas sezonas yra tipiškas šioms vietoms. Gausiausiai auga tose vietovėse, kur mažiausiai pasitaikantis vasaromis sausrų kiekis ar jų trukmė - gausus lietus ar vietose kur ilgiau užsitesiantis po žiemos sniego tirpimas.

Kitos augimo ypatybės

Netoleruoja stipresnio vėjo bei oro užterštumo, gali atlaikyti iki -28° C šalčio temperatūrą. Vieni tarp labiausiai paunksmę toleruojančių pušūnų skyriaus medžių, kadangi dėl viršutiniame arde esamų tankios lajos, apatiniame arde esant mažam šviesos kiekiui, laukdami tinkamų augimui sąlygų gali vegetuoti ištisus šimtmečius kol išaugą iki įprastų matmenų. O miškų gaisrai jo natūraliam augimo areale reti, pasitaiko intervalais kas šimtmetį, bet esant gaisrui, jam labai neatsparūs.

Paplitimas kitose Žemės vietovėse

Purpuriniai kėniai introdukuoti ir kitose Žemės vietovėse, bet retai kur auga taip gerai, kaip savaiminiam išplitimo areale, išskyrus vakarų Škotiją, Naujosios Zelandijos pietinius regionus ir dar keletą panašių vietovių.

Auginimas Lietuvoje

Lietuvoje apie jų platesnį auginimą nėra oficialių duomenų, bet pagal vyraujančią vidutinę temperatūrą, didingasis kėnis priskiriamas iki 5 atšiaurumo zonos, o ši zona yra vyraujanti vidurio bei rytų Lietuvoje.

Požymiai

Tai vienanamis augalas - turintis atskirus vyriškus ir moteriškus žiedus, išaugančius ant to pačio medžio, kuriuos apdulkina vėjas. Kamienas tiesus, laja kūginė smailėjanti, bet medžiui senstant, viršutinė jos dalis vis labiau plokštėja ir įgauna cilindrinę formą. Bet jeigu medžiai dar neseni, augantys, pasitaiko ir priešingai, kada iš cilindrinės lajos su plokščia viršūne formos, įgauna smailėjančią lajos formą tokiems medžiams prasiskverbus pro aukštesnių, brandesnių medžių viršutinį skliautą ar aplink jį savaime (dėl kirtimų ar ar savaime dėl amžiaus ir vėjo išvirtusių)' praretėjus kitiems medžiams. Purpurinių kėnių žievė šviesiai pilka, lygi su sakų horizontaliais gumbeliais, o medžiui senstant, tampa rausvai pilka ir sutrukinėjusi it į dribsnius. Pumpurai maži, rudi su violetinės spalvos vašku 6-9 mm skersmens. Spygliukai 0,7 (1) – 2,5 (4) cm ilgio ir 1-3 mm pločio ant šakelės išsidėstę dviem eilutėmis ir ant kurios laikosi šakelės, pakripę truputį į jos priekį bei išsilenkę į viršų (didesnės šviesos pusėn). Spygliukų viršutinė dalis tamsiai žalia, blizganti. Vyriški kankorėžiai apdulkinimo metu raudoni, vėliau tampantys rausvai gelsvo atspalvio. Moteriški kankorėžiai auga stačiai, kiaušiniškai cilindriškos formos, sakingi, purpuriškai pikšvi vėliau tampantys rudais 8-10 (iki 18) cm ilgio ir 3,5-5 (iki 7) cm skersmens ir prie pagrindo be kotelių, o jų viršus suapvalėjęs ar kiek spenelio formos. Kankorėžių žvyneliai 2 cm ilgio bei tiek pat pločio. Sėklytės balsvos spalvos, 10-12 mm ilgio ir 4 mm pločio su sparneliu (rožinės arba balsvos spalvos), kurio ilgis maždaug toks kaip pati sėklytė. Sėklytės subręsta spalį.

Matmenys

Įprastai užauga iki 24-46 m aukščio ir iki 60-120 cm skersmens kamienu, rekordiniai - iki 75 m aukščio, bei iki 2,60 cm skersmens kamienu. Medžiai 55-61 m aukščio bei daugiau kaip 60 cm skersmens kamienais dažni sengirėse, nepaliestose žmonių ūkinės veiklos vietovėse.

  • Aukščiausias, masyviausias ir storiausiu kamienu kada nors užaugęs kuris buvo žmonių pastebėtas gamtoje, augo Olimpiniame nacionaliniame parke, Vašingtono valstijoje, jo aukštis siekė 74,7 m, o kamienas buvo 256 cm skersmens.
  • Aukščiausias šiuo metu augantis purpurinis kėnis yra 71,9 m aukščio ir 140 cm skersmens kamienu (pagal R. van Pelt 2000). Jis auga Olimpiniame valstybiniame miške (Olympic National Forest) prie Humptulips upės rytinės šakos (Vašingtono valstijoje) ir tai aukščiausias šiuo metu žinomas ir augantis purpurinis kėnis.
  • Masyviausias kada nors augęs purpurinis kėnis žinomas kaip „Goodman Creek“ medis - buvo 74 m³ tūrio, 66,1 m aukščio ir 237 cm kamieno skersmens. Augo netoli Forks miestelio Vašingtono valstijoje. Vegetuojantis, tai yra dabar augantis masyviausias medis yra žinomas kaip „Cabin Lake Tree“ medis yra 63 m³ tūrio, 233 cm kamieno skersmens, bei 46,9 m aukščio. Jis auga Kiparisų provinciniame parke, Black Mountain kalno šiaurinėje pusėje (Britų Kolumbija). Šiek tiek už jį mažesnis yra žinomas kaip „Hades Creek Fir“ 62 m³ tūrio, 210 cm kamieno skersmeniu, bei 66,4 m aukščio. Jis auga Olimpiniame nacionaliniame parke (Olympic National Park) (Vašingtono valstija).

Augimas

Nuo sėklos išdygimo augimas labai lėtas, 9 ar daugiau metų prireikia, kol pasiekia žmogaus krūtinės aukštį (vidutinio ūgio žmogaus). Jauni medeliai į metus paauga apie 10-40 cm, priklausomai nuo vegetacijos augimo sezono vienoje ar kitoje jo išplitimo arealo vietovėje. Nuo pasodinimo pradžios sėjinukai apie keletą metų taip pat auga labai lėtai, maždaug 3-15 cm aukščio per sezoną. Medeliai augantys palankiausiose jiems vietovėse, ypač žemose altitudėse ir kurie jau yra žmogaus krūtinės aukščio ar kuriems apie 30 metų, paauga kur kas greičiau - apie 90 cm aukščio į metus. Taip pat neaukštų matmenų medelių augimas pagreitėja apie 50 cm į metus vietovėse, kur seni medžiai iškertami, ar po pasitaikiusių vėjavartų, sniego lavinų pasitaiko išvirtę medžiai.

Amžius

Įprastas jų amžius apie 500-550 metų. Seniausias užregistruotas turėjo 725 metus, kuri pastebėjo Ken Lertzman Britų Kolumbijoje esančiame Kiparisų provinciniame parke (Cypress Provincial Park) (remiantis Van Pelt, 1996). Jan Henderson yra pranešęs, kad ant kelmo yra suskaičiavęs> 800 medžio rievių Baker-Snoqualmie valstybiniame miške (Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest), esančiame Vašingtono valstijoje (pranešta 1990 metais, bendraujant).

Panaudojimas

Mediena minkšta ir nelabai stipri, dažniausiai naudojama popieriaus gamybai, pakuotės dėžėms ar kitiems pigiems darbams statyboje. Jų spygliai turi malonų kvapą, tad kartais medeliai ar jų šakelės naudojamos kaip Kalėdų papuošimai. Purpuriniai kėniai sodinami ir dideliuose parkuose kaip dekoratyviniai medžiai.

Medžių dervą senovėje kramtydavo indėnų gentys, kaip kad šiais laikais kramtomąją gumą. Medžių šakeles naudojo kaip grindinio dangą ir kaip patalynei, o trapią ir minkštą medieną naudodavo kaip malkas (pagal Pojar and Mackinnon 1994 m.).

Pavadinimas ir istorija

Šią rūšį atrado ir suteikė jai pavadinimą škotų botanikas David Douglas, gyvenęs 1799-1834 metais.

Nuorodos


Vikiteka

Dendrologija Botanika · Augalija · Flora · Augalai · Sumedėjęs augalas · Liana · Puskrūmis · Krūmokšnis · Krūmas · Krūmedis · Medis · Vaismedis

Iliustruotas Lietuvos augalų genčių vardynas · Lietuvos vietinės medžių ir krūmų rūšys · Lietuvos išskirtiniai medžiai · Lietuvos svetimžemė dendroflora · Pasaulio išskirtiniai medžiai

Miškas · Miško skliautas · Lietuvos miškai · Pasaulio miškai (šalys pagal miškų plotą) · Miškų nykimas (neteisėtas miško kirtimas)

Miškininkystė (ekologinė miškininkystė) · Miško atkūrimas · Įveisimas · Miškų ūkis · Miškų urėdija · Girininkija · Eiguva · Lietuvos miškų institutas

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Purpurinis kėnis: Brief Summary ( Lithuanian )

provided by wikipedia LT

Purpurinis kėnis (lot. Abies amabilis, angl. Pacific Silver Fir) – pušinių (Pinaceae) šeimos, kėnių (Abies) genties visžalių spygliuočių medžių rūšis.

 src= Purpurinio kėnio viršūnė  src= Spygliukų šakelė iš viršaus  src= Spygliukų šakelė iš apačios  src= Spygliukai ir jų pagrindas iš arčiau  src= Kankorėžis ir sėklytės. Iliustracija iš Forbes J., „Pinetum woburnense“ pušūnų katalogo  src= Kamieno žievė  src= Ant ankstyvo sniego iškrytę sėklos ir kankorėžio žvyneliai  src= Po katastrofinio Šv. Elenos kalne ugnikalnio išsiveržimo 1980 metais, išlikęs jaunas purpurinio kėnio medelis, kuris išsiveržimo metu išliko dėl jį apgaubusios sniego dangos  src= Kamieno skersinis pjūvis  src= Duglaso voveraitė (Tamiasciurus douglasii) - mėgėja palukštenti purpurinių kėnių kankorėžius
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Jodła wonna ( Polish )

provided by wikipedia POL
Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons

Jodła wonna, j. purpurowa[2] (Abies amabilis Douglas ex J. Forbes) – gatunek drzewa z rodziny sosnowatych (Pinaceae Lindl.), jako gatunek rodzimy występuje w zachodniej części Ameryki Północnej (Oregon, Kolumbia Brytyjska). Poza tym jest sadzony jako drzewo parkowe w Europie.

Morfologia

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Pokrój
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Gałąź
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Szyszka i nasiona
Pokrój
Zimozielone drzewo szpilkowe o wysokości maksymalnej do 75 m[3], na terenach naturalnego występowania, jako drzewo parkowe osiąga od 50 do 60 m[2]. Korona stożkowa. Kora gładka, szaro-purpurowa, z widocznymi banieczkami żywicy ułożonymi poziomo.
Liście
Szpilki spłaszczone bardzo gęste, skierowane do przodu o długości około 3 cm, przy roztarciu dają zapach pomarańczy[2].
Kwiaty
Wzniesiona szyszka, młoda szyszka niebieskawa[3], dojrzała w kolorze brunatnawym[2]. Nasiona trójkątne o wielkości od 10 do 12 mm, jasnobrązowe[3].

Biologia i ekologia

Drzewo szpilkowe, zimozielone, w naturalnych warunkach rośnie w lasach iglastych w otoczeniu innych drzew. Sadzona jako drzewo parkowe zazwyczaj jest pojedynczym okazem.

Przypisy

  1. Abies amabilis (Encyclopedia of Life)
  2. a b c d Bruno T. Kremar: Drzewa. Warszawa: Świat Książki, 1996, s. 18. ISBN 83-7129-141-8.
  3. a b c Abies amabilis Pacific Silver Fir (ang.). Encyclopedia of Life. [dostęp 2015-10-12].

Bibliografia

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Jodła wonna: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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Jodła wonna, j. purpurowa (Abies amabilis Douglas ex J. Forbes) – gatunek drzewa z rodziny sosnowatych (Pinaceae Lindl.), jako gatunek rodzimy występuje w zachodniej części Ameryki Północnej (Oregon, Kolumbia Brytyjska). Poza tym jest sadzony jako drzewo parkowe w Europie.

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Abies amabilis ( Portuguese )

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Abies amabilis é um abeto nativo do Noroeste do Pacífico na América do Norte, ocorrendo na costa do Pacífico e na Cordilheira das Cascatas no extremo sudeste do Alasca, através do oeste da Columbia Britânica, Washington e Oregon, para extremo noroeste da Califórnia. Cresce em altitudes desde o nível do mar até 1.500 metros, no norte da sua área de distribuição e de 1,000–2,300 metros, no sul, sempre na floresta tropical temperada com relativamente elevada precipitação e verões frescos e úmidos. Algumas árvores são associadas com esse abeto, com o abeto de Douglas e no extremo sul de seu território, a Castanha-de-cavalo-da-Califórnia.

Descrição

 src=
Pacific Silver Fir bark

É uma grande conífera de 30–45 metros e com um diâmetro de tronco de até 1,2 metros. A casca das árvores mais jovens é cinza claro, de espessura fina e coberta de bolhas de resina. Em árvores mais velhas, ela escurece e desenvolve sulcos. As folhas são em forma de agulha, achatadas, com 2–4,5 centímetros de comprimento e 2 milímetros de largura por 0,5 milímetros de espessura, verde escuro acima, e com duas faixas brancas de estômatos abaixo e levemente entalhada na ponta. As pinhas têm 9–17 centímetros de comprimento e 4–6 cm de largura, roxo escuro antes do amadurecimento; as brácteas são curtas e de pequena escala, e escondidas na pinha fechada. As sementes aladas são liberadas quando os cones se desintegram na maturidade cerca de 6–7 meses após a polinização.

O abeto branco do Pacífico está intimamente relacionado com o abeto de Maries (A. mariesii do Japão), que se distingue por suas folhas ligeiramente mais curtas (1,5–2,5 centímetros em cones ) e pinhas menores (5–11 centímetros de comprimento ).

Usos

A madeira é macia e não muito forte; é usada para fabricação de papel, caixas de embalagens e outros trabalhos de construção baratos. A folhagem tem um aroma atraente e é usado às vezes para decoração de Natal, incluindo árvores de Natal.

Também é plantada como uma árvore ornamental em grandes parques, embora sua exigência de verões frescos e úmidos limita as áreas onde cresce bem; o crescimento bem sucedido longe de sua área de distribuição natural na Califórnia, é restrita a áreas como a oeste da Escócia e no sul da Nova Zelândia.

Referências

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Abies amabilis: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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Abies amabilis é um abeto nativo do Noroeste do Pacífico na América do Norte, ocorrendo na costa do Pacífico e na Cordilheira das Cascatas no extremo sudeste do Alasca, através do oeste da Columbia Britânica, Washington e Oregon, para extremo noroeste da Califórnia. Cresce em altitudes desde o nível do mar até 1.500 metros, no norte da sua área de distribuição e de 1,000–2,300 metros, no sul, sempre na floresta tropical temperada com relativamente elevada precipitação e verões frescos e úmidos. Algumas árvores são associadas com esse abeto, com o abeto de Douglas e no extremo sul de seu território, a Castanha-de-cavalo-da-Califórnia.

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Abies amabilis ( Ukrainian )

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Поширення, екологія

Країни поширення: Канада (Британська Колумбія); США (Аляска, Каліфорнія, Орегон, Вашингтон). Росте від рівня моря біля узбережжя до 330 м над рівнем моря в Південно-Східній Алясці, в штаті Орегон від 250 м до 1830 м над рівнем моря на західних схилах Каскадних гір. Росте на різних гірських ґрунтах, як правило, льодовикового походження і кислих. Клімат різко мокро морський, з 1500—4000 мм річних опадів, більша частина яких — це сніг. A. amabilis є складовою частиною змішаних хвойних лісів росте з Tsuga heterophylla, Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Thuja plicata, Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, Abies grandis, Abies magnifica і з Abies lasiocarpa і Tsuga mertensiana на височинах, але на відміну від останніх двох не досягає лінії дерев.

Опис

Дерева 24-46 (75) м заввишки і 60-120 (260) см діаметром на рівні грудей; прямі, крона шпилеподібна, з віком стає з плоским верхом, циліндрична. Кора світло-сіра, гладка, але зі смоляними пухирями, з віком з'являються червонувато-сірі лускаті пластини. Гілки розходяться від стовбура під прямим кутом, короткі, жорсткі. Бруньки дрібні, сферичні, коричневі, кулясті, діаметром 6-9 мм, з фіолетовим восковим блиском. Голки розміром (0.7) 1-2.5 (4.0) см × 1-3 мм, темно-блискуче-зелені зверху, дещо сплющені й сріблясто білі знизу. Чоловічі шишки під час запилення червоні, стають червонувато-жовтими. Жіночі шишки прямостоячі, яйцевидно-циліндричні, смолисті, пурпурно-сірі, потім коричневі, 8-10 (18) см завдовжки і 3,5-5 (7) см завширшки. Світло-коричневе насіння 10-12 мм завдовжки і близько 4 міліметрів завширшки з крилами від червонуватого до світло-коричневого кольору, які приблизно такої ж довжини, що й насіння.

Найвище відоме дерево росте в англ. Olympic National Forest, штат Вашингтон: 71,9 метрів у висоту з діаметром на рівні грудей 140 см (Van Pelt 2000). Найбільше відоме дерево росте в англ. Goodman Creek поблизу міста Форкс, штат Вашингтон. Цей гігант мав об'єм стебел 74 м3, діаметр на рівні грудей 237 см, висоту 66,1 метрів. англ. Jan Henderson (1990) звітував про дерево віком більше 800 років у англ. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, штат Вашингтон.

Використання

У лісовій промисловості не робиться жодної різниці між цим видом та Tsuga heterophylla бо обидва хвойні мають аналогічні властивості дерева. Знаходиться у використанні для різних будівельних конструкцій, таких як фанера, шпони, оббивка. Деревина містить мало або взагалі не містить смоли і має світлий колір. Має значне застосування в целюлозної промисловості. Як декоративне дерево рідкісне, вирощується тільки в прохолодному і вологому морського кліматі, переважно, на заході Шотландії.

Загрози та охорона

Історично вирубка призвела до зниження чисельності особливо там, де вирубка призвела до змін у землекористуванні або лісокористування не на користь регенерації цього виду. Вид є чутливим до лісових пожеж і легко знищується вогнем, а також кидками вітру під час штормів. Введені комахи (Adelges piceae), як відомо, мали руйнівні наслідки в частині Британської Колумбії і Вашингтона, але деякі дерева показали стійкість до них. Цей вид зустрічається в численних охоронних територіях у всьому діапазоні поширення.

Посилання


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Abies amabilis ( Vietnamese )

provided by wikipedia VI

Abies amabilis là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được (Douglas) Douglas ex J.Forbes miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1839.[1]

Chú thích

  1. ^ The Plant List (2010). Abies amabilis. Truy cập ngày 9 tháng 8 năm 2013.

Liên kết ngoài


Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết liên quan đến Bộ Thông này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Abies amabilis: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

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Abies amabilis là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được (Douglas) Douglas ex J.Forbes miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1839.

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Пихта миловидная ( Russian )

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 src=
Хвоя пихты — вид снизу
 src=
Хвоя пихты — вид сверху

Скелетные ветви короткие, жёсткие, отклоняются от ствола под прямым углом. Молодые побеги с лёгким опушением, расположены супротивно; абаксиальная сторона — тёмно-коричневая, адаксиальная — светло-коричневая[8].

Почки маленькие (6—9 мм в диаметре), шаровидные, смолистые, фиолетового цвета. Верхние чешуйки короткие, широкие, треугольные, густоопушённые; как правило не смолистые[7][8].

Хвоя короткая ((7)10—25(40) мм длиной) и узкая (1—3 мм шириной), двурядная, изогнута вверх, плотно покрывает побег[7][8]. При растирании ароматная[9]. Иглы на верхней стороне тёмно-зелёные, блестящие, с небольшим углублением; на нижней стороне с двумя светло-зелёными, серебристыми полосками; с тупыми и обычно, зубчатыми кончиками. Расположены на ветвях в небольших впадинах, места крепления приплюснуты[10].

Мужские стробилы при опылении красные, затем становятся красновато-жёлтые. Женские шишки прямостоячие, яйцевидно-цилиндрические, бесчерешковые, смолистые; молодые — фиолетовые, зрелые — коричневые, 8—10 (до 18) см длиной и до 7 см шириной. Семенные чешуйки мелкоопушённые, размером примерно 2x2 см. Кроющие чешуйки незаметные, с фиолетовым оттенком, по длине примерно в два раза меньше семенных. Семена рыжевато-коричневые, размером 10—12x4 мм, с крыльями (от розоватого до коричневого цвета) такой же длины. Семядолей 4—7 (1, 5, 7)[11].

 src=
Верхушка дерева с молодыми шишками

Внешне это вид можно спутать с пихтой великой (Abies grandis), но в отличие от последней, у пихты миловидной молодые шишки фиолетовые (у пихты великой — зелёные), кора молодых деревьев серая (у пихты великой — коричневая) и, наконец, иглы исходят из наружной части побега и изогнуты вверх (у пихты великой — иглы выходят из обеих частей побега и перпендикулярны ему)[12].

Распространение

 src=
Пихта миловидная в горах Салмон, Английский пик
 src=
Ареал пихты миловидной

Ареал пихты миловидной с географической точки зрения представляет собой узкую полоску, протянувшуюся вдоль западного побережья Северной Америки: от юга штата Аляски, через Канаду и США, вплоть до северной Калифорнии[13].

Полный список мест естественного произрастания[14]:

Дерево занесено в опубликованный в 1998 году[К 4] Красный список угрожаемых видов, категория LC (низкий риск)[14].

Экология

Естественные условия произрастания

Оптимальными условиями для пихты миловидной являются прибрежные склоны Каскадных гор (высоты 300—2000 метров), однако в северной части своего ареала дерево растёт практически на уровне моря. Пихта предпочитает морской или субморской климат, с относительно большим количеством осадков: от 1000 до 6600 мм в год. Средняя температура летом 14—15 °C. Растение умеренно устойчиво к морозам только при наличии заметного снежного покрова (не переносит заморозков на голой почве). Пихта предпочитает влажные, слегка кислые (рН 5), хорошо дренированные почвы, богатые магнием и кальцием[13].

Культивирование

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Онтогенез

Старейшее дерево, согласно официальным данным, было обнаружено в Канаде в Cypress Provincial Park: его возраст составил 725 лет. По неподтверждённым данным, в природе можно встретить и более старые экземпляры, чей возраст превышает 800 лет[11].

Вредители и болезни

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Химический состав

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Свойства и характеристики древесины

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Значение и применение

Пихта миловидная наряду ещё с пятью видами входит в группу так называемых «настоящих пихт»[К 5], растущих на западе Северной Америки и представляющих важное коммерческое значение для индустрии США и Канады. Древесина пихты используется прежде всего для производства пиломатериалов, фанеры, общестроительных и промышленных нужд, а также производства целлюлозы[5].

Использование в строительстве включает в себя изготовление опалубки и стропил, деревянного каркаса для обшивки стен и крыш, сайдинга. Промышленное назначение связано с производством деревянной тары, поддонов, мебельных деталей, столярных плит[5].

Комментарии

  1. 1 2 3 Неоднозначный синоним.
  2. В различных источниках число видов изменяется от 48 до 55.
  3. Помимо перечисленных видов, на территории России и сопредельных стран, по данным Европейской и Средиземноморской организации по защите и карантину растений, встречаются ещё два вида, идентификация которых не подтверждена: Пихта Гембла (Abies gamblei) и Пихта замечательная (Abies spectabilis).
  4. Последний из опубликованных списков по состоянию на 01.12.09.
  5. Виды: пихта субальпийская (Abies lasiocarpa), пихта великолепная (Abies magnifica), пихта великая (Abies grandis), пихта благородная (Abies procera), пихта одноцветная (Abies concolor).

Примечания

  1. 1 2 3 Abies amabilis. Species details (англ.). Conifer database. Catalogue of Life: 2009 Annual Checklist. Проверено 23 декабря 2009.
  2. Крылов Г. В., Марадудин И. И., Михеев Н. И., Козакова Н. Ф. Пихта. — Агропромиздат. — М., 1986. — 239 с.
  3. The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition Online (англ.). University of Nebraska-Lincoln's Center for Great Plains Studies. Проверено 23 декабря 2009. Архивировано 13 апреля 2012 года.
  4. 1 2 Forbes J. Pinetum woburnense: or, a catalogue of coniferous plants in the collection of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey, systematically arranged. — London: James Moyes, 1839. — P. 125.
  5. 1 2 3 White Fir An American Wood (англ.) (pdf). Forest Service. United States Department of Agriculture. Проверено 3 декабря 2009. Архивировано 20 августа 2011 года.
  6. Коропачинский И. Ю. Род Пихта — Abies Mill. // Сосудистые растения советского Дальнего Востока : Плауновидные, Хвощевидные, Папоротниковидные, Голосеменные, Покрытосеменные (Цветковые) : в 8 т. / отв. ред. С. С. Харкевич. — Л. : Наука, 1989. — Т. 4 / ред. тома А. Е. Кожевников. — С. 9—12. — 380 с. — 1500 экз.ISBN 5-02-026590-X. — ISBN 5-02-026577-2 (т. 4).
  7. 1 2 3 4 Деревья и кустарники СССР. Дикорастущие, культивируемые и перспективные для интродукции / Под ред. д-р биол. наук, проф. С. Я. Соколова и чл.-корр. АН СССР Б. К. Шишкина. — М., Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1949. — Т. 1 (Голосеменные). — С. 88.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Abies amabilis (англ.) (недоступная ссылка). Pinaceae. The Gymnosperm Database. Проверено 23 декабря 2009. Архивировано 7 мая 2005 года.
  9. Лантратова А. С. Деревья и кустарники Карелии: Определитель. — Петрозаводск: Карелия, 1991. — С. 52. — ISBN 5-7545-0369-5.
  10. Amabilis fir (англ.). Tree book. Ministry of Forests and Range. British Columbia. Проверено 23 декабря 2009. Архивировано 13 апреля 2012 года.
  11. 1 2 Abies amabilis Douglas ex J. Forbes 1839 (англ.). Botany online. University of Hamburg. Department of Biology in the MIN-Faculty. Проверено 26 декабря 2009. Архивировано 13 апреля 2012 года.
  12. Pacific Silver Fir. Abies amabilis (англ.) (недоступная ссылка). Nearctica.com (The Natural History of North America). Проверено 24 декабря 2009. Архивировано 8 марта 2002 года.
  13. 1 2 Pacific Silver Fir. Abies amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud.) Dougl (англ.) (pdf). Plant Guide. United States Department of Agriculture. Проверено 17 января 2010. Архивировано 13 апреля 2012 года.
  14. 1 2 Abies amabilis (англ.). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Проверено 21 января 2009. Архивировано 13 апреля 2012 года.
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Пихта миловидная: Brief Summary ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
 src= Хвоя пихты — вид снизу  src= Хвоя пихты — вид сверху

Скелетные ветви короткие, жёсткие, отклоняются от ствола под прямым углом. Молодые побеги с лёгким опушением, расположены супротивно; абаксиальная сторона — тёмно-коричневая, адаксиальная — светло-коричневая.

Почки маленькие (6—9 мм в диаметре), шаровидные, смолистые, фиолетового цвета. Верхние чешуйки короткие, широкие, треугольные, густоопушённые; как правило не смолистые.

Хвоя короткая ((7)10—25(40) мм длиной) и узкая (1—3 мм шириной), двурядная, изогнута вверх, плотно покрывает побег. При растирании ароматная. Иглы на верхней стороне тёмно-зелёные, блестящие, с небольшим углублением; на нижней стороне с двумя светло-зелёными, серебристыми полосками; с тупыми и обычно, зубчатыми кончиками. Расположены на ветвях в небольших впадинах, места крепления приплюснуты.

Мужские стробилы при опылении красные, затем становятся красновато-жёлтые. Женские шишки прямостоячие, яйцевидно-цилиндрические, бесчерешковые, смолистые; молодые — фиолетовые, зрелые — коричневые, 8—10 (до 18) см длиной и до 7 см шириной. Семенные чешуйки мелкоопушённые, размером примерно 2x2 см. Кроющие чешуйки незаметные, с фиолетовым оттенком, по длине примерно в два раза меньше семенных. Семена рыжевато-коричневые, размером 10—12x4 мм, с крыльями (от розоватого до коричневого цвета) такой же длины. Семядолей 4—7 (1, 5, 7).

 src= Верхушка дерева с молодыми шишками

Внешне это вид можно спутать с пихтой великой (Abies grandis), но в отличие от последней, у пихты миловидной молодые шишки фиолетовые (у пихты великой — зелёные), кора молодых деревьев серая (у пихты великой — коричневая) и, наконец, иглы исходят из наружной части побега и изогнуты вверх (у пихты великой — иглы выходят из обеих частей побега и перпендикулярны ему).

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Авторы и редакторы Википедии