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北美喬松的圖片
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北美喬松

Pinus strobus L.

Associations ( 英語 )

由BioImages, the virtual fieldguide, UK提供
Foodplant / web feeder
communal larva of Acantholyda erythrocephala feeds from web on needles of Pinus strobus
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / pathogen
Armillaria mellea s.l. infects and damages Pinus strobus

Foodplant / pathogen
subcortical pycnium of Cronartium ribicola infects and damages stem of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 3-6
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, immersed, up to 2mm diam. stroma of Cytospora coelomycetous anamorph of Cytospora pini is saprobic on dead bark of Pinus strobus

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / feeds on
gregarious, subepidermal then erumpent through cleft epidermis, dull black pycnidium of Diplodina coelomycetous anamorph of Diplodina strobi feeds on needle of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 1-5
Other: uncertain

Foodplant / pathogen
Brunchorstia anamorph of Gremmeniella abietina infects and damages live twig of Pinus strobus
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Fungus / saprobe
subepidermal, then exposed apothecium of Meloderma desmazieri is saprobic on leaf of Pinus strobus

Foodplant / saprobe
hysterothecium of Mytilinidion scolecosporum is saprobic on wood of Pinus strobus
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
stromatic, in large groups perithecium of Nectria fuckeliana is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 3-5, 9-12

Foodplant / saprobe
Cryptosporiopsis anamorph of Pezicula livida is saprobic on dead, fallen branch of Pinus strobus

Foodplant / sap sucker
Pineus strobi sucks sap of live shoot of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, becoming erumpeny conidioma of Strasseria coelomycetous anamorph of Strasseria geniculata is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 1-5

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Suillus placidus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus strobus

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Thelephora terrestris is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus strobus
Remarks: captive: in captivity, culture, or experimentally induced

Fungus / saprobe
immersed apothecium of Therrya pini is saprobic on brittle, dead, attached, lacking needles branch (small) of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 2-7

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, grouped perithecium of Valsa pini is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 11-2

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Comments ( 英語 )

由eFloras提供
Pinus strobus is an important timber tree; because of extensive lumbering, few uncut stands remain. It was once prized as a source for ship masts, and large tracts of it were reserved for the Royal Navy during colonial times.

Pinus strobus var. chiapensis appears to be as Martínez saw it: a clinal variant that, compared to the type variety, has finer leaves, different resin canal distribution, and heavier cones when cones of similar sizes are compared.

Eastern white pine ( Pinus strobus ) is the provincial tree of Ontario and the state tree of Maine and Michigan.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
書目引用
Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
來源
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
編輯者
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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Description ( 英語 )

由eFloras提供
Trees to 67m; trunk to 1.8m diam., straight; crown conic, becoming rounded to flattened. Bark gray-brown, deeply furrowed, with long, irregularly rectangular, scaly plates. Branches whorled, spreading-upswept; twigs slender, pale red-brown, glabrous or pale puberulent, aging gray, ±smooth. Buds ovoid-cylindric, light red-brown, 0.4--0.5cm, slightly resinous. Leaves 5 per fascicle, spreading to ascending, persisting 2--3 years, 6--10cm ´ 0.7--1mm, straight, slightly twisted, pliant, deep green to blue-green, pale stomatal lines evident only on adaxial surfaces, margins finely serrulate, apex abruptly acute to short-acuminate; sheath 1--1.5cm, shed early. Pollen cones ellipsoid, 10--15mm, yellow. Seed cones maturing in 2 years, shedding seeds and falling soon thereafter, clustered, pendent, symmetric, cylindric to lance-cylindric or ellipsoid-cylindric before opening, ellipsoid-cylindric to cylindric or lance-cylindric when open, (7--)8--20cm, gray-brown to pale brown, with purple or gray tints, stalks 2--3cm; apophyses slightly raised, resinous at tip; umbo terminal, low. Seeds compressed, broadly obliquely obovoid; body 5--6mm, red-brown mottled with black; wing 1.8--2.5cm, pale brown. 2 n =24.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
書目引用
Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
來源
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
編輯者
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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eFloras.org
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Description ( 英語 )

由eFloras提供
Trees to 65 m tall; trunk to 1.8 m d.b.h.; bark gray-brown, deeply furrowed, with irregularly oblong, long, scaly plates; crown conical, becoming rounded or flattened on top; winter buds light red-brown, ovoid-cylindric, slightly resinous. Needles 5 per bundle, not pendulous, deep green to blue-green, slightly twisted, 6-14 cm × 0.7-1 mm, pliant, stomatal lines present on all surfaces, base with early shed sheath 1-1.5 cm, margin finely serrulate. Seed cones clustered, pedunculate (peduncle 2-3 cm), gray-brown or pale brown with purple or gray tints, cylindric, ellipsoid, or lanceolate-cylindric when open, 7-20 cm, maturing in 2 years, then soon shedding seeds and falling. Apophyses slightly raised, apex resinous; umbo terminal. Seeds red-brown, black mottled, broadly and obliquely obovoid, compressed, 5-6 mm; wing pale brown, 1.8-2.5 cm.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
書目引用
Flora of China Vol. 4: 25 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
來源
Flora of China @ eFloras.org
編輯者
Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Habitat & Distribution ( 英語 )

由eFloras提供
Mesic to dry sites; 0--1500m; St. Pierre and Miquelon; Man., N.B., Nfld., N.S., Ont., P.E.I., Que.; Conn., Del., Ga., Ill., Ind., Iowa, Ky., Maine, Md., Mass., Mich., Minn., N.H., N.J., N.Y., N.C., Pa., Ohio, R.I., S.C., Tenn., Vt., Va., W.Va., Wis.; Mexico; Central America in Guatemala.
許可
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
版權
Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
書目引用
Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
來源
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
編輯者
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
專題
eFloras.org
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Habitat & Distribution ( 英語 )

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Cultivated. Beijing Shi, Jiangsu (Nanjing Shi), Jiangxi (Lu Shan), Liaoning [native to E Canada, Guatemala, S Mexico, E United States]
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
書目引用
Flora of China Vol. 4: 25 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
來源
Flora of China @ eFloras.org
編輯者
Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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eFloras.org
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Synonym ( 英語 )

由eFloras提供
Pinus chiapensis (Martínez) Andresen; P. strobus var. chiapensis Martínez; Strobus strobus (Linnaeus) Small
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
書目引用
Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
來源
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
編輯者
Flora of North America Editorial Committee
專題
eFloras.org
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Brief Summary ( 英語 )

由EOL staff提供

Pinus strobus, the Eastern White Pine, is characterized by fascicles of 5 fine needles with a nonpersistent bundle sheath, and relatively soft, unarmed, elongate seed cones whose scales are spread at maturity. The native range of eastern white pine stretches from southeastern Manitoba to Newfoundland in Canada and from Minnesota and Iowa eastward to Maine and Pennsylvania, with a southward Appalachian extension to Tennessee and Georgia and isolated occurrences in western Kentucky, Illinois, and Indiana. The species also has become naturalized from plantings, both within its historical range and elsewhere, including portions of Europe, Asia, New Zealand, and Australia. A related taxon in portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala is sometimes treated as Pinus strobus var. chiapensis, but more often as a distinct species, Pinus chiapensis.

Natural stands of Pinus strobus occur in a variety of habitats, ranging from dune forests to bogs and mixed conifer/hardwood forests. The species also colonizes old fields and other former agricultural lands that are reverting back to forests. It has been planted extensively in plantations and is also used to revegetate mine spoils. The species also is cultivated commonly as a shade and ornamental tree

Eastern White Pine is an important timber tree for the production of softwood lumber. The wood is used for construction, cabinetry and furniture-making, handcrafts, and various other woodworking. Native American tribes used it extensively for various medicinal properties and it is an important food source for wildlife. The long history of cultivation has led to the development of numerous cultivars and forms. The species is affected by the exotic white pine blister rust Cronartium ribicola, an important pathogen of timber trees in the white pine group in temperate North America.

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George Yatskievych
作者
George Yatskievych
作者
Shapiro, Leo
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EOL staff

Systematics and Taxonomy ( 英語 )

由EOL staff提供

A disjunct population of white pines in southern Mexico and Guatemala was first described as P. strobus var. chiapensis and is still treated as such by a few authors (e.g. Farjon 1997, Flora Neotropica Monograph 75: 215). It was raised to specific rank as P. chiapensis by Andresen (1964, Phytologia 10: 417), a treatment now accepted by a majority of authors and supported by genetic research, which shows it is very distinct genetically, sharing no alleles with P. strobus and forming a distinct clade of its own, sister to two clades of American and Asian species (Liston et al. 2003, Proc. Fourth International Conifer Conference: 107-114; Syring et al. 2007a, Systematic Biology 56: 163-181; Syring et al. 2007b, Syst. Bot. 32: 703-717).

Although fairly similar to P. strobus in foliage morphology, P. chiapensis differs clearly in cone morphology, here showing a much closer resemblance to several Eurasian white pines, notably P. peuce from SE Europe and P. dalatensis from Vietnam.

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Michael Frankis
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Michael Frankis
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Shapiro, Leo
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Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
More info for the terms: fire use, prescribed fire

The following Research Project Summaries provide information on prescribed
fire use and postfire response of plant community species, including eastern
white pine, that was not available when this species review was originally
written:
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Common Names ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
eastern white pine
northern white pine
white pine
northern pine
soft pine
Weymouth pine
pin blanc
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
原始內容
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Description ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
Eastern white pine is a large, native, evergreen conifer.  It grows
rapidly and in 40 years can be 60 feet (18.3 m) tall and 8 to 10 inches
(20-25 cm) in d.b.h. [7].  Individuals of 150 feet (46 m) and 40 inches
(102 cm) in d.b.h. were common in virgin forests.  Eastern white pine
commonly reaches 200 years of age and may exceed 450 years [68].  In
closed stands, boles are free of branches for over two-thirds of their
length.  Needles are 2.5 to 5.0 inches (6-13 cm) long, and the winged
seeds are about 0.8 inches (2 cm) long.  The roots are widespreading and
moderately deep without a distinct taproot [20].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Distribution ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
Eastern white pine is distributed from Newfoundland west to extreme
southeastern Manitoba and south to the Great Lake States, along the
Atlantic seaboard to New Jersey, and in the Appalachian Mountains to
northern Georgia.  It also occurs in Iowa, western Kentucky, western
Tennessee, and Delaware [31,68].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Fire Ecology ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
More info for the terms: competition, fire regime, forb, fuel, low-severity fire, mesic, natural, seed, shrub

Eastern white pine is moderately fire resistant.  Mature trees survive
most surface fires because they have thick bark, branch-free boles, and
a moderately deep rooting habit.  Younger trees are not as fire
resistant [68].  The needles have relatively low resin content so are
not highly flammable [30].

Forests dominated or codominated by eastern white pine have different
FIRE REGIMES depending on site and associated species.  The natural fire
regime in eastern white pine-red pine forests consists of nonlethal
surface fires at 5- to 50-year intervals punctuated by severe
stand-replacing fires at longer intervals.  In the Boundary Waters Canoe
Area in Minnesota, low-severity fire intervals averaged 36 years, and
severe fire intervals averaged 160 years.  Eastern white pine forests
growing on more mesic sites with a substantial shade-tolerant component
probably undergo only one fire every 150 to 350 years [16,17].  Some
large individuals survive or escape severe fires and serve as seed
sources for a new stand.  Severe fire creates large open areas with ash
or mineral seedbeds and reduces competition, good conditions for eastern
white pine regeneration [19,65].

The typical fuel type under eastern white and red pine stands is an
organic layer 2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm) deep, a continuous needle layer, a
moderate forb and shrub layer, and a moderately dense understory.
Ground fires spread slowly in this fuel type.  Dry, windy conditions are
required for fires to crown and have a high rate of spread [23].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Fire Management Considerations ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
More info for the terms: competition, cone, fire intensity, forest, herbaceous, litter, surface fire

Prescribed fire is used for eastern white pine seedbed preparation.  Two
fires conducted in consecutive years are recommended before the first
partial cut of a shelterwood system.  A fire conducted after the partial
cut may be too hot because of slash and may cause mortality of the
remaining trees.  The first fire should be in the spring before the
understory leaves emerge so that the fire is hot enough to remove most
of the soil surface organic material.  A second fire after the leaves
emerge the following year helps reduce competition.  A suggested
reasonable fire intensity for preparing a seedbed and controlling
competition is 116 to 173 btu/s/ft (400-600 kW/m).  Extreme care must be
taken if prescribed burning stands younger than 80 years old [61].

Two consecutive annual fires in a 90-year-old eastern white and red pine
stand in Ontario improved the conditions necessary for pine
regeneration.  The fires were low in intensity (22 to 23 btu/s/ft [78-79
kW/m]) and did not harm the overstory.  The litter layer was consumed,
and the understory changed from one dominated by balsam fir saplings to
one dominated by herbaceous species.  However, very little eastern white
pine reproduction occurred in the first 3 postfire years [36].

The white pine cone beetle larvae spend 9 to 10 months a year in dead
cones on the forest floor.  The beetle can be controlled by a
low-severity surface fire in early spring before it emerges [66].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification) ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Habitat characteristics ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
More info for the terms: competition, fern, hardwood, seed, tree, xeric

Eastern white pine occurs on a variety of sites along the full moisture
gradient from wet bogs and moist streambottoms to xeric sand plains and
rocky ridges [7,67].  In Maine and New Brunswick, eastern white pine
occurs in well0drained, raised bogs [8]; in Michigan, it occurs on sand
dunes [42].  In the southern Appalachian Mountains and in Pennsylvania,
pure stands mainly occur on northerly aspects, in coves, and on
streambottoms [11].  Eastern white pine is common on the east shore of
lakes where blowdowns create openings for regeneration [28].

In New England, eastern white pine usually occurs between sea level and
2,000 feet (610 m) in elevation; on Catamount Mountain in the Adirondack
Mountains of New York, it occurs up to 3,168 feet (966 m).  In the
southern Appalachian Mountains, it occurs between 1,200 and 3,500 feet
(370-1,070 m) [11,28]

Eastern white pine grows on nearly all soil types within its range.  It
is most competitive on fairly infertile sandy soils, such as
well-drained outwash soils.  On clay or poorly drained soils, eastern
white pine occurs only as individuals or in small groups.  It grows on
fine sandy loams and silty loams on disturbed sites if there is little
hardwood competition [68].

Eastern white pine is the characteristic old-field species in New
England.  Nearly pure stands develop on old fields where seed is ample
and sod is intact [53].  In the Hudson River valley, eastern white pine
dominates the finer textured, less rocky old-field sites, whereas oak
communities dominated the coarser textured, rockier sites [15].

Tree associates of eastern white pine not mentioned in Distribution and
Occurrence include sweet birch (Betula lenta), bigtooth aspen (Populus
grandidentata), quaking aspen (P. tremuloides), black cherry (Prunus
serotina), and black oak (Quercus velutina) [11]. 

Understory species are scarce in pure stands of eastern white pine.  On
dry sites, associates include blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), wintergreen
(Gaultheria procumbens), dwarf bush-honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera),
sweetfern (Comptonia peregrina), bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum),
clubmosses (Lycopodium spp,), and broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus).
On moist, rich sites associates include wood sorrel (Oxalis spp.),
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), wild sarsaparilla (Aralia
nudicaulis), jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), and hay-scented
fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula).  Other associates include bigleaf
aster (Aster macrophyllus), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense),
and bunchberry (Cornus canadensis) [11,41,25].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
原始內容
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Habitat: Cover Types ( 英語 )

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

     1  Jack pine
     5  Balsam fir
    14  Northern pin oak
    15  Red pine
    18  Paper birch
    19  Gray birch - red maple
    20  White pine - northern red oak - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    22  White pine - hemlock
    23  Eastern hemlock
    24  Hemlock - yellow birch
    25  Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
    26  Sugar maple - basswood
    27  Sugar maple
    30  Red spruce - yellow birch
    31  Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
    32  Red spruce
    33  Red spruce - balsam fir
    35  Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
    37  Northern white-cedar
    39  Black ash - American elm - red maple
    43  Bear oak
    44  Chestnut oak
    45  Pitch pine
    51  White pine - chestnut oak
    53  White oak
    57  Yellow-poplar
    59  Yellow-poplar - white oak - northern red oak
    60  Beech - sugar maple
   108  Red maple
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
原始內容
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Habitat: Ecosystem ( 英語 )

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

   FRES10  White - red - jack pine
   FRES11  Spruce - fir
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES15  Oak - hickory
   FRES17  Elm - ash - cottonwood
   FRES18  Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19  Aspen - birch
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
原始內容
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Habitat: Plant Associations ( 英語 )

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

   K093  Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
   K095  Great Lakes pine forest
   K096  Northeastern spruce - fir forest
   K097  Southeastern spruce - fir forest
   K099  Maple - basswood forest
   K100  Oak - hickory forest
   K101  Elm - ash forest
   K102  Beech - maple forest
   K104  Appalachian oak forest
   K106  Northern hardwoods
   K107  Northern hardwoods - fir forest
   K108  Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
   K110  Northeastern oak - pine forest
   K111  Oak - hickory - pine forest
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
原始內容
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Immediate Effect of Fire ( 英語 )

由Fire Effects Information System Plants提供
More info for the terms: low-severity fire, prescribed fire, severity

Once eastern white pine reaches 60 feet (18 m) in height and develops
rough bark on the lower bole, it tolerates low-severity fire [32,69].
Large individuals usually survive moderate-severity fires [69].  Fires
of more than moderate severity during the first 50 years may destroy the
entire stand [60].

Total scorching of foliage typically kills eastern white pine [32], but
scorching less than 50 percent is usually not lethal [35,61,66].  Two
stands, in which 96 percent of the eastern white and red pines were 9
inches (23 cm) in diameter or larger, were prescribed burned in late
spring (May 31 and June 15).  The percent crown scorch was estimated
after the fire and 1-year mortality was assessed.  There was no
mortality in trees with less than 46 percent crown scorch.  Mortality
was 50 percent in the 81 to 85 percent crown scorch class and 100
percent in trees with more than 96 percent crown scorch [35].

Many eastern white pine were crown scorched up to 50 percent in a March
prescribed fire ranging in intensity from 30 to 250 btu/s/ft (100-850
kW/m), but all buds emerged later in the spring [66].

A laboratory study in August in which eastern white pine seedlings were
exposed to different temperature regimes for 4 minutes, demonstrated
even less mortality with high percentages of needle scorch.  The
seedlings withstood up to 90 percent needle scorch with only 10 to 20
percent mortality.  The author suggests that there may be two lethal
temperatures, one that kills needles and one that kills terminal buds.
Therefore percent needle scorch may not be directly related to
mortality in eastern white pine [35].

Deep-burning ground fires may cause root injuries that are more serious
than crown injury.  Where 75 percent or more of the major surface roots
had been killed or severely damaged by fire, but only a third or less of
the crown was scorched, mortality 3 years after the fire was 100, 60,
and 40 percent for small trees (2 to 6 inches [5-15 cm] in diameter),
medium trees (7 to 11 inches [16-29 cm]), and large trees (greater than
12 inches [30 cm]), respectively.  For trees with less than 25 percent
root kill or injury and more than two-thirds of the crown scorched,
mortality for small, medium, and large trees was only 80, 46, and 14
percent, respectively [32].

Heated air at 144 degrees Fahrenheit (62 deg C) applied for 1 minute
killed 50 percent of 5-year-old eastern white pine seedlings that
averaged 16 inches (40 cm) in height, 0.2 inch (0.5 cm) butt diameter,
and less than 0.04 inch (0.1 cm) in bark thickness [24].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Importance to Livestock and Wildlife ( 英語 )

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Eastern white pine provides food and habitat for numerous wildlife
species.  Songbirds and small mammals eat eastern white pine seeds.
Snowshoe hares, white-tailed deer, and cottontails browse the foliage;
the bark is eaten by various mammals [68].  Pocket gophers graze the
roots of seedlings and young trees [21].

Northeastern pine forests can support a rich community of breeding birds
[4].  Bald eagles build nests in living eastern white pine, usually at a
main branch located below the crown top [34].  Eastern white pine,
especially those with broken tops, provide valuable habitat for
cavity-nesting wildlife [10].

Young black bear cubs use large eastern white pine to climb to safety.
In northeastern Minnesota, black bear mothers and cubs spent more than
95 percent of the time in April and May within 600 feet (180 m) of
either an eastern white pine or an eastern hemlock larger than 20 inches
(50 cm) in d.b.h. [48].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Key Plant Community Associations ( 英語 )

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More info for the terms: codominant, forest, hardwood, tree, xeric

Eastern white pine frequently dominates or codominates xeric northern
pine forests [7,40].  In mixed hardwood forests, it often occurs as a
scattered dominant tree towering above the surrounding hardwoods
[19,40].

Publications listing eastern white pine as dominant or codominant are as
follows:

A multivariate analysis of forest communities in the western Great Smoky
   Mountains National Park [3]
The vegetation of Wisconsin [7]
The principal plant associations of the Saint Lawrence Valley [9]
Field guide:  forest habitat types of northern Wisconsin [25]
Plant communities of Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota, U.S.A.  [29]
A classification of the deciduous forest of eastern North America [37]
Virgin plant communities of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area [41]
Forest associations in the Harvard Forest [53]
Plant community pattern analysis:  a cartographic approach applied in
   the Lac des Deux-Montagnes area (Quebec) [62]
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Life Form ( 英語 )

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More info for the term: tree

Tree
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Management considerations ( 英語 )

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More info for the terms: cone, fire management, frequency, seed

The frequency of eastern white pine is lower in today's forests than in
presettlement forests.  Eastern white pine was heavily logged in the
1800's in the north-central United States.  Regeneration after the early
logging was poor because of the lack of seed trees and the destruction
of remaining seedlings and saplings by fire [39,41].  In the
northeastern United States, eastern white pine temporarily increased in
abundance through colonization of abandoned fields and pastures.  Many
of these stands reached commercial maturity by the early 1900's and were
harvested.  Hardwoods, which had invaded the understory, now dominate
many of these old-field sites [46].

The two-cut shelterwood method is recommended for maximizing
regeneration of eastern white pine.  The first cut removes 40 to 60
percent of the overstory, and the final cut occurs 5 to 10 years later
after seedlings are well established.  Established individuals respond
well to release [67].

Two of the more damaging pests of eastern white pine are the white pine
weevil (Pissodes strobi) and white pine blister rust (Cronartium
ribicola) [67,68].  Eastern white pine is infrequently planted in the
north-central region because of the inevitable damage caused by the rust
[40].  See Fire Management slot for control of the white pine cone
beetle (Conophthorus coniperda), which is often responsible for complete
crop failure.

The growth rate of all pine species in the New Jersey Pine Barrens
except eastern white pine has decreased since the 1950's; this decrease
in growth rate may be the caused by acid rain [22].  Eastern white pine
germination and emergence are not greatly affected by soil acidity
caused by acid rain [47,50].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Occurrence in North America ( 英語 )

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     CT  DE  GA  IL  IN  IA  KY  ME  MD  MA
     MI  MN  NH  NJ  NY  NC  OH  PA  RI  SC
     TN  VT  VA  WV  WI  MB  NB  NF  ON  PE
     PQ
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Palatability ( 英語 )

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Eastern white pine browse is of intermediate preference to white-tailed
deer [12].  Although available, it was not browsed by moose in Ontario [6].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Phenology ( 英語 )

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More info on this topic.

More info for the term: cone

Eastern white pine male strobili open and shed pollen in April through
June, depending on latitude.  Fertilization occurs 13 months after
pollination.  Cones ripen and seeds are dispersed August through
September, about 2 years after cone initiation [7,26].  Seeds germinate
in the spring [7].  Terminal shoot growth is usually completed by the
end of June [68].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Plant Response to Fire ( 英語 )

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More info for the terms: cover, fire severity, herbaceous, seed, severity

Eastern white pine colonizes burns if a seed source is nearby
[5,18,32,33].

A thick organic layer is an unfavorable seedbed because roots of new
seedlings desiccate before reaching mineral soil.  The higher the fire
severity, the more organic material is removed.  However, severe fire
also consumes seeds and rhizomes and thus reduces the early postfire
herbaceous cover which serves to shelter young seedlings from heat.
Initially, as the amount of postfire shelter is reduced by increasing
fire severity, eastern white pine survival decreases.  Eventually,
however, the reduction in organic matter depth is sufficient to
compensate for the lack of shelter and the survival of eastern white
pine increases.  Establishment is highest when mineral soil is exposed
[56].

Fire wounds provide entry to fungi which cause heart rot in eastern
white pine [32].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Post-fire Regeneration ( 英語 )

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More info for the terms: root crown, secondary colonizer, seed, tree

   Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
   Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
   Secondary colonizer - on-site seed
   Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Regeneration Processes ( 英語 )

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More info for the terms: cover, density, lichen, litter, seed

Eastern white pine begins producing cones when 5 to 10 years old, but
good seed production does not occur until trees are at least 20 to 30
years old [26].  Good seed years occur every 3 to 5 years, with some
seed produced in intervening years [7].

Seeds are dispersed primarily by wind.  Seeds travel 200 feet (60 m)
within a stand and more than 700 feet (210 m) in the open.  Animals also
disperse seeds.  Gray squirrel seed caches were responsible for white
pine reproduction under red oak (Quercus rubra) stands in southern New
Hampshire [68].  White-footed mice and red-backed voles bury caches
containing 20 to 30 eastern white pine seeds beneath the litter but on
top of the mineral soil.  Caches that escape revisitation and decimation
produce seedlings [1].

Favorable seedbeds include moist mineral soil, mosses (Polytrichum
spp.), and short grass cover of light to medium density.  Dry mineral
soil, pine litter, lichen, and very thin or very thick grass covers are
poor seedbeds in full light but adequate in shade [68].  Eastern white
pine shows very limited delayed emergence the second year after seed
fall, and none after 3 years [57].

Eastern white pine colonizes disturbed sites, but a nurse crop of aspen
(Populus spp.), birch (Betula spp.), or other pioneer species promotes
best regeneration [7].  When colonizing old fields, eastern white pine is
more likely to become established in openings than under herbs.  Even
though seedling emergence and survivorship are higher under herbs, so
too is seed and seedling predation by rodents [14].

Eastern white pine seedlings require at least 20 percent of full light
for survival.  They achieve maximum height growth in 45 percent of full
light [51].  Early growth is slow, but between 10 and 20 years of age,
the average annual height growth is about 16 inches (40 cm) per year
[68].

Eastern white pine does not reproduce vegetatively [68].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Successional Status ( 英語 )

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More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: climax, forest, surface fire

Eastern white pine is intermediate in shade tolerance [2] and is present
in all successional stages.  It is a pioneer species on old fields and
other disturbed sites, a long-lived successional species, and a
physiographic climax species on dry, sandy soils [53,68].  Eastern white
pine is sometimes a component of climax forests on certain sites such as
steep slopes and ridge tops where windfall provides regeneration
opportunities [54].

Eastern white pine forests frequently establish after disturbance and
are even-aged.  However, uneven-aged forests also occur.  Eastern white
pine has dominated an uneven-aged old-growth forest in southern Ontario
for at least 700 years.  In this forest, canopy gaps created by the
death of individual trees from surface fire or windthrow enable eastern
white pine to regenerate [44].

Eastern white pine succeeds aspen postdisturbance forests.  The diffuse
aspen canopy allows enough light for eastern white pine to regenerate
[52].  Bigtooth aspen colonized and was the early dominant on a burn in
northern Michigan, but 53 years after the fire, eastern white pine and
red maple (Acer rubrum) were dominant [49].

More shade-tolerant species succeed eastern white pine.  In the Boundary
Waters Canoe Area in Minnesota, it begins to be replaced by white spruce
(Picea glauca), eastern white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis), balsam fir
(Abies balsamea), and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) about 360 years
after fire [16].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Synonyms ( 英語 )

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Strobus strobus (L.) Small
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Taxonomy ( 英語 )

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The currently accepted scientific name of eastern white pine is Pinus
strobus L. [31]. Little [31] recognizes two varieties: the typical
variety and Chiapas white pine (Pinus strobus var. chiapensis Mart.).
Chiapas white pine, native to the mountains of southern Mexico and
Guatemala, is also recognized as a separate species, Pinus chiapensis
(Mart.) Andresen [43]. This review discusses the typical variety,
eastern white pine.
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites ( 英語 )

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More info for the terms: cover, herbaceous

Eastern white pine is used extensively for stabilizing strip-mine
spoils, especially in northern Appalachian coal fields.  Eastern white
pine has a lower soil pH limit of 4.0.  Seedlings tolerate limited shade
from herbaceous ground cover better than other pine species [58,64].
Eastern white pine growth is adversely affected by high levels of
soluble salts and by the depth of the mine soil.  These effects can be
avoided by selecting nonpyritic sandstone material for surface placement
and by minimizing soil compaction [58].

Eastern white pine planted on bituminous coal mine spoils in
Pennsylvania averaged 6.1 inches (15.5 cm) d.b.h. and 27 feet (8.2 m) in
height after 30 years [63].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Wood Products Value ( 英語 )

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Eastern white pine is a valuable timber species in the eastern United
States and Canada.  The soft wood is of medium strength, easily worked,
and stains and finishes well.  It is used for doors, moldings, trim,
siding, paneling, cabinet work, and furniture [20,68].
書目引用
Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
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Distribution ( 西班牙、卡斯蒂利亞西班牙語 )

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Associated Forest Cover ( 英語 )

由Silvics of North America提供
White pine is a major component of five Society of American Foresters forest cover types (70): Red Pine (Type 15), White Pine-Northern Red Oak-Red Maple (Type 20), Eastern White Pine (Type 21), White Pine-Hemlock (Type 22), White Pine-Chestnut Oak (Type 51). None of these are climax types, although the White Pine-Hemlock type may just precede the climax hemlock types, and Type 20 is very close to a climax or an alternating type of climax on the sandy outwash plains of New England (42). White pine occurs in 23 other forest types:

     1  Jack Pine
    5  Balsam Fir
  14  Northern Pin Oak
  18  Paper Birch
  19  Gray Birch-Red Maple
  23  Eastern Hemlock
  24  Hemlock-Yellow Birch
  25  Sugar Maple-Beech-Yellow Birch
  26  Sugar Maple-Basswood
  30  Red Spruce-Yellow Birch
  31  Red Spruce-Sugar Maple-Beech
  32  Red Spruce
  33  Red Spruce-Balsam Fir
  35  Paper Birch-Red Spruce-Balsam Fir
  37  Northern White-Cedar
  39  Black Ash-American Elm-Red Maple
  44  Chestnut Oak
  45  Pitch Pine
  53  White Oak
  57  Yellow-Poplar
  59  Yellow-Poplar-White Oak-Northern Red Oak
  60  Beech-Sugar Maple
108  Red Maple

White pine also grows with pitch pine (Pinus rigida), jack pine (P. banksiana), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), sweet birch (Betula lenta), bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata), quaking aspen (P. tremuloides), black cherry (Prunus serotina), black oak (Quercus velutina), white oak (Q. alba), and various hickories (Carya spp.). The ground vegetation in a white pine stand varies greatly, as evidenced by the number of forest cover types in which it is a major or minor component. Beneath pure or nearly pure stands of white pine, understory plants usually are sparse compared to those in the pine-hardwood mixtures (70).

In general, on dry sites the understory vegetation is usually of one or more species of blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens), dwarf bush-honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera), sweetfern (Comptonia peregrina), bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), clubmoss (Lycopodium spp.), and broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus). The moist, rich sites support a ground vegetation made up principally of several species of woodsorrel (Oxalis), partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema spp.), and hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula). Intermediate sites have ground vegetation containing various amounts of the above with dogwood (Cornus spp.) and false lily- of-the -valley (Maianthemum canadense).

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Climate ( 英語 )

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The climate over the range of white pine is cool and humid. The distribution of white pine coincides reasonably with that part of eastern North America where the July temperature averages between 18° and 23° C (65° and 74° F).

Annual precipitation ranges from about 510 mm (20 in) in northern Minnesota to about 2030 mm (80 in) in northwestern Georgia. In the area surrounding the Great Lakes, about two-thirds of the precipitation occurs during the warm season, April to September. Elsewhere, half of the precipitation occurs during the warm season. The length of the growing season ranges from 90 to 180 days.

Throughout the range of white pine, precipitation is about 1 to 1.5 times the evaporation from shaded free water surfaces (71). Annual potential evapo- transpiration is between 430 and 710 mm. (17 and 28 in), of which 56 to 68 percent occurs in the warm season. There is a moisture surplus in all seasons.

Average depth of frost penetration ranges from about 25 cm (10 in) in the southern Appalachians to more than 178 cm (70 in) in parts of central and northern Minnesota. Average annual snowfall ranges from 13 cm (5 in) in northern Georgia to more than 254 cm (100 in) in New England and southern Canada (51).

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Damaging Agents ( 英語 )

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There are a total of 277 insects and 110 disease organisms known to attack white pine. Only 16 insects and 7 diseases cause sufficient injury or mortality to be of concern. The three most important are white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi), white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), and Armillaria mellea (63). The white pine weevil kills the terminal shoot, which may include the last 2 or 3 years of growth. The tree is seldom killed unless it is very small; lateral branches from the highest live whorl turn upward to produce new terminal shoots. Bole crook and loss of stem length result from this injury (71). There is evidence that white pine provenances differ in resistance to weevils but even the lowest levels of injury are unacceptable (25).

Among other insect enemies are white pine aphid (Cinara strobi), which causes damage to twigs and branches of large trees and sometimes kills small trees; white pine sawfly (Neodiprion pinetum), which feeds on old and new foliage; Zimmerman pine moth (Dioryctria zimmermani); the Allegheny mound ant (Formica exsectoides), which injects formic acid into the tree tissue; pales weevil (Hylobius pales), which feeds on bark of young twigs and seedlings; pine root collar weevil (H. radicis); European pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana), which feeds on buds and twigs causing crooked trunks and branches; eastern pine shoot borer (Eucosma gloriola), which attacks terminal needle sheaths, often causing bushiness after repeated attacks; introduced pine sawfly (Diprion similis), which feeds on foliage and may defoliate an entire tree in one season; and white pine cone borer (Eucosma tocullionana), which feeds on white pine cones and is a potentially serious pest (5).

White pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) is highly virulent throughout the range of white pine. Trees are susceptible from the seedling stage through maturity. Blister rust can cause high losses both in regeneration and in immature timber stands (71).

Red ring rot caused by Phellinus pini isthe most important heart rot of white pine. The fungus enters through wounds, dead limbs, or tips killed by weevils. Losses are greater in older trees but do not build up rapidly. Haematostereum sanguinolentum, a wound parasite, is probably the third most destructive fungus associated with white pine. It usually enters through pruning wounds (71).

Phaeolus schweinitzii causes one of the most common and destructive root rots. A root rot caused by Heterobasidion annosum is found particularly on white pines growing on poorly aerated soils. Thinnings appear to increase the incidence of this disease (71). Armillaria mellea destroys much of the white pine seedling and sapling reproduction for distances up to 9 m (30 ft) from hardwood stumps. The fungus radiates and girdles pines at the root collar and causes resinosis (33). Other root rots that attack white pine are Inonotus tomentosus and Scytinostroma galactinium. Many fungi invade white pine foliage. The most serious damage is caused by Bifusella linearis, which attacks first-year needles; Scirrhia acicola, which can cause spring shedding of all needles; and Capnodium pini, which causes surface sooty mold on aphid secretions on needles.

Three categories of nursery diseases are pre-emergence and post-emergence damping off, most commonly caused by Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp., Pythium debaryanum, P. ultimum, and Phytophthora cinnamomi; damping off and root collar rot caused by the preceding fungi and Cylindrocladium scoparium and Diplodia pinea; and foliage and succulent stem blights caused by Cylindrocladium scoparium, Diplodia pinea, Phacidium infestans, and Rhizina undulata. In the field, seedlings may be attacked by Armillaria mellea and by most of the fungi observed in the nursery. In 3- to 10-year-old plantations in Pennsylvania, Verticicladiella procera was identified (65).

The bark on exposed roots and the stem in second-growth white pine stands is thin, and fire resistance is low. Losses invariably are heavy after a fire, with mortality continuing for several years. Also, fire injury is probably responsible for introducing disease agents. If fires occurred more frequently than once in 10 years, white pine reproduction might be eliminated (53). Old trees have thicker bark and are at least moderately resistant to fire.

The species is relatively windfirm. if permitted full development, but in dense stands, wind damage may be expected from an occasional severe storm, particularly after a recent partial cutting (71). Wind-deformed trees are subject to later compression failures in the bole. Also, white pine is damaged by deer browsing; ice and snow, which often cause limb and stem breakage; sulfur dioxide in stack gases resulting from large scale burning of coal and oil refining; fluorine gas from brick kilns; atmospheric ozone; and sea-salt spray (11,26,33,58).

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Flowering and Fruiting ( 英語 )

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White pine is monoecious. The male strobili are oval, 8 to 10 mm (0.3 to 0.4 in) long and occur mostly on the basal part of new shoots and mostly on older lateral branches in the lower crown. At the time of pollen shed, they are light brown to brown. Female flowers are found most often in the upper crown, primarily at the apical end of the main branches in the position of subterminal or lateral buds (39). At the time of pollination, they are green, and 5 to 38 mm (0.2 to 1.5 in) long. In the northeastern United States, flowering occurs between May and June. The male flowers develop from one to several weeks before the female flowers.

Trees may start to bear female flowers when 5 to 10 years old (71). In the Philadelphia area, quantity production of female flowers does not begin until the trees are about 6 m (20 ft) tall. At that size, 200 to 300 flowers may be produced in 1 year; the number is only a little greater on larger or older trees. Few or no male flowers appear during the early flowering years. Femaleness persists even on older trees 30 to 61 cm (12 to 24 in) in diameter, although trees of this size do produce small to moderate amounts of pollen (71).

The pattern of flowering in white pine is uncertain. In the Philadelphia area, the better flowering trees tend to produce about the same number of female flowers every year, with some exceptions; male flowers, however, do not appear every year (71). Fertilization occurs about 13 months after pollination, and cones mature usually during August and September of the second year (39). Trees have borne cones at 5 to 10 years of age, but good seed production cannot be expected until the trees are 20 to 30 years old (30).

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Genetics ( 英語 )

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Population Differences Early provenance tests by the USDA Forest Service and by Genys showed that trees from the southern Appalachians grew more rapidly at a number of test locations. In a followup test, Wright and others collected 177 seedlots from the southern Appalachians. After 12 years, the trees from Georgia and parts of North Carolina and Tennessee grew most rapidly and trees from West Virginia and Maryland grew most slowly wherever they were tested. There are geographic differences in air pollution sensitivity, flower production, winter injury, and susceptibility to blister rust (4,27,35,73). White pine varies greatly in appearance in different parts of its range, suggesting that unidentified ecological or geographical races may exist (32). Likewise, trees immune to white pine blister rust and weevil occur, suggesting the feasibility of selection propagation and breeding of resistant varieties (72).

Races and Hybrids Eastern white pine is represented in the United States by the typical variety, Pinus strobus var. strobus. Chiapas white pine, P. strobus var. chiapensis, is native in the mountains of southern Mexico and Guatemala. Four horticultural varieties have been recognized in Connecticut (68).

Eastern white pine crosses readily with western white pine (Pinus monticola), Balkan pine (P. peuce), blue pine (P. griffithii), and Japanese white pine (P. parviflora). It can also be crossed with limber pine (P. flexilis) and Mexican white pine (P. ayacahuite) (21). The cross P. strobus x griffithii is more vigorous than P. strobus in Northern Ohio and more winter hardy than P. griffithii (37).

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Growth and Yield ( 英語 )

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White pine is a long-lived tree commonly reaching 200 years if undisturbed; maximum age may exceed 450 years. It has a remarkable rate of growth compared to other pine and hardwood species within its range (20). Trees 102 cm (40 in) in d.b.h. and 46 m (150 ft) tall were common in the virgin forests of Pennsylvania, Michigan, and New England (71). In the "National Register of Big Trees" (54), there are two champion white pines: one in Michigan is 168 cm (66 in) in diameter and 48.2 m (158 ft) tall, and the other in Maine is 173 cm (68 in) in diameter and 44.8 m (147 ft) tall.

Periodic height growth increment of dominant and codominant trees in southern Appalachian natural white pine stands occurs at younger ages on the better sites and tends to decline more rapidly. Height growth of both planted and natural white pine is slow during the first 2 to 3 years. Afterwards, growth accelerates rapidly, peaking at an average annual rate of 1 m (3 ft) between 10 and 15 years on site index 80 (base 50 years) (6). By age 55, the rate of annual growth is about equal on all sites (9). For example, in stands with a site index of 36.6 m (120 ft), maximum growth of 1.0 m (3.4 ft) per year occurred at age 14; whereas, with a site index of 18.3 m (60 ft), maximum growth of 0.5 m (1.5 ft) per year did not occur until age 23. By age 55, however, annual growth for all sites was about 0.3 m (1.0 ft) per year (fig. 1).


Figure 1-Curves of annual increment (A) and cumulative
height (B) for selected site indices. These curves show the
changing pattern of growth with level of site index (9).


Diameter growth may be as rapid as 2.5 cm (1 in) per year or as slow as 2.5 cm (1 in) in 40 years. Dominant trees ordinarily grow at the rate of 1 to 2 rings per 5 mm (5 to 10/in) to an age of 250 years. In fully stocked stands on average sites, the average tree diameter increases at a nearly uniform rate of 2.5 cm (1 in) every 5 to 6 years (71).

Generally, rates of growth in basal area, cubic volume, and sawtimber volume in natural southern Appalachian stands tend to be slower than those in old-field plantations. For example, maximum mean annual increment in cubic volume occurs at 60 to 70 years in natural stands and at about 25 years in plantations. Similarly, sawtimber volume in natural stands is still increasing at 100 years, though very slowly. In New England stands, mean annual increment in cubic volume occurs at age 40 to 50 (8). Sustained cubic volume growth extends from about age 30 to 90. Mean annual growth peaks at 8.6 m/ha (615.0 fbm/acre). In New England, a stocking guide for white pine has been prepared (55) (fig. 2).


Figure 2-Stocking guide for nearly pure even-aged white pine
stands, showing basal area per acre, number of trees per acre,
and mean d.b.h. for trees in the main crown canopy (55).


The A curve represents 80 percent stocking, and stands above it are considered overstocked. The B curve represents minimum stocking for full site utilization and stands that fall below are considered understocked. Stands between the A and B curves are considered adequately stocked. Where a particular stand might fall in the guide is based on basal area per acre, number of trees per acre, and mean d.b.h. for trees in the main canopy. Tables have been prepared for different stand ages, site and stocking percent, and cubic and sawtimber yield (table 1) (43). Yields of about 504 m³/ha (36,000 fbm/acre) at 50 years in nearly fully stocked managed stands are entirely possible. The average white pine stand in New England grows from 4.2 to 11.2 m³/ha (300 to 800 fbm/acre) per year depending on age, site index, and stocking (41). Site index for eastern white pine is determined from the average height of dominant trees at age 50 years.

Table 1- Yields from fully stocked, natural stands of eastern white pine in New England (41) Site index at base age 50 years Stand age (yr) 15 m or 50 ft 12 m or 70 ft 27 m or 90 ft m³/ha Sawtimber¹   40 108 209 405   60 236 456 -   80 349 674 - 100 440 852 - Pulpwood²   20 100 137 187   40 247 339 464   60 334 458 628   80 388 533 731 100 425 583 800 fbm/acre Sawtimber   40   7,729 14,948 28,909   60 16,858 32,604 -   80 24,898 48,152 - 100 31,460 60,845 - Pulpwood   20 1,423 1,952   2,677   40 3,526 4,836   6,632   60 4,771 6,543   8,974   80 5,550 7,611 10,439 100 6,077 8,334 11,431 ¹Volume to a 15 cm (6.0 in) diameter top outside bark- fbm measured using the International 0.25-inch log rule.
²Volume to an 8 cm (3.0 in) diameter top inside bark. For more detailed information, refer to publications on the growth and yield of white pine in natural stands and plantations prepared specifically for the various parts of the range (6,10,41,49,55,57).

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Reaction to Competition ( 英語 )

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White pine is intermediate in shade tolerance, and vegetative competition is a major problem (60). Although it will tolerate up to 80 percent shade, tree growth increases as shade is reduced (6). It can achieve maximum height growth in as little as 45 percent full sunlight (60). In competition with light-foliaged species such as the birches and pitch pine, white pine usually gains dominance in the stand. It can grow successfully in competition with black walnut (15). Against the stronger competition of species such as the aspens, oaks, and maples, however, white pine usually fails to gain a place in the upper canopy and eventually dies (71). Pure stands of white pine seldom stagnate because of inherent variations in vigor. This characteristic is more pronounced on better sites and in natural stands than in plantations (6).

In Ontario, on upland sites white pine and its associates are rated in decreasing order of shade tolerance as follows: balsam fir (Abies balsamea), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), white spruce (Picea glauca), yellow birch, white pine, black spruce (Picea mariana), gray birch (Betula populifolia), red oak Quercus rubra), red maple (Acer rubrum), red pine (Pinus resinosa), jack pine, trembling aspen, bigtooth aspen, and pin cherry (Prunus pensylvanica) (71).

In the seedling stage, white pine is very susceptible to competition because its height growth is slow compared to most of its associates. If white pine survives to the sapling stage, its ability to compete is greatly improved (71).

At either stage, the response to release depends primarily on how strong the competition has been and how long the pine has been in a subordinate position. In general, pines less than 30 years old with at least one-third of their height in live crown respond well, but response declines proportionately with increasing age and decreasing crown length.

White pine may function as a pioneer, as exemplified by its role as the old field pine of New England. It may function as a physiographic climax species on the drier, sandier soils. It may function as a long-lived successional species, and it may be a component of climax forests throughout its range. In Canada, however, it is considered that many of the present white pine stands are edaphic or pyric relicts and that present climatic conditions are against its maintenance as a major species (71).

Pure natural stands of white pine almost never stagnate. Because of differences in vigor, age, and site, differentiation into crown and diameter classes usually occurs. Dominance is more pronounced on the better sites, at the greater stand densities, and in natural stands as compared to plantations (71).

White pine has been regenerated successfully by a wide variety of methods including clearcutting, seed tree, shelterwood, and group selection (44). If there is abundant advanced reproduction, overstory removal is all that is necessary. Clearcutting during or just after heavy seed crops often results in well stocked stands on light soils. Clearcutting in small patches or stands with seed dispersed from adjacent stands is also possible. Because of competition from other vegetation and poor seed crops, mechanical site preparation and planting may be necessary sometimes in conjunction with clearcutting.

Where esthetic considerations are important, group selection may have merit. Probably the most versatile reproduction method is the shelterwood method. By control of overstory density with a series of shelterwood cuts, seedbed conditions may be improved; an accumulation of advanced seedlings is obtained over a period of years; protection of seedlings on hot, dry aspects is afforded; weevil attacks are reduced; and competition from herbaceous and hardwood sprout vegetation is suppressed. Two, three, or more cuts spread over a number of years may be used, but usually white pine can be regenerated successfully with a two-cut shelterwood system. Seed cuts should be timed to take advantage of good seed crops, but timing of the final cut is not critical.

Trees in pure second-growth stands of white pine are noted for their limbiness. The limbs live for about 15 years and persist on the trunk for more than 25 years after they die. In the first log of these stands, there is an average of about 60 limbs (71). Pruning has been recommended to increase quality production. If possible, pruning should begin early when branches are less than 5 cm (2 in) in diameter but not before dominance is expressed. At least 25 percent of the live crown and up to 50 percent in closed stands can be pruned without losses in height growth. To realize full benefits of pruning, only potential crop trees should be pruned and stands should be thinned to maximize growth (24). In Canada, pruning is recommended on fast-growing trees in stands 35 to 80 years old because of the inefficiency of pruning smaller trees and the lengthened rotation and probable growth reduction in older stands (34). This recommendation assumes that the highest returns will accrue if the trees are allowed to grow for another 40 years before harvest.

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Rooting Habit ( 英語 )

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The form and distribution of the white pine root system vary with the soil characteristics. The normal root system has just a vestige of a taproot. Usually three to five large roots spread outward and downward in the soil, giving the tree a firm anchor under most conditions. In deep, coarse-textured soils, sinker roots that branch from the laterals and grow straight down seem to be fairly common, but they are seldom found in other soils. A concentration of fine roots within the H, A, and B horizons seems to be greatest where the soil is fine textured, with good structure and consistency, and a relatively high moisture equivalent (71). A high total exchange capacity and a relatively high content of exchangeable bases, total nitrogen, and organic matter also favor the concentration of roots.

Much root grafting occurs in white pine stands (12). Regardless of either stand age, soil characteristics, or drainage class, root grafting occurred in 30 to 67 percent of dye-injected trees in five white pine stands in New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont. Exposure of the root systems indicated that often several trees, rather than two or three, were united by root grafts. Root grafting indicates that competition may be a factor in white pine growth for the first 5 to 10 years of a stand. Thereafter, root grafts begin to form, and the stand may function as a union of grafted trees interspersed with individual trees.

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Seed Production and Dissemination ( 英語 )

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Good seed years are thought to occur every 3 to 5 years, a few seeds being produced in most intervening years. However, at the Massabesic Experimental Forest in southwestern Maine, and at other New England locations, there was virtually no seed produced for 7 years and no good seed crop for 10 years. The major cause of these failures probably is the white pine cone beetle (Conophthorus coniperda).

Cones are green when immature and turn yellow-green to light brown when ripe. Cones that float in linseed oil are considered ripe. Cones should be collected from trees having superior growth and form. Widely spaced dominant trees with full crowns produce the most seeds per cone (39).

In a comprehensive German study of white pine seed production, it was found that a 90-year-old stand produced about 73 kg of seeds per hectare (65 lb/acre); a comparable 60-year-old stand produced only one-fifth as much. In these stands, dominant trees produced twice as many cones as codominant trees (71). In Maine, intermediate density stands 27.6 m²/ha (120 ft²/acre) produced 4,430,000 viable seeds per hectare (1,793,220/acre) in a good seed year (29). In high density stands 42.9 m²/ha (187 ft²/acre), seedfall was 36 percent less and in low density stands 18.4 m²/ha (80 ft²/acre), seedfall was 30 percent less than in the intermediate density stands.

There are 58,400 seeds per kilogram (26,500/1b) with a range from 38,600 to 116,800/kg (17,500 to 53,000/1b) (39). In a study of 250 different parents from all parts of the white pine range, the number of good seeds per cone ranged from 0 to 73. The lowest sets were found in stands at the extremes of the range.

Most of the seeds are dispersed within the month following cone maturity. The seeds travel at least 60 m (200 ft) within a white pine stand and more than 210 m (700 ft) in the open (71). Gray squirrels were found responsible for much of the white pine reproduction under mature red oak stands in southern New Hampshire; they bury and recover the seeds (3).

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Seedling Development ( 英語 )

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Embryo dormancy is common in white pine, and for nursery sowing, stratification of seeds for 60 days at 1° to 5° C (33° to 41° F) is recommended (39).

Germination is epigeal. Bare mineral soil is not necessary for seed germination; seeds can germinate and survive on both disturbed and undisturbed litter layers (6). Under full exposure to sunlight, moist mineral soil, polytrichum moss, or a shortgrass cover of light to medium density are favorable seedbeds. Dry mineral soil, pine litter, lichen, and very thin or very thick grass covers are unfavorable (71).

Unfavorable seedbed conditions can be corrected by scarification or can be overcome by shade. However, dense, low shade such as that cast by slash piles or hardwood brush is adverse to later survival and the shade of young stands of gray birch (Betula populifolia) or pitch pine reduces growth in the later stages. Overstory shade resulting from a form of shelterwood cut provides good protection during the early stages of growth and is least damaging to later stages (71).

Experience in North Carolina shows that during years of heavy seedfall white pine seedlings develop well in shade cast by logging debris. Some seedlings may die during a hot dry June, however. Thus, the roughest tracts are reserved and regenerated by natural methods during years of high seedfall only (52). On medium to fair sites in the central Appalachians, white pine seedlings can be underplanted in hardwood stands with reasonable success (69). The hardwoods, mostly oaks and hickories, permit enough light to reach the seedlings so some height growth occurs. Normally 3 to 5 years are required for white pine to become established, and if the pines are released 5 to 10 years later, a high proportion outgrow the competing vegetation. Similar results have been reported for 9- to 20-year-old underplanted white pine in Maine, Canada, and South Carolina (16,28,71).

White pine seedlings in the vicinity of recent pine timber cuttings often are attacked by the pales weevil (Hylobius pales). This insect breeds in the fresh stumps and slash; nearby seedlings are girdled and usually killed. Most of the damage occurs during the first 3 years after a cutting and among seedlings less than 5 years old (71).

After the establishment period, light intensity becomes critical to the survival and growth of white pine seedlings. At light intensities less than 10 to 13 percent of full sunlight, survival is uniformly poor; at least 20 percent of full sunlight seems to be required to keep the seedlings alive. As light intensity increases above this point, growth increases proportionately up to full sunlight unless some other condition becomes limiting (71). Diameter growth of planted white pine increased with increased light in clearcut stands in the Piedmont of South Carolina (23). Height growth of underplanted seedlings after 2 years did not differ from that of seedlings planted in a clearcut.

Although young seedlings can survive for several weeks in soils with moisture below the wilting coefficient, growth at a given light intensity is best in the absence of root competition; growth is better when only an overstory offers root competition than when both an understory and an overstory are competing (71). Mineral soil seedbeds plus light intensities greater than 20 percent full sunlight but less than full sunlight support vigorous seedling growth by reducing surface soil temperatures and providing better soil moisture conditions (41). The survival of white pine 2-2 stock was increased on shallow old pasture soils in eastern Ontario when wedge-shaped pieces of peat saturated with water were placed at the bottom of the planting holes to provide water and prevent desiccation during drought periods (61). Two-O stock stored in a refrigerator can be planted until mid-June without significant reduction in survival rate. However, seedlings planted in July and August will not be hardened off by the first fall frost (56).

In some early greenhouse and nursery trials with young seedlings, the optimum supply of nitrogen was shown to be 300 p/m; phosphorus, 350 p/m; potassium, 150 p/m; and calcium, 200 p/m (71).

Early white pine growth is slow. Open-grown trees are about 13 cm (5 in) high when 3 years old; 30 cm (12 in) high when 5 years old; and 137 cm (54 in) high when 8 to 10 years old. Thereafter, height growth may be quite rapid. Between 10 and 20 years old, open-grown dominant trees have grown as much as 137 cm (54 in) in height in a single year. Annual increments of 91 cm (36 in) are not uncommon, but average height growth of dominant trees during this period is about 41 cm (16 in) (71). Usually terminal growth occurs within a 30-day period (6) and normally is completed by July 1 (56).

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Soils and Topography ( 英語 )

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The major soil orders found in the white pine range are Inceptisols, Ultisols, Spodosols, Entisols, and Alfisols (14,50,66). In New England the important subgroups are excessively drained or somewhat excessively drained sandy deposits or stratified sand and gravel deposits. Most of the parent materials are glaciofluvial deposits-subgroups Typic Udorthents, Typic Haplorthods, and Typic Udipsamments; glacial tills-subgroups Lithic Dystrochrepts and Lithic Haplorthods; or weathered igneous rocks (loose crystalline fragments mainly from weathered Conway granite)-subgroup Lithic Haplorthods (42).

In northern Minnesota, Eutroboralfs, Haplorthods, Udipsamments, and Hapludalfs are among the most common of the great groups (2). They are similar to the soils of New England and are more or less freely drained and have developed on glacial outwash or till material.

Dystrochrepts, Fragiodults, and Normudults are the major great groups occupied by white pine in the central Appalachian Mountains (45). These soils are weathered from acid shales and sandstones, either in place (residual soils), deposited on lower slopes (colluvial material), or along stream terraces (alluvial material). The soils are generally well drained and have a coarse loamy to a fine loamy texture.

Soils within the range of white pine are derived from granites, gneisses, schists, and sandstones, and less commonly from phyllites, slates, shales, and limestones. In the northern part of the Lake States and southern Canada, white pine is usually confined to soils derived from basalts, gabbro, diabase, and granites (70). Most of the area was covered by the Wisconsin glaciation so the soils are young and have weakly developed profiles (67). In New Hampshire, white pine is found on granite-derived soils and on metamorphic crystalline schists (42). From central Pennsylvania south and in southwestern Wisconsin, the soils are much older, generally are finer textured, and have well developed profiles.

White pine grows on nearly all the soils within its range (71), but generally competes best on well drained sandy soils of low to medium site quality. These soils permit fair growth of white pine but not hardwoods. On these sandy sites, white pine regenerates naturally, competes easily, and can be managed most effectively and economically (40,47). On medium-textured soils (sandy loams), it will outproduce most other native commercial species in both volume and value (47). White pine also grows on fine sandy loams and silt-loam soils with either good or impeded drainage when there is no hardwood competition during the establishment period-as on old fields and pastures, bums, and blowdowns. It has been found on clay soils and on poorly drained or very poorly drained soils with surface mounds. It can be very productive on these sites but usually occurs only as individual trees or in small groups (47). This pine should not be planted in heavy clay soils. Poorly drained bottom land sites and upland depressions are also poor choices for planting (6).

At various places within white pine's range, site quality has been related to combinations of soil and topographic characteristics such as texture and thickness of the A and B horizons, depth and permeability of the underlying rock or pan, depth to the water table, natural drainage class, topographic position, slope percent, and aspect. In the unglaciated regions of Ohio and central Indiana, site quality for white pine increases as the soil becomes coarser in texture and declines as the moisture equivalent and wilting percentage increase in the A and B horizons (71). But thickness of the A horizon had the greatest influence on rate of growth.

In Massachusetts white pine site quality increased with the increase in silt and clay fraction of the A horizon, with higher pH value of the B or C horizon, with increased stone and gravel fraction greater than 2 mm (0.08 in) in the A horizon, with greater nitrogen content in the A horizon, and with higher percent organic matter in the B horizon (46). In general, the higher site indices are associated with the poor soil drainage classes. On reclaimed soils, white pine should not be planted on sites with a pH of less than 4.0 (6).

In New Hampshire, the average height of dominant and codominant trees increased as the soil tended to be less well drained (7,71). Site productivity in Maine showed the following responses: increase with a reduction in soil drainage; increase with pH increases in surface mineral horizons; decrease with increased content of stones larger than 0.6 cm. (0.25 in) in the C horizon, but increase with the contents of stones in surface horizon; increase with thickness of the A horizon; increase with soil depth to a bulk density of 1.40 or greater; increase with increasing availability of soil moisture in the upper 76 cm (30 in) of soil (59).

In the southern part of its range, white pine grows best on soils along rivers and streams and grows somewhat more slowly on well drained sites (22). The growth of white pine in plantations in eastern Tennessee was found to decrease with increased plasticity of the B horizon (71).

Pine often grows better than some of its associates on poor soils or sites, such as in northeastern Iowa where white pine was 8 site index points better than oaks on the poor soils (71). In a comparison of site index and growth of 10 species in the southern Appalachians, white pine exceeded all species in growth, except on the best sites, where yellow-poplar outranked it in height only. In New England, white pine frequently pioneers on abandoned agricultural land but only on the well-drained to excessively drained deposits-outwash, sandy tills, and shallow bedrock. White pine may form part of the climax (edaphic) on the driest of these materials or may alternate with oak (42).

In New England and New York, white pine generally grows at elevations between sea level and 460 m (1,500 ft), occasionally higher. In Pennsylvania, the elevation ranges from 150 to 610 m (500 to 2,000 ft) (71). In the southern Appalachians, white pine grows in a band along the mountains between 370 and 1070 m (1,200 and 3,500 ft) above sea level, occasionally reaching 1220 m (4,000 ft). In Pennsylvania and the southern Appalachians, most white pine is found on northerly aspects, in coves, and on stream bottoms. Elsewhere, aspect seldom restricts its occurrence (71).

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Special Uses ( 英語 )

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Although the genus Pinus is used by wildlife for food and cover, few specific observations of eastern white pine have been noted. Some species of songbirds that consume seeds of white pine are the yellow-bellied sapsucker, black-capped chickadee, white-breasted nuthatch, pine warbler, pine grosbeak, and the red crossbill. Some mammals that eat seeds, bark, and foliage of white pine are beaver, snowshoe hares, New England cottontails, porcupine, red and gray squirrels, mice, and white-tailed deer (48).

White pines are useful in urban plantings. Trees grown from seeds obtained in Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, or in adjacent regions of New Brunswick, Maine, and New Hampshire may be more suitable than trees obtained from other regions (27). They usually have more compact crowns and are more resistant to snowbreak; they grow more slowly, have darker blue-green color, and seem to be more resistant to air pollutants than trees from other origins.

White pine has been used extensively for stabilizing strip-mine spoils. In the anthracite region of Pennsylvania, white pine survived well on spoils that fell within the pH range 5.1 to 6.5, and growth was better on lower slopes of the spoils than on upper slopes (18). On bituminous spoils in West Virginia, white pine survived best on spoils having a pH greater than 4.0 (13). Growth on the spoils was slow for the first 5 years, but total height exceeded that of Scotch pine (P. sylvestris), and red pine at 10 years.

The bark of white pine is used as an astringent and an expectorant, and the wood has been used to produce white pine tar, which is used as an antiseptic, expectorant, and protective (38). White pine wood has medium strength, is easily worked, and stains and finishes well. It is used for furniture, patterns, matches, and many other items. White pine is also planted for Christmas trees. The foliage has a good color and responds well to shearing (19).

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Vegetative Reproduction ( 英語 )

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White pine does not reproduce vegetatively under natural conditions (31). Small cuttings of the last season's twigs, taken in late winter from trees 2 to 6 years old, root fairly readily, however. Within 9 years, outplanted cuttings have developed the same form and size as seedlings, and the root system approaches that of seedlings (71). Also, trees from rooted cuttings performed as well or better than seedling-origin trees when comparing survival, height, and d.b.h. after 40 years (62).

When June-collected cuttings from 17- and 30-year-old white pine were treated with 0.1 percent indolebutyric acid (IBA) and the fungicide Benlate, 60 and 45 percent, respectively, all of the cuttings produced roots in 16 weeks (36). Cuttings from secondary branches of 13-year-old white pines treated with 5 percent benomyl and 25 percent captan fungicides resulted in root formation on 36 percent of the cuttings. When 0.1 percent or 0.5 percent IBA was added, rooting was 31 percent (64). Multi-applications of N6 benzyladenine at 1,000 p/m to white pine needle fascicles produced roots on 22 percent of all clones tested in 1975 (17).

Scions from the crown of mature trees can be grafted on young stock (31). Side grafts of scions on 3- or 4-year-old white pine stocks seem to be a more reliable method of vegetative propagation than rooted cuttings (71). Buds from main terminal or lateral terminal positions should be used in grafting if early erect growth is desired (1).

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Silvics of North America

Distribution ( 英語 )

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Eastern white pine is found across southern Canada from Newfoundland, Anticosti Island, and Gaspé peninsula of Quebec; west to central and western Ontario and extreme southeastern Manitoba; south to southeastern Minnesota and northeastern Iowa; east to northern Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey; and south mostly in the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia and northwestern South Carolina. It is also found in western Kentucky, western Tennessee, and Delaware. A variety grows in the mountains of southern Mexico and Guatemala.


- The native range of eastern white pine.

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Silvics of North America

Brief Summary ( 英語 )

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Pinaceae -- Pine family

G. W. Wendel and H. Clay Smith

Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), also called northern white pine, is one of the most valuable trees in eastern North America. Before the arrival of white men, virgin stands contained an estimated 3.4 billion m³ (600 billion fbm) of lumber. By the late 1800's most of those vast stands had been logged. Because it is among the more rapid growing northern forest conifers, it is an excellent tree for reforestation projects, landscaping, and Christmas trees and has the distinction of having been one of the more widely planted American trees.

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Silvics of North America

Physical Description ( 英語 )

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Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins finely serrulate (use magnification or slide your finger along the leaf), Leaf apex acute, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves blue-green, Leaves not blue-green, Needle-like leaves triangular, Needle-like leaves twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 5, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Twigs glabrous, Twigs pubescent, Twigs viscid, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Seed cones bearing a scarlike umbo, Umbo with missing or very weak prickle, Umbo with obvious prickle, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds red, Seeds brown, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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Veymutov şamı ( 亞塞拜然語 )

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Veymutov şamı (lat. Pinus strobus) - şamkimilər fəsiləsinin şam ağacı cinsinə aid bitki növü.

Təbii halda Şimali Amerika nın şərq rayonlarında yayılmışdır. Zaqatala rayonunun Pərzivan məntəqəsində dağ-meşə torpaqlarında bitir. Avropada XVII əsrdən becərilir. Hündürlüyü 50 m, diametri 160 sm olan iri ağacdır. Çətiri enli piramidal və ya yumurtavarı, seyrəkdir. Gövdəsi düz və hamardır, açıq-boz rəngli qabıq qatı ilə örtülmüşdür. Cavan zoğların qalınlığı isə 3–4 mm olub, çılpaqdır. Nazik iynəyarpaqları açıq-yaşıldır, uzunluğu 5-10 sm olub, 5 ədədi bir dəstədə yığılmışdır və 2-3 il budaqların üzərində qalır. Qozaları ensiz-silindrikdir, uzunluğu 8-16 sm-ə, qalınlığı 2-4 sm-ə çatır, uzun saplaqlarda 1-3 ədəd olmaqla yerləşir. Apofizləri üstdən qabarıqdır. İkinci il yetişir. Bu şam 25 ildən sonra meyvə verməyə başlayır. Təzə qumlu və gilli torpaqlara üstünlük verir. Quru və qeyri-münbit torpaqlarda bu növ zəif böyüyür. Kölgəyə, küləyə, soyuğa davamlıdır, rütubətsevəndir, isti yay günlərində yarpaqları quruyur. Çox vaxt pas xəstəliyinə yoluxur. Oduncağı yumşaq, yüngüldür, tikintidə binaların bəzədilməsində, mebel, qələm, kibrit, faner, sellüloza istehsalında istifadə edilir. Respublikamızda Lənkəran zonasının rütubətli yerlərində, dağ-ətəklərində gilli sarı torpaqlarda Veymutov şamı toxumla cücərdilib becərilir. Bakı da Nəbatat bağı nda, Gəncə də və Bərdə də ayrı-ayrı nüsxələri vardır.

Məlumat mənbələri:

Деревья и кустарники СССР. т.3.1954; Флора Азербайджана. т.5. 1954; Azərbaycanın ağac və kolları. III cild. 1970; Azərbaycanın “Qırmızı” və “Yaşıl Кitabları”na tövsiyə olunan bitki və bitki formasiyaları. 1996; Azərbaycan florasının konspekti. I-III cildlər. 2005; 2006; 2008.

İstinadlar

  1. “Azərbaycan dendraflorasi” I cild, Baki, “Elm”, 2011, 312 səh.

Mənbə

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Veymutov şamı: Brief Summary ( 亞塞拜然語 )

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Veymutov şamı (lat. Pinus strobus) - şamkimilər fəsiləsinin şam ağacı cinsinə aid bitki növü.

Təbii halda Şimali Amerika nın şərq rayonlarında yayılmışdır. Zaqatala rayonunun Pərzivan məntəqəsində dağ-meşə torpaqlarında bitir. Avropada XVII əsrdən becərilir. Hündürlüyü 50 m, diametri 160 sm olan iri ağacdır. Çətiri enli piramidal və ya yumurtavarı, seyrəkdir. Gövdəsi düz və hamardır, açıq-boz rəngli qabıq qatı ilə örtülmüşdür. Cavan zoğların qalınlığı isə 3–4 mm olub, çılpaqdır. Nazik iynəyarpaqları açıq-yaşıldır, uzunluğu 5-10 sm olub, 5 ədədi bir dəstədə yığılmışdır və 2-3 il budaqların üzərində qalır. Qozaları ensiz-silindrikdir, uzunluğu 8-16 sm-ə, qalınlığı 2-4 sm-ə çatır, uzun saplaqlarda 1-3 ədəd olmaqla yerləşir. Apofizləri üstdən qabarıqdır. İkinci il yetişir. Bu şam 25 ildən sonra meyvə verməyə başlayır. Təzə qumlu və gilli torpaqlara üstünlük verir. Quru və qeyri-münbit torpaqlarda bu növ zəif böyüyür. Kölgəyə, küləyə, soyuğa davamlıdır, rütubətsevəndir, isti yay günlərində yarpaqları quruyur. Çox vaxt pas xəstəliyinə yoluxur. Oduncağı yumşaq, yüngüldür, tikintidə binaların bəzədilməsində, mebel, qələm, kibrit, faner, sellüloza istehsalında istifadə edilir. Respublikamızda Lənkəran zonasının rütubətli yerlərində, dağ-ətəklərində gilli sarı torpaqlarda Veymutov şamı toxumla cücərdilib becərilir. Bakı da Nəbatat bağı nda, Gəncə də və Bərdə də ayrı-ayrı nüsxələri vardır.

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Pinus strobus ( 加泰隆語 )

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Pinus strobus o pi de Weymouth, en anglès té els noms comuns de: eastern white pine, white pine, northern white pine, Weymouth pine, i soft pine[1] és un gran pi i planta nativa de l'est de l'Amèrica del Nord. Es troba des de l'illa de Terranova, passant per la regió dels Great Lakes a Manitoba i Minnesota, i pel sud per la Conca del Mississipí i els Apalatxes a Geòrgia i l'estat de Mississipí.[2]

Pels amerindis iroquesos és l'Arbre de la Pau [3] per George Weymouth que el va portar a Anglaterra el 1620.


Descripció

 src=
P. strobus fulles

Com en tots els membres del subgènere Strobus, les fulles són en grups de 5 (rarament 3 o 4)

 src=
P. strobus,pinya

La seva pinya és prima de 8 a 16 cm de llargada. Els pinyons fan de 4 a 5 mm de llargada i tenen una ala prima.

Poden viure 200 a 250 anys, alguns arriben als 400 o més.

Aquesta espècie de pi és la més alta de l'est de l'Amèrica del Nord, pot arribar als 70 m d'alt.[4] Però actualment els més alts fan entre 50 a 58 metres.[5]

Usos

  • Pals, molt importants en l'època dels vaixells de fusta
  • Fusta, actualment es cultiven en plantacions forestals. l'any 1620 el Capità George Weymouth els importà a Anglaterra i en va fer plantacions que fracassaren per les malalties de fongs.
  • Medicinal, les seves fulles tenen cinc vegades més vitamina C que la llimona i se'n pot fer una bona infusió. El seu càmbium és comestible i és una font de resveratrol.

Referències

  1. Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus strobus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). 2013, August 12 accessed 12 August 2013
  2. USDA: Native distribution map for Pinus strobus, accessed 1.13.2013
  3. Moore, Gerry; Kershner, Bruce; Craig Tufts; Daniel Mathews; Gil Nelson; Spellenberg, Richard; Thieret, John W.; Terry Purinton; Block, Andrew. National Wildlife Federation Field Guide to Trees of North America. New York: Sterling, 2008, p. 77. ISBN 1-4027-3875-7.
  4. Beck, D.E. «Height-Growth Patterns and Site Index of White Pine in the Southern Appalachians». Forest Science, 17, 2, 1971, pàg. 252–260.
  5. NTS—Native Tree Society

Enllaços externs

 src= A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Pinus strobus Modifica l'enllaç a Wikidata
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Pinus strobus: Brief Summary ( 加泰隆語 )

由wikipedia CA提供

Pinus strobus o pi de Weymouth, en anglès té els noms comuns de: eastern white pine, white pine, northern white pine, Weymouth pine, i soft pine és un gran pi i planta nativa de l'est de l'Amèrica del Nord. Es troba des de l'illa de Terranova, passant per la regió dels Great Lakes a Manitoba i Minnesota, i pel sud per la Conca del Mississipí i els Apalatxes a Geòrgia i l'estat de Mississipí.

Pels amerindis iroquesos és l'Arbre de la Pau per George Weymouth que el va portar a Anglaterra el 1620.


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Pinwydden wen ( 威爾斯語 )

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Coeden fytholwyrdd sydd i'w chanfod yn Hemisffer y Gogledd yw Pinwydden wen sy'n enw benywaidd. Mae'n perthyn i'r teulu Pinaceae. Yr enw gwyddonol (Lladin) yw Pinus strobus a'r enw Saesneg yw Weymouth pine.[1] Ceir enwau Cymraeg eraill ar y planhigyn hwn gan gynnwys Pinwydden Wen.

Yn yr un teulu ceir y Sbriwsen, y binwydden, y llarwydden, cegid (hemlog) a'r gedrwydden. Mae'r dail (y nodwyddau) wedi'u gosod mewn sbeiral ac yn hir a phigog. Oddi fewn i'r moch coed benywaidd ceir hadau, ac maent yn eitha coediog ac yn fwy na'r rhai gwryw, sydd yn cwympo bron yn syth wedi'r peillio.

Gweler hefyd

Cyfeiriadau

  1. Gerddi Kew; adalwyd 21 Ionawr 2015
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Mae gan Gomin Wikimedia
gyfryngau sy'n berthnasol i:
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Pinwydden wen: Brief Summary ( 威爾斯語 )

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Coeden fytholwyrdd sydd i'w chanfod yn Hemisffer y Gogledd yw Pinwydden wen sy'n enw benywaidd. Mae'n perthyn i'r teulu Pinaceae. Yr enw gwyddonol (Lladin) yw Pinus strobus a'r enw Saesneg yw Weymouth pine. Ceir enwau Cymraeg eraill ar y planhigyn hwn gan gynnwys Pinwydden Wen.

Yn yr un teulu ceir y Sbriwsen, y binwydden, y llarwydden, cegid (hemlog) a'r gedrwydden. Mae'r dail (y nodwyddau) wedi'u gosod mewn sbeiral ac yn hir a phigog. Oddi fewn i'r moch coed benywaidd ceir hadau, ac maent yn eitha coediog ac yn fwy na'r rhai gwryw, sydd yn cwympo bron yn syth wedi'r peillio.

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Borovice vejmutovka ( 捷克語 )

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 src=
Šiška vejmutovky

Borovice vejmutovka (Pinus strobus) je jehličnatý strom pocházející z východní části Severní Ameriky, kde patří mezi hospodářsky nejvýznamnější druh borovice.

Synonyma

  • Pinus tenuifolia Salisbury, 1796
  • Pinus nivea Booth, 1855
  • Pinus alba var. canadensis Provancher, 1862
  • Strobus Weymouthiana Opiz, 1854
  • Strobus Strobus Small, 1903
  • Leucopitys Strobus Nieuwland, 1913
  • Pinus canadensis var. quinquefolia Du Hamel du Monceau (sec. Dallimore and Jackson, 1923

Vzhled

Jde o relativně mohutný strom 60–70 m (80 m) vysoký, o průměru kmene 100–150 cm s nepravidelnou korunou a silnými vodorovně odstávajícími větvemi. Základem kořenového systému je mohutný hlavní kořen, který jde hluboko do půdy. Borka je hnědavá, podélně zbrázděná, v mládí hladká až šedohnědá. Velmi tenké a měkké 6–12 cm dlouhé jehlice vyrůstají ve svazečcích po pěti na brachyblastech a jsou na okraji pilovité, na bocích s 2–3 řadami průduchů) – bělavé proužky. Letorosty jsou tenké, zelenavé a jemně pýřité. Vejčité pupeny mají obvykle délky 5–7 mm, jsou červenavě žluté, s bělavým blanitým okrajem. Květenství jsou šišticovitá, samčí šištice jsou žluté, samičí růžové. Kvete od května do června. Šišky 7–15 cm velké, visící na konci větví po 1–3, dlouze stopkaté, převislé, se štítky žlutošedými, uprostřed rýhovanými. Semena vejčitá, hnědá, s proužkovaným křídlem.

Výskyt a ekologie

Mimo svůj přirozený areál rozšíření (východní část USA a Kanady) je hojně rozšířena po celém světě pro svou vysokou produkční schopnost. I u nás je velmi častá v lesních porostech, kde v místech svého optima vytlačuje místní borovici lesní (České Švýcarsko, Hradec Králové). Je klasickou kolonizující dřevinou, pod jejímž porostem (podobně jako u akátu) se zmlazuje většinou pouze ona sama – i díky opadu jehličí. Trpí však, jako ostatní americké pětijehličné druhy, rzí vejmutovkovou (Cronartium ribicola).

Velmi zvláštní je allopatrické rozšíření vejmutovky: Její hlavní areál zaujímá prostor od Newfoundlandu až po jižní konec Appalačských hor (Tennessee), zatímco jedna subpopulace pronikla dokonce až do jižního Mexika (Chiapas) a Guatemaly. Příčinou její prosperity i v těchto velmi teplých a suchých („neborových“) oblastech jsou patrně geny získané v subtropech předešlých geologických období.

Borovice vejmutovka je jediným stromem, se kterým tvoří symbiózu klouzek bílý.

Využití

Borovice vejmutovka bývá vysazována jako okrasný strom v parcích a zahradách. Krom toho je vysazována v kulturních lesích jako zdroj velmi kvalitního dřeva. To je měkké, lehké, velmi trvanlivé a snadno štípatelné, lehce se obrábí (modelářské dřevo) a druhotně nepracuje (nesesychá se). Je trvanlivé v zemi i ve vodě, kde je podle některých údajů trvanlivější než dub. V Severní Americe se používá jako stavební a nábytkářské dřevo, dále k výrobě beden, latí, šindelů apod. Je důležitou surovinou pro výrobu celulózy, k výrobě sirek a jako palivo.

Reference

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-10]

Literatura

  • BUSINSKÝ, R. 2004. Komentovaný světový klíč rodu Pinus L. – Závěrečná zpráva „Výzkum a hodnocení genofondu dřevin z aspektu sadovnického použití“, Výzkumný ústav Silva Taroucy pro krajinu a okrasné zahradnictví, Průhonice.
  • Květena ČSR, díl 1 (S. Hejný, B. Slavík (Eds.) 1988. – Praha: Academia, s. 289–308. – ISBN 80-200-0643-5
  • NOVÁK, F.A. (1953): Borovice neboli sosna, Pinus Linné (zpracováno 1942). – In: Klika, J., Novák, F.A., Šiman, K. & Kavka, B., Jehličnaté: 129–258. ČSAV, Praha.
  • PILÁT, A. 1964. Jehličnaté stromy a keře našich zahrad a parků. – Nakladatelství ČSAV, Praha.
  • POKORNÝ, J. 1963. Jehličnany lesů a parků. – SZN, Praha.

Externí odkazy

Rod borovice (Pinus) Podrod
Pinus
Evropa Asie Amerika
borovice Banksovaborovice arizonskáborovice Balfourovaborovice bahenníborovice Coulterovaborovice dlouholistáborovice Douglasovaborovice durangskáborovice Elliottovaborovice Engelmannovaborovice Hartwegovaborovice ježatáborovice karibskáborovice Jeffreyovaborovice kadidlováborovice mičoakánskáborovice Montezumovaborovice ostnitáborovice paprsčitáborovice pavejmutkaborovice pichlaváborovice pokroucenáborovice pozdníborovice Sabineovaborovice smolnáborovice těžkáborovice Torreyovaborovice tuháborovice uzavřenáborovice virginskáborovice zúženáPinus apulcensisPinus cubensisPinus tropicalisPinus yecorensis
Podrod
Strobus
Evropa Asie Amerika
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Borovice vejmutovka: Brief Summary ( 捷克語 )

由wikipedia CZ提供
 src= Šiška vejmutovky

Borovice vejmutovka (Pinus strobus) je jehličnatý strom pocházející z východní části Severní Ameriky, kde patří mezi hospodářsky nejvýznamnější druh borovice.

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Weymouth-fyr ( 丹麥語 )

由wikipedia DA提供

Weymouthfyr (Pinus strobus), også skrevet Weymouth-Fyr, er et stort, stedsegrønt nåletræ med en vækst, som i ungdommen er slank og kegleformet, men som med tiden bliver mere åben og uregelmæssig.

Beskrivelse

Barken er først græsgrøn, men inden for et år bliver den lyst olivengrøn og blank. Senere er barken vedvarende glat og grågrøn, men med alderen kan den blive mørkegrå og fint furet. Knopperne er rustbrune, ægformede og spidse med spidse, tiltrykte skæl.

Nålene sidder i bundter med fem på hvert dværgskud. De er tæt samlede i bundtet, og de er tynde og mørkegrønne med hvide striber ind mod midten af bundtet. De hanlige blomster sidder samlet i små, ægformede stande inderst på skuddet, og de er gule med røde spidser. De hunlige blomster sidder i endestillede, kegleformede stande, og de er lyserøde. Koglerne er slanke og svagt krummede med udadbuede skæl.

Rodnettet er de første mange år domineret af en kraftig pælerod, men senere udvikles kraftige, højtliggende siderødder med stor rækkevidde.

Højde x bredde og årlig tilvækst: 25 x 12 m (50 x 25 cm/år).

Hjemsted

Arten er udbredt i hele det østlige Nordamerika fra Mississippi i vest til atlanterhavskysten i øst, og fra Hudsonbugten i nord til Florida, Louisiana og Alabama i syd. Den er skovdannende sammen med både nåle- og løvtræer på alle slags jorde, men den konkurrerer bedst på sur og mager, sandet jord. Arten er pionertræ på opgivne marker.

I området omkring Roosevelt i New Jersey, USA, findes arten i skove og som pionertræ sammen med bl.a. Konvalbusk, robinie, tulipantræ, amerikansk bøg, amerikansk knapbusk, amerikansk nældetræ, amerikansk platan, amerikansk vin, blyantene, brunfrugtet surbær, glansbladet hæg, hvid ask, hvid hickory, klatrevildvin, koralsumak, pennsylvansk vokspors, rødløn, skovtupelotræ, sukkerbirk, sumpeg, sumprose, virginsk ambratræ, virginsk troldnød, virginsk vinterbær og østamerikansk hemlock[1]

Anvendelse

Træer yder godt tømmer, men er sjældent plantet i Europa, da det angribes og dræbes af blærerust-svampen, som har værtskifte med arter fra ribs-slægten.

Sorter

  • Pinus strobus cv. 'Radiata' – med en lav, kugle- eller kegleformet vækst.
  • Pinus strobus cv. 'Macopin' – med en buskagtig, uregelmæssig vækst.




Noter

Eksterne links

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wikipedia DA

Weymouth-fyr: Brief Summary ( 丹麥語 )

由wikipedia DA提供

Weymouthfyr (Pinus strobus), også skrevet Weymouth-Fyr, er et stort, stedsegrønt nåletræ med en vækst, som i ungdommen er slank og kegleformet, men som med tiden bliver mere åben og uregelmæssig.

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wikipedia DA

Weymouth-Kiefer ( 德語 )

由wikipedia DE提供

Die Strobe (Pinus strobus), auch Weymouth-Kiefer,[1][2] Weymouthskiefer oder Seidenkiefer genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Kiefern (Pinus) innerhalb der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae). Im östlichen Nordamerika ist sie die größte Nadelbaum-Art, mit bis zu 500 Jahre alten Exemplaren.[3] Sie ist der offizielle Staatsbaum der US-Bundesstaaten Maine und Michigan.[4]

Das Eponym bezieht sich nicht auf den englischen Entdecker und Schriftsteller George Weymouth, der sie 1605 nach Europa brachte, sondern auf Thomas Thynne, 1. Viscount Weymouth, der sie im 18. Jahrhundert in England als Forstbaum etablierte.[5]

Beschreibung

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Illustration[6]
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Stroben am Katherine Lake, Ottawa National Forest, Michigan
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Bestände mit älteren Bäumen in der Five Ponds Wilderness Area in New York, USA

Erscheinungsbild

Die Weymouth-Kiefer ist ein immergrüner Baum mit Wuchshöhen zwischen 25 und 35 Metern, der aber auch eine Höhe bis 67 Meter erreichen kann.[7] Der Brusthöhendurchmesser erreicht Werte von 1 bis 3 Metern. Sie kann bis zu 450 Jahre alt werden. Die säulenförmigen Stämme wachsen gerade und weisen eine starke Beastung auf. Die meist zu fünft in unregelmäßigen Quirlen stehenden Äste sind weit ausladend und gehen fast rechtwinkelig vom Stamm ab. An den Enden richten sie sich oft auf und sind büschelig benadelt. Junge Zweige sind sehr dünn. Freistehende Bäume bilden eine symmetrisch kegelförmige Krone aus, während Bäume im Bestand schmalkronig wachsen und einen langen astfreien Stamm haben. Altbäume, die im Bestand wachsen, bekommen eine breite und unregelmäßige Krone.[8][9]

Wurzelsystem

Das Hauptwurzelsystem besteht aus einer Pfahlwurzel und meist drei bis fünf weitreichenden Seitenwurzeln, welche bis in mittlere Bodentiefen vordringen. Die Pfahlwurzel von Altbäumen ist meist stark beschädigt, weshalb diese häufig vom Wind geworfen werden. Auf flachgründigen und schlecht drainierten Böden ist die Weymouth-Kiefer ein Flachwurzler, während auf tiefgründigen Böden von den Seitenwurzeln nach unten wachsende Senkerwurzeln abgehen. Kleine Seitenwurzeln werden direkt am Wurzelhals gebildet.

Die Weymouth-Kiefer bildet Ektomykorrhizen aus. Zu den häufigsten Mykorrhizapartnern gehören der Fliegenpilz (Amanita muscaria), der Pfifferling (Cantharellus cibarius), Russula lepida, Scleroderma vulgare, der Elfenbeinröhrling (Suillus placidus) und der Blutrote Filzröhrling (Xerocomus rubellus) sowie verschiedene Arten der Hohlfußröhrlinge (Boletinus), der Trichterlinge (Clitocybe) und der Milchlinge (Lactarius).[10]

Borke

Junge Bäume weisen eine dünne und glatte Borke auf, die dunkelgrün und oft etwas rötlich getönt ist. Altbäume haben eine 2,5 bis 5 Zentimeter dicke, rissige Borke. Diese ist graubraun gefärbt und in breite Schuppen aufgeteilt, welche durch flache Risse getrennt werden.[11] Die jungen Zweige haben eine grüne und flaumig behaarte Rinde, welche später kahl und orangefarben wird. Die Rinde von älteren Zweigen hat aufgrund von bleibenden Kurztriebnarben eine raue Oberfläche.[8]

Holz

Das cremefarbene bis strohgelbe Kernholz wird von einem nahezu weißen Splint umgeben. Es bestehen gleitende Übergänge zwischen Früh- und Spätholz. Vor allem im Spätholz sind die Harzkanäle gut erkennbar, welche einzeln oder in Gruppen von zwei oder drei stehen. Mit einer Darrdichte von 0,38 g/cm³ ist das weiche Strobenholz relativ leicht, aber stark belastbar. Es ist schraubenfest, sehr maßhaltig und lässt sich leicht bearbeiten, imprägnieren und trocknen, ist aber wenig dauerhaft. Selbst das Kernholz muss beim Verbau in fäulnisgefährdeten Lagen imprägniert werden.[11] Das Holz der Weymouth-Kiefer ist weich und leicht wird deshalb gerne als Material für Bienenbeuten genutzt.[12] Das Kurzzeichen als Handelsholz nach EN 13556 ist PNST.

Knospen und Nadeln

Die scharf zugespitzten, eiförmig-zylindrischen Winterknospen werden zwischen 0,4 und 1 Zentimeter lang und haben dünne, rötlich-braun gefärbte Knospenschuppen, die etwas verharzt sind.[8][9]

Die blau- bis dunkelgrünen Nadeln werden zwischen 6 und 12 Zentimeter lang und 0,7 bis 1 Millimeter breit. Sie stehen in Gruppen von fünf an den Kurztrieben in 1 bis 1,5 Zentimeter langen, hell orangebraunen[7] Nadelscheiden, die im August des ersten Jahres abfallen. Die Nadeln sind gerade, etwas gedreht, weich und biegsam. Im Querschnitt sind sie dreieckig und ihre Kanten sind fein gesägt. Nur die adaxialen Seiten tragen schmale, weiße Spaltöffnungsbänder. Es werden meist zwei, seltener ein oder drei Harzkanäle gebildet.[13] Die Nadeln verbleiben zwei bis drei Jahre am Baum, ehe sie sich braun verfärben und im Herbst abfallen.[8][9]

Blüten, Zapfen und Samen

Die Strobe ist einhäusig-getrenntgeschlechtig (monözisch) und wird mit 5 bis 10 Jahren mannbar, wobei männliche Blütenzapfen nicht vor dem 9. Jahr ausgebildet werden. Die Blütezeit erstreckt sich von Mai bis Juni. Die hellbraunen bis braunen männlichen Blütenzapfen sind oval und werden 0,8 bis 1 Zentimeter lang. Man findet sie grundständig stehend an diesjährigen Trieben im unteren Kronenbereich. Die bis zu 1,2 Zentimeter langen weiblichen Blütenzapfen sind rosafarben bis purpurrot gefärbt. Sie wachsen in Gruppen von zwei bis vier[7] meist im oberen Kronenbereich an der Spitze von älteren Trieben.[14] Im Gegensatz zu den weiblichen Blütenzapfen werden die männlichen nicht jedes Jahr gebildet. Die Bestäubung erfolgt Mitte Juni. Gelegentlich tritt Selbstbefruchtung auf.[15]

Die Zapfen sind nach der Bestäubung grün gefärbt und reifen im zweiten Jahr. Zur Reife sind sie braun gefärbt, selten nur 5 meist 8 bis 20 und manchmal bis 25 Zentimeter lang mit Durchmessern von rund 2,5 Zentimetern im geschlossenen und von 4 bis 8 Zentimetern im geöffneten Zustand. Sie sind in der Form zylindrisch, schmal und leicht gebogen. Man findet sie an bis zu 2 Zentimeter langen Stielen hängend, einzeln oder in Gruppen an zweijährigen Zweigen im oberen Kronenbereich. Jüngere Zapfen sind oft verharzt. Die 40 bis 100[13] relativ großen Zapfenschuppen sind dünn holzig, eiförmig und biegsam. Die Apophyse ist stumpf und blass braun bis graubraun und auf mittig stehenden Schuppen im Umriss mehr oder weniger rhombisch und geht in einen stumpfen, endständigen Umbo über. Pro Zapfenschuppe entwickeln sich zwei Samen. Die reifen Samen werden Anfang August des zweiten Jahres entlassen, die leeren Zapfen fallen im Winter vom Baum.[15][7]

Die abgeflachten, breit verkehrt eiförmigen bis beinahe dreieckigen, selten ab 5, meist 7 bis 8 und manchmal bis 9 Millimeter langen Samen sind rötlich-braun bis grau und schwarz gefleckt und tragen einen 20 bis 28 Millimeter langen, blassbraunen Flügel, welcher sich nur mit zwei kleinen, seitlichen Anhängseln am Samenkörper festhält.[15][7] Das Tausendkorngewicht liegt zwischen 8,6 und 22,7 Gramm.

Die Ausbreitung erfolgt großteils durch den Wind (Anemochorie). Die Weymouth-Kiefer vermehrt sich hauptsächlich generativ, sie ist aber auch in der Lage, Absenker zu bilden.[11]

Chromosomenzahl

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 24.[16]

Verbreitung und Standort

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Verbreitungsgebiete von Pinus strobus var. strobus (grün) und Pinus strobus var. chiapensis (rot)

Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von Kanada und den Vereinigten Staaten bis nach Süd-Mexiko und Guatemala, wobei es zwischen den Beständen in Nordamerika und denen in Mittelamerika eine Lücke von 2400 Kilometern gibt, welche die beiden Varietäten Pinus strobus var. strobus und Pinus strobus var. chiapensis voneinander trennt.[17]

Im Nordteil des Verbreitungsgebiets findet man die Art meist auf niedrigen Hügeln und in den Appalachen bis in eine Höhe von 1200 Metern. Es werden sowohl feuchte Flussniederungen, Moore, trockene und sandige Ebenen, steile und felsige Hänge sowie Felskuppen besiedelt. Optimal sind frische Sande und Lehme sowie Kiese, die gut drainiert sind. Seltener werden Tone und vernässte Böden besiedelt. Sie wächst dort in Gesellschaften der Klasse Pinetea strobi.[18] Als Pionier besiedelt die Weymouth-Kiefer Brandflächen, aufgelassene Äcker, Wiesen und Windwurfflächen, wird aber auf Standorten mittlerer Qualität häufig von Laubbäumen verdrängt. Auf Standorten niederer Qualität erweist sie sich aufgrund ihrer Anspruchslosigkeit jedoch als überlegen. Der pH-Wert der besiedelten Böden liegt zwischen 4,7 und 7,0. Die jährliche Niederschlagsmenge beträgt je nach Standort 510 bis 2030 mm, wovon etwa die Hälfte zwischen April und September fällt. Die Winter sind kalt und reich an Schnee.[19][14][17]

Das Verbreitungsgebiet der Varietät chiapensis liegt in feuchten Berggebieten mit häufigen Nebeln in Höhen von 800 bis 2000 Metern. Der Niederschlagsmenge kann Werte von bis zu 3000 Millimetern erreichen. Frost tritt nicht auf.[17] Beide Varietäten wachsen in Mischwäldern zusammen mit anderen Nadel- oder Laubbaumarten, wobei mehrere Laubbaumarten, beispielsweise der Amerikanische Amberbaum (Liquidambar styraciflua) oder die Spätblühende Traubenkirsche (Prunus serotina), mit ähnlich weit auseinander liegenden Verbreitungsgebieten sowohl in den Appalachen als auch in Mexiko und Guatemala vorkommen.[20][21]

Die Strobe wuchs 1999 auf 0,26 % der bayerischen Waldflächen und ist damit nach Douglasie und Japanlärche die dritthäufigste Fremdbaumart. Die Bäume wurden überwiegend um 1900 gepflanzt; nach 1925 geschah dies wegen der Ausbreitung des Blasenrosts (Cronartium ribicola) kaum noch.
Die Strobe erbringt einen höheren Ertrag als die Kiefer und das Holz erzielt etwas höhere Preise. Sie hat geringe Nährstoffansprüche, ist auf Buntsandstein und Kreide der Kiefer überlegen und besiedelt extreme Standorte wie Sand-, Schotter-, Block- und Moorböden. Sie ist frost- und spätfrosthart und wenig nassschneegefährdet. Die besten Wachstumsbedingungen sind auf frischen, feuchten und wechselfeuchten Böden gegeben.[22]

Gefährdung und Schutz

In der Roten Liste der IUCN wird Pinus strobus als nicht gefährdet („Least Concern“) eingestuft. Die Art hat in Nordamerika ein sehr großes Verbreitungsgebiet und die Varietät strobus breitet sich in vielen Gebieten stark aus. Die großen Bestände, die von den europäischen Siedlern stark genutzt wurden, waren bis zum Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts verbraucht. Voll ausgewachsene Bäume sind selten, doch ist die Art durch den starken Zuwachs nicht gefährdet. Auch gibt es viele Bestände in geschützten Bereichen.[23] Pinus strobus var. chiapensis wird jedoch als stark gefährdet („Endangered“) geführt. Die Varietät hat ebenfalls ein großes Verbreitungsgebiet („extent of occurrence“), jedoch sind die Populationen meist klein (5 bis 20 Hektar) und isoliert. Die größten Bestände gibt es in Chiapas und Oaxaca, die größte davon bei El Rincon in Oaxaca mit etwa 50.000 ausgewachsenen Bäumen auf einem Gebiet von 1500 Hektar. Die tatsächlich bewachsenen Flächen („area of occupancy“) werden zusammen auf etwa 400 Quadratkilometer geschätzt, und die Bestände gehen weiterhin zurück. Früher wurden die Bestände übernutzt, weil das Holz für die Schifffahrt Verwendung fand. Obwohl die Holzqualität gut ist und die Bäume lokal zur Holzgewinnung verwendet werden, besteht die Hauptgefahr in der Abholzung der Bestände für den Mais- oder Kaffeeanbau oder der Errichtung von Weiden für Rinder. Eine weitere Gefahr ist das Eindringen gebietsfremder Arten wie der Schachtelhalmblättrigen Kasuarine (Casuarina equisetifolia) oder der Mexikanischen Zypresse (Cupressus lusitanica).[24]

Das Bundesamt für Naturschutz schätzt Pinus strobus als invasive Art ein und hat sie auf die Managementliste der Schwarzen Liste invasiver Arten gesetzt, da sie einheimische Arten verdrängen kann.[25]

Systematik

Die Weymouth-Kiefer wird innerhalb der Gattung der Kiefern (Pinus) der Untergattung Strobus, der Sektion Quinquefoliae und der Subsektion Strobus zugeordnet. Die heute gültige Erstbeschreibung als Pinus strobus erfolgte im Jahre 1753 durch den schwedischen Naturforscher Carl von Linné.[26] Es werden zwei Varietäten unterschieden:

  • Pinus strobus var. strobus (Syn.: Pinus nivea Booth ex Carrière, Pinus strobus subsp. cumberlandensis Silba)[27]: Die Nadeln sind durchschnittlich 8 Zentimeter lang. Die Samenzapfen erreichen eine Länge von selten 8, meist 10 bis 18 und manchmal bis 20 Zentimeter, deren Stiel ist bis zu 3 Zentimeter lang. Es werden durchschnittlich 70 Samenschuppen gebildet, die sterilen Schuppen an der Basis sind zurückgebogen. Das Verbreitungsgebiet der Varietät liegt im Osten Nordamerikas.[20][21] Die Varietät strobus findet man in den Waldgebieten um die Großen Seen und den Sankt-Lorenz-Strom. Die nördliche Verbreitungsgrenze erstreckt sich von den borealen Nadelwäldern Neufundlands über den Oberen See bis ins südöstliche Manitoba. Die Westgrenze verläuft durch Wisconsin, Südost-Minnesota, Nordost-Iowa und Illinois. Von diesen Staaten verläuft die Südgrenze zurück zur Atlantikküste Neuenglands, erstreckt sich aber entlang der Appalachen bis in die Laubwaldregionen Nordwest-South Carolinas und Nord-Georgias.[28]
  • Pinus strobus var. chiapensis Martínez (Syn.: Pinus chiapensis (Martínez) Andresen, Pinus strobus subsp. chiapensis (Martínez) A.E.Murray)[27]: Die Nadeln sind durchschnittlich 10 Zentimeter lang. Die Zapfen haben eine sehr variable Länge zwischen 6 und 25 Zentimetern, der Stiel ist bis zu 4,5 Zentimeter lang. Es werden durchschnittlich 90 Samenschuppen gebildet, die Schuppen nahe der Basis sind nicht zurückgebogen.[20][21] Die Varietät wurde 1940 von Maximino Martínez als Varietät von Pinus strobus erstbeschrieben.[29] John William Andresen benannte das Taxon als eigene Art Pinus chiapensis (Martínez) Andresen,[30] was durch morphometrische Untersuchungen gestützt wird.[31] Von den meisten Autoren werden die Unterschiede jedoch als zu gering angesehen, und sie blieben bei der Einstufung als Varietät.[20][21][4][32] Das Verbreitungsgebiet der Varietät chiapensis liegt in Mexiko in Guerrero, im Osten von Puebla, in Veracruz, in Oaxaca und Chiapas und in Guatemala im Departamento Quiché und im Departamento Huehuetenango.[33] Die beiden Populationen waren wahrscheinlich noch zur Eiszeit miteinander verbunden, als viele Baumarten durch den Vorstoß der Gletscher nach Süden verdrängt wurden.[7]

Hybriden

Die Weymouth-Kiefer bildet mit den meisten anderen Vertretern der Untersektion Strobus Hybriden, Ausnahmen sind die Zuckerkiefer (Pinus lambertiana) und Armands Kiefer (Pinus armandii).[21] Mit der Westlichen Weymouth-Kiefer (Pinus monticola) und mit der Tränenkiefer Pinus wallichiana bildet die Art luxurierende Hybriden.[34] Die Kreuzung mit der Tränenkiefer wird als Pinus ×schwerinii Fitschen bezeichnet.[35]

Nutzung

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Holz der Weymouth-Kiefer

Die Weymouth-Kiefer war früher der wichtigste Holzlieferant im Osten Nordamerikas. Während der Kolonialzeit verbot die britische Regierung den Kolonisten das Fällen von größeren Vertretern der Art, weil sie die Bäume ausschließlich für die britische Marine als Masten der Schiffe verwenden wollte. Aufgrund der intensiven Nutzung existieren heute kaum noch Altbestände. Aus dem Holz wurden viele Bauernhöfe, Fabriken und Städte im Osten und Mittleren Westen der USA errichtet. Es kann vielfältig im Innen- und Außenbau verwendet werden. Heute wird der Großteil des Holzes zu Schnitt- und Sperrholz verarbeitet sowie zur Möbel-, Papier- und Spielzeugherstellung genutzt. Weitere Nutzungsmöglichkeiten existieren in der Kunstschreinerei und als Konstruktionsholz. Das belastbare und nach Imprägnierung auch dauerhafte Holz lässt sich leicht nageln, ist geradfaserig, verwirft nur wenig und trocknet leicht. Es wirkt aufgrund seiner homogenen Struktur attraktiv und nimmt Farben gut an und wurde früher auch zum Schiffsbau verwendet.[36][20]

Hauptartikel: Kiefernholz

Die Weymouth-Kiefer wird häufig gepflanzt, nicht nur zur Holzgewinnung, sondern auch im Stadtbereich und zur Wiederaufforstung von durch den Kohlenabbau beeinträchtigten Flächen. US-Amerikaner und Kanadier verwenden Vertreter der Art auch häufig als Christbäume, da sie gut in die richtige Form gebracht werden können. Gärtnerisch werden mehrere Kultivare verwendet, darunter besonders häufig zwergwüchsige Formen.[20]

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Kultivar 'Tortuosa' im Botanischen Garten von Warschau
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Weymouth-Kiefer mit Strobenrost (Cronartium ribicola)

In den Schwarzwald eingebrachte Weymouth-Kiefern werden im Handwerk von Holzbildhauern wegen des Holzes bevorzugt zum Bau von Kuckucksuhren genutzt.[37]

Krankheiten und Schädlinge

Die Weymouth-Kiefer wird in ihrem natürlichen Verbreitungsgebiet von vielen pilzlichen und tierischen Schädlingen bedroht, wovon einige eingeschleppt wurden. Die Gefährdung durch Schadpilze stieg erst, als die Art auf ungeeigneten Standorten forstwirtschaftlich angebaut wurde. Der aus Europa eingeschleppte Strobenrost (Cronartium ribicola) ist der gefährlichste und am weitesten verbreitete Schadpilz der Weymouth-Kiefer. Es werden sowohl junge als auch alte Bäume, besonders in Regionen mit hoher Luftfeuchtigkeit sowie an den Randgebieten der Großen Seen, befallen. Ein Befall am Stamm kann bei jungen Bäumen zum Absterben führen. Ein Befall an den Ästen senkt den Zierwert und ist vor allem für Christbaumkulturen gefährlich. Stammfäule wird durch den Violetten Knorpelschichtpilz (Chondrostereum purpureum) sowie durch den Kiefern-Feuerschwamm (Phellinus pini) hervorgerufen. Der Dunkle Hallimasch (Armillaria ostoyae), der Wurzelschwamm (Heterobasidion annosum) und der Kiefern-Braunporling (Phaeolus schweinitzii) rufen Wurzelfäule hervor, richten aber nur geringe Schäden an.[38]

Der Echte Kiefernrüssler (Pissodes pini) hat von den 277 an der Weymouth-Kiefer nachgewiesenen Schadinsekten die größte wirtschaftliche Bedeutung. Er ruft an den Bäumen Stammkrümmungen und Zuwachsverluste hervor, da er die Gipfeltriebe abtötet und der Baum die oberen Lateraltriebe aufrichtet. Junge Bäume können bei einem Befall absterben. Schwere Schäden werden vor allem in zwei- bis dreijährigen Beständen sowie in Christbaumkulturen verursacht. Die Raupen des Kieferntriebwicklers (Rhyacionia buoliana) höhlen die Gipfeltriebe aus. Die befallenen Bäume entwickeln Deformationen, sterben aber nicht ab. Der Rüsselkäfer Hylobius pales frisst an der Rinde von bis zu fünfjährigen Bäumen. Es treten häufig Abgänge auf. Conophthorus coniperda kommt im gesamten Verbreitungsgebiet der Weymouth-Kiefer vor. Er befällt vor allem einjährige Zapfen und ist in der Lage, die Zapfenernte eines ganzen Jahres zu vernichten.[38]

Die Weymouth-Kiefer reagiert empfindlich gegenüber Spätfrösten. Eisbehang sowie Nassschnee können zum Abbrechen von Ästen und zu Stammbrüchen führen. Die Art wird als der immissionsempfindlichste Baum aller nordamerikanischen Baumarten angesehen. Sie reagiert insbesondere gegen Fluorwasserstoff sehr empfindlich. Von einigen Autoren wird sie jedoch als nur mäßig anfällig gegenüber Ozon und Schwefeldioxid eingestuft.

Waldbrände erweisen sich oft als bestandsbedrohend, da es noch nach mehreren Jahren zu Abgängen kommen kann. Vor allem junge Bäume sind aufgrund ihrer dünnen Borke besonders waldbrandgefährdet.[38]

Symbolik

Als stark verbreitete Art im östlichen Nordamerika wurde die Weymouth-Kiefer als offizielles Symbol der US-Bundesstaaten Maine und Michigan, sowie der kanadischen Provinz Ontario ausgewählt. Seit September 2017 wird sie auch als Symbol der fünf Stämme der Irokesen-Konföderation im Wappen und in der Flagge von Montreal abgebildet.[39]

Literatur

  • Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers. Band 2. Brill, Leiden/ Boston 2010, ISBN 978-90-04-17718-5, S. 609, 762–764.
  • James E. Eckenwalder: Conifers of the World. The Complete Reference. Timber Press, Portland, OR/London 2009, ISBN 978-0-88192-974-4, S. 476, 479–480.
  • Peter Schütt, Horst Weisgerber, Hans J. Schuck, Ulla Lang, Bernd Stimm, Andreas Roloff: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. Verbreitung – Beschreibung – Ökologie – Nutzung; die große Enzyklopädie. Nikol, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-933203-80-5, S. 491–505.
  • Robert Kral: Pinus. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (Hrsg.): Flora of North America North of Mexico. Volume 2: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York / Oxford u. a. 1993, ISBN 0-19-508242-7, Pinus strobus, S. 379–380 (englisch, online).
  • Liguo Fu, Nan Li, Thomas S. Elias, Robert R. Mill: Pinus. In: Wu Zheng-yi, Peter H. Raven (Hrsg.): Flora of China. Volume 4: Cycadaceae through Fagaceae. Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis 1999, ISBN 0-915279-70-3, Pinus strobus, S. 25 (englisch, online).
  • Russell H. Burns: Silvics of North America. Volume 1: Conifers. In: Agriculture Handbook. United States Government Printing, Oxford 1991, ISBN 0-16-027145-2 (online).

Einzelnachweise

  1. Manfred A. Fischer, Karl Oswald, Wolfgang Adler: Exkursionsflora für Österreich, Liechtenstein und Südtirol. 3., verbesserte Auflage. Land Oberösterreich, Biologiezentrum der Oberösterreichischen Landesmuseen, Linz 2008, ISBN 978-3-85474-187-9, S. 252.
  2. Eckehart J. Jäger, Klaus Werner (Hrsg.): Exkursionsflora von Deutschland. Begründet von Werner Rothmaler. 10., bearbeitete Auflage. Band 4: Gefäßpflanzen: Kritischer Band. Elsevier, Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, München/Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 3-8274-1496-2.
  3. Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 499.
  4. a b Robert Kral: Pinus strobus in Flora of North America, Band 2
  5. Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 492.
  6. Illustration von Aylmer Bourke Lambert (1761–1842) aus A Description of the Genus Pinus. DOI:10.5962/bhl.title.44704.
  7. a b c d e f Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers. Band 2, 2010, S. 762.
  8. a b c d Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 493.
  9. a b c Christopher J. Earle: Pinus strobus. In: The Gymnosperm Database. www.conifers.org, 28. November 2012, abgerufen am 23. November 2013 (englisch).
  10. Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 497.
  11. a b c Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 496.
  12. Weymouth-Kiefer (Pinus strobus) - das Pflanzenportrait. Abgerufen am 11. Mai 2022.
  13. a b James E. Eckenwalder: Conifers of the World. 2009, S. 479.
  14. a b Burns: Pinus strobus. In: Silvics of North America. Abgerufen am 23. November 2013 (englisch).
  15. a b c Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 495.
  16. Tropicos. [1]
  17. a b c Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers. Band 2, 2010, S. 762–763.
  18. Erich Oberdorfer: Pflanzensoziologische Exkursionsflora für Deutschland und angrenzende Gebiete. Unter Mitarbeit von Angelika Schwabe und Theo Müller. 8., stark überarbeitete und ergänzte Auflage. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 2001, ISBN 3-8001-3131-5, S. 95.
  19. Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 498–499.
  20. a b c d e f Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers. Band 2, 2010, S. 763.
  21. a b c d e James E. Eckenwalder: Conifers of the World. 2009, S. 480.
  22. Fremdländische Baumarten: (Un)beliebte Dauergäste. In: LWF-aktuell. Band 20, 1999, S. 6, 8, 12, 19 und 20 (PDF-Datei).
  23. Pinus strobus in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN 2013. Eingestellt von: A. Farjon, 2011. Abgerufen am 23. November 2013.
  24. Pinus strobus var. chiapensis in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN 2013. Eingestellt von: P. Thomas, A. Farjon, 2011. Abgerufen am 23. November 2013.
  25. Birgit Seitz, Stefan Nehring: Pinus strobus – Weymouthkiefer. In: Stefan Nehring, Ingo Kowarik, Wolfgang Rabitsch, Franz Essl (Hrsg.): Naturschutzfachliche Invasivitätsbewertungen für in Deutschland wild lebende gebietsfremde Gefäßpflanzen (= BfN-Skripten. Band 352 ). Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn-Bad Godesberg 2013, ISBN 978-3-89624-087-3, S. 150–151 (PDF-Datei).
  26. Carl von Linné: Species Plantarum. Band 2. Lars Salvius, Stockholm 1753, S. 1001 (online).
  27. a b Rafaël Govaerts (Hrsg.): Pinus. In: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) – The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, abgerufen am 26. April 2019.
  28. Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 492–493.
  29. Pinus strobus var. chiapensis. In: The International Plant Name Index. Abgerufen am 23. November 2013 (englisch).
  30. Pinus chiapensis. In: The International Plant Name Index. Abgerufen am 23. November 2013 (englisch).
  31. John Syring, Rafael F. del Castillo, Richard Cronn, Aaron Liston: Multiple Nuclear Loci Reveal the Distinctiveness of the Threatened, Neotropical Pinus Chiapensis. In: Systematic Botany. Band 32, Nr. 4, 2007, S. 703–717 (online, pdf). doi:10.1043/06-64.1 (zurzeit nicht erreichbar)
  32. Liguo Fu, Nan Li, Thomas S. Elias, Robert R. Mill: Pinus strobus. In: Flora of China. Band 4, S. 25.
  33. Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers. Band 2, 2010, S. 764.
  34. Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 497–498.
  35. James E. Eckenwalder: Conifers of the World. 2009, S. 476.
  36. Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 502.
  37. Jochen Loebbert: Handwerkskunst! Wie man eine Kuckucksuhr baut, SWR FernsehenLandesschau Baden-Württemberg vom 24. August 2018 (YouTube vom 26. November 2018)
  38. a b c Schütt u. a.: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. 2004, S. 500–501.
  39. Montreal adds Iroquois symbol to flag, strips British general of street name. CBC, 13. September 2017, abgerufen am 13. September 2017 (englisch).
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Weymouth-Kiefer: Brief Summary ( 德語 )

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Die Strobe (Pinus strobus), auch Weymouth-Kiefer, Weymouthskiefer oder Seidenkiefer genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Kiefern (Pinus) innerhalb der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae). Im östlichen Nordamerika ist sie die größte Nadelbaum-Art, mit bis zu 500 Jahre alten Exemplaren. Sie ist der offizielle Staatsbaum der US-Bundesstaaten Maine und Michigan.

Das Eponym bezieht sich nicht auf den englischen Entdecker und Schriftsteller George Weymouth, der sie 1605 nach Europa brachte, sondern auf Thomas Thynne, 1. Viscount Weymouth, der sie im 18. Jahrhundert in England als Forstbaum etablierte.

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Асыввыв чочком пожум ( 科米語 )

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Асыввыв чочком пожум
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Асыввыв чочком пожум

Асыввыв чочком пожум нето Веймут пожум (лат. Pinus strobiformis) – быдмассэзлöн пожум котырись пожум увтырын (Strobus субувтырын) торья вид. Пожумыс быдмö 30—67 метра вылына да овлö 100—180 см кыза диаметрын. Пожум пантасьӧ ойвыв-асыввыв Америкаись Ӧтлаасьӧм Штаттэзын да лунвыв-асыввыв Канадаын.

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Шунды ӝужан пал тӧдьы пужым ( 烏德穆爾特語 )

由wikipedia emerging languages提供
 src=
Шунды ӝужан пал тӧдьы пужым
 src=
Шунды ӝужан пал тӧдьы пужым

Шунды ӝужан пал тӧдьы пужым яке Веймут пужым (лат. Pinus strobiformis) – Pinaceae семьяысь уйпал-шунды ӝужан Америкалэн Огазеяськем Штатъёсызын но лымшор-шунды ӝужан Канадаын будӥсь пужым. Ӝуждалаез ог 30—67 м, модос диаметрез 100—180 см луэ.

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Pinus strobus ( 英語 )

由wikipedia EN提供

Pinus strobus, commonly called the eastern white pine, northern white pine, white pine, Weymouth pine (British), and soft pine[2] is a large pine native to eastern North America. It occurs from Newfoundland, Canada west through the Great Lakes region to southeastern Manitoba and Minnesota, United States, and south along the Appalachian Mountains and upper Piedmont to northernmost Georgia and perhaps very rarely in some of the higher elevations in northeastern Alabama.[3] It is considered rare in Indiana.[4]

The Native American Haudenosaunee named it the "Tree of Peace". It is known as the "Weymouth pine" in the United Kingdom,[5] after Captain George Weymouth of the British Royal Navy, who brought its seeds to England from Maine in 1605.[6]

Distribution

Native eastern white pine, Sylvania Wilderness, Michigan
Partial distribution map of P. strobus in North America

P. strobus is found in the nearctic temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome of eastern North America. It prefers well-drained or sandy soils and humid climates, but can also grow in boggy areas and rocky highlands. In mixed forests, this dominant tree towers over many others, including some of the large broadleaf hardwoods. It provides food and shelter for numerous forest birds, such as the red crossbill, and small mammals such as squirrels.

Fossilized white pine leaves and pollen have been discovered by Brian Axsmith, a paleobotanist at the University of South Alabama, in the Gulf Coastal Plain, where the tree no longer occurs.[7]

Eastern white pine forests originally covered much of north-central and northeastern North America. Only 1% of the old-growth forests remain after the extensive logging operations from the 18th century to early 20th century.

Old-growth forests, or virgin stands, are protected in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Other protected areas with known virgin forests, as confirmed by the Eastern Native Tree Society, include Algonquin Provincial Park, Quetico Provincial Park, Algoma Highlands in Ontario, and Sainte-Marguerite River Old Forest in Quebec, Canada; Estivant Pines, Huron Mountains, Porcupine Mountains State Park, and Sylvania Wilderness Area in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, United States; Hartwick Pines State Park in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan; Menominee Indian Reservation in Wisconsin; Lost 40 Scientific and Natural Area (SNA) and Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness in Minnesota; White Pines State Park, Illinois; Cook Forest State Park, Hearts Content Scenic Area, and Anders Run Natural Area in Pennsylvania; and the Linville Gorge Wilderness in North Carolina, United States.

Small groves or individual specimens of old-growth eastern white pines are found across the range of the species in the USA, including in Ordway Grove, Maine; Ice Glen, Massachusetts; and Adirondack Park, New York. Many sites with conspicuously large specimens represent advanced old-field ecological succession. The tall stands in Mohawk Trail State Forest and William Cullen Bryant Homestead in Massachusetts are examples.

As an introduced species, P. strobus is now naturalizing in the Outer Western Carpathians subdivision of the Carpathian Mountains in Czech Republic and southern Poland. It has spread from specimens planted as ornamental trees.

Description

Like most members of the white pine group, Pinus subgenus Strobus, the leaves ("needles") are coniferous, occurring in fascicles (bundles) of five, or rarely three or four, with a deciduous sheath. The leaves are flexible, bluish-green, finely serrated, and 5–13 cm (2–5 in) long.

The seed cones are slender, 8–16 cm (3+146+14 in) long (rarely longer than that) and 4–5 cm (1+12–2 in) broad when open, and have scales with a rounded apex and slightly reflexed tip, often resinous. The seeds are 4–5 mm (532316 in) long, with a slender 15–20 mm (5834 in) wing, and are dispersed by wind. Cone production peaks every 3 to 5 years.

The branches are spaced about every 18 inches on the trunk with five or six branches appearing like spokes on a wagon wheel. Eastern white pine is self-fertile, but seeds produced this way tend to result in weak, stunted, and malformed seedlings. Mature trees are often 200–250 years old, and some live over 400 years. A tree growing near Syracuse, New York, was dated to 458 years old in the late 1980s and trees in Michigan and Wisconsin were dated to roughly 500 years old.

Dimensions

Measuring the circumference of an eastern white pine

The eastern white pine has been described as the tallest tree in eastern North America, perhaps sharing the prize with the deciduous tulip tree whose range overlaps with eastern white pine in a few areas. In natural precolonial stands, the pine is reported to have grown as tall as 70 m (230 ft). No means exist for accurately documenting the height of trees from these times, but eastern white pine may have reached this height on rare occasions. Even greater heights have been reported in popular, but unverifiable, accounts such as Robert Pike's Tall Trees, Tough Men.

Total trunk volumes of the largest specimens are around 28 m3 (990 cu ft), with some past giants possibly reaching 37 to 40 m3 (1,300 to 1,400 cu ft). Photographic analysis of giants suggests volumes closer to 34 m3 (1,200 cu ft).

Height

P. strobus grows about 1 m (3.3 ft) annually between the ages of 15 and 45 years, with slower height increments before and after that age range.[8] The tallest presently living specimens are 50–57.55 m (164 ft 1 in – 188 ft 10 in) tall, as determined by the Native Tree Society (NTS).[9] Prior to their exploitation, it was common for white pines in northern Wisconsin to reach heights of over 61 m (200 ft).[10] Three locations in the Southeastern United States and one site in the Northeastern United States have trees that are 55 m (180 ft) tall.

The southern Appalachian Mountains have the most locations and the tallest trees in the present range of P. strobus. One survivor is a specimen known as the "Boogerman Pine" in the Cataloochee Valley of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. At 57.55 m (188 ft 10 in) tall, it is the tallest accurately measured tree in North America east of the Rocky Mountains, though this conflicts with citations for Liriodendron tulipifera. It has been climbed and measured by tape drop by the NTS. Before Hurricane Opal broke its top in October 1995, Boogerman Pine was 63 m (207 ft) tall, as determined by Will Blozan and Robert Leverett using ground-based measurements.

The tallest specimens in Hartwick Pines State Park in Michigan are 45–48 m (148–157 ft) tall.

In the northeastern USA, eight sites in four states currently have trees over 48 m (157 ft) tall, as confirmed by the NTS. The Cook Forest State Park of Pennsylvania has the most numerous collection of 45 m (148 ft) eastern white pines in the Northeast, with 110 trees measuring that height or more. The park's "Longfellow Pine" is the tallest presently living eastern white pine in the Northeast, at 55.96 m (183 ft 7 in) tall, as determined by tape drop.[11] The Mohawk Trail State Forest of Massachusetts has 83 trees measuring 45 m (148 ft) or more tall, of which six exceed 48.8 m (160 ft). The "Jake Swamp Tree" located there is 51.54 m (169 ft 1 in) tall.[12][13] The NTS maintains precise measurements of it. A private property in Claremont, New Hampshire, has approximately 60 specimens that are 45 m (148 ft) tall.

Diameter

Diameters of the larger pines range from 1.0–1.6 m (3 ft 3 in – 5 ft 3 in), which translates to a circumference (girth) range of 3.1–5.0 m (10 ft 2 in – 16 ft 5 in). However, single-trunked white pines in both the Northeast and Southeast with diameters over 1.45 m (4 ft 9 in) are exceedingly rare. Notable big pine sites of 40 ha (99 acres) or less often have no more than two or three trees in the 1.2- to 1.4-m-diameter class.

White pine boughs, showing annual yellowing and abscission of older foliage in the autumn, upstate New York, USA

Unconfirmed reports from the colonial era gave diameters of virgin white pines of up to 2.4 m (8 ft).[14]

Mortality and disease

An illustration dated 1902, showing a variety of insect pests affecting eastern white pine

Because the eastern white pine tree is somewhat resistant to fire, mature survivors are able to reseed burned areas. In pure stands, mature trees usually have no branches on the lower half of their trunks. The white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi) and white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), an introduced fungus, can damage or kill these trees.

Blister rust

Mortality from white pine blister rust in mature pine groves was often 50–80% during the early 20th century. The fungus must spend part of its lifecycle on alternate hosts of the genus Ribes, the native gooseberry or wild currant. Foresters proposed that if all the alternate host plants were removed, white pine blister rust might be eliminated. A very determined campaign was mounted, and all land owners in commercial pine-growing regions were encouraged to uproot and kill all native gooseberry and wild currant plants.[14][15] The ramifications for wildlife and habitat ecology were of less concern at the time than timber-industry protection.

Today, native wild currants are relatively rare plants in New England, and planting wild currants or wild gooseberries is strongly discouraged, or even illegal in some jurisdictions. As an alternative, new strains of commercial currants have been developed that are highly resistant to white pine blister rust. Mortality in white pines from rust is only about 3% today.

Conservation status in the United States

Old white pines are treasured in the United States. An American National Natural Landmark, Cook Forest State Park in Pennsylvania, contains the tallest known tree in the Northeastern United States, a white pine named Longfellow Pine.[16] Some white pines in Wisconsin are over 200 years old.[17] Although widely planted as a landscape tree in the Midwestern states,[18] native White pine is listed as "rare or uncommon" in Indiana.[3][19]

Historical uses

Lumber

In the 19th century, the harvesting of Midwestern white pine forests played a major role in America's westward expansion through the Great Plains. A quarter-million white pines were harvested and sent to lumber yards in Chicago in a single year.[20]

The white pine had aesthetic appeal to contemporary naturalists such as Henry David Thoreau ("There is no finer tree.")[21] Beyond that, it had commercial applications. It was considered "the most sought and most widely utilized of the various forest growths of the northwest."[22] Descriptions of its uses are quoted below from a 19th-century source:

Being of a soft texture and easily worked, taking paint better than almost any other variety of wood, it has been found adaptable to all the uses demanded in the building art, from the manufacture of packing cases to the bearing timber and finer finish of a dwelling. Of light weight, it has borne transportation to the farms of the west, where it is used for building purposes in dwellings, barns, and corn cribs, while as a fencing material it has no superior. Aside from those conditions which demand a dense strong timber, such as ship-building or in wagon-making, white pine has been found adaptable to all the economic uses in which lumber is required, not excluding its use in coarser articles of furniture. No wood has found greater favor or entered more fully into supplying all those wants of man which could be found in the forest growths.[22]

The species was imported in 1620 to England by Captain George Weymouth, who planted it for a timber crop, but had little success because of white pine blister rust disease.

Old-growth pine in the Americas, of various Pinus species, was a highly desired wood since huge, knot-free boards were the rule rather than the exception. Pine was common and easy to cut, thus many colonial homes used pine for paneling, floors, and furniture. Pine was also a favorite tree of loggers, since pine logs can still be processed in a lumber mill a year or more after being cut down. In contrast, most hardwood trees such as cherry, maple, oak, and ash must be cut into 1" thick boards immediately after felling, or else large cracks will develop in the trunk which can render the wood worthless.[14]

Although eastern white pine was frequently used for flooring in buildings constructed before the U.S. Civil War, the wood is soft and tends to cup over time with wear. George Washington opted for the much harder southern yellow pine at Mount Vernon, instead.[14]

Mast pines

During the 17th and 18th centuries, tall white pines in the Thirteen Colonies became known as "mast pines". Marked by agents of the Crown with the broad arrow, a mast pine was reserved for the British Royal Navy. Special barge-like vessels were built to ship tall white pines to England. The wood was often squared to better fit in the holds of these ships.[14] A 30-metre (100 ft) mast was about 0.91 m × 0.91 m (3 ft × 3 ft) at the butt and 0.61 m × 0.61 m (2 ft × 2 ft) at the top, while a 37-metre (120 ft) mast was 1.2 m × 1.2 m (4 ft × 4 ft) by 0.76 m (30 in) on its ends.

By 1719, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, had become the hub of pine logging and shipping. Portsmouth shipped 199 masts to England that year. In all, about 4500 masts were sent to England.[23]

The eastern white pine played a significant role in the events leading to the American Revolution.[24][25][26] Marking of large white pines by the Crown had become controversial in the colonies by the first third of the 18th century. In 1734, the King's men were assaulted and beaten in Exeter, New Hampshire, in what was to be called the Mast Tree Riot. Colonel David Dunbar had been in the town investigating a stock pile of white pine in a pond and the ownership of the local timber mill before caning two townspeople.[27] In 1772, the sheriff of Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, was sent to the town of Weare to arrest mill owners for the illegal possession of large white pines. That night, as the sheriff slept at the Pine Tree Tavern, he was attacked and nearly killed by an angry mob of colonists. This act of rebellion, later to become known as the Pine Tree Riot, may have fueled the Boston Tea Party in 1773.

After the Revolutionary War, the fledgling United States used large white pines to build out its own navy. The masts of the USS Constitution were originally made of eastern white pine.[28] The original masts were single trees, but were later replaced by laminated spars to better withstand cannonballs.

In colonial times, an unusually large, lone, white pine was found in coastal South Carolina along the Black River, far east of its southernmost normal range. The king's mark was carved into it, giving rise to the town of Kingstree.[29]

Eastern white pine is now widely grown in plantation forestry within its native area.

Contemporary uses

Lumber

Board of Pinus strobus

Timber framing

Eastern white pine has often been used for timber frames, and is available in large sizes. Eastern white pine timbers are not particularly strong, so timbers increase in size to handle loads applied. This species accepts stains better than most, but it has little rot resistance, so should be used only in dry conditions.

Characteristics

Freshly cut eastern white pine is yellowish white or a pale straw color, but pine wood which has aged many years tends to darken to a deep, rich, golden tan. Occasionally, one can find light brown pine boards with unusual yellowish-golden or reddish-brown hues. This is the famous "pumpkin pine". Slow growing pines in old-growth forests are thought to accumulate colored products in the heartwood, but genetic factors and soil conditions may also play a role in rich color development.[25]

This wood is also favored by patternmakers for its easy working.

Foods and medicines

Eastern white pine needles exceed the amount of vitamin C of lemons and oranges[30] and make an excellent herbal tea. The cambium is edible. It is also a source of resveratrol. Linnaeus noted in the 18th century that cattle and pigs fed pine bark bread grew well, but he personally did not like the taste. Caterpillars of Lusk's pinemoth (Coloradia luski) have been found to feed only on P. strobus.

Pine tar is produced by slowly burning pine roots, branches, or small trunks in a partially smothered flame. Pine tar mixed with beer can be used to remove tapeworms (flat worms) or nematodes (round worms). Pine tar mixed with sulfur is useful to treat dandruff, and marketed in present-day products. Pine tar can also be processed to make turpentine.[31]

Native American traditional uses

The name "Adirondack", an Iroquois word that means tree-eater, referred to their neighbors (more commonly known as the Algonquians) who collected the inner bark of P. strobus, Picea rubens, and others during times of winter starvation. The white, soft inner bark (cambial layer) was carefully separated from the hard, dark brown bark and dried. When pounded, this product can be used as flour or added to stretch other starchy products.[32][33]

The young staminate cones were stewed by the Ojibwe Indians with meat, and were said to be sweet and not pitchy. In addition, the seeds are sweet and nutritious, but not as tasty as those of some of the western nut pines.[32]

Pine resin (sap) has been used by various tribes to waterproof baskets, pails, and boats. The Chippewa also used pine resin to successfully treat infections and even gangrenous wounds,[32] because pine resin apparently has a number of quite efficient antimicrobials. Generally, a wet pulp from the inner bark, or pine tar mixed with beeswax or butter was applied to wounds and used as a salve to prevent infection.

Cultivation

P. strobus is cultivated by plant nurseries as an ornamental tree, for planting in gardens and parks.[34] The species is low-maintenance and rapid-growing as a specimen tree. With regular shearing, it can also be trained as a hedge. Some cultivars are used in bonsai. [35]

Cultivars

Cultivars have been selected for small to dwarf mature forms, and foliage color characteristics.[35] They include:

Christmas trees

Smaller specimens are popular as live Christmas trees. Eastern white pines are noted for holding their needles well, even long after being harvested. They also are well suited for people with allergies, as they give little to no aroma. A standard 1.8-meter (6 ft) tree takes around 6 to 8 years to grow in ideal conditions. Sheared varieties are usually desired because of their stereotypical Christmas tree conical shape, as naturally grown ones can be sparse, or grow bushy in texture.[36] The branches of the eastern white pine are also widely used in making holiday wreaths and garlands because of their soft, feathery needles.

Water filtration

White pine xylem has been used as a filter to clean certain bacteria from contaminated water.[37] Hemacytometer tests revealed that at least 99.9% of bacteria tested were rejected after being passed through white pine xylem.[38]

Symbolism

The eastern white pine is the provincial tree of Ontario, Canada.[39]

In the United States, it is the state tree of Maine (as of 1945)[40] and Michigan (as of 1955).[41] Its "pine cone and tassel" is also the state flower of Maine, and is prominently featured on the state’s license plates.[42] Sprigs of eastern white pine were worn as badges as a symbol of Vermont identity during the Vermont Republic and are depicted in a stained-glass window in the Vermont State House, on the Flag of Vermont, and on the naval ensign of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the state of Maine. The 1901 Maine Flag prominently featured the tree during its brief tenure as Maine's state flag. The Maine State Guard also use the tree in their uniform badges.

The Native American Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederation) named it the "Tree of Peace".

See also

References

  1. ^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Pinus strobus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T42417A2978687. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42417A2978687.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ Carey, Jennifer H. (1993). "Pinus strobus". Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service (USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Retrieved 12 August 2013.
  3. ^ a b USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Pinus strobus". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
  4. ^ "Plants Profile for Pinus strobus (eastern white pine)". www.plants.usda.gov. Archived from the original on 2020-08-28. Retrieved 2020-10-07.
  5. ^ Moore, Gerry; Kershner, Bruce; Craig Tufts; Daniel Mathews; Gil Nelson; Spellenberg, Richard; Thieret, John W.; Terry Purinton; Block, Andrew (2008). National Wildlife Federation Field Guide to Trees of North America. New York: Sterling. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4027-3875-3.
  6. ^ Little, Elbert L. (1980). "Eastern White Pine". National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Eastern Region. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 296.
  7. ^ "Dr. Brian Axsmith's Research Area". University of South Alabama. Archived from the original on 2018-10-10. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
  8. ^ Beck, D.E. (1971). "Height-Growth Patterns and Site Index of White Pine in the Southern Appalachians". Forest Science. 17 (2): 252–260. Archived from the original on 2014-03-17. Retrieved 2014-03-17.
  9. ^ "NTS—Native Tree Society". Archived from the original on 2018-08-17. Retrieved 2009-11-09.
  10. ^ Curtis, John (1959). The Vegetation of Wisconsin: An Ordination of Plant Communities. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 204–205. ISBN 9780299019402.
  11. ^ Luthringer, D.J. 2009. Big Trees of Cook Forest. Pennsylvania Forests 100(3):8-12.
  12. ^ Jake Swamp Tree: 51.54m in August 2008.
  13. ^ The Jake Swamp Tree was climbed and measured by tape drop in November 1998 and October 2001. It was scheduled to be climbed and measured a third time in November 2008.
  14. ^ a b c d e Ling, H. (2003). "The Eastern White Pine". Native Plant Society of NJ Newsletter Winter 2003: 2–3.
  15. ^ Lombard, K.; Bofinger, J. (1999). White Pine Blister Rust (PDF). New Hampshire Division of Forests and Lands. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-01-06. Retrieved 2023-01-06.
  16. ^ Luthringer, Dale. "Old Growth Forests in the Pennsylvania Wilds". Archived from the original on 2019-09-19. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  17. ^ Johnson, Christopher and Barbara. "Menominee Forest Keepers". Archived from the original on 2019-10-15. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  18. ^ Ruh, G., Creswell, T. (2017 Feb.) Tree Diseases: White Pine Decline in Indiana. Purdue Extension. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/BP/BP-34-W.pdf | https://web.archive.org/web/20200702142925/https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/BP/BP-34-W.pdf
  19. ^ Indiana Department of Natural Resources. (9 March 2020). Endangered, Threatened, and Extirpated Plants of Indiana. https://www.in.gov/dnr/naturepreserve/files/np-etrplants.pdf | https://web.archive.org/web/20200702141630/https://www.in.gov/dnr/naturepreserve/files/np-etrplants.pdf
  20. ^ Cronon, William (1991). Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West. New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company. p. 183. ISBN 9780393072457.
  21. ^ Thoreau, Henry David (1861). The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: Journal. p. 33.
  22. ^ a b Hotchkiss, George Woodward (1861). History of the Lumber and Forest Industry of the Northwest. p. 752.
  23. ^ Asselin, Ray (producer, narrator) (2019). Eastern White Pine: The Tree Rooted in American History (Motion picture). New England Forests. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 2021-03-11.
  24. ^ "The New Hampshire Pine Tree Riot of 1772". New England Historical Society. 2014-04-13. Archived from the original on 2020-07-28. Retrieved 2020-07-28.
  25. ^ a b Nizalowski, E. 1997. The mystery of the Pumpkin Pine. Newark Valley Historical Society, Newark, NY.
  26. ^ Sloane, E. 1965. A Reverence for Wood. Balantine Books, NY.
  27. ^ Rutkow, Eric (24 April 2012). American Canopy: Trees, Forests, and the Making of a Nation. New York: Scribner. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-4391-9354-9.
  28. ^ Brooks, Rebecca Beatrice (June 27, 2017). "Construction of the USS Constitution". historyofmassachusetts.org. Archived from the original on 2021-03-17. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
  29. ^ "History of Williamsburg County". Williamsburg HomeTown Chamber. Archived from the original on January 31, 2012. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
  30. ^ Durzan, Don J (2009-02-02). "Arginine, scurvy and Cartier's "tree of life"". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 5: 5. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-5-5. ISSN 1746-4269. PMC 2647905. PMID 19187550.
  31. ^ Erichsen-Brown, C. 1979. Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants. Dover Publications, NY.
  32. ^ a b c "Pinus strobus". Native American Ethnobotany, University of Michigan – Dearborn). Archived from the original on 2013-05-25. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  33. ^ Fernald, M.; Kinsey, A.; Rollins, R. (1943). Edible Wild Plants. New York: Harper & Row.
  34. ^ "Pinus strobus". Native Plant Database. Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  35. ^ a b "Pinus strobus (eastern white pine)". Missouri Botanical Garden Kemper Center for Home Gardening. Archived from the original on 2013-03-04. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  36. ^ "Christmas tree.org". Archived from the original on 2010-11-20. Retrieved 2010-11-29.
  37. ^ "MIT engineers make filters from tree branches to purify drinking water". MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 25 March 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-10-26. Retrieved 2021-10-26.
  38. ^ Boutilier, Michael S. H.; Lee, Jongho; Chambers, Valerie; Venkatesh, Varsha; Karnik, Rohit (2014-02-26). "Water Filtration Using Plant Xylem". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e89934. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989934B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089934. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3935949. PMID 24587134.
  39. ^ "Eastern white pine". Ontario.ca. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  40. ^ "White Pine". State Symbols USA. September 20, 2014. Archived from the original on March 29, 2023. Retrieved March 29, 2023.
  41. ^ "Eastern White Pine". State Symbols USA. October 10, 2014. Archived from the original on March 29, 2023. Retrieved March 29, 2023.
  42. ^ "Maine State Flower". Netstate.com. Archived from the original on 2006-12-14. Retrieved 2006-07-16.

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Pinus strobus: Brief Summary ( 英語 )

由wikipedia EN提供

Pinus strobus, commonly called the eastern white pine, northern white pine, white pine, Weymouth pine (British), and soft pine is a large pine native to eastern North America. It occurs from Newfoundland, Canada west through the Great Lakes region to southeastern Manitoba and Minnesota, United States, and south along the Appalachian Mountains and upper Piedmont to northernmost Georgia and perhaps very rarely in some of the higher elevations in northeastern Alabama. It is considered rare in Indiana.

The Native American Haudenosaunee named it the "Tree of Peace". It is known as the "Weymouth pine" in the United Kingdom, after Captain George Weymouth of the British Royal Navy, who brought its seeds to England from Maine in 1605.

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Vejmuta pino ( 世界語 )

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La vejmuta pino (Pinus strobus) estas konifero el la familio de pinacoj. Ĝi interalie estas la oficiala arbo de la provinco Ontario.

Tiu nearktisa specio troviĝas interalie en jenaj ekoregionoj : la alegan-altaĵaj arbaroj, la apalaĉaj-blukrest-montaraj arbaroj, la malaltebenaĵaj arbaroj de Sankt-Laŭrenca Golfo, la malaltebenaĵaj arbaroj oriente de Grandaj Lagoj kaj la novanglaj-akadiaj arbaroj.

Vidu ankaŭ

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Vejmuta pino: Brief Summary ( 世界語 )

由wikipedia EO提供

La vejmuta pino (Pinus strobus) estas konifero el la familio de pinacoj. Ĝi interalie estas la oficiala arbo de la provinco Ontario.

Tiu nearktisa specio troviĝas interalie en jenaj ekoregionoj : la alegan-altaĵaj arbaroj, la apalaĉaj-blukrest-montaraj arbaroj, la malaltebenaĵaj arbaroj de Sankt-Laŭrenca Golfo, la malaltebenaĵaj arbaroj oriente de Grandaj Lagoj kaj la novanglaj-akadiaj arbaroj.

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Pinus strobus ( 西班牙、卡斯蒂利亞西班牙語 )

由wikipedia ES提供
 src=
Cono de P. strobus

El pino canadiense (Pinus strobus), el pino de Weymouth, pino estrobo o ,[2]​ también pino blanco americano,[3]​ es una especie arbórea de la familia de las pináceas, género Pinus, originaria del este de Norteamérica. Se encuentra desde la isla de Terranova al oeste a Minnesota y sureste de Manitoba, y al sur a lo largo de los Montes Apalaches hasta el límite norte de Georgia. Otros nombres en inglés: White Pine, Northern White Pine o Soft Pine. La denominación pino de Weymouth, en inglés, Weymouth Pine,[4]​ es más frecuente en el Reino Unido. Además, este árbol es conocido por los Nativos Americanos Haudenosaunee como Tree of Great Peace (Árbol de la Gran Paz).

Descripción

 src=
Agujas finas.
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Ilustración

Soporta bien los inviernos fríos y se desarrolla sobre suelos húmedos bien drenados. Crece en bosques mixtos, con especies de árboles frondosos y resinosos. Puede alcanzar una altura de 40 metros y un diámetro de 1,5 metros.

Crece rápidamente, alcanzado el tamaño de 10 metros en 20 años. Sus primeras piñas aparecen hacia los treinta años. Sus semillas maduran en septiembre del año que sigue a la fecundación.

La corteza es lisa, verde grisácea en los árboles jóvenes, antes de broncearse y agrietarse con la edad. Sus hojas son aciculares, son finas y suaves. Las acículas son largas de 6 a 12 centímetros y están agrupadas de a 5 por fascículo. El cono maduro mide de 7 a 15 centímetros. Las extremidades de sus escamas quedan claras con relación al centro. Las semillas tienen una ala de 5 mm que ayuda a su dispersión.

El árbol soporta bastante mal la contaminación. Como todos los pinos, es un pirófito, y los árboles maduros supervivientes pueden resembrar las áreas quemadas. En manchas puras de árboles no presentan ramas en la mitad inferior del tronco.

Es sensible a Cronartium ribicola, la roya del grosellero, un hongo introducido que puede dañar o matar estos árboles.

Uso

La madera de los árboles adultos es de calidad y se utiliza por lo tanto en carpintería como, por ejemplo, para la fabricación de puertas o de marcos de ventanas.

Las agujas de los "White Pine" contienen cinco veces más cantidad de Vitamina C (por peso) que los limones y proporcionan una excelente tisana. El cambium vascular es comestible. Es también una fuente de resveratrol.[5]​ Se ha encontrado que las orugas de Coloradia luski se alimentan solamente en los "Eastern White Pines".

 src=
Midiendo la circunferencia de un "pino blanco".

El nombre “Adirondack” es una palabra iroquesa que significa comedor de árboles y refiere a sus vecinos (más comúnmente conocidos como Algonquinos) que recogían su corteza interna durante las épocas de hambruna en invierno.[6]​ La corteza interna, suave y blanca (capa de cámbium) se separaba cuidadosamente de la corteza marrón dura, oscura y seca. Una vez molido este producto se puede utilizar como harina o agregar para alargar otros productos amiláceos. Linnaeus observó en 1700 que el ganado y los cerdos alimentados con corteza de pino crecían bien, aunque a él personalmente no le agradase su sabor. Los indios Ojibwe guisaban los conos masculinos jóvenes con carne, los cuales tenían fama de ser dulces y nada resinosos. Además, los piñones son dulces y nutritivos aunque no tan sabrosos como los de algunos pinos occidentales (Fernald, 1943).

La resina del pino se ha utilizado para impermeabilizar cestas, cubos y embarcaciones. La savia se puede procesar para obtener trementina, además de ser, al parecer, un bastante eficaz antimicrobiano en diferentes casos. Los Chippewa incluso la utilizaron con éxito para tratar heridas gangrenosas. La pulpa húmeda de la corteza interna se aplicaba generalmente a las heridas o la brea o pez de pino mezclado con cera de abejas o mantequilla se usaba como ungüento para prevenir infecciones. La brea de pino mezclada con cerveza se puede utilizar para erradicar solitarias (gusanos planos) o nemátodos (gusanos redondos) y, por otro lado, mezclada con azufre es útil para tratar la caspa. La brea o pez se produce quemando lentamente raíces, ramas o pequeños troncos de pino en una combustión parcialmente sofocada (Erichsen-Brown, 1979).

Simbolismo

El "Eastern White Pine" es el árbol emblema Provincial de Ontario, Canadá y el árbol emblema de los estados de Maine y Míchigan, de los Estados Unidos y su "pine cone and tassel", es decir ramita de pino con piña, como la "flor del estado" de Maine. Las ramitas del "Eastern White Pine" fueron usados como emblema identitario de Vermont durante la república de Vermont y aparecen en una vidriera de la Vermont State House, en la bandera de Vermont y en la insignia naval de la "Commonwealth of Massachusetts".

Taxonomía

Pinus strobus fue descrito por Carlos Linneo y publicado en Species Plantarum 2: 1001. 1753.[7]

Sinonimia
  • Leucopitys strobus (L.) Nieuwl.
  • Pinus nivea Booth ex Carrière
  • Pinus strobus f. prostrata Fernald & Weath.
  • Pinus tenuifolia Salisb.
  • Pinus umbraculifera K.Koch
  • Strobus strobus (L.) Small
  • Strobus weymouthiana Opiz[8]

Véase también

  • [pinus blanco] *

Referencias

  1. Conifer Specialist Group (1998). «Pinus strobus». Lista Roja de especies amenazadas de la UICN 2006 (en inglés). ISSN 2307-8235. Consultado el 12 de mayo de 2006.
  2. Gregor., Aas,; (Peter), Schütt, P. (1989). Arboles: las principales especies de arboles europeas: como reconocerlas y clasificarlas. Editorial Everest. ISBN 8424126637. OCLC 21884904. Consultado el 26 de marzo de 2019.
  3. «Pinus strobus». www.fs.fed.us. Consultado el 26 de marzo de 2019.
  4. Moore, Gerry; Kershner, Bruce; Craig Tufts; Daniel Mathews; Gil Nelson; Spellenberg, Richard; Thieret, John W.; Terry Purinton; Block, Andrew (2008). National Wildlife Federation Field Guide to Trees of North America. New York: Sterling. p. 77. ISBN 1-4027-3875-7.
  5. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 17 de agosto de 2018. Consultado el 9 de febrero de 2010.
  6. Luthringer, D.J. 2009. Big Trees of Cook Forest. Pennsylvania Forests 100(3):8-12.
  7. «Pinus strobus». Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. Consultado el 26 de marzo de 2015.
  8. «Pinus strobus». The Plant List. Consultado el 26 de marzo de 2015.

Bibliografía

  • Erichsen-Brown, C. 1979. Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants. Dover Publications, NY.
  • Fernald, M., A. Kinsey, and R. Rollins. 1943. Edible Wild Plants. Harper & Row, NY.
  • Ling, H. 2003. The Eastern White Pine. Native Plant Society of NJ Newsletter Winter 2003 pp 2–3.
  • Lombard K. and J. Bofinger. 1999. White Pine Blister Rust. NH Div. of Forests and Lands.
  • Nizalowski, E. 1997. The mystery of the Pumpkin Pine. Newark Valley Historical Society, Newark, NY.
  • Sloane, E. 1965. A Reverence for Wood. Balantine Books, NY.

 title=
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Pinus strobus: Brief Summary ( 西班牙、卡斯蒂利亞西班牙語 )

由wikipedia ES提供
 src= Cono de P. strobus

El pino canadiense (Pinus strobus), el pino de Weymouth, pino estrobo o ,​ también pino blanco americano,​ es una especie arbórea de la familia de las pináceas, género Pinus, originaria del este de Norteamérica. Se encuentra desde la isla de Terranova al oeste a Minnesota y sureste de Manitoba, y al sur a lo largo de los Montes Apalaches hasta el límite norte de Georgia. Otros nombres en inglés: White Pine, Northern White Pine o Soft Pine. La denominación pino de Weymouth, en inglés, Weymouth Pine,​ es más frecuente en el Reino Unido. Además, este árbol es conocido por los Nativos Americanos Haudenosaunee como Tree of Great Peace (Árbol de la Gran Paz).

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Valge mänd ( 愛沙尼亞語 )

由wikipedia ET提供
Disambig gray.svg See artikkel räägib liigist; põlispuu kohta vaata artiklit Valli valge mänd

Valge mänd (Pinus strobus) on männiliste sugukonda männi perekonda kuuluv puu.

Valge mänd kasvab looduslikult Põhja-Ameerikas.

Teda on introdutseeritud Euroopasse, kus kasvab peamiselt ilupuuna.

Kirjeldus

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Valmimata käbid.
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Avanenud käbid okstel.

Valge mänd kasvab 40–50, harva 60 m kõrguseks.[3] Kõigi aegade kõrgeim valge mänd oli 63 meetri kõrgune, kuid ta kaotas oma ladva 1995. aasta orkaanis Opal, mis oli selle aasta kõige võimsam orkaan Atlandi ookeanil. Tänapäeval on kõige kõrgem puu 56 meetrit kõrge. Rahvajuttude järgi olevat olnud ka 70-meetrisi puid.

Tüve läbimõõt on kuni 1,6 m, mis tähendab ümbermõõtu 3,1–5 meetrit. Sellegipoolest on tüve läbimõõt üle 1,45 m väga haruldane. 40 hektari männipuistu kohta tuleb sageli kõigest paar-kolm puud, mille tüve läbimõõt on 1,2–1,4 meetrit.

Suurte puude fotosid analüüsides on järeldatud, et ühes puus võib olla kuni 28–34 m3 puitu. Pole välistatud, et mõnes hiiglases on seda veelgi rohkem, 37–40 m3.

Juurestik on üldjuhul hästi arenenud. Sügavapõhjalistes muldades moodustub võimas peajuur koos rohkete külgjuurtega. Puu on sellistel muldadel üsna tormikindel.[3] Jaapanis on registreeritud valge männi juurestiku ulatumine liivmullas 2,8 m sügavusele.[4]

Okkad on 7–13 cm pikad, 5-kaupa kimpudes, kolmetahulised, peensaagja servaga. Puul püsivad nad 1–3 aastat, tavaliselt 18 kuud. Käbid kasvavad üksikult või 2–3 kaupa, õitsemisel punakad, hiljem rohelised, valminult hele- kuni punakaspruunid, pikkus 8–15 (20) cm, läbimõõt 2–3 (4) cm, sageli vaigused. Seemned on 5–6 mm pikad ja saleda tiivaga (15–20 mm). 1000 seemne mass on 16–18 g.[3]

Valge mänd õitseb juunis, seemned valmivad septembris ja varisevad pärast valmimist. Seemneaastad korduvad 2–3 aasta järel.[3]

Valge mänd on noores eas üsna kiire kasvuga. Aastane kõrguse juurdekasv 10–30 aasta vanuselt on sageli 1 m aastas. Viljakandvus algab varakult: üksi kasvades 15–20 aasta vanuselt, puistus 30–35 aasta vanuselt. Ta talub hästi varju, eriti viljakatel kasvukohtadel.[3]

Täiskasvanud puud jõuavad kergesti vanuseni 200–250 aastat. Vanimad puud lähenevad 500 eluaastale.

Levikuala ja ökoloogia

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Valged männid Katherine Lake'i ääres.

Valge mänd kasvab Põhja-Ameerika kirde- ja idaosas, Kanada ja USA territooriumil, 0–1220 m kõrgusel üle merepinna.[5]

Valge mänd eelistab kuiva pinnast ja niisket jahedat kliimat, aga ta kasvab ka soos ja kaljustel mägismaadel. Segametsas on ta domineeriv puu, mis kasvab teistest kõrgemaks. Ta pakub toitu ja kaitset paljudele lindudele, näiteks kuuse-käbilinnule, ja pisiimetajatele, näiteks oravatele.

Kliima

Valge männi levilas valitseb jahe ja niiske kliima. Juuli keskmised õhutemperatuurid tõusevad kuni 18...27 °C, ning jaanuaris-veebruaris langevad keskmised miinimumtemperatuurid kuni –8...–18 °C. Aasta keskmine õhutemperatuur on vahemikus 5...12 °C. Aasta keskmine sademete hulk on alates 510 mm Minnesotas kuni 2030 mm Georgia kirdeosas. Lund esineb aastas keskmiselt levila lõunaosas vähem kui 15 cm ning kirdeosas üle 250 cm. Suhteline õhuniiskus on küllaltki kõrge kõikidel aastaaegadel.[5]

Valge mänd talub talvel külma, mis ei ületa –34...–40 °C.[6]

Kasvupinnas

Valge mänd kasvab väga erinevat tüüpi muldadel, alates kuivadest liivmuldadest ja kivistest mäeseljandikest kuni rabades esinevate märgade turvasmuldadeni. Muldade reaktsioon on enamasti väga happeline kuni neutraalne ning nende lähtematerjaliks on üldjuhul liustikujõesetted, moreen või murenenud kivimid. Lähtekivimiteks on tavaliselt graniit, gneiss, kildad ja liivakivi. Harvem esineb fülliiti ja lubjakivi. Parimat kasvu näitavad puud, mis kasvavad viljakatel, parasniisketel ning vett hästi läbilaskvatel liiv- või saviliivmuldadel, mille pH on vahemikus 4,0–7,5.[5]

Tunnuspuu

Valge mänd on USA Maine'i ja Michigani osariigi ning Kanada Ontario provintsi tunnuspuu. Tema käbi koos oksatutiga on Maine'i tunnuslill. Valge männi võsu oli Vermonti sümbol Vermonti vabariigi ajal, see on kujutatud Vermonti lipul ja Massachusettsi mereväelipul. Valge männi oksad on kujutatud Vermonti osariigi parlamendihoone klaasimaalinguga kaetud aknal.

Kasvatamine Eestis

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Eesti suurima valge männi tüvi ja võra.

Eesti kliima ja pinnas sobivad valgele männile, kuid suur probleem on männi-koorepõletik, mida põhjustab roosteseen (Cronartium ribicola). Selle vaheperemeesteks on sõstra- ja karusmarjapõõsad. Haiguse tagajärjel tekib tüvel vaigujooks, okkad muutuvad punaseks ja kuivavad. Rohkem kannatavad puhtpuistud toitainevaestel muldadel. Kultiveeritud puudele sobivad värsked, viljakamad, sügavapõhjalised saviliiv- või liivsavimullad.[3]

Eesti metsakultuuri toodi valge mänd 19. sajandi lõpul ning ta on siin säilinud üksikute rühmade ja üksikpuudena, kasvades segus kohalike puuliikidega. Seda leidus Karula, Sagadi, Lodja, Kariste, Tubala (Hiiumaa), endises Vigala metskonnas, Järvseljal ja mujal. Valged männid jäid siin mõõtmetelt alla harilikele mändidele. Metsakultuure kahjustasid tugevalt jänesed, metskitsed ja põdrad. Praegu võib valget mändi leida Karula rahvuspargis Valgepalus (27 110-aastast puud), Antsla metskonnas (25 25–35 m kõrgust puud), Tihemetsa metsas ja Järvseljal (34–35 m kõrgused) ning Kuigatsis Pedajamäe talu maal (tüve ümbermõõt 1,5 meetri kõrgusel 3,8 meetrit). Eesti suuremaid valgeid mände (ümbermõõt samuti u 3,8 m) kasvab ka Jädivere metsapargis.[7]

Kasutamine

 src=
Kultivar 'Radiata'.
 src=
Valge männi tüvi.
 src=
Valge mänd Valgamaal Kuigatsis Pedajamäe talu maal

Valge männi puit on väga väärtuslik. See on levinud ja seda on lihtne töödelda. Sellepärast olid koloniaalajal paljud majad koos põranda ja mööbliga valgest männist valmistatud. Suured plangud, milles pole ühtegi oksakohta, olid pigem reegel kui erand.

Valge mänd oli ka metsalangetajate lemmik, sest langetatud puitu ei pidanud kohe töötlema, vaid selle võis saata saeveskisse alles aasta aega või kauemgi pärast langetamist. Näiteks kirsipuu, vaher, tamm ja saar tuleb lõigata tollipaksusteks laudadeks vahetult pärast langetamist, vastasel juhul tekivad tüvesse laiad praod, mis muudavad puidu väärtusetuks.

Valgest männist värskelt lõigatud lauad on kreemikasvalged või kahvatut õlekarva, aga aastate jooksul kipub puit tumenema ja muutuma sügavpunakaspruuniks. Vahetevahel kohtab helepruuniks tõmbunud laudu kuldse või punaka varjundiga. Kõnekeeles kutsutakse sellist puitu kõrvitsamänniks. Arvatakse, et ürgmetsas, kus männid aeglaselt kasvavad, kogunevad tüvesse värvained, aga seda võivad soodustada nii geneetilised tegurid kui pinnasetingimused.

Kuigi valgest männist põrandad olid Ameerikas levinud, ei ole valge mänd kulumiskindel. Pikaajalise käimisega kulub põrandasse käimise kohalt süvend ja üldiselt kõik valgest männist põrandad on aja jooksul ebatasaseks kulunud.

Valge männi okkad sisaldavad 5 korda rohkem C-vitamiini kui sidrunid ja neist saab head taimeteed.

Valge männi säsi on söödav. Indiaanlased sõid neid nälja ajal ja need hõimud, kes ei söönud, nimetasid oma naabreid puusööjateks. Linnaeus märkis, et veised ja sead sõid seda meeleldi, aga talle enesele säsi maitse ei meeldinud. Ka seemned kõlbavad süüa, ehkki mõnel teisel männiliigil on need veelgi maitsvamad.

Männivaiku on kasutatud korvide, ämbrite ja paatide veekindlaks muutmiseks. Puumahlast aeti tärpentini ja ühtlasi oli see nii vägev antibakteriaalne aine, et indiaanlased ravisid sellega isegi gangreeni, rääkimata muudest haavadest.

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Valge männi käbi.

Viited

  1. "Conifer database: Pinus strobus.". Catalogue of Life: 2010 Annual Checklist. Vaadatud 06.06.2010. Inglise.
  2. Conifer Specialist Group (1998). Picea strobus. IUCNi punase nimistu ohustatud liigid. IUCN 2010.
  3. 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 Endel Laas. "Dendroloogia", Tallinn: Valgus, 1987.
  4. J. Canadell, R. B. Jackson, J. B. Ehleringer, H. A. Mooney, O. E. Sala and E.-D. Schulze. "Maximum rooting depth of vegetation types at the global scale", Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 1996. ISSN 0029-8549.
  5. 5,0 5,1 5,2 Compiled from the Forestry Compendium, CAB International. "Pines of Silvicultural Importance", CABI Publishing, 2002. ISBN 085199539X.
  6. Francine J. Bigras ja Stephen J. Colombo. "Conifer Cold Hardiness", Holland: Kluwer Academic Pulishers, 2001. ISBN 0-7923-6636-0.
  7. Endel Laas. "Okaspuud", Tartu: Atlex, 2004.

Vaata ka

Välislingid

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Valge mänd: Brief Summary ( 愛沙尼亞語 )

由wikipedia ET提供

Valge mänd (Pinus strobus) on männiliste sugukonda männi perekonda kuuluv puu.

Valge mänd kasvab looduslikult Põhja-Ameerikas.

Teda on introdutseeritud Euroopasse, kus kasvab peamiselt ilupuuna.

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Weymouth pinu ( 巴斯克語 )

由wikipedia EU提供

Weymouth pinu edo estrobo pinu (Pinus strobus) Pinaceae familiaren espezie baten izen arrunta da, ekialdeko Ipar Amerikan jatorria duena[1]. Beste lekuetan landare apaingarri moduan erabiltzen dute.

Erreferentziak


Biologia Artikulu hau biologiari buruzko zirriborroa da. Wikipedia lagun dezakezu edukia osatuz.
(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
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Weymouth pinu: Brief Summary ( 巴斯克語 )

由wikipedia EU提供

Weymouth pinu edo estrobo pinu (Pinus strobus) Pinaceae familiaren espezie baten izen arrunta da, ekialdeko Ipar Amerikan jatorria duena. Beste lekuetan landare apaingarri moduan erabiltzen dute.

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Strobusmänty ( 芬蘭語 )

由wikipedia FI提供

Strobusmänty (Pinus strobus) on havupuu, joka kasvaa luonnonvaraisena Pohjois-Amerikan itäosissa, Newfoundlandista Appalakkien vuoriston kautta Georgian pohjoisosiin.

Strobusmännyn neulaset ovat viiden ryhmissä yhdessä samassa kääpiöoksassa. Ne ovat taipuisia, sinivihreitä, hienosti sahalaitaisia, 5–13 cm pitkiä. Neulaset säilyvät tavallisesti noin 18 kuukautta. Kävyt ovat kapeita ja 8–16 cm pitkiä, täysin avautuneena 4–5 cm leveitä. Siemenet ovat 4–5 mm pitkiä ja niissä on 15–20 mm pitkä siipi tuulilevitystä varten. Käpysadossa on huippu aina 3–5 vuoden välein. Strobusmänty saavuttaa yleisesti 200 vuoden iän (parhaimmillaan 400 vuotta).[3] Se kasvaa parhaiten viileässä ja kosteassa ilmastossa.

Strobusmänty on itäisen Pohjois-Amerikan korkeimmaksi kasvava puulaji. Sen tiedetään kasvaneen jopa 70 metrin pituiseksi. Tyypillisimmillään se kasvaa 30–50-metriseksi ja 1–1,6 metrin paksuiseksi. Puu kestää metsäpaloja melko hyvin ja paloista säilyneet puut siementävät paloalueita uudelleen. Puhtaissa strobusmänniköissä rungot ovat tavallisesti oksattomia puoleen väliin saakka, sekametsissä puut kohoavat kaikkien muiden yläpuolelle.

Strobusmäntyjä kasvatetaan laajalti metsätaloudessa niiden luonnonvaraisella esiintymisalueella. Erilaisia lajikkeita on jalostettu runsaasti koristekasvikäyttöön. Monet niistä ovat hidaskasvuisia kääpiölajikkeita.

Lähteet

  1. Pinus strobus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Iucnredlist.org. (englanniksi)
  2. ITIS
  3. Eastern White Pine

Aiheesta muualla

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Strobusmänty: Brief Summary ( 芬蘭語 )

由wikipedia FI提供

Strobusmänty (Pinus strobus) on havupuu, joka kasvaa luonnonvaraisena Pohjois-Amerikan itäosissa, Newfoundlandista Appalakkien vuoriston kautta Georgian pohjoisosiin.

Strobusmännyn neulaset ovat viiden ryhmissä yhdessä samassa kääpiöoksassa. Ne ovat taipuisia, sinivihreitä, hienosti sahalaitaisia, 5–13 cm pitkiä. Neulaset säilyvät tavallisesti noin 18 kuukautta. Kävyt ovat kapeita ja 8–16 cm pitkiä, täysin avautuneena 4–5 cm leveitä. Siemenet ovat 4–5 mm pitkiä ja niissä on 15–20 mm pitkä siipi tuulilevitystä varten. Käpysadossa on huippu aina 3–5 vuoden välein. Strobusmänty saavuttaa yleisesti 200 vuoden iän (parhaimmillaan 400 vuotta). Se kasvaa parhaiten viileässä ja kosteassa ilmastossa.

Strobusmänty on itäisen Pohjois-Amerikan korkeimmaksi kasvava puulaji. Sen tiedetään kasvaneen jopa 70 metrin pituiseksi. Tyypillisimmillään se kasvaa 30–50-metriseksi ja 1–1,6 metrin paksuiseksi. Puu kestää metsäpaloja melko hyvin ja paloista säilyneet puut siementävät paloalueita uudelleen. Puhtaissa strobusmänniköissä rungot ovat tavallisesti oksattomia puoleen väliin saakka, sekametsissä puut kohoavat kaikkien muiden yläpuolelle.

Strobusmäntyjä kasvatetaan laajalti metsätaloudessa niiden luonnonvaraisella esiintymisalueella. Erilaisia lajikkeita on jalostettu runsaasti koristekasvikäyttöön. Monet niistä ovat hidaskasvuisia kääpiölajikkeita.

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Pinus strobus ( 法語 )

由wikipedia FR提供

Pin blanc, Pin de Weymouth, Pin du Lord

Le Pin blanc, Pin du Lord ou Pin de Weymouth (Pinus strobus), est un arbre de la famille des Pinaceae[1],[2].

Description

 src=
Aiguilles fines

Mais de plus en plus l'érable et le sapin ont tendance à prendre sa place, par suite de la surexploitation des pins blancs, des nouvelles maladies et de la pollution d'origine humaine. Depuis le début de l'exploitation forestière du pin blanc, la taille moyenne de ce dernier a grandement diminué, passant d'une moyenne d'environ 50 mètre à 30 mètres à cause d'une maladie exotique qui n’existait pas en Amérique il y a 150 ans, la rouille vésiculeuse du pin blanc due à Cronartium ribicola[3].

 src=
Illustration de Pinus strobus

Quand cet arbre à aiguilles pousse en nature, ses branches inférieures meurent et les supérieures prennent le dessus. Tandis qu'en naissant isolé le pin blanc garde toutes ses branches du haut jusqu'au pied ressemblant particulièrement à un gigantesque arbre de Noël. Le pin blanc de La Patrie est le plus grand pin blanc du Québec. Il est situé à une dizaine de kilomètres du Mont Mégantic et de la frontière canado-américaine. Haut d'environ 35 mètres, avec une circonférence de 518 cm en 2011. Cette essence devient rare. La plupart des grands peuplements de pin blanc s'étendent sur le bord des rivières, à cause des feux qui passaient dans le temps juste à côté des rivières.

Sa longévité est en général de 200 à 400 ans et peut dépasser les 600 ans dans de très bonnes conditions. Certains auraient atteint les 1000 ans d'après des recherches.

Ce pin recherche des sols sablonneux et humides. Il est adapté aux feux de forêt, qui favorisent sa régénération, son écorce épaisse le protégeant. Le combat contre les feux de forêt est défavorable à sa régénération, cette espèce étant grandement favorisée à la suite du feu[4]. Cet arbre majestueux pousse dans des forêts mixtes composées de feuillus et d'autres résineux. Dans son habitat d'origine, il atteint la taille de 30 à 50 mètres et un diamètre de 1 à 1,5 mètre. En Europe, sa taille atteint 25 à 30 mètres. Il pousse rapidement ; à l'âge de 20 ans, il atteint la taille de 10 mètres. Il supporte assez mal la pollution ; le gibier peut lui causer des dégâts importants. Il est sensible à une maladie dite rouille vésiculeuse, transmise par le champignon Cronartium ribicola microscopi aperçu au Canada en 1916 pour la première fois. Cette maladie, au cycle évolutif compliqué qui implique également les plantes du type Ribes, peut le décimer. Il n'aime pas la compétition surtout lorsqu'il est plus jeune. Il supporte assez mal l'ombre, préfère pousser au soleil.

Son bois est blanc ou un peu brun, léger et tendre, homogène, facile à travailler, très durable, avec un aubier peu distinct. Le bois des arbres adultes est de qualité ; de ce fait il est utilisé en menuiserie, par exemple pour la fabrication de portes ou d'encadrements de fenêtres[5].

Les bourgeons, non résineux, sont ovoïdes et très pointus avec des écailles brunes cernées de blanc.

Les rameaux sont régulièrement verticillés, faiblement pubescents, brun rouge. Ils comportent des cicatrices foliaires visibles.

L'écorce est lisse, vert grisâtre sur les jeunes arbres puis brun grisâtre et crevassée longitudinalement. Vers les trois quarts de l'arbre, plus voyant lors qu'il est mature, l'écorce est blanche, particularité de laquelle l'arbre tire son nom.

Les feuilles sont des aiguilles fines et douces, souples et d'une longueur de 5 à 14 centimètres. Elles sont groupées par 5 sur les rameaux. La face inférieure de l'aiguille possède deux bandes de stomates argentés[5]. Les aiguilles, persistantes, ont une vie de deux à cinq ans.

 src=
Cône

Le fruit, est un cône qui mesure de 10 à 20 centimètres. Les écailles sont brunes et arquées vers le bas, elles sont peu serrées. Elles sont claires par rapport au centre et sont recouvertes de résine. Les semences d'environ 5 mm sont munies d'une longue aile[5]. Les cônes pendent. Les graines sont mûres en septembre de l'année suivant la fécondation. Les premiers fruits apparaissent quand l'arbre atteint environ l'âge de trente ans[5]. Les cônes d'un Pin blanc sont plats et longs lorsqu'il est jeune. Devenu adulte ses cônes sont longs et ouverts tout en étant écaillés.

Le pin blanc accepte des sols variés, mais, calcifuge, il préfère les sols siliceux légers et frais, même s’il accepte aussi les sols biens drainés. Le pin blanc n'est pas trop difficile envers les types de sol, il les accepte pratiquement tous.

Habitat

 src=
Pinus strobus' dans le parc Awenda

On le trouve dans l'est de l'Amérique du Nord depuis la Géorgie aux États-Unis, Ontario, Québec, les Maritimes et jusqu'à l'île de Terre-Neuve au Canada[5]. On le rencontre très fréquemment au Nouveau-Brunswick. L'arbre, qui supporte bien le froid, fut introduit en Europe en 1705 et en France vers 1850 dans le nord et le Morvan. On le plante aussi bien dans les forêts en reboisement que dans les parcs, à titre ornemental.

Historique

Les Iroquois utilisèrent le pin blanc pour en faire des canots géants pouvant transporter environ 40 personnes. Car à l'époque les pins blancs étaient beaucoup plus gros et surtout vraiment plus hauts.

D'après ce qu'a écrit Marie-Victorin, les bûcherons auraient coupé des Pins blancs ayant une hauteur incroyable de 90 mètres avec un diamètre de 250 centimètres. Il aurait été capable de devenir l'un des arbres les plus hauts au monde.

Le pin blanc est apparu sur le continent d'Amérique du Nord il y a quelques dizaines de millions d'années. Jusque dans les années 1600, on trouvait des millions d'hectares de forêt mature de Pins blancs imposants.

Les peuples autochtones utilisaient son écorce pour le recouvrement extérieur des maisons longues et sa résine mélangée à de la cendre servait d'adhésif.

Les colons ont spéculé dès la première découverte que le pin blanc, grand et rectiligne, formerait un matériau idéal pour la construction navale, en particulier utilisé comme mât pour les grands navires. George Weymouth, mena son navire Archangel dans le port de Pentecost (Maine), près de la rivière Saint-George, en 1605, et il fit rapport d'arbres de hauteur remarquable, qui pourraient faire des mâts pour des navires de quatre cents tonnes. Il rapporta en Angleterre des échantillons du pin qui porte en Grande-Bretagne son nom. Quatre ans après, la colonie de Jamestown envoya des pin de mâture vers l'Angleterre et 1640, la production de mât devint la première industrie majeure de la Nouvelle-Angleterre, s'exportant vers les ports de construction navale des Caraïbes, d'Angleterre et jusqu'à Madagascar. La coupe accélérée des pins fit s'inquiéter le parlement britannique, qui en 1691 révisa la Massachusetts bay charter incluant une clause de préservation des mâts. Le marquage des arbres en forme de Broad arrow par les arpenteurs du roi qui devint la norme était impopulaire dans les colonies et sera l'une des causes de la révolution américaine (Pine Tree Riot)[6].

Il est exploité début jusqu'à la fin du XIXe siècle, dans le commerce du bois carré à destination de l'Angleterre. Plus tard comme bois de sciage vers les États-Unis.

À partir de 1850, leur exploitation intensive et inconsidérée achève de décimer les forêts; il n'existe plus de Pins blancs dépassant 65 mètres. Au Québec, les derniers peuplements de pins blancs se trouvent dans la région de l'Outaouais.

Certains jugent que les méthodes modernes de coupe peu intensives nuisent à l'établissement du pin blanc, une espèce de tolérance intermédiaire à l'ombre. En effet, les coupes de jardinage conservent un couvert permanent qui favorise les espèces tolérantes à l'ombre comme l'érable à sucre et le hêtre à grandes feuilles.

Symbole

Chez les Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) cet arbre est connu comme étant l'« Arbre de la Paix » à cause de ses gigantesques dimensions et c'est pour eux un symbole important de la Grande Loi de la Paix pour ce peuple d'Amérique du Nord[7].

Le drapeau et les armoiries de la Ville de Montréal intègrent depuis 2017 le pin blanc, un symbole de la présence autochtone sur le territoire montréalais[8].

Voir aussi

Notes et références
  1. "Pine." Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 7 Jan. 2022. academic-eb-com.acces.bibl.ulaval.ca/levels/collegiate/article/pine/60072. Accessed 8 Apr. 2022.
  2. « Pin | l'Encyclopédie Canadienne », sur www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca (consulté le 8 avril 2022)
  3. https://aimfc.rncan.gc.ca/fr/maladies/fiche/24
  4. « Le feu pour faire vivre la forêt », sur ICI Radio-Canada.ca (consulté le 23 août 2020).
  5. a b c d et e (fr) Arbres - Jaromir Pokorny - p.48 - (ISBN 2-7000-1818-4) - Éditions Gründ - 1987
  6. Glynda Joy Nord. Official State Flowers and Trees: Their Unique Stories. Trafford Publishing, 12 mai 2014. Lire en ligne
  7. Voir le dépliant : La petite histoire des armoiries de Montréal où le pin blanc est représenté.
  8. (en) « Un symbole de la présence autochtone ajouté au drapeau et aux armoiries de Montréal », sur HuffPost, 13 septembre 2017 (consulté le 4 janvier 2022)

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Pinus strobus: Brief Summary ( 法語 )

由wikipedia FR提供

Pin blanc, Pin de Weymouth, Pin du Lord

Le Pin blanc, Pin du Lord ou Pin de Weymouth (Pinus strobus), est un arbre de la famille des Pinaceae,.

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Američki borovac ( 克羅埃西亞語 )

由wikipedia hr Croatian提供

Američki borovac (borovac, vajmutov bor, lat. Pinus strobus) je stablo iz porodice borova (lat. Pinaceae).

To je četinjača koja se javlja u prirodi u Sjevernoj Americi. Danas se uzgaja u Srednjoj i Zapadnoj Europi, gdje može dosegnuti visinu od 30 do 40 m. Na istoku SAD-a dostiže visine od 55 metara. U Hrvatskoj se može naći u šumskim kulturama, parkovima i botaničkim vrtovima. Drugo ime je Weymouthov bor ili vajmutovac po istraživaču Georgeu Weymouthu.

Botanički opis

 src=
Stabla američkoga borovca

Kora je glatka i zelenkasto smeđa. Kasnije, kora postaje sivkasta do crna s malo ljubičaste. Grančice su tanke i svijetlo zelene. Starije grane su zelenkasto smeđe i dlakave.

Pupovi su ovalni i narančasto-smeđi. Ima vitke, plavkasto-zelene iglice od 8-12 cm. Rastu u nakupinama od pet u neposrednoj blizini, te su usmjerene prema vrhu.

Češeri su smeđi, u obliku banane i 10-15 cm dugi. Mladi češeri su zeleniji i ravniji nego kod stariji.

Drvo je blijedo smeđe i svjetlo. Dobro je za izradu vrata i prozora, ali i za opće namjene, kao što su izrada sanduka i namještaja.

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Američki borovac: Brief Summary ( 克羅埃西亞語 )

由wikipedia hr Croatian提供

Američki borovac (borovac, vajmutov bor, lat. Pinus strobus) je stablo iz porodice borova (lat. Pinaceae).

To je četinjača koja se javlja u prirodi u Sjevernoj Americi. Danas se uzgaja u Srednjoj i Zapadnoj Europi, gdje može dosegnuti visinu od 30 do 40 m. Na istoku SAD-a dostiže visine od 55 metara. U Hrvatskoj se može naći u šumskim kulturama, parkovima i botaničkim vrtovima. Drugo ime je Weymouthov bor ili vajmutovac po istraživaču Georgeu Weymouthu.

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Židźana chójna ( 上索布語 )

由wikipedia HSB提供

Židźana chójna[1] (Pinus strobus) je štom ze swójby chójnowych rostlinow.

Wopisanje

Stejnišćo

Rozšěrjenje

Wužiwanje

Noty

  1. 1,0 1,1 Prawopisny słownik, Hornjoserbski słownik, strona 163
  2. W internetowym słownik: Kiefer

Žórła

  • Aichele, D., Golte-Bechtle, M.: Was blüht denn da: Wildwachsende Blütenpflanzen Mitteleuropas. Kosmos Naturführer (1997)
  • Brankačk, Jurij: Wobrazowy słownik hornjoserbskich rostlinskich mjenow na CD ROM. Rěčny centrum WITAJ, wudaće za serbske šule. Budyšin 2005.
  • Kubát, K. (Hlavní editor): Klíč ke květeně České republiky. Academia, Praha (2002)
  • Lajnert, Jan: Rostlinske mjena. Serbske. Němske. Łaćanske. Rjadowane po přirodnym systemje. Volk und Wissen Volkseigener Verlag Berlin (1954)
  • Rězak, Filip: Němsko-serbski wšowědny słownik hornjołužiskeje rěče. Donnerhak, Budyšin (1920)
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Židźana chójna: Brief Summary ( 上索布語 )

由wikipedia HSB提供

Židźana chójna (Pinus strobus) je štom ze swójby chójnowych rostlinow.

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Sandfura ( 冰島語 )

由wikipedia IS提供

Sandfura (fræðiheiti: Pinus strobus) er furutegund ættuð frá austurhluta Norður-Ameríku. Þar finnst hún frá Nýfundnalandi í Kanada vestur í gegn um svæði Vatnanna miklu til suðaustur Manitoba og Minnesota, Bandaríkjunum, og suður eftir Appalasíufjöllum og efri Piedmont til nyrst í Georgíu og kannski mjög sjaldan á hærri svæðum í norðaustur Alabama.[1] Tréð er fylkistré Ontaríó.

 src=
Köngull og barr

Tilvísanir

  1. "Pinus strobus". Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Database. USDA.

Heimildir

Wikimedia Commons er með margmiðlunarefni sem tengist
Wikilífverur eru með efni sem tengist
 src= Þessi líffræðigrein er stubbur. Þú getur hjálpað til með því að bæta við greinina.
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Sandfura: Brief Summary ( 冰島語 )

由wikipedia IS提供

Sandfura (fræðiheiti: Pinus strobus) er furutegund ættuð frá austurhluta Norður-Ameríku. Þar finnst hún frá Nýfundnalandi í Kanada vestur í gegn um svæði Vatnanna miklu til suðaustur Manitoba og Minnesota, Bandaríkjunum, og suður eftir Appalasíufjöllum og efri Piedmont til nyrst í Georgíu og kannski mjög sjaldan á hærri svæðum í norðaustur Alabama. Tréð er fylkistré Ontaríó.

 src= Köngull og barr
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Pinus strobus ( 義大利語 )

由wikipedia IT提供

Il pino strobo, detto anche pino bianco americano o pino di Weymouth, è una grande conifera nativa del Nord-America orientale.

Morfologia

 src=
Pigna di pino strobo

È un albero di grandi dimensioni, il più alto del nord-America ad est delle Montagne Rocciose. Raggiunge spesso i 40-45 metri ed in casi eccezionali supera i 50 metri. Il Boogerman Pine, nel Parco nazionale di Great Smoky Mountains, era alto 63 metri prima di perdere la cima durante un uragano in ottobre del 1995. Attualmente è alto 57,54 metri.

Come in tutti i pini del sottogenere strobus, gli aghi del pino strobo crescono in mazzetti di 5 (raramente 3 o 4), con una guaina decidua. Sono flessibili, strettamente serrati e di colore blu-verde, con lunghezza di 5–13 cm.

Pinus strobus (Bauer).jpg

Le pigne sono lunghe 8–16 cm e larghe 4–5 cm quando sono aperte, con apice arrotondato e la parte terminale leggermente incurvata. I semi sono lunghi 4–5 mm e sono dotati di un'aletta di 15–20 mm che permette la loro migliore dispersione col vento.

Possono vivere facilmente fino a 200-250 anni e in alcuni casi superare i 400. L'età di un esemplare nei pressi di Syracuse nello Stato di New York è stata misurata negli anni ottanta ed è risultata essere di 458 anni.

Ha un potere calorifico molto alto

Distribuzione e habitat

Originariamente gran parte del Nord America nord-orientale era coperto da foreste di pino strobo, ma in seguito a disboscamenti intensivi nel '700 e '800 solo una minima parte degli alberi originali è rimasta. Attualmente il pino strobo è presente a nord dalla penisola di Terranova fino al Minnesota, spingendosi a sud lungo la catena degli Appalachi fino alla parte settentrionale della Georgia.

L'esploratore inglese George Weymouth, cui deve il nome con cui è noto in Gran Bretagna, tentò di trapiantarli in Inghilterra nel 1620, ma non sopravvissero a lungo perché attaccati dal fungo Cronartium ribicola (white pine blister rust in inglese). È stato poi introdotto in Europa come albero ornamentale verso la metà del 1800 e ormai cresce spontaneamente in alcune zone dell'Europa, come la Polonia, la Repubblica Ceca, ma anche nell'Italia Settentrionale.

Il pino strobo preferisce terreni ben drenati e climi freschi e umidi, ma cresce a volte anche in aree acquitrinose e in altopiani rocciosi.

Usi

In passato il legno del pino strobo era molto ricercato per costruire l'alberatura delle navi a vela. Grandi quantità di legname furono vendute alla Royal Navy per tale uso. Nell'epoca coloniale degli Stati Uniti era molto usato per l'edilizia, l'arredamento e la pavimentazione di case. In seguito fu gradualmente sostituito da specie più pregiate. Tuttavia il pino strobo è ancora molto coltivato in silvicoltura in diverse aree degli Stati Uniti.

Gli aghi di questa specie hanno un contenuto di vitamina C cinque volte superiore, in peso, ai limoni. Vengono quindi usati per preparare tisane.

La resina è usata per l'impermeabilizzazione di natanti ed è impiegata anche dall'industria chimica per la produzione di trementina.

Note

  1. ^ (EN) Pinus strobus, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020.

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Pinus strobus: Brief Summary ( 義大利語 )

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Il pino strobo, detto anche pino bianco americano o pino di Weymouth, è una grande conifera nativa del Nord-America orientale.

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Veimutinė pušis ( 立陶宛語 )

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Veimutinė pušis (lot. Pinus strobus) – pušinių šeimai (Pinaceae) priklausanti spygliuočių medžių rūšis. Paplitusi Šiaurės Amerikos rytuose: šiaurės rytuose arealas siekia Niufaundlandą, pietuose Džordžiją, vakaruose Minesotą.

Aukštis iki 30-67 m, kamieno skersmuo – 100–180 cm. Laja kūgiška, vėliau tampa plokščia, netaisyklinga. Žievė tampa pilkai ruda, giliai sueižėjusi į plačias netaisyklingas plokšteles. Spygliai 6-10 cm ilgio, 0,7-1 mm storio, susitelkę po 5. Kankorėžiai cilindriški, pilkšvai rudi, 8-20 cm ilgio, 2-3 cm ilgio žvyneliais. Sėklos 5-6 mm ilgio, su 1,8-2,5 cm ilgio skristuku.

Gali išgyventi iki 350–400 metų. Veimutinė pušis mėgsta vėsų, drėgną klimatą, gerai vėdinamą dirvą. Auga iki 1500 m aukštyje. Introdukuota daugelio Europos šalių parkuose, želdynuose.

XVII–XVIII a. veimutinės pušies mediena plačiai naudota Karališkojo laivyno laivų statybai, taip pat baldų gamybai, namų statybai. Dėl intensyvaus kirtimo rytinėje arealo dalyje beveik išnaikinta[1].

Šaltiniai


Vikiteka

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Veimutinė pušis: Brief Summary ( 立陶宛語 )

由wikipedia LT提供

Veimutinė pušis (lot. Pinus strobus) – pušinių šeimai (Pinaceae) priklausanti spygliuočių medžių rūšis. Paplitusi Šiaurės Amerikos rytuose: šiaurės rytuose arealas siekia Niufaundlandą, pietuose Džordžiją, vakaruose Minesotą.

Aukštis iki 30-67 m, kamieno skersmuo – 100–180 cm. Laja kūgiška, vėliau tampa plokščia, netaisyklinga. Žievė tampa pilkai ruda, giliai sueižėjusi į plačias netaisyklingas plokšteles. Spygliai 6-10 cm ilgio, 0,7-1 mm storio, susitelkę po 5. Kankorėžiai cilindriški, pilkšvai rudi, 8-20 cm ilgio, 2-3 cm ilgio žvyneliais. Sėklos 5-6 mm ilgio, su 1,8-2,5 cm ilgio skristuku.

Gali išgyventi iki 350–400 metų. Veimutinė pušis mėgsta vėsų, drėgną klimatą, gerai vėdinamą dirvą. Auga iki 1500 m aukštyje. Introdukuota daugelio Europos šalių parkuose, želdynuose.

XVII–XVIII a. veimutinės pušies mediena plačiai naudota Karališkojo laivyno laivų statybai, taip pat baldų gamybai, namų statybai. Dėl intensyvaus kirtimo rytinėje arealo dalyje beveik išnaikinta.

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Weymouthden ( 荷蘭、佛萊明語 )

由wikipedia NL提供

De weymouthden (Pinus strobus) is een boom uit de dennenfamilie (Pinaceae). Het is een conifeer die van nature voorkomt in Noord-Amerika. Tegenwoordig wordt de boom voor het hout gekweekt in Midden- en West-Europa, alwaar ze een hoogte kan bereiken tot 30 à 40 m. In het oosten van de Verenigde Staten bereikt de boom een hoogte van 55 meter en is het de hoogste boomsoort die daar van nature voorkomt. De boom is genoemd naar de ontdekkingsreiziger George Weymouth.

Botanische beschrijving

De kroon is smal kegelvormig. Met het ouder worden wordt de kroon onregelmatiger en vlakker. De boomschors is glad en groenachtig bruin. Later wordt de schors grijsachtig tot zwart met een beetje paarse gloed. Tevens komen er dan groeven in de schors te zitten. De twijgen zijn slank en heldergroen. Later worden de takken groenachtig bruin en behaard.

De knoppen zijn eivormig, spits en oranjebruin. De weymouthden heeft slanke, blauwachtig groene naalden van 8-12 cm lang. Ze groeien in bosjes van vijf dicht opeen en zijn naar de top toe gericht.

De kegels zijn bruin, banaanvormig en 10-15 cm lang. De kegelschubben zijn naar buiten gekromd. Jonge kegels zijn groener en rechter dan oudere kegels.

Ziekten

De boom kan aangetast worden door de zwartebessenroest.

 src=
Aecidia van zwartebessenroest

Toepassingen

Het bleekbruine, lichte hout van de weymouthden leent zich prima voor het gebruik voor deuren en kozijnen, maar ook voor algemene doeleinden, zoals kisten en meubels.

Externe links

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Weymouthden: Brief Summary ( 荷蘭、佛萊明語 )

由wikipedia NL提供

De weymouthden (Pinus strobus) is een boom uit de dennenfamilie (Pinaceae). Het is een conifeer die van nature voorkomt in Noord-Amerika. Tegenwoordig wordt de boom voor het hout gekweekt in Midden- en West-Europa, alwaar ze een hoogte kan bereiken tot 30 à 40 m. In het oosten van de Verenigde Staten bereikt de boom een hoogte van 55 meter en is het de hoogste boomsoort die daar van nature voorkomt. De boom is genoemd naar de ontdekkingsreiziger George Weymouth.

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Weymouthfuru ( 挪威語 )

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Weymouthfuru (Pinus strobus) er en art i furuslekten innenfor furufamilien.

Arten blir 5-40 m høy og har grønn-brune skudd med tynn behåring. Modne nåler sitter 5 sammen og er 5-14 cm lange. De er myke og vridde, og de er enten blågrønne eller blekt grågrønne. Konglene er hengende på skaft, inntil 20 cm lange og 3-4 cm brede. De er blekbrune og kan være litt bøyde.

Weymouthfurua vokser vilt i Nord-Amerika fra østkysten til Minnesota, nord til Newfoundland, og sørover til Georgia. Den kan også svært sjelden påtreffes forvillet etter dyrkning i Sverige på fastlandet innenfor Gotland.

Den kan vokse sammen med trær som banksfuru, rødfuru, canadahemlokk, sukkerbjørk, amerikaosp, romhegg, rødlønn, rødeik, kviteik og hickory. I undervegetasjonen finnes blant annet bærlyng, krypberglyng, Diervilla lonicera, Comptonia peregrina, einstape, myskebregne, kråkefot, gjøksyre og kornell.

Litteratur

Eksterne lenker

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Kongler og bar
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Weymouthfuru: Brief Summary ( 挪威語 )

由wikipedia NO提供

Weymouthfuru (Pinus strobus) er en art i furuslekten innenfor furufamilien.

Arten blir 5-40 m høy og har grønn-brune skudd med tynn behåring. Modne nåler sitter 5 sammen og er 5-14 cm lange. De er myke og vridde, og de er enten blågrønne eller blekt grågrønne. Konglene er hengende på skaft, inntil 20 cm lange og 3-4 cm brede. De er blekbrune og kan være litt bøyde.

Weymouthfurua vokser vilt i Nord-Amerika fra østkysten til Minnesota, nord til Newfoundland, og sørover til Georgia. Den kan også svært sjelden påtreffes forvillet etter dyrkning i Sverige på fastlandet innenfor Gotland.

Den kan vokse sammen med trær som banksfuru, rødfuru, canadahemlokk, sukkerbjørk, amerikaosp, romhegg, rødlønn, rødeik, kviteik og hickory. I undervegetasjonen finnes blant annet bærlyng, krypberglyng, Diervilla lonicera, Comptonia peregrina, einstape, myskebregne, kråkefot, gjøksyre og kornell.

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Pinus strobus ( Pms )

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Drapò piemontèis.png Vos an lenga piemontèisa Për amprende a dovré 'l sistema dle parlà locaj ch'a varda sì.

Ël Pinus strobus a l'é un mèmber dla partìa dij pin bianch (Pinus, sotgéner Strobus) e tanme tuti j'àutri mèmber ëd costa partìa a l'é caraterisà da feuje (uje) fassicolà an bocc ëd sinch. A son flessìbij, vërde-bleuve, ravzinà, longhe 5-13 cm e a duro apopré 18 mèis. Le pigne a son sutile, longhe 8-16 cm e larghe 4-5 cm s'a son duverte; le pìgnole a son longhe 4-5 mm, con n'ala sutila e longa 15-20 mm e a ven-o dësperdùe dal vent. La produssion ëd pigne a suced minca 3-5 agn. Ël Pinus strobus a riva a esse àut 70 méter, ma an media as vëddo esemplar àuti 30-50 méter. J'erbo pì mèir a peulo avèj fin-a 200 agn; ij pì vej a peulo rivé fin-a a 400 agn. A përferiss un seul bin sùit e fresch, clima ùmid, ma a chërs ëdcò ant le zòne ëd maré e ant ij leu rocios.

Distribussion

Ël Pinus strobus a l'é nativ dla part oriental dl'América dël Nòrd, an spantiand-se da l'ìsola ëd Teraneuva fin-a al Minnesota e al sud-est dël Manitòba, e an dissendend giù për ij Mont Apalach a chërs fin ant la part setentrional dla Geòrgia.

Notissie

Ël pin bianch american a l'é l'erbo pì àut ch'a-i sia ant l'América dël Nòrd a est dle Montagne Rociose. Grande foreste ëd pin bianch a quatavo an orìgin gran part dël nòrd-est dl'América dël Nòrd. J'Irochèis, na tribù ëd nativ american, a lo ciamavo l'Erbo dla Granda Pas.

Le pìgnole dël pin bianch american a conten-o vitamin-a C sinch vire ëd pì dij limon e as peulo fé dle bon-e tisan-e.

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Sosna wejmutka ( 波蘭語 )

由wikipedia POL提供
Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons

Sosna wejmutka zwana też sosną amerykańską (Pinus strobus L.) – gatunek drzewa iglastego z rodziny sosnowatych (Pinaceae). Sosna wejmutka występuje na północnych i wschodnich obszarach Ameryki Północnej (Kanada, USA). W Polsce uprawiana, spotykana w lasach i parkach.

Polska nazwa gatunkowa tej sosny wywodzi się od nazwiska lorda Weymoutha.

Rozmieszczenie geograficzne

Naturalny zasięg sosny wejmutki rozciąga się wzdłuż południowej Kanady, od Nowej Fundlandii, wyspy Anticosti i półwyspu Gaspé, na zachód do środkowego i zachodniego Ontario i południowo-wschodniej Manitoby. Dalej na południe do południowo-wschodniej Minnesoty i północno-wschodniego Iowa, na wschód do północnego Illinois, Ohio, Pensylwanii i New Jersey oraz na południe przez Appalachy do północnej Georgii i północno-zachodniej Karoliny Południowej. Stanowiska sosny wejmutki można także znaleźć w zachodnim Kentucky, zachodnim Tennessee i Delaware[3].

Populacje raportowane z Gwatemali i Meksyku należą do wyróżnianej przez niektórych botaników odmiany P. strobus var. chiapensis, która traktowana jest coraz częściej jako odrębny gatunek.

Morfologia

Pokrój
Drzewo iglaste, pokrój raczej smukły, początkowo stożkowaty, później spłaszczony, bardziej nieregularny. Korona luźna, gałęzie w regularnych okółkach, odchodzą od pnia prawie pod kątem prostym.
 src=
Kora
 src=
Igły i szyszka żeńska
Pień
Osiąga wysokość 30–67[4] m, w środkowej Europie dorasta do 44 m, oraz średnicę 100–180 cm. Kora spękana, ciemnoszara, z wiekiem grubieje i ciemnieje.
Liście
Igły zebrane po 5 na krótkopędzie, niebieskozielone, długości 6–10 cm, szerokości 0,7–1 mm, giętkie i cienkie, z opadającą pochewką liściową.
Szyszki
Szyszki męskie walcowate, żółte, długości 10–15 mm (8–10 mm)[3], wyrastają w grupach u nasady młodych pędów, najczęściej na starszych, dolnych gałęziach. Szyszki żeńskie wyrastają na szczytach pędów, w górnej części korony, są sztywne i zaokrąglone. W czasie zapylenia zielone, o długości 5–38 mm. Dojrzałe szyszki żeńskie są brązowe, cylindryczne i zwisające, długości (7)8–20 cm. Łuski giętkie z kolistymi wypustkami na końcach, zwykle pokryte żywicą. Nasiona długości 5–6 mm, opatrzone skrzydełkiem długości 1,8–2,5 cm.

Biologia i ekologia

Drewno lekkie, kremowożółte, miękkie.

Drzewo jednopienne. Kwitnie od maja do czerwca. Szyszki męskie wykształcają się od jednego do kilku tygodni wcześniej niż żeńskie na tym samym drzewie. Drzewa produkują szyszki żeńskie po osiągnięciu 5–10 lat, ale dobrze obradzają dopiero w wieku 20–30 lat. We wczesnych latach kwitnienia, drzewa nie wykształcają wcale lub niewielką liczbę szyszek męskich. Zjawisko to może się utrzymywać także u starszych okazów, o średnicy pnia 30–61 cm, aczkolwiek ich produkcja pyłku jest większa niż młodych drzew (od małej do średniej ilości). Do zapłodnienia dochodzi ok. 13 miesięcy po zapyleniu, a nasiona dojrzewają w ciągu sierpnia i września drugiego roku. Szyszki uwalniają nasiona i opadają wkrótce potem. Do rozsiania większości nasion dochodzi w ciągu miesiąca od osiągnięcia dojrzałości. Rozsiewają się w odległości 60 m w zwartych drzewostanach i ponad 210 m na stanowiskach otwartych[3]. Igły pozostają na drzewie przez 2–3 lata[5].

Drzewa osiągają wiek zazwyczaj 200 lat, wyjątkowo 450. Początkowo rosną wolno (ok. 135 cm wysokości w wieku 8–10 lat), między 10 a 15 rokiem życia przyrastają szybko (średnio 1 m rocznie). Tempo wzrostu zależy także od warunków siedliskowych, jednak dla wszystkich stanowisk wyrównuje się w wieku ok. 55 lat, kiedy roczny przyrost jest na poziomie 0,3 m na rok.

Najgrubszy w Polsce okaz wejmutki (na terenie Lasów Państwowych) rośnie w miejscowości Pokój i ma 521 cm obwodu i 33 m wysokości[6].


Liczba chromosomów: 2n=24.

Preferuje płaskie doliny w obszarach górskich, można ją znaleźć na wysokości do 1500 m n.p.m. Najchętniej rośnie na glebach wapiennych. Wraz z innymi drzewami iglastymi i liściastymi tworzy lasy mieszane. W lasach, w których jest gatunkiem dominującym towarzyszą jej: sosna czerwona, dąb czerwony i klon czerwony, choina, Quercus prinus. Wykazuje średnią tolerancję na zacienienie. Jako siewki, ze względu na powolny wzrost w pierwszych latach życia, sosny wejmutki są bardzo wrażliwe na konkurencję ze strony szybciej rosnących gatunków. Jeśli przeżyją ten okres ich zdolność przetrwania zwiększa się. Sosna ta rzadko tworzy trwałe jednogatunkowe stanowiska. Nie sprzyja temu wewnętrzna różnorodność w ukształtowaniu korony, różne tempo wzrostu w poszczególnych okresach życia czy na danym podłożu.

Nasiona są pożywieniem dla m.in. wiewiórki szarej (Sciurus carolinensis), która przyczynia się także do rozsiewania nasion, gromadząc je w podziemnych schowkach.

Systematyka i zmienność

Pozycja gatunku w obrębie rodzaju Pinus[5]:

  • podrodzaj Strobus
    • sekcja Quinquefoliae
      • podsekcja Strobus
        • gatunek P. strobus

Wcześniej traktowano Pinus chiapensis jako odmianę sosny wejmutki (P. strobus var. chiapensis Martínez), klasyfikowaną obecnie najczęściej w randze gatunku[4]

Sosna wejmutka łatwo krzyżuje się z sosną zachodnią (Pinus monticola), s. rumelijską (P. peuce), s. himalajską (P. wallichiana) i s. drobnokwiatową (P. parviflora). Można ją także skrzyżować z sosną giętką (P. flexilis) i P. ayacahuite. Mieszaniec z sosną himalajską jest bardziej żywotny niż sosna wejmutka i lepiej znosi zimy niż sosna himalajska.

 src=
Sosny wejmutki na naturalnym siedlisku, Ottawa National Forest, Syvania Wilderness, Michigan

Zagrożenia

Międzynarodowa organizacja IUCN przyznała temu gatunkowi kategorię zagrożenia LC (least concern), czyli jest gatunkiem najmniejszej troski, spośród gatunków niższego ryzyka[2].

Zastosowanie

Drzewo ozdobne

Uprawiana powszechnie w Europie w lasach i parkach.

Surowiec drzewny
  • Ponieważ drewno jest łatwe w obróbce i niepaczące się, wytwarzane są z niego różnego rodzaju opakowania (np. skrzynki transportowe).
  • W XVII i XVIII w. sosna wejmutka na wschodnich stanowiskach była masowo wycinana, z przeznaczeniem na cele marynarki wojennej Wielkiej Brytanii (Royal Navy). Przez XVIII i XIX w. wycinkę prowadzono także na cele budowlane i meblarskie, posuwając się coraz dalej na zachód. Pozostałością po tamtych czasach są historyczne budynki z drewna sosnowego, które można znaleźć od Maine do Minnesoty.
  • Gatunek sprowadzony niegdyś do Europy na użytek przemysłu papierniczego.

Szkodniki i choroby

 src=
Objawy rdzy wejmutkowo-porzeczkowej

Znanych jest 277 szkodników i 110 organizmów wywołujących choroby sosny wejmutki. Z tego tylko 16 owadów i 7 chorób stanowi na tyle istotne zagrożenie dla życia drzew, że może powodować ich obumieranie. Najgroźniejsze z nich to chrząszcz Pissodes strobi, rdza wejmutkowo-porzeczkowa i opieńka miodowa (Armillaria mellea).

  • Pissodes strobi – chrząszcz, niszczy młode pędy, do 2–3-letnich.
  • Conophthorus coniperda – chrząszcz z rodziny ryjkowcowatych, żeruje na szyszkach i może doprowadzić do znacznego ograniczenia plonu nasion na zaatakowanych drzewach. W południowo-zachodnich lasach Maine zaobserwowano przerwy między płodnymi latami trwające 7–10 lat[3].
  • Cinara strobimszyca, powoduje uszkodzenia pędów i gałęzi dużych drzew, może doprowadzić do obumarcia małych okazów.
  • Neodiprion pinetum – larwy tego owada żerują na młodych i starych igłach.
  • Borecznik rudy (Neodiprion sertifer) – owad zasiedla przeważnie młode drzewka (także innych sosen) składając jaja przy brzegach igieł. Larwy wylęgają się na wiosnę i przez maj i czerwiec zjadają stare igły, pozostawiając młode pędy. Wpływa to hamująco na przyrost drzew.
  • rdza wejmutkowo-porzeczkowa – choroba wywoływana przez grzyb Cronartium ribicola. Objawem porażenia są żółtopomarańczowe, pęcherzykowate skupienia zarodników na pędach. Choroba groźna jest przede wszystkim dla młodych drzewek.
  • Czyreń sosnowy (Phellinus pini) – grzyb, patogen roślin, najczęściej atakujący uszkodzone drzewa.
  • Skórnik krwawiący (Stereum sanguinolentum) – grzyb, patogen roślin, atakuje drzewa dostając się przez uszkodzenia.
  • Opieńka miodowa (Armillaria mellea) – grzyb, wywołuje opieńkową zgniliznę korzeni, porażone części pnia ulegają zgniliźnie białej.

Obecność w kulturze i symbolice

Sosna wejmutka jest jednym z symboli kanadyjskiej prowincji Ontario. Jest także drzewem stanowym dwóch stanów USA: Maine i Michigan[7].

Przypisy

  1. P. F. Stevens: PINACEAE. W: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website [on-line]. 2001–.
  2. a b Conifer Specialist Group (1998), Pinus strobus [w:] IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.1 [online] [dostęp 2009-07-29] (ang.).
  3. a b c d Russell M. Burns, Barbara H. Honkala. Silvics of North America / v.1, Pinus strobus. „Agriculture Handbook”. 654, s. 476-488, 1990. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service (ang.). [dostęp 2009-08-01].
  4. a b Christopher J.Ch.J. Earle Christopher J.Ch.J., Pinus strobus [w:] Gymnosperm Database [online] [dostęp 2015-09-04] (ang.).
  5. a b Christopher J.Ch.J. Earle Christopher J.Ch.J., Pinus [w:] Gymnosperm Database [online] [dostęp 2015-09-04] (ang.).
  6. Sosna wejmutka (pol.). W: Leśnoteka [on-line]. [dostęp 2009-07-29].
  7. Pinus strobus (ang.). W: Flora of North America [on-line]. [dostęp 2009-08-03].
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Sosna wejmutka: Brief Summary ( 波蘭語 )

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Sosna wejmutka zwana też sosną amerykańską (Pinus strobus L.) – gatunek drzewa iglastego z rodziny sosnowatych (Pinaceae). Sosna wejmutka występuje na północnych i wschodnich obszarach Ameryki Północnej (Kanada, USA). W Polsce uprawiana, spotykana w lasach i parkach.

Polska nazwa gatunkowa tej sosny wywodzi się od nazwiska lorda Weymoutha.

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Pinus strobus ( 葡萄牙語 )

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Pinus strobus - MHNT

Pinus strobus é uma espécie de pinheiro originária do Novo Mundo. Faz parte do grupo de espécies de pinheiros com área de distribuição no Canadá e Estados Unidos da América (com excepção das áreas adjacentes à fronteira com o México).

Ver também

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Pinus strobus: Brief Summary ( 葡萄牙語 )

由wikipedia PT提供
 src= Pinus strobus - MHNT

Pinus strobus é uma espécie de pinheiro originária do Novo Mundo. Faz parte do grupo de espécies de pinheiros com área de distribuição no Canadá e Estados Unidos da América (com excepção das áreas adjacentes à fronteira com o México).

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Pinul strob ( 摩爾多瓦語 )

由wikipedia RO提供

Pinul strob (Pinus strobus L.) denumit și pin neted, pin alb sau pin de Weymouth este unul din cele mai înalte conifere din estul Americi de Nord, fiind întâlnit și în Europa.

Descriere

Acest arbore poate atinge 70 m înălțime. Diametrul său poate avea între 150 - 200 cm. Are frunze aciculare, de 15 cm. Culoarea lemnului este gri-închisă, maro.

Răspândire

Pinul strob este adesea întâlnit în nordul SUA și provincia Quebec, Canada.

Wikispecies
Wikispecies conține informații legate de Pinul strob
Commons
Wikimedia Commons conține materiale multimedia legate de Pinul strob
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Pinul strob: Brief Summary ( 摩爾多瓦語 )

由wikipedia RO提供

Pinul strob (Pinus strobus L.) denumit și pin neted, pin alb sau pin de Weymouth este unul din cele mai înalte conifere din estul Americi de Nord, fiind întâlnit și în Europa.

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Weymouthtall ( 瑞典語 )

由wikipedia SV提供

Weymouthtall (Pinus strobus) är ett träd inom tallsläktet och familjen tallväxter.

Arten finns naturligt i östra Nordamerika. I Sverige har den odlats här och där och på sina ställen har den etablerat självständiga bestånd.

Referenser

Webbkällor

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Kotte och barr
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Weymouthtall: Brief Summary ( 瑞典語 )

由wikipedia SV提供

Weymouthtall (Pinus strobus) är ett träd inom tallsläktet och familjen tallväxter.

Arten finns naturligt i östra Nordamerika. I Sverige har den odlats här och där och på sina ställen har den etablerat självständiga bestånd.

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Veymut çamı ( 土耳其語 )

由wikipedia TR提供

Veymut çamı (Pinus strobus), çamgiller (Pinaceae) 25 m'ye kadar boylanabilen, 9 m'ye kadar taç çapı yapabilen, gençlikte sivri, yaşlanınca genişleyen piramidal yapıda Kuzey Amerika'ya özgü çam türü.

Morfolojik özellikleri

Gövde kabuğu düzgün, parlak gri-yeşil, yaşlanınca çatlaklıdır. İğne yapraklar 5–10 cm uzunluğunda, mavi-yeşil renkte, yumuşak ve kenarları ince dişlidir. Erkek çiçekler sarı renktedir. Kozalak terminal durumlu ve uzun saplıdır. Aşağıya doğru sarkar. Teker teker veya birkaçı bir arada bulunur boyu 10–15 cm. kadardır. Tohumlar küçük kanatları çizgilidir.

Ekolojik özellikleri

Gençlikte hızlı büyür, tam güneş alanlarda gerçek formuna ulaşır. Kuraklığa ve donlara dayanıklıdır.

Dış bağlantılar

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Veymut çamı: Brief Summary ( 土耳其語 )

由wikipedia TR提供

Veymut çamı (Pinus strobus), çamgiller (Pinaceae) 25 m'ye kadar boylanabilen, 9 m'ye kadar taç çapı yapabilen, gençlikte sivri, yaşlanınca genişleyen piramidal yapıda Kuzey Amerika'ya özgü çam türü.

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Сосна Веймута ( 烏克蘭語 )

由wikipedia UK提供

Поширення

 src=
Мапа поширення виду

Широко поширена на північному сході США (всі штати на схід від Міннесоти, Айови, Іллінойсу, Кентуккі, Теннессі і Джорджії) і південно-східних провінціях Канади (Ньюфаундленд, Нова Шотландія, Нью-Брансвік, Острів Принца Едварда, Квебек, Онтаріо і Манітоба), а також на французьких островах Сен-П'єр і Мікелон. Відомі варіації у Мексиці і Гватемалі.

Екологічна приуроченість

Дерево швидко росте й невибагливе до ґрунтів.

На півночі ареалу росте на рівні моря, на півдні піднімається на висоту до 1500 м над рівнем моря. Віддає перевагу добре дренованим супіщаним ґрунтам і прохолодному, вологому клімату, хоча трапляється й на верхових болотах та на скелястих узгір'ях.

В Україні є значні насадження сосни Веймута, вона добре акліматизувалась і дає високопродуктивні насадження. Вона швидкоросла, морозостіка, більш тіневитривала, аніж сосна звичайна, не дуже вибаглива до родючості ґрунту (як і сосна звичайна).

Уражується іржастими грибами Peridermium strobi (проміжний хазяїн — чорна смородина)[4].

Використання

З деревини виготовляють олівці, сірники, фанеру. Дерево використовують для озеленення міст.

Примітки

  1. Pinus strobus // Ю. Кобів. Словник українських наукових і народних назв судинних рослин (Серія «Словники України»). — Київ : Наукова думка, 2004. — 800 с. — ISBN 966-00-0355-2.
  2. Определитель высших растений Украины/Доброчаева Д. Н., Котов М. И., Прокудин Ю. Н. и др. — К.: Наук. думка, 1987. — 548 с.
  3. Веймутова или белая сосна // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп. т.). — СПб., 1890—1907. (рос.)
  4. Сосна Веймутова (біла)//Бродович Т., Бродович М. Атлас дерев та кущів заходу України. — Львів: Вища школа, 1973. — С. 12.

Посилання

Соснові Це незавершена стаття про родину Соснові.
Ви можете допомогти проекту, виправивши або дописавши її.
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Сосна Веймута: Brief Summary ( 烏克蘭語 )

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У Вікіпедії є статті про інші значення цього терміна: Сосна Веймутова (значення).
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Pinus strobus ( 越南語 )

由wikipedia VI提供

Pinus strobus là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được L. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1753.[1]

Chú thích

  1. ^ The Plant List (2010). Pinus strobus. Truy cập ngày 9 tháng 8 năm 2013.

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Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết liên quan đến Bộ Thông này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Pinus strobus: Brief Summary ( 越南語 )

由wikipedia VI提供

Pinus strobus là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được L. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1753.

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Сосна веймутова ( 俄語 )

由wikipedia русскую Википедию提供
 src=
Pinus strobus 'Tortuosa'
  • 'Аlba' (syn. Р. strobus nivea, Р. strobus var. аrgentea). Редкий сорт. Единственное отличие от типовой формы - молодые иголки беловато-зелёные, прямые, достаточно короткие. В культуре в ботаническом саду Дортмунда[4].
  • 'Аurea'. Иголки золотисто-жёлтые в основном на молодых побегах; кора на молодых побегах жёлтая[4].
  • 'Blue Shag'. Карликовый сорт. Форма кроны округлая, высота и ширина 1,2—1,8 метра. Прирост 2,5—3 см в год[5]. Хвоя зелёная с голубоватым оттенком[6], согласно другому источнику светло-зелёная[5] с серебристо-серой полоской на нижней стороне, собрана в пучки по 5 штук. Зоны морозостойкости: 3—8. Рекомендуется посадка в местах полностью освещённых солнцем или в полутени[7]. Сорт теневынослив, менее требователен к свету, чем сосна обыкновенная и сосна чёрная, ветроустойчив, хорошо противостоит навалу снега. К почве нетребователен, лучше всего растёт на влажных песчаных глинозёмах. Рекомендуется избегать пересушки и щелочных почв. Устойчивость к пузырчатой ржавчине низкая[8].
  • 'Вrevifolia'. Карликовая форма, кустарниковая с плоской вершиной, высота и ширина 1—2 м (часто ниже). Иголки тонкие 2,5—3,5 см длиной. В культуре с 1955 года[4].
  • 'Сontorta'. Сучья приподнятые и закруглённые, как и молодые побеги, иногда побеги сплетаются. Иголки плотно стоящие, 5—8 см длиной. Шишки короче, чем у вида, 4—8 см длиной. В культуре с 1932 года; найдена в Сенека-парке, Рочестер, Нью-Йорк, США[4].
  • 'Densa'. Американская карликовая форма, неравномерно закругленная, достаточно короткоигольчатая[4].
  • 'Fastigiata' (syn. Р. strobus var. pyramidalis). Форма колонновидная; молодые растения сначала растут в виде кустарника, позже начинают расти строго вверх. В культуре с 1884 года[4].
  • 'Мacopin'. Форма быстрорастущая, очень плотноветвистая, кеглевидная. Из США (Йеддело)[4].
  • 'Мinima'. Карликовая форма, плоскокеглевидная, более широкая, чем высокая; побеги очень тонкие. Иголки очень тонкие, но жесткие, 25 мм длиной, слегка загнуты, тёмно-зелёные. В культуре с 1923 года[4].
  • 'Nana'. Это собирательное название. То, что подразумевают под ним, в ботанических садах и питомниках является сортом 'Radiata'[4].
  • 'Рendula'. Высокий многоствольный или одноствольный кустарник. Ветви отстоящие друг от друга, свисающие, иногда до земли. В культуре с 1866 года[4].
  • 'Рrostrata'. Карликовая стелющаяся форма; сучья поднимаются от земли; ветви сначала горизонтальные или стелются. В культуре появилась до 1899 года. Найдена в Арнольд-арборетуме и Байсснером в его саду Лангензальца, Тюринген[4].
  • 'Рumila'. Карликовая закруглённая форма; годовой прирост около 5 см. Почки 3 мм длиной. Иголки около 10 см длиной, нежные, серебристо-зелёные, закругленные и слегка загнутые. В культуре с 1875 года. Культивируется в Англии; хорошо отличается от 'Radiata'[4].
  • 'Radiata'. Карликовая форма, приземистая, закруглённая. Очень старые растения до 1,5 м высотой и такой же ширины; ветви плотно прижатые, тонкие. Почки 3 мм длиной; чешуи прижатые, тёмно-коричневые. Иголки на концах побегов направлены вверх, неравномерные, 7—9 см длиной, острые, на хребте зелёные, с внутренней стороны отчетливо голубовато-зелёные, никогда не свисают, у основания ветви влагалища игл слегка опушённые. В культуре встречается часто[4].
  • 'Reinshaus'. Карликовая форма, ширококеглевидная, очень медленнорастущая, более широкая, чем высокая, плотная; сучья спускаются до земли; годовой прирост около 5 см. В культуре с 1966 года. Селекционер А. Вейс, Зеехайм, Бергштрассе[4].

Примечания

  1. Pinus strobus L. на сайте The Plant List
  2. Трейвас Л.Ю. Атлас определитель. Болезни и вредители хвойных растений.. — М.: ЗАО «Фитон+», 2010. — 144 с. — ISBN 978—5—93457—0.
  3. Рубцов Л. И. Деревья и кустарники в ландшафтной архитектуре. — Киев: Наукова Думка, 1977.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Гepд Kpюссман. Хвойные породы. — М.: Лесная промышленность, 1986. — С. 201. — ISBN 3—469—60222—6.
  5. 1 2 'Blue Shag' в библиотеке сайта Russell's Nursery
  6. 'Blue Shag' на сайте Missouri Botanical Garden
  7. 'Blue Shag' на сайте Washington State University
  8. 'Blue Shag' на сайте Библиотека хвойных растений
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Сосна веймутова: Brief Summary ( 俄語 )

由wikipedia русскую Википедию提供
 src= Pinus strobus 'Tortuosa' 'Аlba' (syn. Р. strobus nivea, Р. strobus var. аrgentea). Редкий сорт. Единственное отличие от типовой формы - молодые иголки беловато-зелёные, прямые, достаточно короткие. В культуре в ботаническом саду Дортмунда. 'Аurea'. Иголки золотисто-жёлтые в основном на молодых побегах; кора на молодых побегах жёлтая. 'Blue Shag'. Карликовый сорт. Форма кроны округлая, высота и ширина 1,2—1,8 метра. Прирост 2,5—3 см в год. Хвоя зелёная с голубоватым оттенком, согласно другому источнику светло-зелёная с серебристо-серой полоской на нижней стороне, собрана в пучки по 5 штук. Зоны морозостойкости: 3—8. Рекомендуется посадка в местах полностью освещённых солнцем или в полутени. Сорт теневынослив, менее требователен к свету, чем сосна обыкновенная и сосна чёрная, ветроустойчив, хорошо противостоит навалу снега. К почве нетребователен, лучше всего растёт на влажных песчаных глинозёмах. Рекомендуется избегать пересушки и щелочных почв. Устойчивость к пузырчатой ржавчине низкая. 'Вrevifolia'. Карликовая форма, кустарниковая с плоской вершиной, высота и ширина 1—2 м (часто ниже). Иголки тонкие 2,5—3,5 см длиной. В культуре с 1955 года. 'Сontorta'. Сучья приподнятые и закруглённые, как и молодые побеги, иногда побеги сплетаются. Иголки плотно стоящие, 5—8 см длиной. Шишки короче, чем у вида, 4—8 см длиной. В культуре с 1932 года; найдена в Сенека-парке, Рочестер, Нью-Йорк, США. 'Densa'. Американская карликовая форма, неравномерно закругленная, достаточно короткоигольчатая. 'Fastigiata' (syn. Р. strobus var. pyramidalis). Форма колонновидная; молодые растения сначала растут в виде кустарника, позже начинают расти строго вверх. В культуре с 1884 года. 'Мacopin'. Форма быстрорастущая, очень плотноветвистая, кеглевидная. Из США (Йеддело). 'Мinima'. Карликовая форма, плоскокеглевидная, более широкая, чем высокая; побеги очень тонкие. Иголки очень тонкие, но жесткие, 25 мм длиной, слегка загнуты, тёмно-зелёные. В культуре с 1923 года. 'Nana'. Это собирательное название. То, что подразумевают под ним, в ботанических садах и питомниках является сортом 'Radiata'. 'Рendula'. Высокий многоствольный или одноствольный кустарник. Ветви отстоящие друг от друга, свисающие, иногда до земли. В культуре с 1866 года. 'Рrostrata'. Карликовая стелющаяся форма; сучья поднимаются от земли; ветви сначала горизонтальные или стелются. В культуре появилась до 1899 года. Найдена в Арнольд-арборетуме и Байсснером в его саду Лангензальца, Тюринген. 'Рumila'. Карликовая закруглённая форма; годовой прирост около 5 см. Почки 3 мм длиной. Иголки около 10 см длиной, нежные, серебристо-зелёные, закругленные и слегка загнутые. В культуре с 1875 года. Культивируется в Англии; хорошо отличается от 'Radiata'. 'Radiata'. Карликовая форма, приземистая, закруглённая. Очень старые растения до 1,5 м высотой и такой же ширины; ветви плотно прижатые, тонкие. Почки 3 мм длиной; чешуи прижатые, тёмно-коричневые. Иголки на концах побегов направлены вверх, неравномерные, 7—9 см длиной, острые, на хребте зелёные, с внутренней стороны отчетливо голубовато-зелёные, никогда не свисают, у основания ветви влагалища игл слегка опушённые. В культуре встречается часто. 'Reinshaus'. Карликовая форма, ширококеглевидная, очень медленнорастущая, более широкая, чем высокая, плотная; сучья спускаются до земли; годовой прирост около 5 см. В культуре с 1966 года. Селекционер А. Вейс, Зеехайм, Бергштрассе.
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北美乔松 ( 漢語 )

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北美乔松学名Pinus strobus)是松科松属的植物。原生長於北美洲東部。[2]

别名

美国五针松、美国白松(东北木本植物图志)。[2]

参考文献

  1. ^ Farjon, A. 2013. Pinus strobus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T42417A2978687. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42417A2978687.en. Downloaded on 30 November 2018.
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 昆明植物研究所. 北美乔松. 《中国高等植物数据库全库》. 中国科学院微生物研究所. [2009-02-25]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-05).
 src= 维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源:北美乔松 物種識別信息 小作品圖示这是一篇與植物相關的小作品。你可以通过编辑或修订扩充其内容。
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北美乔松: Brief Summary ( 漢語 )

由wikipedia 中文维基百科提供

北美乔松(学名:Pinus strobus)是松科松属的植物。原生長於北美洲東部。

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ストローブマツ ( 日語 )

由wikipedia 日本語提供
ストローブマツ Pinus strobus
Pinus strobus
保全状況評価[1] LEAST CONCERN
(IUCN Red List Ver.3.1 (2001))
Status iucn3.1 LC.svg 分類 : 植物界 Plantae : 裸子植物門 Pinophyta 亜門 : マツ亜門 Pinophytina : マツ綱 Pinopsida 亜綱 : マツ亜綱 Pinidae : マツ目 Pinales : マツ科 Pinaceae : マツ属 Pinus 亜属 : ストローブ亜属 Strobus : ストローブマツ P. strobus 学名 Pinus strobus
L.[2] 英名 Eastern white pine ストローブマツの分布図
ストローブマツの分布図

ストローブマツ学名: Pinus strobus)はマツ科マツ属樹木である。木材利用等で有用な樹種との評価を受けており、丸太や製材品の形での取引も多い。

材が白い(white)マツ(pine)であるから、原産地では「ホワイトパイン(White Pine)」「イースタンホワイトパイン(Eastern White pine)」と呼ばれる。Easternアメリカ合衆国の東部に分布していることを指し、同西部に分布する Pinus monticola と区別するためである。他にも「ノーザンホワイトパイン(Northern White Pine)」、「ソフトパイン(Soft Pine)」などとも呼ばれている。イギリスでは「ウェーマスパイン(Weymouth pine)」の愛称も知られている。アメリカの先住民族インディアンの部族うち、本種の分布地域を拠点とするイロコイ連邦では本種は平和の樹としてあがめられている。

形態[編集]

「ホワイトパイン」の愛称を持つ樹はマツ属の中でもさらにストローブ亜属に分類される。いわゆる五葉松の一つであり、針葉は一般に5枚が束生しており、落葉性の鞘に包まれている。葉は柔らかく、青みがかった緑色をしており、長さは5cmから13cmである。葉の寿命は約18カ月で、寿命が来ると鞘とともに落下する。

松かさは赤茶色で細長く、長さが8〜16cm、幅が4〜5cm程度である。日本の一般的なマツ同様に鱗片を持ち、個々の鱗片は先端が微妙に反る。種は長さ5mm程度、15〜20mmほどの細長いを持っており、風によって散布される。松かさの成熟には3年から5年を要する。

生態[編集]

成木になるには200年から250年かかる。一部の個体では400年以上生きているものも発見されている。ニューヨーク州シラキュースにあった個体は1980年時点で458年生であった。ウィスコンシン州やミシガン州の個体は500年生に達している。

本種は火災に対してはすこし耐性がある。成木が火災で生き残れば、既存の植生が壊滅状態になったところに種子を散らして、効率よく成長・繁殖が出来るためであると考えられている。火災で燃えてしまうために野生状態では幹の下半分には枝が付いていないことが多い。ゾウムシによる食害や菌類による病害は成木にも被害を与える。とくに菌類の感染によって発症する五葉松類発疹さび病は、1900年代からアメリカで大流行し本種を含む五葉松類に壊滅的な被害をもたらした世界三大樹木病の1つである。

五葉マツ類発疹さび病は北アメリカの五葉松(英:white pine)の間で大流行した菌類による樹木の病気である。原因はサビキン(金属の錆のようなので、英語でも"rust"という)。菌の胞子堆が樹皮に出現し発疹(英:blister)のように見えることから、White Pine Blister Rust と呼ばれている。本種においても流行し、多大な被害を出した。発疹さび病による大量死は20世紀の初めには50%~80%に達した。北米で流行したこの病気の菌類はそのライフサイクルの中で2つの宿主を交代で過ごさなくてはならないことが知られている。一つはマツでもう一つはスグリ属Ribes)の植物であり、そのどちらが欠けても駄目である。だから、森林管理者たちは「もし片方の宿主植物を完全に取り除いたら、病気はなくなるかもしれない」と考えた。この考えに基づいて決定した活動が始まった。商業用のマツを育てている土地の所有者たちはスグリ属の植物を見つけたそばから引き抜き、処分した。この目論見は成功し、被害は減少した。抵抗性品種の開発なども相まって、発疹さび病による枯死は3%にまで低下している。今日ではアメリカにおいて野生のスグリ属の植物は以前と比べてかなり少なくなった。いくつかの野生のスグリ属の植物の栽培は厳しく制限されるばかりでなく、違法となることさえもある。一方でスグリ属の中でも商業用の品種(ある種のスグリの実は食用で、ジャムの製造などで有用である)はさび病に対して高い耐性を持つように作り出されている。

  •  src=

    五葉松発疹さび病を発病した個体の樹皮。画像は近縁種のPinus monticolaのもの

  •  src=

    ヨーロッパ原産のクロスグリRibes nigrum)、サビキンへの感受性が強く、野生種とともに大量処分された。

分布・生息域[編集]

原産地は北アメリカ東部、具体的には東はニューファンドランド島から西はアメリカのミネソタ州やカナダのマニトバ州南東部まで、南端はアパラチア山脈でこれに沿ってジョージア州北部までの範囲に分布している。日本では北海道を中心に植林されている。

本種は水はけのよい土と冷涼かつ多湿な環境を好むが、沼地のような水はけの悪いところや逆に岩場のような乾燥したところでも生育する。他の種と混生するような場所では高い樹高を持つ本種は他の種に対して優先種となり、イスカのような森の鳥たちやリスのような哺乳動物に食べ物と隠れ家を提供する。

  •  src=

    水辺に生えるストローブマツ。ミシガン州にて

保全状況評価[編集]

人間との関わり[編集]

帆船が船の主役だった時代には、本種を含めホワイトパインは帆を張るマストに最適であった。アメリカがイギリスの植民地だったころなどには、良い立木はイギリス海軍が予約しており、その木にはイギリス所有の印(いわゆるブロードアロー)が付けられていたほどである。

小さめの個体は生きたクリスマスツリーとして使われる。

本種の葉はレモンと比べて約5倍のビタミンCを含み、また毒性もなく食用にできる。このためにハーブティーなどとして飲まれることがある。ポリフェノールの一種であるレスベラトロールを生成するときの原料にもなる。

脚注[編集]

[ヘルプ]
  1. ^ a b Farjon, A. ("Pinus strobus L.". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 3.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (英語)
  2. ^ 米倉浩司・梶田忠 (2003-). “Pinus strobus L.”. BG Plants 和名−学名インデックス(YList). 参考文献[編集]
    • 平野隆久写真、片桐啓子文 『探して楽しむドングリと松ぼっくり』 山と溪谷社〈森の休日〉、ISBN 4-635-06321-6。

    関連項目[編集]

     src= ウィキスピーシーズにストローブマツに関する情報があります。  src= ウィキメディア・コモンズには、ストローブマツに関連するカテゴリがあります。

    外部リンク[編集]

    執筆の途中です この項目は、植物に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めていますプロジェクト:植物Portal:植物)。
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ストローブマツ: Brief Summary ( 日語 )

由wikipedia 日本語提供

ストローブマツ(学名: Pinus strobus)はマツ科マツ属樹木である。木材利用等で有用な樹種との評価を受けており、丸太や製材品の形での取引も多い。

材が白い(white)マツ(pine)であるから、原産地では「ホワイトパイン(White Pine)」「イースタンホワイトパイン(Eastern White pine)」と呼ばれる。Eastern はアメリカ合衆国の東部に分布していることを指し、同西部に分布する Pinus monticola と区別するためである。他にも「ノーザンホワイトパイン(Northern White Pine)」、「ソフトパイン(Soft Pine)」などとも呼ばれている。イギリスでは「ウェーマスパイン(Weymouth pine)」の愛称も知られている。アメリカの先住民族インディアンの部族うち、本種の分布地域を拠点とするイロコイ連邦では本種は平和の樹としてあがめられている。

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스트로브잣나무 ( 韓語 )

由wikipedia 한국어 위키백과提供

스트로브잣나무(white pine, 문화어: 스트로브스소나무)는 소나무속의 늘푸른 바늘잎나무이다. 학명은 Pinus strobus이며 북아메리카 원산이다.

생태

키는 15~30m 정도이고, 줄기가 곧고 가지가 사방 고르게 나 보기에 좋아 관상수로 많이 심는다. 미국에서는 키가 80m에 줄기 지름이 4m나 될 정도로 크게 자란다. 나무껍질은 어릴 때 녹회색으로 밋밋하지만, 오래 되면 깊이 갈라지기도 한다. 잎은 길이 10~15cm로 잣나무에 비해 가늘고 부드러우며 5개씩 한 묶음으로 난다. 암수한그루로 4월에 꽃이 핀다. 암꽃은 연자주색, 타원 모양으로 어린 가지 끝에 달리고, 수꽃은 연노란색, 달걀 모양으로 어린 가지 밑 부분에 모여 달린다. 열매는 이듬해 9월에 8~10cm 길이의 원통 모양의 솔방울이 달린다. 여물면 벌어져서 씨앗은 떨어지고 빈 열매가 겨울까지 붙어 있다.

품종으로 수형이 둥글고 성장이 느린 P. strobus 'Compacta'와 가지가 밑으로 길게 처지는 P. strobus 'Pendula'가 있다.

쓰임새

목재는 흰빛을 띠는데 재목이 아름답고 재질이 좋아서 건축 자재, 가구, 조각 작품, 종이를 만드는 데 쓴다.

사진

참고자료

외부 링크

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