Comments
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da eFloras
This tree is very fast growing and is highly valued as a source of timber and wood pulp. It is also a promising species for afforestation.
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- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
- drit d'autor
- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Comments
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da eFloras
Although Pinus echinata is highly valued for timber and pulpwood, it is afflicted by root rot. It hybridizes with P . taeda , the pine most commonly associated with it.
- licensa
- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
- drit d'autor
- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Description
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da eFloras
Trees to 40 m tall; trunk to 1.2 m d.b.h. in native range, usually with adventitious sprouts; bark red-brown, plates scaly with evident resin pockets; crown rounded-conical; 2nd-year branchlets greenish brown or red-brown, aging red-brown or gray, slender, to 5 mm in diam., roughened and cracking below leafy portion; winter buds red-brown, ovoid or cylindric, resinous. Needles 2 (or 3) per bundle, gray- or yellow-green, straight, slightly twisted, (5-)7-11(-13) cm × ca. 1 mm, stomatal lines present on all surfaces, base with persistent sheath 0.5-1(-1.5) cm. Seed cones solitary or clustered, subsessile or shortly pedunculate (peduncle to 1 cm), red-brown, aging gray, ovoid-conical when open, 4-7 cm, maturing in 2 years. Seed scales lacking contrasting dark border adaxially distally; umbo with an elongated or stout and short, sharp prickle. Seeds gray or nearly black, ellipsoid, ca. 6 mm; wing 1.2-1.6 cm.
- licensa
- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
- drit d'autor
- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Description
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da eFloras
Trees to 40m; trunk to 1.2m diam., straight; crown rounded to conic. Bark red-brown, scaly-plated, plates with evident resin pockets. Branches spreading-ascending; 2-year-old branchlets slender (ca. 5mm or less), greenish brown to red-brown, often glaucous, aging red-brown to gray, roughened and cracking below leafy portion. Buds ovoid to cylindric, red-brown, 0.5--0.7(--1)cm, resinous. Leaves 2(--3) per fascicle, spreading-ascending, persistent 3--5 years, (5--)7--11(--13)cm ´ ca. 1mm, straight, slightly twisted, gray- to yellow-green, all surfaces with fine stomatal lines, margins finely serrulate, apex abruptly acute; sheath 0.5--1(--1.5)cm, base persistent. Pollen cones cylindric, 15--20mm, yellow- to pale purple-green. Seed cones maturing in 2 years, semipersistent, solitary or clustered, spreading, symmetric, lanceoloid or narrowly ovoid before opening, ovoid-conic when open, 4--6(--7)cm, red-brown, aging gray, nearly sessile or on stalks to 1cm, scales lacking contrasting dark border on adaxial surfaces distally; umbo central, with elongate to short, stout, sharp prickle. Seeds ellipsoid; body ca. 6mm, gray to nearly black; wing 12--16mm. 2 n =24.
- licensa
- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
- drit d'autor
- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Habitat & Distribution
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da eFloras
Cultivated. Fujian (Minhou Xian), Jiangsu (Nanjing Shi), Zhejiang (Fuyang Xian) [native to SE United States]
- licensa
- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
- drit d'autor
- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Habitat & Distribution
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da eFloras
Uplands, dry forests; 200--610m; Ala., Ark., Del., Fla., Ga., Ill., Ky., La., Md., Miss., Mo., N.Y., N.C., Ohio, Okla., Pa., S.C., Tenn., Tex., Va., W.Va.
- licensa
- cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
- drit d'autor
- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Common Names
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
shortleaf pine
shortleaf yellow pine
southern yellow pine
yellow pine
shortstraw pine
Arkansas soft pine
old field pine
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Cover Value
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
The federally endangered red-cockaded woodpecker lives in old-growth
shortleaf pine with decayed heartwood [
10].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Description
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
Shortleaf pine is a medium-sized, native, evergreen conifer with
relatively short needles and thin, flaky, black bark that becomes
reddish brown with age [
43]. Shortleaf pine attains a height of 100
feet (30 m) and a d.b.h. of 24 to 36 inches (61-91 cm). Individuals
generally grow straight and have conical crowns. Shortleaf pine is
capable of growing a deep taproot and is resistant to windthrow [
24].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Distribution
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
Shortleaf pine has the widest geographic range of any pine in the
southeastern United States [
24]. It grows in the Atlantic Coast States
from southeastern New York to northern Florida; throughout the Gulf
States; and inland to western Pennsylvania, southern Ohio, southern
Illinois, southern Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas
[
24,
25]. Arkansas contains more shortleaf pine than any other state
[
37].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Ecology
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
competition,
crown fire,
fire regime,
treeShortleaf pine is classified as fire-resistant [
4]. It is more tolerant
than loblolly pine [
45] and less tolerant than pitch pine [
16]. It has
a low susceptibility to crown fire because of its moderately high and
open crown and moderately open stand structure. It is able to endure
some fire defoliation [
4] but is not able to survive frequent or severe
fires [
28]. Shortleaf pine has medium-thick bark which protects the
tree and the dormant buds within the bole and at the base. Shortleaf
pines up to about 30 years of age will sprout from dormant basal buds if
the crown is top-killed [
28,
31]. Shortleaf pine regenerates well after
fire since exposed mineral soil and lack of competition facilitate
seedling establishment.
FIRE REGIMES : Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the
FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Management Considerations
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
forest,
hardwood,
headfire,
litterFire is important to shortleaf pine management. Fire effectively
prepares the necessary seedbed for shortleaf pine regeneration and can
be used to control competing hardwoods [
42]. Fire may not be
beneficial, however, in areas where competing hardwoods sprout
vigorously after fire. A controlled fire on the Cumberland Plateau in
Kentucky resulted in a greater number of hardwood stems and made
regeneration of shortleaf pine almost impossible [
44]. Ferguson [
13]
concluded that an ideal fire in which hardwoods are killed and pines are
not killed may be unattainable.
In some areas, fire has been effective in controlling hardwoods. In the
Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas, 3 consecutive years of summer fires
reduced the number of 5.5 inch (14 cm) d.b.h. and smaller hardwood stems
[
46]. In upland New Jersey and in the Piedmont, light fires at 5-year
intervals are recommended as soon as the young pines are able to
withstand fire [
9,
27]. In the Piedmont, however, understory vegetation
and litter are often too moist to carry fire [
9]. In eastern Texas, a
headfire during the growing season with a followup fire to control the
hardwood sprouts resulted in at least temporary control of hardwood
stems less than 1.5 inches (4 cm) d.b.h. and negligible mortality of
greater than 4 inch (10 cm) d.b.h. shortleaf pines [
13].
If fire occurs 5 years after establishment, shortleaf pine will have an
edge over loblolly pine because of shortleaf pine's ability to sprout.
Loblolly will overtake shortleaf, however, if fire intervals are 10
years or more [
45]. Shortleaf pine sprouts that start from seedlings or
saplings have good form and can produce commercial timber [
28]. In a
mixed hardwood-pine forest, fire more frequent than every 10 years can
eliminate or decrease shortleaf pine [
14].
Fire-damaged trees are more susceptible to insect infestation [
24].
Southern pine beetle attack on shortleaf pine is aided or induced by
fire [
4]. Fire should not be prescribed in shortleaf pine stands that
are habitat for the federally endangered red-cockaded woodpecker if
southern pine beetles are present. A stand infected with littleleaf
disease should not be burned because fire will destroy the organic
material necessary for soil build-up [
42].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. More info for the term:
phanerophytePhanerophyte (mesophanerophyte)
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat characteristics
(
Anglèis
)
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More info for the terms:
cover,
herbaceous,
shrubs,
vinesShortleaf pine is common in the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains, the
upper and lower Piedmont, and on floodplains. It ranges in elevation
from 10 to 3,000 feet (3-910 m), and usually grows on south- or
west-facing slopes. Shortleaf pine commonly grows on old agricultural
fields [
24,
42].
Shortleaf pine has great adaptability, but grows best on moist,
well-drained, deep, sandy or silty loam. Soils are typically Ultisols.
Shortleaf pine does not grow well in soils with high pH, high calcium
content, excessive internal drainage, or high organic content [
24].
While shortleaf pine generally occurs with loblolly pine, shortleaf pine
prevails on the drier, coarser, less acidic, and infertile sites [
5,
45].
Common overstory associates include scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea),
southern red oak (Q. falcata), water oak (Q. nigra), willow oak (Q.
Phellos), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), sweetgum (Liquidambar
styraciflua), Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens), mockernut and pignut
hickories (Carya tomentosa and C. glabra), winged elm (Ulmus alata),
sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), red maple (Acer rubrum), American beech
(Fagus grandifolia), and Carolina ash (Fraxinus caroliniana) [
24,
40].
(Also see SAF cover types).
Common understory woody species include mountain laurel (Kalmia
latifolia), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), redbud (Cercis
canadensis), and persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). Because of shortleaf
pine's wide distribution, associated understory shrubs, vines, and
herbaceous species are numerous [
24].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Cover Types
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):
More info for the term:
hardwood21 Eastern white pine
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
43 Bear oak
44 Chestnut oak
45 Pitch pine
46 Eastern redcedar
51 White pine - chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
57 Yellow-poplar
70 Longleaf pine
75 Shortleaf pine
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
110 Black oak
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Ecosystem
(
Anglèis
)
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More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Plant Associations
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):
More info for the term:
forestK100 Oak - hickory forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Immediate Effect of Fire
(
Anglèis
)
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More info for the term:
duffMature shortleaf pine is killed by high-severity crown fires, but
withstands low- to moderate-severity surface fires [
9,
23]. Shortleaf
pine is most susceptible to fire in the first 6 to 10 years after
establishment [
1]. Seedlings up to 5 feet (1.5 m) tall are usually
top-killed, and saplings often suffer bark char, needle scorch, or
needle consumption [
23]. Seeds in the duff will be killed by fire [
42].
Shortleaf pine mortality from fire is dependent on the degree of crown
scorch, basal damage, and season of fire. After a summer fire, there
was 60 percent mortality of shortleaf pines of any size that had
complete crown scorch combined with extensive basal damage. After a
winter fire, less than 50 percent died from similar injuries. If basal
damage was not extensive but crown scorch complete, there was 30 percent
mortality from the summer fire [
12]. Trees greater than 5 feet (1.5 m)
tall seldom die if less than 70 percent of the crown is scorched [
42].
Because of thick bark, basal injury is not common. In areas with
frequent fire, only 11 percent of shortleaf pine showed basal injury
[
14].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Importance to Livestock and Wildlife
(
Anglèis
)
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More info for the term:
coverShortleaf pine seeds are an important food source for birds and small
mammals [
24]. Deer browse on seedlings. Stands of seedlings and
saplings provide cover for bobwhite quail and wild turkey [
24,
42].
Old-growth shortleaf pine provides habitat for cavity dwellers [
10].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Key Plant Community Associations
(
Anglèis
)
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More info for the term:
forestShortleaf pine is dominant in several seral communities. The
published classifications listing shortleaf pine as a dominant species
in community types (cts) are presented below:
Area Classification Authority
se US gen. forest cts Waggoner 1975
se US gen. forest cts Sheffield and
others 1989
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Life Form
(
Anglèis
)
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More info for the term:
treeTree
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Management considerations
(
Anglèis
)
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More info for the terms:
basal area,
codominant,
competition,
hardwood,
herbaceous,
litter,
natural,
presence,
seed,
seed tree,
treeShortleaf pine is usually managed in even-aged stands with clearcutting
followed by artificial regeneration. Natural regeneration can be used,
but seedbed preparation is recommended. Seed tree silviculture requires
11 square feet basal area per acre (2.5 m sq/ha) of shortleaf pine seed
trees. A shelterwood system requires 20 to 30 square feet of basal area
per acre (4.6-6.9 m sq/ha) of shortleaf pine [
1]. Seedbed preparation
should be done early to benefit from the high viability of early
released seeds [
42].
Uneven-aged management requires frequent harvest of single trees and
seedling establishment once every 10 years [
1,
24]. Shortleaf pine
seedlings will establish if overstory is reduced to 45 to 60 square feet
basal area per acre (10.3-13.8 m sq/ha) [
1].
Control of competing understory is generally considered necessary for
maintenance of shortleaf pine stands [
17,
37]. Hardwoods suppress
shade-intolerant seedlings and saplings, and a thick litter discourages
seedling establishment. However, hardwoods also prevent soil moisture
loss and discourage competing herbaceous vegetation. Cain [
8] suggests
that the coexistence of hardwoods with shortleaf pine may be an
antagonistic symbiosis. Yocum and Lawson [
47] found that intensive
hardwood control on southern exposures actually decreased the rate of
establishment of shortleaf pine seedlings.
Control of dense understory can increase the growth rate of shortleaf
pine [
17,
29]. Lloyd and others [
29] reported a 17 percent increase in
2-year shortleaf pine diameter growth after a spring felling of
competing hardwoods and a 22 percent increase in diameter growth after a
winter felling followed by an herbicide treatment. Cain [
7] reported
that control of herbaceous vegetation resulted in increases in pine
growth, while control of hardwoods had little effect. After 5 years,
pines on herbaceous control plots averaged more than 4 feet taller than
pines on untreated plots or woody control plots. However, even on the
untreated plots, pines exceeded the herbaceous and woody competitors by
6 feet. Cain [
7] concluded that control of hardwood competition is not
necessary if pines, hardwoods, and herbaceous species establish on a
site at the same time. The relatively fast-growing shortleaf pine
seedlings dominate over hardwoods in 5 to 7 years [
8].
Loblolly pine outperforms shortleaf pine in loblolly's natural range
because it grows faster as a juvenile. If planted together, however,
shortleaf pine can survive and attain a codominant crown position in
mature even-aged stands [
6].
Littleleaf disease, the most serious disease afflicting shortleaf pine,
affects 30 to 50 year-old trees and causes needles to turn yellow and
fall off. Littleleaf disease is a recent phenomenon and occurs only
where shortleaf pine has colonized severely eroded agricultural land.
The disease is caused by a combination of factors: low soil nutrients,
poor internal drainage, and the presence of Phytophthora cinnamomi, a
soil fungus. The poor drainage allows the fungus, which attacks the
feeder roots, to sporulate abundantly. Hardwoods should not be
controlled where littleleaf disease is present because the soil needs to
build up. Afflicted trees respond positively to large doses of nitrogen
[
33,
42]. Mueller-Dombois and others [
33] claim it is not a disease, but
a dieback or decline phenomenon.
Other common diseases are root rot and red heart rot. Seedlings are
subject to damping off [
24].
Nantucket pine tip moth (Rhyacionia frustrana) larvae bore into the
shortleaf pine buds of young trees and kill the tips. Southern pine
beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) attacks the bark of shortleaf pine and
individuals usually die in less than 1 year [
24,
42]. Redheaded pine
sawfly (Neodiprion lecontei), loblolly pine sawfly (N. taedae linearis),
pine engraver beetle (Ips spp.), and black turpentine beetle
(Dendroctonus terebrans) attack and damage shortleaf pine.
The decline of old growth shortleaf pines has resulted in a decline in
population of the federally endangered red-cockaded woodpecker. Death
of old growth shortleaf pine is primarily from southern pine beetle. In
order to minimize cavity tree mortality, site disturbances should be
limited when southern pine beetle populations are elevated [
10].
Acid rain is suspected of causing an abnormal decrease in growth of
shortleaf pine in the past 25 years [
19]. Ozone concentrations two and
a half times the ambient ozone concentration cause decreased growth in
shortleaf pine [
36].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Occurrence in North America
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
AL AR DE FL GA HI IL KY LA MD
MS MO NJ NY NC OH OK PA SC TN
TX VA WV
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Other uses and values
(
Anglèis
)
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Shortleaf pine is used as an ornamental [
24].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Phenology
(
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)
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More info on this topic. More info for the term:
seedShortleaf pine flowers in late March in the South and in late April in
the North. Cones mature in the late summer or early fall of the second
growing season [
21,
24]. Seed dispersal begins in late October or early
November, and generally coincides with a cold front bringing low
temperatures, low humidity, and high winds [
42]. Seventy percent of the
seeds fall in 1 month and 90 percent within 2 months [
24].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Plant Response to Fire
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
competition,
hardwood,
herbaceous,
prescribed fire,
root collar,
treeSprouting: Seedlings and saplings top-killed by fire will sprout from
dormant buds at the root collar. Sprouting is not as consistent in
trees larger than 8 feet (2.4 m) tall [
14]. There are usually 4 to 8
new sprouts per tree, but as many as 70 sprouts where fires are frequent
[
42]. The sprouts grow 1 to 2 feet (30-61 cm) in the first year.
Multiple sprouts act as a firebreak for the central leader. When the
leaders are 3 to 4 feet (1-1.2 m) tall they can survive defoliation by
fire as long as the terminal leaders are not charred. Many of the
sprouts die back when the leader is no longer affected by fire [
20].
A well-developed basal stem crook protects dormant buds in seedlings.
In a study in which 100 shade-grown 1-year-old shortleaf pine seedlings
were subject to a prescribed fire, 33 percent with no basal crook
sprouted, 39 percent with a slight basal crook sprouted, 81 percent with
a well-developed basal crook sprouted, and 93 percent with a very
well-developed basal crook sprouted [
28]. Garren [
14] found 56 percent
of shortleaf seedlings survive by sprouting.
Growth: Crown scorch usually results in growth losses in young trees.
Diameter growth rate of shortleaf pine decreased as much as 75 percent
after one fire [
14]. In older trees, there is no growth loss if there
is little or no needle scorch [
23]. Trees 4 to 10 inches (10-25 cm)
d.b.h. continue to grow at normal rates after severe groundfire, even
if the crowns are scorched [
20]. Yocum [
46] found light to moderate
summer fires had no effect on the growth of 60-year-old shortleaf pines
in Arkansas. If trees are not damaged and hardwood and herbaceous
competition is eliminated, pine growth will inrcease.
Reproduction: Seeds released from on- and off-site sources will
germinate in the soil exposed by fire.
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Post-fire Regeneration
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
root crown,
seedcrown-stored residual colonizer; short-viability seed in on-site cones
off-site colonizer; seed carried by wind; postfire years one and two
survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Regeneration Processes
(
Anglèis
)
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More info for the terms:
competition,
cone,
cotyledon,
epigeal,
monoecious,
root crown,
seed,
treeSeed production and dissemination: Shortleaf pine is monoecious. It
begins producing seeds at 20 years of age. The cone yields 25 to 38
seeds. A good cone crop, 80,000 seeds per acre (200,000/ha), occurs
every 3 to 10 years in the North and every 3 to 6 years in the South.
Seeds are equipped with wings and are dispersed as far as 200 to 300
feet (61-91 m), although most fall close to the source tree [
1,
24].
Seedling development: Seeds on the ground are naturally stratified
during the winter and epigeal germination takes place in the early
spring [
24]. The viability of seeds decreases as the period of seed
fall progresses [
42]. Exposed mineral soil aids seedling establishment
[
20,
24]. The seedling stem grows slowly the first 2 years while the
root system develops. One to three-year-old open-grown seedlings and 3
to 9-year-old shade-grown seedlings fall over and remain semiprostrate
for 1 to 2 years before resuming erect positions. A permanent crook
develops at the cotyledon. The crook, at ground level, is later
obscured by the thickening stem after a tree reaches 8 to 10 feet
(2.4-3.0 m) in height [
28,
32,
42]. If suppressed by competition,
seedlings will have poorly developed crooks [
28].
Vegetative reproduction: If the crown is damaged or killed, shortleaf
pine up to 6-8 inches (15-20 cm) in d.b.h. sprouts vigorously from
dormant axillary buds at the root crown and dormant buds at nodes in the
bole [
24,
28,
32,
42].
Rooting habits: Shortleaf pine grows a large, massive taproot in deep
soil with adequate drainage, but often does not in shallow soil where
the subsoil is hard or clayey [
18,
24,
42]. Roots have a low tolerance
for poor soil aeration and high water table conditions [
24,
32]. Lateral
roots grow near the surface with 56 to 64 percent of the roots in the
top 6 inches (15 cm) of soil and 17 to 25 percent from 6 to 12 inches
(15-30 cm) [
2]. Seedlings grown in place are more likely to have a
downward-oriented root system than planted seedlings [
18].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Successional Status
(
Anglèis
)
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More info on this topic. More info for the terms:
competition,
fire frequency,
frequency,
hardwood,
relictShortleaf pine is shade intolerant and is suppressed by hardwood
competition. It commonly grows in even-aged stands [
24]. Shortleaf
pine, a pioneer species, invades old agricultural fields. Many
shortleaf pine stands became established after the Civil War when fields
were abandoned [
40]. Shortleaf pine invasion of oldfields begins within
5 years of abandonment, and a closed-canopy stand is formed after 10 to
15 years. A 40-year-old shortleaf pine stand may have a considerable
hardwood understory. In the absence of fire, hardwoods attain dominance
[
2,
3,
5,
14,
42]. After 150 to 200 years, only a few relict pines may
remain [
3].
In the New Jersey Pine Barrens, where fire frequency is less than 10
years, pitch pine and scrub oaks (Quercus spp.) supplant shortleaf pine
[
26]. In Alabama, shortleaf pine will succeed longleaf pine (Pinus
palustris) in the absence of fire [
41].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Taxonomy
(
Anglèis
)
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The currently accepted scientific name of shortleaf pine is Pinus
echinata Mill. [
24]. There are no recognized varieties or subspecies.
Shortleaf pine hybridizes with loblolly pine (P. taeda), pitch pine (P.
rigida), pond pine (P. serotina), and spruce pine (P. glabra) [
24,
25].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
Because of its adaptability, shortleaf pine has potential for
rehabilitating eroded areas and mine sites [
24]. For best success, mine
sites should have a pH between 4.5 and 6.5 and be below 2,500 feet (762
m). Shortleaf pine does best on mine sites when planted as a pure stand
or mixed with other pines. It also grows well with European alder
(Alnus glutinosa) [
39].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Wood Products Value
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
softwoodShortleaf pine, an important commercial species, ranks second to
loblolly pine in total softwood volume harvested in the southeastern
United States [
6,
37]. After 36 years, an even-aged stand yields 5,000
to 6,000 total merchantable cubic feet per acre (350-415 cubic m/ha)
[
1]. The strong wood is used for lumber, plywood, structural material,
and pulpwood [
24].
- sitassion bibliogràfica
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus echinata. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Distribution
(
Spagneul; Castilian
)
fornì da IABIN
Chile Central
Associated Forest Cover
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pine is now considered a major component of three forest cover
types (Society of American Foresters, 16), Shortleaf Pine (Type 75),
Shortleaf Pine-Oak (Type 76), and Loblolly Pine-Shortleaf Pine (Type 80).
Although shortleaf pine grows very well on good sites, it is generally
only temporary and gives way to more competitive species, particularly
hardwoods. It is more competitive on drier sites with thin, rocky, and
nutrient deficient soils. With the species' ability to grow on the medium
and poor sites, it is not surprising that shortleaf pine is a minor
component of at least 15 other forest cover types.
21 Eastern White Pine
40 Post Oak-Blackjack Oak
43 Bear Oak
44 Chestnut Oak
45 Pitch Pine
46 Eastern Redcedar
51 White Pine-Chestnut Oak
52 White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak
57 Yellow-Popular
70 Longleaf Pine
78 Virginia Pine-Oak
79 Virginia Pine
81 Loblolly Pine
82 Loblolly Pine--Hardwood
110 Black Oak
In addition to species in the cover types, other common associates
include scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), southern red oak (Q.
falcata), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), sweetgum (Liquidambar
styraciflua), Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens), mockernut
and pignut hickories (Carya tomentosa and C. glabra), winged
elm (Ulmus alata), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), red
maple (Acer rubrum), water oak (Quercus nigra), willow oak
(Q. phellos), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and
Carolina ash (Fraxinus caroliniana). Common understory woody
plants include mountainlaurel (Kalmia latifolia), flowering
dogwood (Cornus florida), redbud (Cercis canadensis), persimmon
(Diospyros virginiana), and eastern redcedar (Juniperus
virginiana).
Among the more common understory shrubs vines, and herbaceous vegetation
are blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), huckleberries (Gaylussacia
spp.), deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum), Japanese
honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), greenbriers (Smilax spp.),
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), poison ivy (Toxicodendron
radicans), grape (Vitis spp.), asters (Aster spp.,
tick-trefoil (Desmodium spp.), tickseed (Coreopsis spp.),
bushclover (Lespedeza spp.), St. Andrews cross (Ascyrum
hypericoides var. multicaule), birdfoot violet (Viola
pedata), sensitive brier (Schrankia spp.), early
azalea (Rhododendron roseum), pussytoes (Antennaria spp.),
butterfly-pea (Clitoria mariana), senna (Cassia spp.),
bugbanes (Cimicifuga spp.), longleaf uniola (Uniola
longifolia), panicums (Panicum spp.), sedges (Carex
spp.), and bluestems (Andropogon spp.).
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Climate
(
Anglèis
)
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Shortleaf pine grows in a fairly humid region but is the least exacting
of the southern pines as to temperature and moisture (18). Annual
precipitation averages between 1020 mm (40 in) on the western edge of its
range and 1520 mm (60 in) at the southern tip of its range (59). Snowfall
averages less than 41 cm (16 in) over most of the shortleaf pine range but
may be twice that amount in some of the higher elevations of the
Appalachians northward into Pennsylvania. The region of best development
for the species is in Arkansas, northern Louisiana, and the southern
Piedmont, where precipitation ranges from 1140 to 1400 mm (45 to 55 in)
and averages 1270 mm (50 in). The 10° C (50° F) average annual
temperature isoline closely parallels the northern limit of shortleaf
pine. Over its range, average annual temperatures vary from 9° C (48°
F) in New Jersey to 21° C (70° F) in southeast Texas.
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Damaging Agents
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Littleleaf disease is the most serious
pathological threat to shortleaf pine, occurring on poorly drained soils
from Virginia to Mississippi and south to the Gulf Coast (61). The disease
results from combination of certain factors, including root destruction by
Phytophthora cinnamomi, periodic excessive soil moisture deficits,
poor aeration, low fertility, damage from nematodes, and perhaps toxic
levels of manganese. These forces combine to impede mineral absorption,
particularly nitrogen (18,27). Symptoms of the disease usually appear when
the stands are 30 to 50 years old, but seldom in stands less than 20 years
old. Growth rates of infected trees may be greatly reduced, and mortality
may be very high. Fertilization with nitrogen at 224 kg(ha (200 lb/acre)
can relieve some of the symptoms in its early stages. No practical control
measures for littleleaf disease in forest stands have been developed. It
is suggested that proper site selection, species selection, and
maintenance of stand vigor are the best defenses against this disease
(18,52).
Shortleaf saplings and older trees are moderately susceptible to attack
by Heterobasidion annosum, a root rot. Losses in thinned
plantations and occasionally in natural stands have occurred, but they
have not been in general. Red heart, caused by Phellinus pini, may
occur in older trees but is rare in stands under 80 years old. Several
other relatively unimportant diseases occur in shortleaf pine (27).
Shortleaf pine seedlings are subject to damping off and root rot caused
by several fungi, usually when soils have a pH above 6 and weather
conditions are wet. Foliage of shortleaf pine normally does not develop
serious diseases, but at least eight needle rusts are known to attack the
species (27). Brown spot from Scirrhia acicola may be aggressive.
The rust, Cronartium comandrae, has occasionally damaged shortleaf
seedlings.
Young shortleaf pines are attacked by Nantucket pine tip moth (Rhyacionia
frustrana). This insect has become a major pest in the eastern United
States and may have greater impacts on growth than previously believed.
Chemical control of this pest is difficult in forest situations, although
early results of spray applications have shown promise. The redheaded pine
sawfly (Neodiprion lecontei) is our most destructive sawfly, and
shortleaf is one of its preferred species. Loblolly pine sawfly (N.
taedae linearis), attacks shortleaf pine in at least eight States.
Reproduction weevils are the most serious insect pests of pine seedlings,
reportedly killing 20 to 30 percent of seedlings planted in cutover pine
lands. Pales weevil (Hylobius pales), and pitch-eating weevil,
(Pachylobius picivorus), are most destructive species over the
eastern and southern United States (1,17).
The southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis), occasionally
causes great losses. Other important insects are the pine engraver beetles
(Ips spp.), especially during severe droughts, and the black
turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus terebrans).
Shortleaf pine is generally fire resistant, but wildfires in young
plantations are very damaging. The crowns are usually killed, but
shortleaf pine will sprout from the base and form new stems. Larger trees
may be killed by very hot fires, particularly if fuels near the tree bases
are heavy. Fire damaged trees are also more susceptible to insect damage
(1).
Shortleaf pine is generally considered to be windfirm over most of its
range, although trees may be uprooted by wind where root systems are
shallow (18). Shortleaf pines may also be damaged by severe ice storms. A
single ice storm resulted in loss of almost one-third of the volume in a
very heavily stocked shortleaf pine stand in north Arkansas (37). Thinned,
pole-size stands are especially susceptible to damage, which often
includes main stem breakage.
Acid rain may reduce growth of shortleaf pine (28). It may also result
in aluminum toxicity to the roots of young trees, but could improve growth
through increased availability of mineral nutrients (49). Extreme drought
can result in or contribute to mortality of shortleaf pine (70).
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Flowering and Fruiting
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pine is monoecious (29). Male
and female strobili emerge from late March in the southwestern part of its
range to late April in the northeastern sections. Open-grown trees may
produce strobili 2 weeks earlier (18). Male strobili are more common on
the basal part of new shoots, mostly on older lateral branches in the
lower crown. The male strobili are arranged in indistinct spirals in
clusters 1.3 to 5.1 cm (0.5 to 2.0 in) long. They may be green or yellow
to reddish purple before ripening but become brown to light brown at the
time of pollen shed. Female strobili
emerge from the winter bud soon after the male strobili and are green or
red to purple. They are nearly erect at the time of pollination, and 1.0
to 3.8 cm (0.4 to 1.5 in) long. After pollination, scales of the female
strobili close and slow development begins. By the end of the first
growing season they are about one-eighth to one-fifth the length of mature
cones. Cones develop rapidly after fertilization takes place in early
spring or summer of the second growing season. They mature by late summer
or early fall and are green to light or dull brown when ripe (29).
Shortleaf pine generally does not bear seeds until about 20 years of
age, but both male and female flowers have been reported on 5-year-old
trees. Viable seeds have been produced on 9-year-old trees, although this
is exceptional. Trees usually produce seeds abundantly when they reach a
diameter of about 30 cm (12 in) (18).
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Genetics
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Because of shortleaf pine's wide distribution and the range in elevation
at which it grows, considerable racial variation has developed. The
Southwide Pine Seed Source Study indicated important racial differences in
height, volume growth, survival, and degree of early cone production
(63,65). Seed collection and planting zones have been drawn for shortleaf
pine on the basis of these results (62,64). The zones are primarily a
function of latitude, with much wider movement of seed being acceptable in
an east-west direction than north-south. There is some indication that the
shortleaf pine population west of the Mississippi River has an inherently
faster growth rate than the eastern population (64).
Other studies have revealed differences in height growth, volume growth,
wood specific gravity, chemical content, and foliage color (14). Shortleaf
pine from some locations grew faster than loblolly pine, but loblolly was
generally the faster growing species. In Georgia, South Carolina, and
Virginia, shortleaf pine planted on sites where littleleaf disease was
likely to occur revealed that trees were healthier from locations west to
east, and those from upland locations were healthier than those from
coastal plain areas. Specific gravity of shortleaf pine has been shown to
increase slightly from the north to the south (19), and monoterpene
chemical composition of wood oleoresin as found to vary in a clinal
pattern, with a-pinene increasing from east to
west while b-pinene decreased (12).
Natural hybridization of shortleaf pine and loblolly pine west of the
Mississippi River is considered to be extensive and is probably a cause of
many inherent variations in the species (24). Such hybridization would
contribute to variation among trees through creation of intermediate types
and introgression towards one or both parent species. The natural
variations of shortleaf pine have been the basis for selecting trees
having superior qualities. These qualities include growth rate, stem and
crown form, resistance to littleleaf and other diseases, wood specific
gravity, tracheid length, extractives, oleoresin content, and seed
production (14). Many of these traits have been the basis for selecting
individual trees for seed orchards, which are rapidly becoming the primary
source of seeds for planting programs. In 1974, there were 190.6 ha (471
acres) of shortleaf seed orchards in the United States, with 158.2 ha (391
acres) in Federal management (56); more than half of the total acreage is
in Arkansas.
Several artificial hybrids have been produced with shortleaf pine. They
are of special interest because they offer the opportunity to combine
specific qualities of individual species. For example, shortleaf pine can
be crossed with slash pine (Pinus elliottii) to yield progeny that
are resistant to fusiform rust, a disease to which slash pine is highly
susceptible. Shortleaf pine has been successfully crossed with slash,
loblolly, longleaf, and Sonderegger pines (P. elliottii, P. taeda, P.
palustris, and P. x sondereggeri) (50,55). Some of the
hybrids have also been backcrossed. Shortleaf pine x loblolly pine hybrids
have also shown resistance to fusiform rust, have grown as well as or
better than one or both parents, and have shown increased resistance to
cold and ice damage (30). Characteristics of most shortleaf hybrids, as
well as other pine hybrids, are intermediate between the parent species.
Fusiform rust resistance of shortleaf x slash hybrids, however, is closer
to shortleaf pine than slash pine (66). The longleaf x shortleaf pine
hybrid is difficult to produce and crosses have yielded only a few
seedlings. These have shown intermediate characteristics, but seedling
height growth was not delayed as it is characteristically for longleaf
pine. Shortleaf x pitch pine (P. echinata x P. rigida) and
Table Mountain x shortleaf pine (P. pungens x P. echinata)
hybrids have also been produced and generally have intermediate
characteristics (14).
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Growth and Yield
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pines on good sites attain a height
of 30 m (100 ft) or more and diameters (d.b.h.) of 61 to 91 cm (24 to 36
in). Heights of nearly 40 m (130 ft) and d.b.h. of 122 cm (48 in) have
been recorded (18), but the practice of growing trees to over 70 years of
age is not commonly followed in managed stands because net growth rates
decline rapidly. One of the biggest shortleaf pines grows in Mississippi.
It measures 105 cm (41.5 in) in d.b.h. and 42 m (138 ft) tall and attests
to the large size these trees may attain.
Considering the importance of shortleaf pine, the information available
on growth and yield is limited (40). The first variable-density yield
information for a variety of sites and ages in natural stands was
developed from forest survey data (39,41). The model provides volume and
basal area predictions for natural, even-aged, shortleaf pine stands in
the West Gulf region. For example, a 60-year-old stand with a basal area
of 16.1 m²/ha (70 ft²/acre) and a site index of 21.3 m (70 ft)
would have a sawtimber volume of 119.8 m³/ha (1,712 ft³/acre)
for trees 23 cm (9 in) d.b.h. and larger (39). For trees 13 cm (5 in)
d.b.h. and larger, the volume would be 129.6 m³/ha (1,851 ft³/acre)(41).
These yields are for a broad range of stand conditions, including
unmanaged stands and those with a significant hardwood component. Managed
stands should provide greater yields. Data from uneven-aged shortleaf pine
stands in the Interior Highlands of Arkansas were used to construct a
similar model (42). After the cyclic harvest levels have stabilized, the
periodic annual growth (based on International 1/4-inch rule) for these
stands is 5.3 m³/ha (381 fbm/acre), with a residual after cut volume
of 89.3 m³/ha (6,378 fbm/acre).
Stand structure and yield data for shortleaf pine plantations in the
Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia Highlands show that with a site index of
18.3 m (60 ft) at base age 25 years, mean annual increment of total volume
culminates near age 20 (54), at about 15.8 m³/ha (225 ft³/acre).
Total volume yield (outside bark) of all trees at age 40, where the site
index is 9.1 m (30 ft) and density is 3,090 stems per hectare
(1,250/acre), is about 180 m³/ha (2,570 ft³/acre). For the same
age and planting density, the volume where site index is 18.3 m (60 ft) is
about 451 m³/ha (6,446 ft³/acre). Basal areas for these two
stand conditions are 31 and 39 m²/ha (135 and 171 ft²/acre),
respectively. The actual numbers of trees are 1,870 and 875/ha (757 and
354/acre). Thinnings in such stands will likely provide greater volume
production through capture of mortality and will increase average diameter
(68).
Natural shortleaf pine stands in Missouri showed significantly higher
net volume yields when thinned to about 21 m²/ha (90 ft²/acre)
or above, at age 51. The presence of hardwoods reduced growth and yield of
the stands by 8 to 12 percent (48). In south Arkansas, annual growth of
uneven-aged shortleaf-loblolly pine stands averaged 5.9 m³/ha (84 ft³/acre)
during a 24-year measurement period (44). Annual sawtimber growth of these
stands averaged 6.0 m³/ha (432 fbm/acre).
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Reaction to Competition
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pine is a shade-intolerant
species and does not survive or grow well when suppressed (16). Young
shortleaf pines are generally slower growing and slower to dominate a site
than loblolly pine or many hardwood competitors, but they usually will
endure competition longer than its common associate, loblolly pine.
Shortleaf pine can maintain dominance on most sites after it overtops
competing vegetation, but in general hardwoods cannot be eliminated from
pine sites (7,9,10). On very good sites, however, it may not outgrow
competing species such as sweetgum and red maple. Control of both woody
and non-woody competition usually results in economic gains (15,35).
In young, well-stocked shortleaf pine stands, trees begin to compete
with each other within a few years after establishment, and diameter
growth rates decline (69). Even though growth rates decline, shortleaf
pine persists in very dense stands. Natural pruning occurs as the canopies
close, but it is slower than on loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) or
longleaf pine (P. palustris). Shortleaf pine usually responds well
to release, even when the trees are mature (18,72). Removal of understory
competition may also increase growth rates (5).
Because of its intolerance to shade and other environmental factors,
shortleaf pine commonly grows in even-aged stands (22,32). Natural and
artificial regeneration methods are used to establish such stands (4).
Uneven-aged management is feasible, however, and may be an attractive
alternative for small tracts of land (44,45,67).
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Rooting Habit
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pine seedlings can develop a taproot at
an early age, which may become quite massive if allowed to grow
uninhibited (38). If the taproot is damaged, the seedling can grow a new
one (34). In much of the region where shortleaf pine grows, however,
taproots do not develop because of shallow, rocky soils and in some cases
hardpans. Lateral roots tend to grow near the soil surface; they are
generally concentrated in the upper 46 cm (18 in) of the soil and rarely
occur below a depth of 102 cm (40 in).
Tree growth response tends to be related to root development. The
cross-sectional area of roots at groundline and the composite root area or
sum of the areas of the first-order lateral roots plus the area of the
taproot of 3- to 9-year-old shortleaf pines from Arkansas, Oklahoma, and
Texas were found to be highly correlated. This suggests that basal stem
diameter growth is directly related to root development (11). Root systems
of trees originating from natural or artificial seeding are more likely to
have a single taproot than planted trees. Trees with root systems oriented
downward have better height growth than trees with surface-oriented root
systems (26).
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Seed Production and Dissemination
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Seedfall usually begins in
late October or early November when cones reach a specific gravity of
about 0.88 or when they will float in SAE 20 motor oil (60). As the cones
dry, the bracts open, allowing the winged seeds to fall out. Most seeds
fall fairly close to the tree from which they originate, but in varying
patterns. In an Arkansas study, half of the shortleaf pine seeds fell into
a forest clearing within 20 m (66 ft) of forest walls 21 m (70 ft) high,
and 85 percent fell within 50 m (165 ft) of the forest walls (71). Wall
height and orientation and prevailing wind direction had little effect on
the dispersal pattern, probably because of topographic features and
frontal winds. In other observations, however, where prevailing winds were
from one direction during seedfall, seeds were dispersed in a v-shaped
pattern with the apex at the base of the tree. Under such conditions,
several times as many seeds were caught in traps at a distance of 40 m
(132 ft) from the tree on the leeward side as were caught at a distance of
20 m (66 ft) on the windward side (18).
About 70 percent of the seeds fall within a month after maturity and 90
percent within 2 months. Some seeds continue to fall into April, and cones
persist on the tree long after they are empty (18,71).
Shortleaf pine cones yield about 25 to 38 full seeds each (18,72) or
about 0.9 to 1.4 kg (2 to 3 lb) of seeds per 45 kg (100 lb) of cones. The
number of cleaned seeds per kilogram ranges from 70,800 to 160,700 (32,100
to 72,900 per pound) and averages 102,100 (46,300) (29). The number of
seeds produced per tree and number of seeds per cone can be significantly
increased by releasing seed trees from competition (71), although the
number of seeds per cone may not always increase (43). The average number
of cones per tree for unreleased trees was 498 compared with 1,069 for
those released from competition (72). Releasing seed trees by removing
hardwoods and thinning from below to densities at least as low as 11.5 m²/ha
(50 ft²/acre) greatly increases seed production in shortleaf pine
stands (43).
Good to excellent cone crops occur every 3 to 10 years in the Northeast
and 3 to 6 years in the South (18). In the Georgia Piedmont, seed crops
were most frequent in the northern portions (6). Shortleaf pine seed
production was studied in natural stands in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and
Missouri during a 10-year period from 1965 through 1974 (57). The lowest
production was 4,900 sound seeds per hectare (2,000/acre) and the highest
was 1,845,800/ha (747,000/acre). Seed yields of at least 66,700/ha
(27,000/acre) occurred in 7 of the 10 years, and no consecutive 2-year
periods had less than 79,100/ha (32,000/acre). In another study (72), the
lowest seed production from 25 trees per hectare (10/acre) for three
consecutive 3-year periods was 761,100/ha (308,000/acre).
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Seedling Development
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
#NAME?
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Soils and Topography
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pine's adaptability to a great variety of site and soil
conditions partly accounts for its wide distribution. The best growth rate
is on South Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain soils. However, most of the
soils that shortleaf pine occupies are classed in the order Ultisols and
suborder Udults. Soils in this suborder are usually moist and relatively
low in organic matter in subsurface horizons. They are formed in humid
climates that have short or few dry periods during the year. Two great
soil groups, Paleudults and Hapludults, include the primary soils occupied
by shortleaf pine. Paleudults have a thick horizon of clay accumulation
without appreciable weatherable materials. Hapludults may have either
relatively thin clay subsurface horizons or a subsurface horizon with
appreciable weatherable materials, or both. Shortleaf pine may occupy
soils in other orders, but they do not constitute a significant part of
its range (58).
Shortleaf pine grows best on deep, well-drained soils having fine sandy
loam or silty loam textures. These soils are found primarily on flood
plains. Site indices for shortleaf pine on these sites may exceed 30 m
(100 ft). Very shallow, rocky soils on upland sites in the lower rainfall
sections of the species' range have very low site indices, sometimes as
low as 10 m (33 ft) (21). In the upland areas of its range, site indices
at base age 50 years for natural stands average between 15 m (50 ft) and
23 m (75 ft) (20,25). In north Mississippi, site indices of sample plots
ranged from 6 m (20 ft) to 30 m (97 ft) for shortleaf pine plantations
varying in age from 17 to 29 years (69).
Shortleaf pine does not grow well on soils with a high calcium content,
high pH, or excessive internal drainage. It is also reported to be more
abundant than loblolly pine on the drier, better drained, and less fertile
soils in the Piedmont. The difference is partly attributable to shortleaf
pine's larger root system, lower tolerance to poor soil aeration, and
lower demand for nutrients (18).
Shortleaf pine grows at elevations as low as 3 m (10 ft) in southern New
Jersey and up to 910 m (3,000 ft) in the Appalachian Mountains. It grows
up to 300 m (1,000 ft) in Pennsylvania. Its best development is attained
at elevations of 180 m (600 ft) to 460 m (1,500 ft) in the Piedmont and 45
m (150 ft) to 350 m (1,150 ft) in Louisiana and Arkansas, although it
grows at elevations up to 610 m (2,000 ft) in Arkansas, Missouri, and
Oklahoma (16,18).
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Special Uses
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pine is primarily used for lumber, plywood, other structural
materials, and pulpwood. Even the taproots are used for pulpwood. The
species was commonly planted on eroded lands in Mississippi (68) but does
not produce as much litter as loblolly pine and therefore may be less
desirable for some reclamation uses. Shortleaf pine is sometimes planted
as an evergreen ornamental and as a screen in urban areas.
The seeds of shortleaf pine are eaten by birds and small mammals.
Squirrels may cut the cones and eat the seeds before the cones open
naturally (23). The canopies of shortleaf pine provide protection from the
wind and cold for many animals. Stands of shortleaf pine scattered through
hardwood forests are especially beneficial to wildlife. Older shortleaf
pines with red heart rot (Phellinus pini) are primary nesting
trees for the red-cockaded woodpecker (51).
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Vegetative Reproduction
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pine can be vegetatively
propagated by either rooting or grafting of scions, but techniques for
production of new plants from parts such as pollen grains are lacking.
Grafting of scions or twigs from special trees to trees of the same
species is the most commonly used method of propagating southern pines. It
is possible, but difficult, to root needle bundles and cuttings of twigs.
Shortleaf pine can also be air-layered (14).
Young shortleaf pines sprout vigorously at the root collar if the crown
is killed or badly damaged, a feature which probably contributes much to
the species' survival where other species decline. The ability to sprout
profusely is generally confined to trees up to 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) in
diameter. Most sprouts eventually die, leaving from one to three stems to
develop. Shoots also arise from buds developing in needle fascicles below
the point of injury (18).
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Distribution
(
Anglèis
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fornì da Silvics of North America
Shortleaf pine has the widest range of any pine in the southeastern
United States. It grows in 22 States over more than 1 139 600 km²
(440,000 mi²), from southeastern New York and New Jersey west to
Pennsylvania, southern Ohio, Kentucky, southwestern Illinois, and southern
Missouri; south to eastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas; and east to
northern Florida and northeast through the Atlantic Coast States to
Delaware (33). In 1915, shortleaf pine was reported to grow in 24 States.
Fossil pollen found in Michigan suggests that it may have once grown there
(18).
- The native range of shortleaf pine.
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Brief Summary
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da Silvics of North America
Pinaceae -- Pine family
Edwin R. Lawson
Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) is one of the four most
important commercial conifers in the southeastern United States. Depending
upon locale, the species is also called shortleaf yellow, southern yellow,
oldfield, shortstraw, or Arkansas soft pine. Shortleaf pine tolerates a
wide range of soil and site conditions and maintains its growth rate for a
relatively long period. However, the species tends to grow slower during
the early years after establishment than other southern pines. Shortleaf
pine is the most common species regenerated in the northern and western
parts of its range.
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Physical Description
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da USDA PLANTS text
Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins finely serrulate (use magnification or slide your finger along the leaf), Leaf apex acute, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves yellow-green above, Leaves yellow-green below, Leaves grey-green, Leaves not blue-green, Needle-like leaves somewhat rounded, Needle-like leaves twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 2, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs glabrous, Twigs viscid, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones < 5 cm long, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Seed cones bearing a scarlike umbo, Umbo with obvious prickle, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds green, Seeds black, Seeds gray, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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Pinus echinata
(
Aser
)
fornì da wikipedia AZ
Pinus echinata (lat. Pinus echinata) - şamkimilər fəsiləsinin şam ağacı cinsinə aid bitki növü.
Mənbə
İynəyarpaqlılar ilə əlaqədar bu məqalə qaralama halındadır. Məqaləni redaktə edərək Vikipediyanı zənginləşdirin. Etdiyiniz redaktələri mənbə və istinadlarla əsaslandırmağı unutmayın.
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
(
Aser
)
fornì da wikipedia AZ
Pinus echinata (lat. Pinus echinata) - şamkimilər fəsiləsinin şam ağacı cinsinə aid bitki növü.
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Pinus echinata
(
Catalan; Valensian
)
fornì da wikipedia CA
El pinus echinata, o pi de fulla curta, és una espècie de pi nativa dels Estats Units orientals del sud, de la major part de l'Estat de Nova York, del sud fins al nord de Florida, de l'oest a l'est Oklahoma, i el sud-oest fins a l'est de Texas.[1] L'arbre és variable en forma, de vegades recte, de vegades tort, amb una copa irregular Aquest arbre assoleix alçàries de 20–30 metres (65–100 ft) amb un diàmetre de tronc de 0.5–0.9 metres (1 ft 8 in–2 ft 11 in).
Descripció
Les fulles són d'agulla (aciculars), en forma de dos i tres fascicles (farcells) ajuntats, i de 7 a 11 cm de llargària. Els cons fan 4-7 cm de llargària, amb escates fines amb una quilla transversal i un curt peduncle (prickle) S'obren a la maduresa, però són persistents.[2] Les plàntules de pi de fulla curta desenvolupen un brot persistent en forma de J, prop de la superfície del sòl.[3] El brot axil·lar i altres brots es formen prop de la corba i inicien el creixement si la tija superior és morta pel foc o s'ha tallat.
Aquest pi és principalment una font de pasta de cel·lulosa i de xapa de contraplacat, així com de fusta de construcció per una gran varietat d'usos. El pi de fulla curta és un dels "pins grocs " del sud dels EUA; per aquest motiu rep tant la denominació de pi groc del sud com la de pi de fulla curta. El pi de fulla curta forma la gamma més gran de "pins grocs" del sud dels EUA.
Aquest pi ocupa una varietat d'hàbitats des de les terres altes rocalloses fins a les planes molt inundades. Sovint s'hibrida de forma natural amb el pinus taeda, fet per el que es creuen els seus rangs genètics.
Vegeu també
Bibliografia
- Correll, D. S. & M. C. Johnston. 1970. Man. Vasc. Pl. Texas i–xv, 1–1881. The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson.
- Farjon, A. K., J. A. Pérez de la Rosa & B. T. Styles. 1997. Field Guide Pines Mexico Central America 1–147. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
- Flora of North America Editorial Committee, e. 1993. Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Fl. N. Amer. 2: i–xvi, 1–475.
- Forzza, R. C. & et al. et al. 2010. 2010 Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2010/.
- Gibbs Russell, G. E., W. G. M. Welman, E. Retief, K. L. Immelman, G. Germishuizen, B. J. Pienaar, M. Van Wyk & A. Nicholas. 1987. List of species of southern African plants. Mem. Bot. Surv. S. Africa 2(1–2): 1–152(pt. 1), 1–270(pt. 2).
- Long, R. W. & O. K. Lakela. 1971. Fl. Trop. Florida i–xvii, 1–962. University of Miami Press, Coral Cables.
- Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles & C. R. Bell. 1968. Man. Vasc. Fl. Carolinas i–lxi, 1–1183. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
- Wunderlin, R. P. 1998. Guide Vasc. Pl. Florida i–x, 1–806. University Press of Florida, Gainseville.
Referències
Enllaços externs
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Pinus echinata 
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
(
Catalan; Valensian
)
fornì da wikipedia CA
El pinus echinata, o pi de fulla curta, és una espècie de pi nativa dels Estats Units orientals del sud, de la major part de l'Estat de Nova York, del sud fins al nord de Florida, de l'oest a l'est Oklahoma, i el sud-oest fins a l'est de Texas. L'arbre és variable en forma, de vegades recte, de vegades tort, amb una copa irregular Aquest arbre assoleix alçàries de 20–30 metres (65–100 ft) amb un diàmetre de tronc de 0.5–0.9 metres (1 ft 8 in–2 ft 11 in).
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Pinus echinata
(
Alman
)
fornì da wikipedia DE
Pinus echinata oder die Fichtenkiefer[1] ist ein immergrüner Nadelbaum aus der Gattung der Kiefern (Pinus) mit meist 6 bis 11 Zentimeter langen, meist in Zweier- oder Dreiergruppen angeordneten Nadeln und 4 bis 7 Zentimeter langen Samenzapfen. Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet liegt im Südosten der Vereinigten Staaten. Die Art ist nicht gefährdet und ein wirtschaftlich wichtiger Holzlieferant, wird jedoch kaum gärtnerisch genutzt.
Beschreibung
Erscheinungsbild
Pinus echinata wächst als immergrüner, 35 bis 40 Meter hoher Baum mit einem Brusthöhendurchmesser von bis zu 160 Zentimetern. Der höchste bekannte Baum wurde 1980 mit einer Höhe von 42 Metern und einem Stammdurchmesser von 1,1 Metern vermessen. Die Stammborke ist dunkelbraun, leicht harzig und zerbricht in unregelmäßig rechteckige Platten. Dir Krone ist ei- bis kuppelförmig. Die Äste stehen waagrecht und sind besonders bei Bäumen in Wäldern dünn und kurz. Nadeltragende Zweige sind dünn und mehr oder weniger hängend. Junge Triebe sind rötlich braun, häufig bläulich überlaufen und färben sich später rotbraun bis grau. Sie sind unbehaart und nach dem Verlust der Nadeln durch bleibende Pulvini rau. Es werden ein bis vier Harzkanäle gebildet.[2][3]
Knospen und Nadeln
Die Knospen sind eiförmig bis eiförmig-zylindrisch, 5 bis 10 Millimeter lang und sehr harzig. Die Nadeln wachsen in Paaren oder zu dritt in einer 10 bis 15 Millimeter langen Nadelscheide und bleiben drei bis fünf Jahre am Baum. Sie sind gelblich grün, graugrün oder dunkelgrün, biegsam, gerade oder leicht gebogen, selten ab 5 meist 6 bis 11 und manchmal bis 12 Zentimeter lang und etwa 1 Millimeter breit. Der Nadelrand ist fein gesägt, das Ende kurz spitzig. Auf allen Nadelseiten gibt es schmale Spaltöffnungslinien.[2][3]
Zapfen und Samen
Die Pollenzapfen wachsen spiralig angeordnet in kleinen Gruppen. Sie sind zylindrisch, 15 bis 20 Millimeter lang, blass purpurn grün bis gelb und färben sich später hellbraun. Die Samenzapfen wachsen einzeln oder in Wirteln von zwei bis vier. Sie sind kurz gestielt oder beinahe sitzend, 4 bis 7 Zentimeter lang, geschlossen schmal eiförmig bis eiförmig-länglich und geöffnet breit eiförmig bis eiförmig-länglich mit abgeflachter Basis. Die 75 bis 100 selten auch 120, schaufelförmigen Samenschuppen sind dünn und holzig, unelastisch, grün und bei Reife gleichmäßig stumpf braun. Die Apophyse ist leicht erhöht und scharf quer gekielt. Der Umbo ist mit einem festen, kurzen Stachel bewehrt. Die Samen sind ellipsoid, 6 bis 7 Millimeter lang, grau und schwarz gefleckt, mit einem ähnlich gefärbten, 12 bis 15 Millimeter langen Samenflügel.[2][3]
Chromosomenzahl
Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt wie bei allen Kiefern 2n=24.[4]
Zweig mit Nadeln und jungen Samenzapfen
Entwicklung
Pinus echinata bildet meist erst nach etwa 20 Jahren Samen, obwohl auch schon auf fünfjährige Exemplare männliche und weibliche Zapfen beobachtet wurden. Größere Mengen von Samen werden erst von Bäumen mit Stammdurchmessern von zumindest 30 Zentimetern gebildet. Die Samenabgabe beginnt Ende Oktober oder Anfang November, wobei je Zapfen 25 bis 38 Samen gebildet werden. 70 Prozent der Samen werden im ersten Monat, 90 Prozent nach zwei Monaten freigesetzt. Die Sämlinge keimen epigäisch, nachdem die Samen am Boden überwintern konnten. Es gibt Hinweise, dass ein Teil der Samen erst nach dem zweiten Winter zu keinen beginnt, doch gibt es dafür keine Bestätigung. Junge Pflanzen können am Beginn ihrer Entwicklung eine Pfahlwurzel bilden, doch werden aufgrund der Bodenverhältnisse meist nur seitliche Wurzeln gebildet, die dann knapp unter der Oberfläche verlaufen. Junge Bäume haben ein jährliches Höhenwachstum von 30 bis 90 Zentimetern.[5]
Verbreitung, Ökologie und Gefährdung
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Natürliches Verbreitungsgebiet
Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet von Pinus echinata liegt im Osten und Südosten der Vereinigten Staaten und erstreckt sich über 22 Bundesstaaten von New York und Illinois bis in den Osten von Texas und nach Florida.[2][6] Außerhalb des natürlichen Verbreitungsgebiets wird sie in China forstwirtschaftlich genutzt.[7] Die Art wächst in ihrer natürlichen Umgebung im Tiefland in Höhen von 150 Metern bis zu den Gebirgsausläufern der Appalachen in etwa 600 Metern Höhe. Sie fehlt jedoch im Tal und dem Mündungsgebiet des Mississippi und entlang eines schmalen bis teilweise auch breiten Streifens entlang des Golfs von Mexiko und des Atlantischen Ozeans und im größten Teil von Florida. Die nördliche Grenze des Verbreitungsgebietes wird durch eine mittlere Jahrestemperatur von 10° Celsius bestimmt, die südliche Grenze durch eine Niederschlagsmenge von etwa 1000 Millimeter, die mehr oder weniger gleichmäßig über das Jahr verteilt ist. Sie wächst auf einer Vielzahl verschiedener Bodentypen, die jedoch meist eine gewisse Wasserspeicherfähigkeit, sandig-lehmige oder schlickig-lehmige Beschaffenheit und eine gute Entwässerung aufweisen. Pinus echinata bildet manchmal Reinbestände, wird jedoch meist durch Laubbäume wie beispielsweise Eichen (Quercus) begleitet. In Gebieten mit nur dünner Bodendecke fehlen die Laubbäume und die Art wächst zusammen mit anderen Nadelbäumen. Man findet sie auch zusammen mit Pinus taeda, die ein ähnliches Verbreitungsgebiet hat, aber meist auf feuchteren Böden vorkommt.[8] Das Verbreitungsgebiet wird der Winterhärtezone 8 zugeordnet mit mittleren jährlichen Minimaltemperaturen von −12,2 ° bis −6,7 °Celsius (10 bis 20 °Fahrenheit).[3]
In der Roten Liste der IUCN wird Pinus echinata als nicht gefährdet („Lower Risk/least concern“) eingestuft. Es wird jedoch darauf hingewiesen, dass eine Neubeurteilung notwendig ist.[9]
Systematik und Forschungsgeschichte
Pinus echinata ist eine Art aus der Gattung der Kiefern (Pinus), in der sie der Untergattung Pinus, Sektion Trifoliae und Untersektion Australes zugeordnet ist. Sie wurde 1768 von Philip Miller erstmals wissenschaftlich beschrieben.[6] Der Gattungsname Pinus wurde schon von den Römern für mehrere Kiefernarten verwendet.[10] Das Artepitheton echinata stammt aus dem Lateinischen, verweist auf den Igel und bedeutet so viel wie „stachelig“.[11] Es ist jedoch unklar, welche Teile der Pflanze Philip Miller damit gemeint hat.[2] Synonyme der Art sind Pinus lutea Lodd. ex Gordon, Pinus mitis Michx., Pinus royleana Jameson ex Lindl., Pinus squarrosa Walter, Pinus taeda var. echinata (Mill.) Castigl., Pinus taeda var. variabilis Aiton, Pinus variabilis (Aiton) Lamb. und Pinus virginiana var. echinata (Mill.) Du Roi.[12]
Die Art bildet natürliche Hybride mit Pinus taeda und Pinus rigida.[13] Kreuzungsversuche mit Pinus elliottii, Pinus pungens und Pinus palustris waren erfolgreich.[3]
Verwendung
Pinus echinata ist im Südosten der Vereinigten Staaten sowohl aus natürlichen Beständen als auch aus forstwirtschaftlichen Plantagen ein wichtiger Holzlieferant. Das Holz hat eine hohe Qualität, ein orangefarbenes bis gelblichbraunes Kernholz und creme-gelbes Splintholz. Es wird zur Herstellung von Bahnschwellen, als Bauholz, für Paneele, Möbel, Sperrholz und Zellstoff für die Papierindustrie verwendet. Das Holz aus forstwirtschaftlichen Plantagen wird meist zur Herstellung von Papier genutzt.[14]
Die Bäume werden auch als Abgrenzung und Schutz von Wohngebieten gegen Autobahnen gepflanzt. Sonst hat die Art kaum gärtnerische Bedeutung.[14]
Quellen
Literatur
- Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers. Band 2. Brill, Leiden-Boston 2010, ISBN 90-04-17718-3, S. 668–669.
- James E. Eckenwalder: Conifers of the World. The Complete Reference. Timber Press, Portland, OR/London 2009, ISBN 978-0-88192-974-4, S. 429.
- Edwin R. Lawson: Shortleaf Pine In: Russell H. Burns: Silvics of North America. Volume 1 Conifers. United States Government Printing, 1991, ISBN 0-16-027145-2 (online).
- Flora of North America Editorial Committee (Hrsg.): Flora of North America North of Mexico. Volume 2: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York / Oxford u. a. 1993, ISBN 0-19-508242-7 (englisch).
- Wu Zheng-yi, Peter H. Raven (Hrsg.): Flora of China. Volume 4: Cycadaceae through Fagaceae. Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing/St. Louis 1999, ISBN 0-915279-70-3, S. 19 (englisch).
- Helmut Genaust: Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen. 3., vollständig überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Nikol, Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-937872-16-7, S. 221, 487 (Nachdruck von 1996).
Einzelnachweise
-
↑ AmericanSoftwoods.com: [http://www.softwood.org/uploads/7/1/0/6/71061057/as_species_ger_web.pdf Ein Leitfaden zu amerikanischen Nadelholzarten]. 22. Mai 2013. Abgerufen am 12. Dezember 2020.
-
↑ a b c d e Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers, Band 2, S. 668
-
↑ a b c d e James E. Eckenwalder: Conifers of the World, S. 429
-
↑ Robert Kral: Pinus echinata in Flora of North America, Band 2
-
↑ Edwin R. Lawson: Shortleaf Pine In: Silvics of North America
-
↑ a b Pinus echinata im Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Abgerufen am 27. April 2013.
-
↑ Liguo Fu, Nan Li, Thomas S. Elias, Robert R. Mill: Pinus echinata, in Flora of China, Band 4, S. 19
-
↑ Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers, Band 2, S. 668–669
-
↑ Pinus echinata in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN 2012. Eingestellt von: Conifer Specialist Group, 1998. Abgerufen am 27. April 2013.
-
↑ Genaust: Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen S. 487
-
↑ Genaust: Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen S. 221
-
↑ Pinus echinata. In: The Plant List. Abgerufen am 27. April 2013.
-
↑ Christopher J. Earle: Pinus echinata. In: The Gymnosperm Database. www.conifers.org, 27. November 2012, abgerufen am 27. April 2013 (englisch).
-
↑ a b Aljos Farjon: A Handbook of the World's Conifers, Band 2, S. 669
Weblinks
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
(
Alman
)
fornì da wikipedia DE
Pinus echinata oder die Fichtenkiefer ist ein immergrüner Nadelbaum aus der Gattung der Kiefern (Pinus) mit meist 6 bis 11 Zentimeter langen, meist in Zweier- oder Dreiergruppen angeordneten Nadeln und 4 bis 7 Zentimeter langen Samenzapfen. Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet liegt im Südosten der Vereinigten Staaten. Die Art ist nicht gefährdet und ein wirtschaftlich wichtiger Holzlieferant, wird jedoch kaum gärtnerisch genutzt.
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Pinus echinata
(
Komi
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Вакчи лысо пужым
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Udmurt
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Pinus echinata
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da wikipedia EN
Pinus echinata, the shortleaf pine,[2] is a species of pine native to the southeastern United States.
Description
The tree is variable in form, sometimes straight, sometimes crooked, with an irregular crown. The tree reaches heights of 20–45 metres (65–150 feet) with a trunk diameter of 0.5–0.9 m (1+1⁄2–3 ft).
The leaves are needle-like, in fascicles (bundles) of two and three mixed together, and from 7–11 centimetres (2+3⁄4–4+1⁄4 inches) long. The cones are 4–7 cm (1+1⁄2–2+3⁄4 in) long, with thin scales with a transverse keel and a short prickle. They open at maturity but are persistent.[3] Shortleaf pine seedlings develop a persistent J-shaped crook near the ground surface.[4] Axillary and other buds form near the crook and initiate growth if the upper stem is killed by fire or is severed.[5]
The bark has resin pockets, which form small depressions, less than 1 millimetre (1⁄32 in) in diameter. This feature can be used to distinguish P. echinata from all other Pinus species within its native range.[6]
Seedlings for planting, showing J-shaped crooks near base of foliage
Bark with resin pockets visible
Illustration of tree characteristics
Gigantic specimens, with human for scale
Taxonomy
The Latin specific epithet of echinata refers to hedgehog, from echinus.[7]
Distribution and habitat
Shortleaf pine has the largest range of the southern US yellow pines. It is found from southernmost New York, south to northern Florida, west to eastern Texas and Oklahoma.[8]
This pine occupies a variety of habitats from rocky uplands to wet flood plains.
Ecology
With frequent fire, the species creates a savanna, with a very diverse understory and prime habitat for the red-cockaded woodpecker.[9]
The tree frequently hybridizes naturally with loblolly pine and pitch pine where their ranges intersect. Hybridization with loblolly pine has become increasingly frequent in recent decades and results in a loss of fire tolerance.[5]
Uses
This pine is a source of wood pulp, plywood veneer, and lumber for a variety of uses. The shortleaf pine is one of the southern US "southern yellow pines"; it is also occasionally called southern yellow pine or the shortstraw pine.
References
-
^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Pinus echinata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T42359A2974993. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42359A2974993.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
-
^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Pinus echinata". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
-
^ Kral, Robert (1993). "Pinus echinata". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
-
^ Lawson, Edwin R. (1990). "Pinus echinata". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Conifers. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Vol. 1 – via Southern Research Station.
-
^ a b Tauer, Charles G.; Stewart, John F.; Will, Rodney E.; Lilly, Curtis J.; Guldin, James M.; Nelson, C. Dana (2012-06-01). "Hybridization Leads to Loss of Genetic Integrity in Shortleaf Pine: Unexpected Consequences of Pine Management and Fire Suppression". Journal of Forestry. 110 (4): 216–224. doi:10.5849/jof.11-044. ISSN 0022-1201.
-
^ "Silvics of Shortleaf Pine" (PDF). North Carolina Forest Service. January 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-12-24. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
-
^ Stearn, William (2004). Botanical Latin. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 9780881926279.
-
^ "Plants Profile for Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine)". plants.sc.egov.usda.gov. Retrieved 2020-09-30.
-
^ Hedrick, Larry D.; Bukenhofer, George A.; Montague, Warren G.; Pell, William F.; Guldin, James M. (2007). "Shortleaf pine-bluestem restoration in the Ouachita National Forest". In: Shortleaf Pine Restoration and Ecology in the Ozarks: Proceedings of a Symposium: 206-213.
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
(
Anglèis
)
fornì da wikipedia EN
Pinus echinata, the shortleaf pine, is a species of pine native to the southeastern United States.
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Pinus echinata
(
Spagneul; Castilian
)
fornì da wikipedia ES
Pinus echinata, el pino amarillo o pino de hoja corta, es una especie de pino nativa del este y sur de los Estados Unidos, de la mayor parte del estado de Nueva York, del sur hasta el norte de Florida, del oeste al este Oklahoma, y el suroeste hasta el este de Texas. El árbol es variable en forma, a veces recto, a veces torcido, con una copa irregular. Este árbol logra estaturas de 20–30 metros (65–100 ft) con un diámetro de tronco de 0.5–0.9 metros (1 ft 8 in–2 ft 11 in).
Descripción
Las hojas son con forma de aguja (aciculares), en forma de dos y tres fascículos unidos, y de 7–11 cm (2,8–4,3 in) ( 3⁄4–4 1⁄4 pulgadas) de longitud. Los conos son de 4–7 cm (1,6–2,8 in) ( 1⁄2–2 3⁄4 pulgadas) de longitud, con escamas finas con una quilla transversal y un corto pedúnculo. Se abren a la madurez, pero son persistentes.[2] Las plántulas de pino de hoja corta desarrollan un brote persistente en forma de J, cerca de la superficie del suelo.[3] El brote axilar y otros brotes se forman cerca de la curva e inician el crecimiento si el tallo superior es muerta por el fuego o se ha cortado.
Este pino es principalmente una fuente de pasta de celulosa y de chapa de contrachapado, así como de madera de construcción por una gran variedad de usos. El pino de hoja corta es uno de los "pinos amarillos " del sur de los EE. UU.; por este motivo recibe tanto la denominación de pino amarillo del sur como la de pino de hoja corta. El pino de hoja corta forma la gamma más grande de "pinos amarillos" del sur de los EE. UU.
Este pino ocupa una variedad de hábitats desde las tierras altas rocallosas hasta las llanuras muy inundadas. A menudo se hibrida de forma natural con el Pinus taeda, hecho por el que se cruzan sus rangos genéticos.
Bibliografía
- Correll, D. S. & M. C. Johnston. 1970. Man. Vasc. Pl. Texas y–xv, 1–1881. The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson.
- Farjon, A. K., J. A. Pérez de la Rosa & B. T. Styles. 1997. Field Guide Pines Mexico Central America 1–147. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
- Flora of North America Editorial Committee, e. 1993. Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Fl. N. Amer. 2: y–xvi, 1–475.
- Forzza, R. C. & et. al. et. al. 2010. 2010 Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2010/.
- Gibbs Russell, G. E., W. G. M. Welman, E. Retief, K. L. Immelman, G. Germishuizen, B. J. Pienaar, M. Van Wyk & A. Nicholas. 1987. List of species of southern African plants. Mem. Bot. Surv. S. Africa 2(1–2): 1–152(pt. 1), 1–270(pt. 2).
- Long, R. W. & O. K. Lakela. 1971. Fl. Trop. Florida y–xvii, 1–962. University of Miami Press, Coral Cables.
- Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles & C. R. Bello. 1968. Man. Vasc. Fl. Carolinas y–lxi, 1–1183. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
- Wunderlin, R. P. 1998. Guide Vasc. Pl. Florida y–x, 1–806. University Press of Florida, Gainseville.
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
(
Spagneul; Castilian
)
fornì da wikipedia ES
Pinus echinata, el pino amarillo o pino de hoja corta, es una especie de pino nativa del este y sur de los Estados Unidos, de la mayor parte del estado de Nueva York, del sur hasta el norte de Florida, del oeste al este Oklahoma, y el suroeste hasta el este de Texas. El árbol es variable en forma, a veces recto, a veces torcido, con una copa irregular. Este árbol logra estaturas de 20–30 metros (65–100 ft) con un diámetro de tronco de 0.5–0.9 metros (1 ft 8 in–2 ft 11 in).
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Pinus echinata
(
Fransèis
)
fornì da wikipedia FR
Le Pin de Caroline[1], Pinus echinata, (en anglais Carolina pine), est une espèce de conifères de la famille des Pinaceae.
Écologie
![src=]()
Carte de distribution de
Pinus echinata, en vert.
Notes et références
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
(
Fransèis
)
fornì da wikipedia FR
Le Pin de Caroline, Pinus echinata, (en anglais Carolina pine), est une espèce de conifères de la famille des Pinaceae.
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Ígulfura
(
Islandèis
)
fornì da wikipedia IS
Ígulfura (fræðiheiti: Pinus echinata) er furutegund sem er ættuð frá austurhluta Bandaríkjjanna frá suðurhluta New York ríkis, suður til norður Flórída, vestur til austur Oklahoma, og suðvestur til austur Texas. Tréð er breytilegt í vaxtarlagi, stundum beinvaxið, stundum hlykkjótt, með óreglulegri krónu. Hún getur orðið 20 til 30 m há með stofnþvermál að 0,5 til 0,9 m.
Barrnálarnar eru 2 til 3 saman í búnti, 7 til 11 sm langar. Könglarnir eru 4 til 7 sm langir með þunnar köngulskeljar með kjöl þversum og stuttum gaddi. Þeir opnast við við þroska en haldast á trénu.[2] Smáplöntur ígulfuru mynda j-laga hlykk nálægt jörðu.[3] Dvalarbrum og myndast nálægt hlykknum og hefja vöxt þegar efri hluti stofnsins drepst vegna villielda eða brotnar. Litningatalan 2n=24.[4]
![src=]()
Börkur P. echinata með kvoðublöðrum, sjáanleg sem smáar, ~1 mm dældir. Þetta einkenni er hægt að nota til að greina hana frá öllum öðrum furutegundum innan útbreiðslusvæðis hennar.
[5]
Hún vex í margskonar búsvæði, frá grýttum hæðum til votra flóðslétta. Hún blandast P. taeda og P. rigida þar sem útbreiðslusvæði þeirra skarast.
Tilvísanir
-
↑ Farjon, A. (2013). „Pinus echinata“. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2013: e.T42359A2974993. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42359A2974993.en. Afrit from the original on 2018-06-02. Sótt 13. desember 2017.
-
↑ Kral, Robert (1993). "Pinus echinata". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee. Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
-
↑ Lawson, Edwin R. (1990). "Pinus echinata". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. Conifers. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 1 – via Southern Research Station (www.srs.fs.fed.us).
-
↑ Robert Kral: Pinus echinata in Flora of North America, bind 2
-
↑ „Silvics of Shortleaf Pine“ (PDF). North Carolina Forest Service. January 2016. Afrit (PDF) from the original on 2016-12-24. Sótt 11. nóvember 2018.
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Ígulfura: Brief Summary
(
Islandèis
)
fornì da wikipedia IS
Ígulfura (fræðiheiti: Pinus echinata) er furutegund sem er ættuð frá austurhluta Bandaríkjjanna frá suðurhluta New York ríkis, suður til norður Flórída, vestur til austur Oklahoma, og suðvestur til austur Texas. Tréð er breytilegt í vaxtarlagi, stundum beinvaxið, stundum hlykkjótt, með óreglulegri krónu. Hún getur orðið 20 til 30 m há með stofnþvermál að 0,5 til 0,9 m.
![src=]()
frjókönglar
![src=]()
Köngull
Barrnálarnar eru 2 til 3 saman í búnti, 7 til 11 sm langar. Könglarnir eru 4 til 7 sm langir með þunnar köngulskeljar með kjöl þversum og stuttum gaddi. Þeir opnast við við þroska en haldast á trénu. Smáplöntur ígulfuru mynda j-laga hlykk nálægt jörðu. Dvalarbrum og myndast nálægt hlykknum og hefja vöxt þegar efri hluti stofnsins drepst vegna villielda eða brotnar. Litningatalan 2n=24.
![src=]()
Börkur P. echinata með kvoðublöðrum, sjáanleg sem smáar, ~1 mm dældir. Þetta einkenni er hægt að nota til að greina hana frá öllum öðrum furutegundum innan útbreiðslusvæðis hennar.
Hún vex í margskonar búsvæði, frá grýttum hæðum til votra flóðslétta. Hún blandast P. taeda og P. rigida þar sem útbreiðslusvæði þeirra skarast.
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Pinus echinata
(
Italian
)
fornì da wikipedia IT
Il Pinus echinata, o pino a foglia corta, è una specie di pino nativa degli Stati Uniti d'America orientali dallo stato di New York più meridionale, da sud a nord della Florida, da ovest a est dell'Oklahoma e da sud-ovest a est del Texas. L'albero è di forma variabile, a volte dritto, a volte storto e con una corona irregolare. Questo albero raggiunge un'altezza di 20–30 metri e un diametro del tronco di 0.5-0.9 metri.
Le foglie sono aghiformi, in fascicoli (fasci) di due o tre mescolati insieme, e da 7-11 cm di lunghezza. Le pigne possono essere lunghe tra i 4 e i 7 cm, con squame sottili, una chiglia trasversale e una punta corta. Si aprono alla maturità e sono persistenti. Le piantine di pino a foglia corta sviluppano un durevole gancio a forma di J vicino alla superficie del terreno. Ascellari e altre gemme si formano vicino a quest'ultimo e iniziano la crescita se lo stelo superiore viene ucciso dal fuoco o viene reciso. Questo pino è una fonte di pasta di cellulosa, impiallacciatura di compensato e legname destinati a più usi. Il pino a foglia corta è uno dei "pini gialli meridionali" degli Stati Uniti del Sud, di cui esiste un'ampia gamma.
![src=]()
Una corteccia di P. echinata con tasche in resina visibili come piccole depressioni di diametro ~ 1 mm. Questa funzione può essere utilizzata per distinguerla da tutte le altre specie di Pinus nella sua gamma nativa.
[1]
Questo pino occupa una varietà di habitat, dagli altopiani rocciosi alle pianure alluvionali umide. Frequentemente si ibrida naturalmente con il pinus taeda e il pinus rigida, successivamente ad una intersecazione delle loro gemme.
Note
-
^ (EN) Silvics of Shortleaf Pine (PDF), su North Carolina Forest Service, gennaio 2016. URL consultato il 26 settembre 2019 (archiviato dall'url originale il 24 dicembre 2016).
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
(
Italian
)
fornì da wikipedia IT
Il Pinus echinata, o pino a foglia corta, è una specie di pino nativa degli Stati Uniti d'America orientali dallo stato di New York più meridionale, da sud a nord della Florida, da ovest a est dell'Oklahoma e da sud-ovest a est del Texas. L'albero è di forma variabile, a volte dritto, a volte storto e con una corona irregolare. Questo albero raggiunge un'altezza di 20–30 metri e un diametro del tronco di 0.5-0.9 metri.
Le foglie sono aghiformi, in fascicoli (fasci) di due o tre mescolati insieme, e da 7-11 cm di lunghezza. Le pigne possono essere lunghe tra i 4 e i 7 cm, con squame sottili, una chiglia trasversale e una punta corta. Si aprono alla maturità e sono persistenti. Le piantine di pino a foglia corta sviluppano un durevole gancio a forma di J vicino alla superficie del terreno. Ascellari e altre gemme si formano vicino a quest'ultimo e iniziano la crescita se lo stelo superiore viene ucciso dal fuoco o viene reciso. Questo pino è una fonte di pasta di cellulosa, impiallacciatura di compensato e legname destinati a più usi. Il pino a foglia corta è uno dei "pini gialli meridionali" degli Stati Uniti del Sud, di cui esiste un'ampia gamma.
![src=]()
Una corteccia di P. echinata con tasche in resina visibili come piccole depressioni di diametro ~ 1 mm. Questa funzione può essere utilizzata per distinguerla da tutte le altre specie di Pinus nella sua gamma nativa.
Questo pino occupa una varietà di habitat, dagli altopiani rocciosi alle pianure alluvionali umide. Frequentemente si ibrida naturalmente con il pinus taeda e il pinus rigida, successivamente ad una intersecazione delle loro gemme.
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Pinus echinata
(
polonèis
)
fornì da wikipedia POL
Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Pinus echinata Mill. – gatunek drzewa iglastego z rodziny sosnowatych (Pinaceae). P. echinata występuje na południowym wschodzie Ameryki Północnej, na terenie USA. Jest sosną dwuigielną o zmiennym pokroju, rosnącą najczęściej na wyżynach w stosunkowo suchych lasach. Naturalnie krzyżuje się z sosną taeda i sosną smołową. Największym zagrożeniem tej sosny jest choroba wywoływana przez lęgniowca z gatunku Phytophthora cinnamomi.
Rozmieszczenie geograficzne
Gatunek występuje na wschodzie i południu USA, w stanach: Nowy Jork, Pensylwania, Ohio, Illinois, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Wirginia Zachodnia, Maryland, Delaware, Wirginia, Karolina Północna, Karolina Południowa, Georgia, Floryda, Alabama, Missisipi, Luizjana, Oklahoma, Teksas)[3].
Gatunek ten ma największy zasięg występowania spośród sosen rosnących w południowo-wschodnich USA. W 1915 r. raportowano, że rośnie w 24 stanach, w 1990 r. w 22[4].
Morfologia
- Pokrój
- Drzewo o zmiennym pokroju – bywa wyprostowane lub krzywe z nieregularną koroną. Typowa korona drzewa zaokrąglona do stożkowatej.
- Pień
- Osiąga 40 m wysokości i 1,2 m średnicy. Kora czerwono-brązowa, łuszcząca się płatami, z widocznymi pęcherzami żywicznymi, w górnej części pnia szorstka. Gałęzie rozpościerające się. Dwuletnie gałązki o średnicy do 5 mm są wiotkie, szarobrązowe do czerwonobrązowych, z wiekiem szarzeją, stają się chropawe i łamliwe poniżej ulistnionych części.
- Liście
- Igły zebrane po 2 na krótkopędzie, czasem po 3. Osiągają (5) 7–11 (13) cm długości i 1 mm średnicy. Proste, lekko skręcone, szarozielone do żółtozielonych. Na wszystkich powierzchniach liścia widoczne rzędy aparatów szparkowych. Brzegi liścia drobnoząbkowane, wierzchołek ostry. Pochwa liściowa 0,5–1 (1,5) cm, trwała. Pąki jajowate do cylindrycznych, żywiczne, długości 0,5–0,7 (1) cm.
- Szyszki
- Szyszki męskie cylindryczne, żółte do blado purpurowo-zielonych, o długości 15–20 mm. W czasie pylenia brązowe lub jasnobrązowe. Szyszki nasienne symetryczne, przed otwarciem wąsko jajowate, po otwarciu jajowato-stożkowate, długości 4–6 (7) cm. Początkowo czerwono-brązowe, z wiekiem szarzeją. Występują pojedynczo lub w skupiskach. Prawie siedzące lub osadzone na szypułkach o długości do 1 cm. Tarczki łusek nasiennych z centralnym wyrostkiem (piramidką). Wyrostek zakończony ostrym kolcem (wydłużony i smukły do krótkiego i grubego). Nasiona długości ok. 6 mm, szare do prawie czarnych, opatrzone skrzydełkiem o długości 12–16 mm.
Liście i młoda szyszka żeńska
- Gatunki podobne
- Spośród kilku podobnych gatunków wyróżnia się małymi szyszkami, często rosnącymi w skupiskach i występowaniem 3 igieł na krótkopędzie. Od P. virginiana odróżnia się dłuższymi igłami, kruchymi gałązkami i większą wysokością. Od P. glabra odróżnia się szorstką korą w górnych partiach pnia.
Biologia
Gatunek jednopienny. Męskie i żeńskie szyszki pojawiają się od końca marca na południowo-zachodnich krańcach zasięgu do końca kwietnia na północnym wschodzie. Męskie szyszki wyrastają na spodniej stronie młodych pędów, przeważnie na starszych gałęziach w dolnej części korony. Szyszki żeńskie wyrastają na pędach zimowych, wkrótce po pojawieniu się męskich. Po zapyleniu łuski szyszek zamykają się. Do zapłodnienia dochodzi wczesną wiosną następnego okresu wegetacyjnego.
Szyszki nasienne dojrzewają późnym latem lub wczesną jesienią drugiego roku, po czym otwierają się i uwalniają nasiona. Do wysypu nasion dochodzi przeważnie na przełomie października i listopada, przy czym 90% nasion spada w przeciągu 2 miesięcy od osiągnięcia dojrzałości. Część nasion spada dopiero w kwietniu kolejnego roku. Nasiona zaopatrzone w skrzydełka roznoszone są przez wiatr (anemochoria) na niewielkie odległości – ok. 20–50 m od macierzystego drzewa. Puste szyszki często pozostają na drzewie przez kilka lat.
Sosna ta zazwyczaj wydaje nasiona po osiągnięciu 20 lat, chociaż kwitnąć może już wcześniej. Obfite plony dają przeważnie drzewa, których pnie osiągnęły 30 cm średnicy. Dobre lub obfite plony pojawiają się co 3–10 lat na północnym wschodzie i co 3–6 lat na południu zasięgu. Pojedyncza szyszka produkuje ok. 25–38 nasion[4].
Nasiona P. echinata zimujące w gruncie poddane są naturalnej stratyfikacji i wczesną wiosną następuje kiełkowanie epigeiczne. Siewki rosną powoli, ponieważ system korzeniowy rozwija się w ciągu 1–2 lat od wykiełkowania. Siewki mogą wytworzyć korzeń palowy we wczesnej fazie rozwoju, jednak na obszarze występowania warunki glebowe nie sprzyjają jego powstawaniu (m.in. skaliste podłoże). Korzenie boczne rosną blisko powierzchni gruntu, w większości na głębokości do 46 cm, rzadko sięgają głębiej niż 102 cm.[4]
Wiosenne pędy wytwarzają kilka okółków. Kora wykształca się wcześnie[5]. Igły pozostają na drzewie przez 3–5 lat. Zewnętrzne ściany endodermy liści są cienkie. W liściu znajdują się dwa główne przewody żywiczne (środkowe), czasem dodatkowo 1–3 małe kanały (środkowe lub wewnętrzne)[6].
Liczba chromosomów 2n = 24[7].
Ekologia
![src=]()
Młoda
P. echinata odrastająca po pożarze.
Sosna ta występuje zazwyczaj na wyżynach, w stosunkowo suchych lasach, na wysokościach 200–610 m n.p.m.[7] Skrajne wysokości osiągane przez ten gatunek to 3 m n.p.m. na południu New Jersey i 910 m w Appalachach[4]. Przeważnie tworzy mieszane stanowiska z Pinus taeda. Towarzyszą jej także P. elliottii, P. glabra, P. palustris i P. serotina. Występuje również jako niewielki składnik wielu lasów w obrębie swojego zasięgu, m.in. z dominacją P. strobus, P. rigida, P. palustris, P. virginiana, P. taeda oraz dębów. W poszyciu gatunkowi temu powszechnie towarzyszą m.in. borówki (Vaccinium spp.), wiciokrzew japoński (Lonicera japonica), kolcorośl (Smilax spp.), winobluszcz pięciolistkowy (Parthenocissus inserata) czy Toxicodendron radicans[4].
Sosna ta toleruje szeroki wachlarz gleb i warunków siedliskowych, z wyjątkiem zacienienia. W początkowych latach ma tendencję do wzrostu wolniejszego niż pozostałe sosny z tego obszaru[4]. Wolniejszy wzrost w warunkach silnej konkurencji sprawia, że siewki obumierają lub słabo rosną.
Pinus echinata jest w stosunkowo odporna na ogień, jednak pożary lasu mogą zniszczyć młode drzewka. Korony młodych okazów ulegają zazwyczaj zniszczeniu, ale drzewo wypuszcza nowe pędy z ocalałej podstawy pnia. Również duże drzewa mogą obumierać w wyniku pożaru, jeśli temperatury u podstawy pnia są bardzo wysokie. Drzewa uszkodzone podczas pożaru są bardziej podatne na choroby i szkodniki.
Sosny tego gatunku uznaje się za odporne na działanie wiatru, chociaż mogą ulegać wywrotom w miejscach, gdzie wykształciły płytki system korzeniowy. Bardziej podatne są na uszkodzenia spowodowane śniegiem (śniegołom).
Nasiona stanowią pożywienie ptaków i małych ssaków, w tym gryzoni i wiewiórek.
Systematyka i zmienność
Pozycja gatunku w obrębie rodzaju Pinus[8]:
Pinus echinata tworzy naturalne hybrydy z P. taeda, przy czym mieszańce zwykle bardziej przypominają P. echinata. Krzyżuje się także z P. rigida[7][3].
Zagrożenia
Międzynarodowa organizacja IUCN umieściła ten gatunek w Czerwonej księdze gatunków zagrożonych, ale przyznała mu kategorię zagrożenia LC (least concern), uznając go za gatunek najmniejszej troski, o niskim ryzyku wymarcia[9]. Klasyfikację tę utrzymano w kolejnym wydaniu księgi w 2013 roku[10].
Choroby i szkodniki
- Choroby
- Największym zagrożeniem P. echinata jest fytoftoroza drzew wywoływana przez lęgniowca z gatunku Phytophthora cinnamomi[4]. Symptomami choroby są: żółknące i opadające igły, przerzedzanie się korony zaczynając od dolnych partii, odbarwione i krótsze niż normalnie nowe igły, silnie ograniczony wzrost drzewa. Drzewa obumierają średnio po 6 latach od wystąpienia pierwszych objawów[11].
- Drzewo jest średnio podatne na białą zgniliznę, powodowaną przez Heterobasidion annosum.
- Sosnę tę atakuje także czyreń sosnowy (Phellinus pini) wywołujący zgniliznę białą jamkowatą sosny (in. huba sosny). Porażane są zwykle starsze drzewa, rzadko okazy w wieku poniżej 80 lat.
- Szkodniki
Zastosowanie
Pinus echinata jest jednym z czterech najważniejszych gospodarczo drzew iglastych w południowo-wschodnich Stanach Zjednoczonych. Gatunek ceniony jako źródło drewna, w tym papierówki[7], z której otrzymywana jest miazga drzewna do wyrobu papieru. Drewno intensywnie wykorzystywane do prac konstrukcyjnych[5] i do produkcji sklejki[4].
Gatunek był uprawiany powszechnie w stanie Missisipi na zerodowanych obszarach poddawanych rekultywacji.
Przypisy
Bibliografia
-
R. Kral. Pinus. „Flora of North America North of Mexico”. Vol. 2, 1993. Flora of North America Editorial Committee (red.). Oxford University Press (ang.). [dostęp 2009-12-02].
-
Russell M. Burns, Barbara H. Honkala. Silvics of North America / v.1, Pinus echinata. „Agriculture Handbook”. 654, 1990. Waszyngton: U.S.D.A. Forest Service (ang.). [dostęp 2009-12-07].
-
M. Sutherland. Microscopical Study of the Structure of the Leaves of the Genus Pinus. „Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute”. 63, s. 517-568, 1934. [dostęp 2011-08-19].
- George Russel Shaw: The Genus Pinus. Cambridge: 1914. [dostęp 2011-08-19].
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
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polonèis
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fornì da wikipedia POL
Pinus echinata Mill. – gatunek drzewa iglastego z rodziny sosnowatych (Pinaceae). P. echinata występuje na południowym wschodzie Ameryki Północnej, na terenie USA. Jest sosną dwuigielną o zmiennym pokroju, rosnącą najczęściej na wyżynach w stosunkowo suchych lasach. Naturalnie krzyżuje się z sosną taeda i sosną smołową. Największym zagrożeniem tej sosny jest choroba wywoływana przez lęgniowca z gatunku Phytophthora cinnamomi.
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Pinus echinata
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portughèis
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fornì da wikipedia PT
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
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portughèis
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fornì da wikipedia PT
Pinus echinata é uma espécie de pinheiro originária do Novo Mundo. Faz parte do grupo de espécies de pinheiros com área de distribuição no Canadá e Estados Unidos da América (com excepção das àreas adjacentes à fronteira com o México).
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Pinus echinata
(
ucrain
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fornì da wikipedia UK
Поширення, екологія
Країни поширення: США (Алабама, Арканзас, Коннектикут, Делавер, Округ Колумбія, Флорида, Джорджія, Кентуккі, Луїзіана, Меріленд, Міссісіпі, Міссурі, Нью-Джерсі, Нью-Йорк, Північна Кароліна, Огайо, Пенсильванія, Південна Кароліна, Теннессі, Техас, Вірджинія , Західна Вірджинія).
Опис
Щільність деревини: 0.47 гр/см3. Дерева до 40 м заввишки; стовбур до 1,2 м діаметром, прямий. Крона округлюється до конічної. Кора червоно-коричнева, луската, пластини з явними смоляними кишеньками. 2-річні гілочки тонкі (близько 5 мм або менше), від зеленувато-коричневого до червоно-коричневого кольору, часто сизі, зі старінням стають від червоно-коричневого до сірого кольору, шорсткими. Голки по 2 (3) в пучку, залишаються 3-5 років, розміром (5) 7-11 (13) см х бл. 1 мм, прямі, злегка деформовані, від сірого до жовто-зеленого кольору. Пилкові шишки циліндричні, 15-20 мм завдовжки, від жовто- до блідо пурпурно-зеленого кольору. Насіннєві шишки одиночні або кластерні, симетричні, ланцетні або вузько яйцеподібні перед відкриттям й овально-конічні, коли відкриті, довжиною 4-6 (7) см, червоно-коричневі, при старінні сірі, майже сидячі або на стеблах 1 см. Насіння еліпсоїдне; тіло бл. 6 мм, сірого до майже чорного кольору; крило 12-16 мм. 2n = 24.
Використання
Ця сосна є важливим промисловим видом хвойних на пд.-сх. США. Деревина відрізняється чудовою якістю, з помаранчевою або жовтувато-коричневою серцевиною і вершково-жовтою заболонню. Має широке використання.
Загрози та охорона
Немає загроз для цього виду. Вид присутній в кількох охоронних територіях.
Посилання
Галерея
Гілка з голками та молодих шишками
Це незавершена стаття про родину Соснові.
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Pinus echinata
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Pinus echinata là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được Mill. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1768.[1]
Chú thích
Liên kết ngoài
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Pinus echinata: Brief Summary
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Pinus echinata là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được Mill. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1768.
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Сосна короткохвойная
(
russ; russi
)
fornì da wikipedia русскую Википедию
Вид: Сосна короткохвойная
Международное научное название
Pinus echinata Mill., 1768
Ареал
Ареал на карте юго-востока
США
Систематика
на Викивидах
Изображения
на Викискладе ITIS 183335NCBI 71631EOL 1033598GRIN t:262913IPNI 262913-1TPL kew-2561909 Сосна короткохвойная (лат. Pinus echinata) — североамериканский вид растений рода Сосна (Pinus) семейства Сосновые (Pinaceae).
Ботаническое описание
Сосна короткохвойная — дерево до 40 м в высоту, ствол которого достигает 1,2 м в диаметре, с округлой или конической кроной. Кора красно-коричневая, чешуйчатая. Молодые ветки красно-бурые или зеленовато-коричневые, затем темнеющие.
Почки красно-коричневые, покрытые смолой, яйцевидные или цилиндрические, до 1 см.
Хвоя сохраняющаяся на протяжении 3—5 лет. Хвоинки собранные в пучки обычно по 2, реже по 3, до 13 см длиной, прямые, различных оттенков жёлто- или серо-зелёного цвета; края хвоинок зазубренные.
Мужские стробилы цилиндрической формы, не более 2 см длиной, жёлто-зелёного или фиолетово-зелёного цвета. Женские стробилы двулетние, незрелые — узко-ланцетовидные или яйцевидные, затем раскрывающиеся и становящиеся яйцевидными или коническими, красно-коричневого цвета, затем сереющие, 4—7 см длиной. Чешуйки жёсткие, с острой верхушкой.
Семена эллиптической формы, 6 мм, тёмно-серые, иногда почти чёрные, с крылом до 1,6 см.
Число хромосом — 2n = 24.
Ареал
Сосна короткохвойная распространена в юго-восточной части Северной Америки. Северная граница естественного ареала — юго-восток Нью-Йорка, Нью-Джерси и Пенсильвания. Южная граница — север Флориды. В южной части материка ареал сосны короткохвойной заходит на запад до Миссури, Оклахомы и Техаса.
Таксономия
Синонимы
-
Pinus lutea Lodd. ex Gordon, 1858, nom. inval.
-
Pinus mitis Michx., 1803
-
Pinus mitis var. paupera Alph.Wood, 1861
-
Pinus royleana Jameson ex Lindl., 1855
-
Pinus squarrosa Walter, 1788
-
Pinus taeda var. echinata (Mill.) Castigl., 1790
-
Pinus taeda var. variabilis Aiton, 1789
-
Pinus variabilis (Aiton) Lamb., 1803
-
Pinus virginiana var. echinata (Mill.) Du Roi, 1771
Примечания
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Сосна короткохвойная: Brief Summary
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fornì da wikipedia русскую Википедию
Сосна короткохвойная (лат. Pinus echinata) — североамериканский вид растений рода Сосна (Pinus) семейства Сосновые (Pinaceae).
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萌芽松
(
cinèis
)
fornì da wikipedia 中文维基百科
二名法 Pinus echinataMill. 
在北美洲的天然分布範圍（綠色）
萌芽松（学名：Pinus echinata）是松科松属的植物，原生長於北美洲東部，目前已由人工引种栽培。可長至20至30米高。
参考文献
- 昆明植物研究所. 萌芽松. 《中国高等植物数据库全库》. 中国科学院微生物研究所. [2009-02-25]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-05）.
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萌芽松: Brief Summary
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fornì da wikipedia 中文维基百科
萌芽松（学名：Pinus echinata）是松科松属的植物，原生長於北美洲東部，目前已由人工引种栽培。可長至20至30米高。
エキナタマツ
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fornì da wikipedia 日本語
エキナタマツ: Brief Summary
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Giaponèis
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fornì da wikipedia 日本語
エキナタマツ（エキナタ松、学名: Pinus echinata）とは、マツ科マツ属の常緑高木。
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