Larval Eurycea wilderae usually feed at night on various aquatic invertebrates. These invertebrates feed on detritus and therefore limiting detritus does affect the food availability for Eurycea wilderae. The invertebrates they eat include copepods, cladocerans, chironomids, nematodes, and terrestrial insects. Adults in this species eat more terrestrial organisms, but specifics have not been studied.
Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; terrestrial worms; other marine invertebrates
Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )
Eurycea wilderae larvae are preyed upon by spring salamanders and black-bellied salamanders. Common garter snakes prey on both larvae and adults.
Eurycea wilderae does, however, have the ability to sense a predator's arrival or can detect a harmed Eurycea wilderae through chemical sensing. Their cryptic dorsal mottling likely aids in camouflage within leaf litter and streams.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Eurycea wilderae are lungless salamanders and therefore have nasolabial grooves below each nostril. Most individuals feature fleshy extensions of the upper lip that encompass these nasolabial grooves, also known as cirri.
Eurycea wilderae have two very distinct male sexual morphologies: morph wilderae males and morph A males. These two morphologies differ in their mental hedonic (lower jaw) glands, premaxillary teeth, cirria, and temporal musculature. The male wilderae have a mental hedonic gland, seasonally larger premaxillary teeth, cirri, and smaller temporal musculature, while the morph A lacks many of these characteristics and has larger temporal musculature. They do not have different habitats and they do appear very similar in appearance.
These slender salamanders range in length from 7 to 10.7 cm with a tail that makes up 55 to 60% of this total length. They are bright yellow-orange in color with two dorsolateral stripes running down the back. Between the two dorsolateral stripes, the dorsal area features many small, black spots from nose to tail. The sides are mottled with significant amounts of irregular, black spots as well. The number of costal grooves varies by elevation; populations below 1,200 meters feature 14, whereas populations above feature 15 or 16 grooves.
Eurycea wilderae was originally thought to be a subspecies of the larger Eurycea bislineata, but is now recognized as its own species. Eurycea wilderae is brighter in color (yellow to orange) than the browner Eurycea cirrigea and other relatives with long striped tails.
Range length: 7 to 10.7 cm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; sexes shaped differently
the average lifespan of Eurycea wilderae is estimated at 4.4 years, but few individuals live longer than 5 years and none have been documented older than 10 years. Factors that affect survival are poorly understood.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 4 to 10 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 4.4 years.
Adult Eurycea wilderae can be found in either forest (terrestrial) or streams (aquatic) depending on the time of year and whether they are mating. Usually they prefer the undersides of logs and other slightly damp locations when on land, but return to streams for mating. In the late winter, both males and females are found in streams, usually under rocks or logs, where they will mate and the female will lay her eggs. Blue Ridge two-lined salamanders require streams with suitable, submerged substrate (rocks) to oviposit under. Outside of the breeding season, many adults search out terrestrial burrows, undersides of logs, or other cover objects.
All juvenile Eurycea wilderae spend at least one year in a stream for development. Thus, juveniles are found in or near streams, generally under rocks, logs, or leaf litter.
This species selects habitats at an average 1,200 meters above sea level.
Average elevation: 1,200 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; mountains
Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams
Other Habitat Features: riparian
Eurycea wilderae is predominantly found in the Nearctic region. Its range includes the Blue Ridge mountains, Cumberland mountains, and the Cumberland Plateau. It is one of the most common salamanders of the Great Smokey Mountains. They are found in the United States in the states of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Virginia.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
Eurycea wilderae belongs in a detritus-based ecosystem. They are limited by detritus because the marine invertebrates that they eat consume detritus. Furthermore, Eurycea wilderae serves as prey for two other salamanders, Gyrinophilus porphyriticus and Desmognathus quadramaculatus.
There are no known host species of this species. Eurycea cirrigea, a closely related species, is used as a keystone species where they cycle nutrients in forest communities. However, this is speculative and may not be accurate for Eurycea wilderae.
Eurycea wilderae does not provide any economic importance for humans.
There are no known negative effects of Eurycea wilderae on humans.
Eggs are placed on the underside of stream logs or in other wet depositories. After approximately 1 to 2 years, in the late spring or early summer, larvae undergo metamorphosis. This time varies according to water temperature and type of stream. Larvae of these salamanders are yellow with a dorso-lateral stripe that is dashed and contains 3 rows of unpigmented lateral line spots.
After metamorphosis, juveniles usually remain in streamside habitats for some time before they spawn. They are usually found in streams or around them for the following 3 to 4 years before they are fully sexually mature, but there have been instances where they are mature by 2 years.
First year larvae usually go downstream and adults who are ready to spawn move upstream to do so.
Sex of these species, can be determined by the cirri as well as swollen, mental hedonic glands which are located under the lower jaw. During the breeding season, some males exhibit broad heads from these swollen glands. There are two morphs in males and one female morph that can breed with either of the two male morphs.
Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis
Eurycea wilderae is not currently considered a threatened species, and the IUCN Red List considers this species to be of least concern. However, pollution, deforestation and other human threats to their aquatic and terrestrial habitats could affect populations.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Some of the senses that are highly developed in Eurycea wilderae are used to help them distinguish between mating with their own species versus southern two-lined salamanders. The mating process involves tactile as well as chemical simulation. Eurycea wilderae, unlike the other related salamanders, does not partake in visual stimulation by fluttering movements of the forelimbs.
Information on how Eurycea wilderae perceives the environment is not well documented, but they likely perceive visual, tactile, and chemical stimuli.
Communication Channels: tactile ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical
Courtship in Blue Ridge two-lined salamanders is not well documented. The presence of nasolabial grooves, which are lined with glands, and mental hedonic glands suggests that pheromones play a role in reproduction.
Eurycea wilderae gather at mating sites from October through April.
There may be a correlation between having premaxillary teeth and hedonic mental and tail glands in courtship. Enlarged premaxillary teeth may be correlated with a mental hedonic gland where the teeth scrape the female's skin allowing the male's mental hedonic gland to secrete a substance that can easily enter the female's circulatory system.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Eggs are laid anywhere from early in the year to mid summer depending on the elevation. Clutch size may vary between populations, as some populations have been found to lay 8 to 34 while others lay 28 to 56. Clutches as large as 87 eggs have been reported, but this is likely a mass laid by several females.
After the eggs are fertilized, the larvae undergo metamorphosis after one to two years. Eurycea wilderae larvae usually eat invertebrates and are considered top predators in many of their habitats, but are preyed on by two other salamander species. The larvae length ranges from 11 to 18 mm, with an average of 16.7 mm.
After this metamorphosis, the juveniles live in streams and reach sexual maturity at 3 to 4 years of age.
Breeding interval: Eurycea wilderae breeds once yearly.
Breeding season: Eurycea wilderae breeds from February to July.
Range number of offspring: 8 to 56.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 to 4 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3 to 4 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 to 4 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 to 4 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); oviparous
As far as is documented in any scientific literature, some mothers stay to guard their eggs but no additional information exists.
Parental Investment: pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)
The Blue Ridge two-lined salamander (Eurycea wilderae) is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae, endemic to the United States. This species is found in the southern Appalachian Mountains, mostly south of Virginia. To the north is a similar salamander, Eurycea bislineata, or the northern two-lined salamander. Its genus, Eurycea contains 33 species and includes taxa that have either a metamorphic life cycle or larval-form paedomorphosis. In species that metamorphose, there can be within-and among-population variation in larval life-history characteristics, e.g., duration of the larval period and size at metamorphosis. Intraspecific geographic variation in species of Eurycea has been attributed to several factors: temperature, stream order and productivity of the larval habitat. [2]
Adult Blue Ridge two-lined salamanders are commonly found near stream banks. The larvae are aquatic, living in streams and seeps. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, rivers, intermittent rivers, and freshwater springs. It is threatened by habitat loss. This species is named after zoologist Inez Whipple Wilder, who studied biology of Eurycea species.[3] These amphibians are listed by the IUCN as a species of least concern for conservation.
The Blue Ridge two-lined salamander ranges in size from 2 3/4 - 4 1/2 inches (7-10.7 cm) and ranges in color from bright yellow, yellow-orange, to orange. There are two black dorsolateral lines that usually break into dots or blotches around the middle of the tail. There are often scattered black dots on the back. The Blue Ridge two-lined salamander has a relatively long tail as it is between 55-60% of the total length. There are generally 14 to 16 costal grooves, based on elevation. At a lower elevation, 14 costal grooves is more common. Nasolabial grooves, also known as cirri, are common.[4]
The Blue Ridge two-lined salamander is an external fertilizer. Its oviposition usually occurs during late winter or early spring months.[5] The female deposits eggs under rocks, logs, or leaves in water which they will then guard until the eggs hatch. Hatchlings emerge with external gills and spend around 2 years fully aquatic larvae before transforming into adults. [6]When the larvae begin to metamorphosize is largely dependent on temperature and food availability. Those exposed to higher temperature will metamorphosize sooner. In contrast those that had more food grew a lot larger and waited longer before metamorphosizing. [7] Evidence suggests direct-development was the ancestral form of development, with the metamorphic life cycle being an example of metamorphic deceleration.[8]
There is sexual dimorphism between two types of males: searching males and guarding males. Searching males have cirri, mental glands, and protruding premaxillary teeth, which are adapted for locating and courting females in terrestrial habitats. Guarding males lack these characteristics and instead have seasonally enlarged jaw musculature adapted for defending females at aquatic nesting sites.[9]
The Blue Ridge two-lined salamanders have been reported to the southern Appalachian Mountain range (Sever 1920). Within those mountains they will be found along streams and forested habitat. The mating season will usually determine if they are discovered in more of a terrestrial or aquatic habitat. It is not well documented if this species migrates further than from terrestrial to aquatic habitats. They are lungless and require environments that are moist and cool (Crawford 2016). The streams that are more suitable for the Blue Ridge two- lined salamander contain submerged substrate to oviposit. When this salamander is not breeding they will burrow, typically under logs and leaf litter.
Their diet is very similar to other terrestrial salamanders. Both the aquatic juveniles and terrestrial adults have been documented eating copepods, midge larvae, nematodes, and both aquatic and terrestrial insects. The size of the prey items depends on the salamander's size and growth rate. [10]
Spring salamanders, garter snakes, black-bellied salamanders, and other larger plethodontids prey upon larval and adult Blue Ridge two-lined salamanders. The adults can use chemical sensing to detect predators (Gandhi and Cecala 2016). It was found in a study that even with the presence black bellied salamander predators (visually or detected by scent), the use of rocks for cover was not utilized by adults (Sever 1920).
Adult Blue Ridge two-lined salamander primary diet consists of terrestrial organisms such as non insect arthropods, worms, and marine invertebrates. The larvae will feed primarily on aquatic macroinvertebrates and some terrestrial insects (Johnson and Wallace 2005).
To avoid competition and predation, stream salamanders such as the Blue Ridge two-lined salamander will segregate spacelly within terrestrial habitats. In a study on, Trade-off between Desiccation and Predation Risk, the Blue Ridge Two-lined occurred between 15- 20 m from the stream edge risking desiccation because the environment is less suitable due to drier environmental conditions rather than posible predation (Crawford 2016). Most of the competition is based on their size.
Crawford, John A. “Trade-off between Desiccation and Predation Risk in the Blue Ridge Two-Lined Salamander (Eurycea Wilderae).” Copeia, vol. 104, no. 1, [American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists (ASIH), Allen Press], 2016, pp. 21–25, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44972594. Gandhi, Jaina S., and Kristen K. Cecala. “Interactive Effects of Temperature and Glyphosate on the Behavior of Blue Ridge Two-Lined Salamanders (Eurycea Wilderae).” Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol. 35, no. 9, 2016, pp. 2297–2303., https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3398. Sever, David M. Eurycea Wilderae Dunn, 1920 e Blue Ridge Two Lined Salamander D. 1920, https://www2.southeastern.edu/Academics/Faculty/dsever/Sever_2005_Ewilderae.pdf.
Brent R Johnson and J Bruce Wallace. Bottom-up limitation of a stream salamander in a detritus-based food web. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 62(2): 301-311. https://doi.org/10.1139/f04-197
The Blue Ridge two-lined salamander (Eurycea wilderae) is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae, endemic to the United States. This species is found in the southern Appalachian Mountains, mostly south of Virginia. To the north is a similar salamander, Eurycea bislineata, or the northern two-lined salamander. Its genus, Eurycea contains 33 species and includes taxa that have either a metamorphic life cycle or larval-form paedomorphosis. In species that metamorphose, there can be within-and among-population variation in larval life-history characteristics, e.g., duration of the larval period and size at metamorphosis. Intraspecific geographic variation in species of Eurycea has been attributed to several factors: temperature, stream order and productivity of the larval habitat.
Adult Blue Ridge two-lined salamanders are commonly found near stream banks. The larvae are aquatic, living in streams and seeps. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, rivers, intermittent rivers, and freshwater springs. It is threatened by habitat loss. This species is named after zoologist Inez Whipple Wilder, who studied biology of Eurycea species. These amphibians are listed by the IUCN as a species of least concern for conservation.
Eurycea wilderae Eurycea generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Plethodontidae familian sailkatuta dago, Caudata ordenan.
Eurycea wilderae Eurycea generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Plethodontidae familian sailkatuta dago, Caudata ordenan.
Eurycea wilderae est une espèce d'urodèles de la famille des Plethodontidae[1].
Cette espèce est endémique du sud des Appalaches aux États-Unis[1]. Elle se rencontre :
Sa présence est incertaine dans le nord de l'Alabama.
Cette espèce est nommée en l'honneur d'Inez Luanne Whipple Wilder (1871-1929)[2].
Eurycea wilderae est une espèce d'urodèles de la famille des Plethodontidae.
Eurycea wilderae é uma espécie de salamandra da família Plethodontidae.
É endémica dos Estados Unidos da América.
Os seus habitats naturais são: florestas temperadas, rios, rios intermitentes e nascentes de água doce.[1]
Está ameaçada por perda de habitat.[1]
Eurycea wilderae é uma espécie de salamandra da família Plethodontidae.
É endémica dos Estados Unidos da América.
Os seus habitats naturais são: florestas temperadas, rios, rios intermitentes e nascentes de água doce.
Está ameaçada por perda de habitat.
Eurycea wilderae (tên tiếng Anh: Blue Ridge Two-lined Salamander) là một loài kỳ giông trong họ Plethodontidae. Nó là loài đặc hữu của Hoa Kỳ.
Các môi trường sống tự nhiên của chúng là các khu rừng ôn hòa, sông, sông có nước theo mùa, và suối nước ngọt. Nó bị đe dọa do mất môi trường sống. Eurycea wilderae, the Blue Ridge Two-lined salamander, được tìm thấy ở miền nam Appalachian Mountains, mostly phía nam of Virginia. To the phía bắc là một similar salamander, Eurycea bislineata, hoặc miền bắc two-lined salamander. Adult Blue Ridge Two-lined salamanders are commonly near stream banks. Larvae are aquatic, living in streams and seeps.
These amphibians are listed by the IUCN as a species of least concern for conservation.
Phương tiện liên quan tới Eurycea wilderae tại Wikimedia Commons
Bài viết Bộ Có đuôi này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn. Eurycea wilderae (tên tiếng Anh: Blue Ridge Two-lined Salamander) là một loài kỳ giông trong họ Plethodontidae. Nó là loài đặc hữu của Hoa Kỳ.
Các môi trường sống tự nhiên của chúng là các khu rừng ôn hòa, sông, sông có nước theo mùa, và suối nước ngọt. Nó bị đe dọa do mất môi trường sống. Eurycea wilderae, the Blue Ridge Two-lined salamander, được tìm thấy ở miền nam Appalachian Mountains, mostly phía nam of Virginia. To the phía bắc là một similar salamander, Eurycea bislineata, hoặc miền bắc two-lined salamander. Adult Blue Ridge Two-lined salamanders are commonly near stream banks. Larvae are aquatic, living in streams and seeps.
These amphibians are listed by the IUCN as a species of least concern for conservation.
