The functions of kinkajou vocalizations have been poorly studied, yet there are a wide variety of vocalizations attributed to them (Ford and Hoffmann 1988). Kinkajous in social situations vocalize for less than 30 seconds upon first meeting a fellow group member (Kays and Gittleman 2001). Hissing and screaming are thought to occur during aggressive situations, as was described in a captive population (Kays and Gittleman 2001). The most common call is explained as a two-part snort-weedle consisting of a “quick snort sound, followed by a variable number of weedle vocalizations” (Kays and Gittleman 2001, pp. 497). That call has been observed in both solitary and social situations. Other recorded vocalizations have included barks, chirps, squeaks, nasal grunts, whistles, and clicking (in the case of a captive female during oestrus) (Ford and Hoffmann 1988).
Scent marking is important for sexual, territorial and social communication. These often involve marking tree branches using mandibular, throat, and abdominal glands. Kinkajous seem to rely on auditory and olfactory cues to communicate with one another.
Communication Channels: tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Habitat destruction caused by humans has decreased the range and population size of kinkajous. Deforestation probably accounts for the majority of the habitat destruction. Kinkajous are also harvested for their soft pelts and flavorful meat, which can make them susceptible to over-harvest. They are difficult to study so population estimates are probably inaccurate.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: appendix iii
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Kinkajous do not seem to seriously impact humans and are rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits, but they have been known to be a nuisance on coconut plantations where they eat immature fruits (Kays, personal communication).
Negative Impacts: crop pest
Kinkajous are economically important in the pet and fur trades. Hundreds of live animals and skins are exported each year from Peru (Ford and Hoffmann 1988). They also provide meat for local people. Ecologically, kinkajous contribute to the health of forest ecosystems through seed dispersal and pollination.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food ; body parts are source of valuable material
Kinkajous are active seed dispersers and possibly pollinators as well. Their frugivorous diet means that they consume large quantities of seeds, and most seeds seem to pass through their digestive system intact (Julien-Laferrière, 2001). In one study, seeds that were defecated by kinkajous germinated faster than those that were cleaned or intact (Julien-Laferrière, 2001). Kinkajous may also act as plant pollinators. Field observations have found that kinkajous will occasionally feed on nectar using their long tongues, and in the process collect a face-load of pollen that they disperse to other plants (Kays 1999).
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates
Potos flavus is a primarily opportunistic frugivore that feeds on a variety of plant species in several families according to seasonal abundance (Julien-Laferrière, 2001). Fruit selection seems to be based on abundance and accessibility to edible parts rather than color, size, nutritional value, seed content, or general morphology of the fruits (Julien-Laferrière, 2001). Fruits are mostly ingested when ripe, but some observations show that kinkajous will also consume unripe fruits of particular species. Several studies have suggested that figs are an important part of the kinkajou diet and can make up as much as half of the diet. Figs are important to many frugivores throughout the tropics because of abundance and year-round availability (Janzen, 1979). Fig preference may also be attributed to a high nutrient content, especially calcium, relative to other tropical fruiting species (Kays, 1999).
Kinkajous spend much of the night foraging solitarily in fruit trees. However, occasional feeding pairs have been observed and contain mainly male pairs or females with offspring (Kays 1999). Kinkajous may use known trail systems to return to familiar fruit trees (Ford and Hoffmann, 1988).
Kinkajous possess a curiously long, extensible tongue that has lead many to believe they also feed on small insects or nectar. Some studies have shown that, in certain populations and during particular seasons, insects can account for a significant portion of their diet. Ants are especially well represented and have led some to believe that kinkajous should also be considered myrmecophagous (Redford 1989). Most data seem to support the idea that kinkajous are primarily frugivorous but will supplement their diet with insects, flowers, and nectar depending on seasonal availability.
Animal Foods: insects
Plant Foods: fruit; nectar; flowers
Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )
Kinkajous are distributed in neotropical forest regions from southern Tamaulipas, Mexico to southern Brazil.
Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )
Kinkajous live in a variety of forest habitats including tropical dry forest, secondary forest, Amazonian rainforest, Atlantic coastal forest, tropical evergreen forest and forests of the savannah region in Suriname. They are rarely found in palm jungle, cloud forests or thorn forests (Ford and Hoffmann 1988). Habitat requirements have not been fully investigated.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest
Very little in known about the average life span in the wild, but they appear to be quite long-lived based on their low reproductive rates, low predation risks, and evidence from captive animals.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 40 (high) years.
Typical lifespan
Status: captivity: 20 to 40 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 29.0 years.
Potos flavus is in the carnivoran family Procyonidae (raccoons, coatis, and their relatives). Kinkajous have distinctive features that at one time were used to place them in the order Primates as Lemur flavus. Kinkajous are arboreal and possess many adaptations common to arboreal species, such as a long, fully prehensile tail, nimble clawed fingers, and fully reversible hind feet. During terrestrial locomotion, captive kinkajous exhibit a variety of unpredictable footfall patterns yet remain graceful and feline-like when moving. Kinkajous are considered “adept yet deliberate climbers” (McClearn 1992, p. 254). They utilize their extreme spinal flexibility to maneuver among the tree limbs and obtain food at terminal branches. This flexibility, which allows for a rotation of 180º between the pelvis and head, is a unique trait that distinguishes kinkajous from their close relatives, the coatis and raccoons (McClearn 1992).
Kinkajous are medium-sized (2.0 to 4.6 kg) with a thick and woolly, honey-brown pelage, though different color morphs have been observed in some regions (Ford and Hoffmann 1989). They have elongated bodies with short legs, a rounded head with large eyes, a small muzzle, and round ears. A recent study on the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of carnivores, reported a BMR for kinkajous of 447.71 kJ/day (Munoz-Garcia and Williams 2005). Kinkajous are particularly well known for hanging upside-down while feeding, using their prehensile tail and hind legs for support while holding small fruits in a one-handed grasp (McClearn 1992). Little sexual dimorphism exists between males and females; however, males are known to have slightly larger canines and minor differences in skull morphology (Ford and Hoffmann 1988).
Range mass: 2.0 to 4.6 kg.
Range length: 820 to 1,330 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; male larger
Average basal metabolic rate: 4.294 W.
Predation threats for kinkajous are relatively low because of their arboreality and nocturnal feeding strategy. Most predation probably occurs during the day when kinkajous are sleeping in their dens. Aerial raptors like Isidor’s eagles (Oroaetus isidori) and harpy eagles (Harpia harpyja) have been observed consuming kinkajous. Jaguars (Panthera onca) are also known to occasionally eat kinkajous. However, the primary kinkajou predator is humans. Kinkajous make good pets and their thick, soft fur makes them a valued commodity in commerce (Ford and Hoffmann, 1988). Also, kinkajou meat is supposedly delicious and hundreds are exported dead or alive from South America each year (Ford and Hoffmann, 1988).
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Originally, kinkajous were thought to be a solitary species that rarely exhibited sociality, but behavioral studies have revealed complex social interactions and an unusual mating system (Kays and Gittleman 2001). Kinkajous exhibit both a polygamous and polyandrous mating system. Two males, a single female, and offspring often comprise a typical social group. The system is considered polygamous because dominant males mate with the female of their home group, as well as any other females living on the periphery of the home territory and unrelated to another group (Kays 2003). Most copulation is done by the dominant male, but occasionally the subordinate male is allowed to copulate with the home group female (Kays and Gittleman 2001; Kays 2003). Genetic analysis of paternity supports the hypothesis that the dominant male monopolizes fertilizations (Kays, Gittleman, and Wayne 2000).
During observed copulatory events, male kinkajous spent several hours following the female in oestrus, zigzagging over multiple hectares. Scent glands seem to be used for sexual stimulation (Ford and Hoffmann 1988) and territorial marking. The subordinate male often follows closely, vocalizing and picking fights with the dominant male. Other observations have shown that both males occasionally copulate with the group female without displays of aggression. After copulation, the male and female disperse to different areas, probably to feed (Kays and Gittleman 2001).
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Females are in oestrus for up to 17 days, with a peak breeding season that varies among geographic groups. Kinkajous are able to breed year-round, but seem to be roughly synchronized into a localized breeding season that is probably tied to local fruit production (Kays, personal communication).
Breeding interval: Oestrus length is approximately 17 days, females receptive for 2 days.
Breeding season: Polyoestrus, geographically variable breeding season.
Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.
Range gestation period: 98 to 120 days.
Average weaning age: 8 weeks.
Average time to independence: 4 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 820 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 550 days.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
Average birth mass: 175 g.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 550 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 820 days.
Female kinkajous are the primary providers of parental care. The males do not provide any direct care but are not aggressive toward young and have been found to regularly share fruiting trees and day dens, and will occasionally play with the pups. Parental investment is mostly associated with the unusually long gestation and lactation periods. Gestation and lactation last for a total of about eight months. Litters typically contain one pup, and, once weaned, females will often ‘park’ their offspring in a nearby tree while feeding (Kays and Gittleman 2001; Kays 2003). Females are especially voracious feeders when reproductively active due to the high costs of lactation and gestation. The high energy demands mean that it may be difficult for females to maintain total caloric intake, as well as satisfy specific nutrient requirements (Kays 2003).
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female); post-independence association with parents; inherits maternal/paternal territory
The kinkajou (/ˈkɪŋkədʒuː/ KING-kə-joo; Potos flavus) is a tropical rainforest mammal of the family Procyonidae related to olingos, coatis, raccoons, and the ringtail and cacomistle. It is the only member of the genus Potos and is also known as the "honey bear" (a name that it shares with the unrelated sun bear). Kinkajous are arboreal, a lifestyle they evolved independently; they are not closely related to any other tree-dwelling mammal group (primates, some mustelids, etc.).
Native to Central and South America, this mostly frugivorous mammal is not an endangered species, though it is seldom seen by people because of its strict nocturnal habits. However, it is hunted for the pet trade, for its skin (to make wallets and horse saddles), and for its meat. The species has been included in Appendix III of CITES by Honduras, which means that exports from Honduras require an export permit, and exports from other countries require a certificate of origin or of re-export. They may live up to 40 years in captivity.
The common name "kinkajou" derives from French: quincajou, based on the Algonquian name for the wolverine. It is similar to the Ojibwe word kwi·nkwaʔa·ke.[3][4] Its other names in English include honey bear, night ape, and night walker. Throughout its range, several regional names are used; for instance, the Dutch names nachtaap, rolbeer, and rolstaartbeer are used in Suriname. Many names come from Portuguese, Spanish, and local dialects, such as jupará, huasa, cuchi cuchi, leoncillo, marta, perro de monte, and yapará.[2][5]
A. M. Husson, of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie (Leiden), discussed the rather complicated nomenclature of the kinkajou in The Mammals of Suriname (1978).[5] In his 1774 work Die Säugethiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur, Schreber listed three items under the name "Lemur flavus Penn.": on page 145 is a short translation of Pennant's description of the yellow maucauco (later identified to be Lemur mongoz, presently known as the mongoose lemur) from his 1771 work A Synopsis of Quadrupeds (page 138, second figure on plate 16); on plate 42 is a depiction of the yellow maucauco by Schreber; the last item is a reference to A Synopsis of Quadrupeds itself.[6] Husson noted that the last item is actually Pennant's description of an animal that is clearly a kinkajou. Husson therefore concluded that Lemur flavus is actually a "composite species" based on Schreber's specimen of the mongoose lemur and Pennant's specimen of the kinkajou, and identified the latter as the lectotype for the species.[7] The type locality reported by Schreber for L. flavus ("the mountains in Jamaica") was clearly based on Pennant's description of the kinkajou, who claimed, however, that his specimen was "shown about three years ago in London: its keeper said it came from the mountains of Jamaica".[5] This error was pointed out by Thomas in 1902, who corrected the type locality to Suriname. He used the name Potos flavus for the kinkajou.[8] The genus Potos was erected by Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier in 1795, with the type species Viverra caudivolvula described by Schreber in 1778 (later identified as a synonym of Potos flavus).[2][9] In 1977 the family Cercoleptidae was proposed with the kinkajou as the sole member, but this classification was later dismissed.[2][10]
Costa Rica (clade 1)
Northern Brazil and the Guianas (clade 2)
Ecuador and Panama (clade 4)
Northern Peru (clade 3)
Interfluves; Bolivia, western Brazil and Peru; eastern Atlantic forest (clade 5)
The five clades within P. flavus[11]Eight subspecies have been proposed (type localities are listed alongside):[2][12]
A 2016 phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial gene cytochrome b analyzed kinkajou specimens from a variety of locations throughout most of their range. The results showed 27 haplotypes split into five clades corresponding to geographical divisions: Costa Rica (clade 1), northern Brazil and the Guianas (clade 2), northern Peru (clade 3), Ecuador and Panama (clade 4), interfluves between the Branco River and Rio Negro in the Brazilian Amazon, low-lying Amazonian areas (in Bolivia, western Brazil and Peru), and eastern Atlantic Forest (clade 5). Given the diverse clades, the researchers suggested that some of the subspecies might be independent species.[11]
A 2007 phylogenetic study showed that kinkajous form a basal lineage sister to the rest of the Procyonidae. They diverged 21.6–24 Mya. Two clades, one leading to Bassaricyon (olingos and the olinguito) plus Nasua (coatis), and one leading to Bassariscus (the ring-tailed cat and the cacomistle) plus Procyon (racoons), appeared subsequently and radiated during the Miocene (23.8 to 5.3 million years ago). Kinkajous are thought to have evolved in Central America and invaded South America as part of the Great American Interchange that followed the formation of the Isthmus of Panama.[13] The phylogenetic relationships obtained in the 2007 study are given below; these were supported by similar studies in the following years.[14][15][16]
ProcyonidaeBassaricyon (olingos and olinguito)
Procyon (raccoons)
Bassariscus (ring-tailed cat and cacomistle)
Potos (kinkajou)
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The kinkajou has a round head, large eyes, a short, pointed snout, short limbs, and a long prehensile tail. The total head-and-body length (including the tail) is between 82 and 133 cm (32 and 52 in), and the tail measures 39 to 57 cm (15 to 22 in).[2] Its mature weight ranges from 1.4 to 4.6 kg (3.1 to 10.1 lb). Females are generally smaller than males.[17] The short, rounded ears measure 3.6 to 5.4 cm (1.4 to 2.1 in). The eyes reflect green or bright yellow against light. The long, thick tongue is highly extrudable. The snout is dark brown to black. The claws are sharp and short.[2][17]
The coat color varies throughout the range and at different times of the year. Several shades such as tawny olive, wood brown, and yellowish tawny have been reported for the upper part of the coat and the upper side of the tail, while the underparts and the lower side of the tail have been observed to be buff, tawny, or brownish yellow. Some individuals have a black stripe running along the midline of the back.[2][17] The color seems to become lighter from the south to the north, though no seasonal trends have been observed.[2] The fur is short, woolly and dense.[18] Hairs are of two types - light yellowish and darker with brown tips. The darker hairs reflect light poorly relative to the lighter ones, often creating an illusion of spots and dark lines on the coat. The tail is covered with thick fur up to the end.[5]
The kinkajou is distinguished from other procyonids by its small, rounded ears, extensible tongue, and prehensile tail. Olingos are similar enough in appearance that many native cultures do not distinguish the two.[19] Compared to olingos, kinkajous are larger, have foreshortened muzzles, and lack anal scent glands (in addition to the previously described differences). The binturong, a Southeast Asian viverrid, has similar limb proportions and is the only other carnivoran with a prehensile tail. The kinkajou resembles neotropical monkeys in having a prehensile tail and big, forward-facing eyes, but has a different dentition and heavy fur on the soles of the feet.[2][17]
Kinkajous range from east and south of the Sierra Madre in Mexico, throughout Central America to Bolivia east of the Andes and the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil. Their altitudinal range is from sea level to 2,500 m. They are found in closed-canopy tropical forests, including lowland rainforest, montane forest, dry forest, gallery forest, and secondary forest. Deforestation is thus a potential threat to the species.[1]
Although the kinkajou is classified in the order Carnivora and has sharp teeth, its omnivorous diet consists mainly of fruit, particularly figs.[20] Some 90% of their diet consists of (primarily ripe) fruit. To eat softer fruits, they hold it with their forepaws, then scoop out the succulent pulp with their tongue. They may play an important role in seed dispersal. Leaves, flowers, nectar, and various herbs make up much of the other 10% of their diet.[21][22] They sometimes eat insects, particularly ants. They may occasionally eat bird eggs and small vertebrates.[21] Their frugivorous habits are actually convergent with those of (diurnal) spider monkeys.[21]
The kinkajou's slender 5-inch extrudable tongue helps the animal to obtain fruit and to lick nectar from flowers, so it sometimes acts as a pollinator. (Nectar is also sometimes obtained by eating entire flowers.) Although captive specimens avidly eat honey (hence the name "honey bear"), honey in the diet of wild kinkajous is not well reported.
Kinkajou spend most of their lives in trees, to which they are particularly well adapted.[23] Like raccoons, kinkajous' remarkable manipulatory abilities rival those of primates. The kinkajou has a short-haired, fully prehensile tail (like some New World monkeys), which it uses as a "fifth hand" in climbing. It does not use its tail for grasping food. It can rotate its ankles and feet 180°, making it easy for the animal to run backward over tree limbs and climb down trees headfirst.[23] Scent glands near the mouth, on the throat, and on the belly allow kinkajous to mark their territory and their travel routes. Kinkajous sleep in family units and groom one another.[24]
While they are usually solitary when foraging, they occasionally forage in large groups, and sometimes associate with olingos (which are also nocturnal arboreal frugivores).[25] The larger kinkajous are dominant and will drive olingos away when food is scarce.[19] Kinkajous have a much more extensive range than olingos and tend to be more common.[19] However, olingos may have greater agility,[19] perhaps facilitating their sympatry with kinkajous.
As a nocturnal animal, the kinkajou's peak activity is usually between about 7:00 pm and midnight, and again an hour before dawn. During daylight hours, kinkajous sleep in tree hollows or in shaded tangles of leaves, avoiding direct sunlight.
Kinkajous breed throughout the year, giving birth to one or occasionally two small babies after a gestation period of 112 to 118 days.
Kinkajous are sometimes kept as exotic pets. They are playful, generally quiet, docile, and have little odor, but they can occasionally be aggressive. Kinkajous dislike sudden movements, noise, and being awake during the day. An agitated kinkajou may emit a scream and attack, usually clawing its victim and sometimes biting deeply. In 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that pet kinkajous in the United States can be carriers (fecal–oral route) of the raccoon roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis, which is capable of causing severe morbidity and even death in humans if the brain is infected.[26]
In El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras, pet kinkajous are commonly called micoleón, meaning "lion monkey". In Peru, pet kinkajous are frequently referred to as lirón, often described as a "bear-monkey". These names reflect its monkey-like body and obviously carnivoran head.
They typically live about 23 years in captivity, with a maximum recorded lifespan of 41 years.[27]
The kinkajou (/ˈkɪŋkədʒuː/ KING-kə-joo; Potos flavus) is a tropical rainforest mammal of the family Procyonidae related to olingos, coatis, raccoons, and the ringtail and cacomistle. It is the only member of the genus Potos and is also known as the "honey bear" (a name that it shares with the unrelated sun bear). Kinkajous are arboreal, a lifestyle they evolved independently; they are not closely related to any other tree-dwelling mammal group (primates, some mustelids, etc.).
Native to Central and South America, this mostly frugivorous mammal is not an endangered species, though it is seldom seen by people because of its strict nocturnal habits. However, it is hunted for the pet trade, for its skin (to make wallets and horse saddles), and for its meat. The species has been included in Appendix III of CITES by Honduras, which means that exports from Honduras require an export permit, and exports from other countries require a certificate of origin or of re-export. They may live up to 40 years in captivity.
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