Red-backed Salamanders protect their limited food supply by marking out territories. This behavior occurs most often when moisture levels are low and the salamanders have to hide under logs or rocks. Both males and females leave scent marks on the ground as well as leaving their droppings. Other salamanders can learn a lot from these clues. They learn each others territorial boundaries, the size and importance of the salamanders that live in the area, and their identity, including whether or not they are related. When finding food is very hard due to dry conditions, adults who have their own territories will sometimes allow young salamanders that are related to them to use their territories. Intruders are also warned away by seeing the size of the salamander and watching it give threatening displays.
Red-backed salamanders may help control pest populations where they occur in high numbers.
Positive Impacts: controls pest population
Red-backed salamander habitat is rather pervasive, and they are common in most of their range. In the future, however, they could be effected by high levels of soil acidity through human-induced factors such as acid rain.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Red-backed salamanders lay eggs that develop directly into small salamanders. They do not have an aquatic larva stage, such as is found in other salamanders and most amphibians.
Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis
Red-backed salamanders play an important biological role in both providing food for their predators as well as consuming large numbers of invertebrates.
Red-backed salamanders feed on a large variety of invertebrates. These include mites, spiders, insects, centipedes, millipedes, beetles, snails, ants, earthworms, flies, and larvae. They forage by thrusting out their tongue in a quick, forward motion and capturing the prey. The physical environment determines food supply and foraging habits. During and shortly after rains is the optimal foraging time for P. cinereus. At these times the leaf litter on the forest floor as well as the forest vegetation is very moist. The salamanders wander throughout the leaf litter during the day and climb plants and trees at night to find prey, feeding on both ground-dwelling and arboreal invertebrates. As moisture decreases they are limited to the leaf litter, and as that subsequently dries up they eventually are restricted to areas under rocks or logs or in burrows that will continue to retain moisture. The decrease in moisture does not affect the availability of prey, but it limits the mobility of the salamanders due to their moisture requirements. Food levels are scarcer under logs or rocks and in burrows and the supply is easily exhaustible. Consequently, red-backed salamanders are pulse feeders that eat large amounts when conditions are favorable and store the extra nourishment as fat to live off of when conditions become poor. (Fraser 1976, Jaeger 1972, Jaeger 1980, Maglia 1996)
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats non-insect arthropods)
Eastern North America. The red-backed salamander's range extends west to Missouri; south to North Carolina; and north from southern Quebec and the Maritime Provinces in Canada to Minnesota (Conant 1975).
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
Red-backed salamanders are terrestrial, and live in deciduous forests throughout their geographic range. They are found in the leaf litter on the ground as well as under rocks, logs, or in small burrows. They must live in a moist environment, as they lack lungs and require moist skin for respiration. One habitat factor affecting red-backed salamanders is soil pH. P. cinereus, like many other amphibians, is negatively effected by high levels of acidity. Red-backed salamanders have been shown to exhibit the same primary response to acidic substrate as do amphibian larvae exposed to acidic water, disruption of their sodium balance. The chronically lethal pH level for P. cinereus is between 3 and 4, and they are rarely found on soils with a pH of 3.7 or lower. (Frisbie and Wyman 1991, Harding and Holman 1992, Horne 1988)
Habitat Regions: temperate
Terrestrial Biomes: forest
Wetlands: marsh ; swamp
While there is little information on lifespan in red-backed salamanders, other plethodontid salamanders can live for up to 32 years. Plethodon jordani has a mean generation time of 9.8 years, with 77% surviving to 10 years old. There is no reason to expect that red-backed salamanders can't also reach these ages.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 25 years.
Length: 5.7 to 12.7 cm.
The red-backed salamander has two different color phases. The "redback" phase consists of a gray or black body with a red or orange stripe down the back, extending from the neck onto the tail. The "leadback" phase lacks the red stripe, with a purely black or grey back instead. Its belly is a mottled white and gray in both phases, creating a salt and pepper pattern. Physically, P. Cinereus has 16 to 19 costal grooves, no circular constriction at the base of its tail, and it has five toes on its hind feet. These physical characteristics help to distinguish the red-backed salamander from other salamanders similar in appearance. No distinctions between males and females are noted. (Harding and Homan 1992, Conant 1975)
Range length: 5.7 to 12.7 cm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
Average mass: 0.5 g.
Average basal metabolic rate: 9.9e-05 W.
Red-backed salamanders make up an important food source for a wide variety of snakes, birds, and mammals. They have the ability to drop all or part of their tail if under attack from a predator and can grow a new one afterwards. The tail that grows back is often lighter in color than the original tail.
Known Predators:
Mating for red-backed salamanders occurs in the fall. Courtship consists of "the male secreting a substance from a gland on his chin that is rubbed on the female's head and nostrils to stimulate her to breed. Eventually he deposits a spermatophore that the female picks up with her cloaca to fertilize the eggs" (Harding and Holman, 1992). The female lays three to fourteen eggs the following spring. The eggs are laid in a cluster in subterranean cavities, usually naturally occurring cracks and crevices. Eggs can also be laid in or under rotting wood. The mother remains coiled around the egg cluster until they hatch. They are entirely terrestrial and do not have an aquatic larval stage. Young mature in approximately two years, after which males mate every year and females mate every other year.
(Block 1985, Fraser 1976, Harding and Holman 1992, Horne and Jaeger 1988).
Breeding interval: Red-backed salamanders become sexually mature (able to mate) in approximately two years. Males mate every year and females mate once every other year.
Breeding season: Fall
Range number of offspring: 3.0 to 14.0.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.0 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2.0 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); oviparous
Average number of offspring: 8.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 730 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 730 days.
The eggs are guarded by the mother until they hatch. Upon emerging from the egg, young salamanders are independent. Salamanders recognize their relatives through smell and although they are solitary, mothers will allow their young to stay in her foraging area.
Parental Investment: precocial ; female parental care
Plethodon cinereus is a small terrestrial salamander that is widespread across a large part of eastern North America and which can be an extremely abundant inhabitant of forest floors. It is known as the Eastern Red-Backed salamander because many individuals exhibit a finely mottled grey coloration, trending towards black towards the dorsum, but with a striking dorsal stripe that is typically red. However, many other individuals, often from the same population will lack this stripe (lead-backed phase). Additionally, other color patterns can occur, such as yellowish or grey dorsal stripes, or red over the entire body (e.g. Tilley et al 1982). During the day these salamanders can be found in moist locations beneath objects such as rocks and logs, within rotting logs, under leaf litter, and within soil (e.g. Ransom 2012), with individuals often emerging to the surface and even climbing vegetation at night during appropriate weather (Jaegar 1978, 1980).Reproduction occurs with clutches of eggs being laid in cavities during the early summer, and the female remaining with her eggs until hatching perhaps two months later (see Tornick 2010). This species can be active throughout the year, although they tend to avoid dry conditions, and may be less active during the summer (see Grasser and Smith 2014).
Studies of behavior have found some notable phenomena. For example, both male and female P. cinereus can show territorial behavior during breeding and non-breeding seasons, that can include unusual (for amphibians) behavior such as joint territorial defense by socially monogamous pairs during the breeding season (e.g. see Kohn et al., 2013). This social monogamy is also associated with unusual behaviors such as punishment of cheating (Jaeger et al., 2002). Females subsequently defend and maintain their egg clutches, and can remain with young for some time after hatching (e.g. see Leiebgold and Cabe 2008; Tornick 2010).
This species has also been well studied ecologically. Under appropriate conditions P. cinereus can be a very large component of the vertebrate community in terms of the number of individuals and biomass (e.g. Hairston 1996). As such they have significant ecological roles such as predators of small arthropods, and as a food source for many other animals. However, in some locations populations have declined, due notably to forest removal (Alford and Richards 1999), and perhaps more subtle phenomena such as a reduction in leaf litter and invertebrate prey by exotic earthworms (Maerz et al 2009). Several studies have also looked at the role of environmental acidity on this species (e.g. Moore and Wyman 2010).
The skin of P. cinereus hosts bacteria that convey protection from chytrid fungal infections (Becker and Harris 2010).
Ar sourd kein ruz (Plethodon cinereus) a zo un divelfenneg lostek hag a vev e reter Stadoù-Unanet Amerika ha Kanada.
Der Rotrücken-Waldsalamander (Plethodon cinereus), zuweilen auch als Nördlicher Rotrücken-Waldsalamander bezeichnet, ist ein in Nordamerika vorkommender Schwanzlurch aus der Familie der Lungenlosen Salamander (Plethodontidae). Im englischen Sprachgebrauch wird er zuweilen als eastern red-backed salamander oder northern red-backed salamander (Östlicher bzw. Nördlicher Rotrückensalamander) bezeichnet, um ihn von seiner im Süden vorkommenden Schwesterart zu unterscheiden. Der Artname leitet sich von dem lateinischen Wort cinereus mit der Bedeutung „aschgrau“ ab und dürfte sich auf eine Farbvariante des Salamanders beziehen.
Der Rotrücken-Waldsalamander ist die am häufigsten vorkommende Salamanderart in vielen Wäldern im Nordosten Nordamerikas. Er ist bekannt für seinen Farbpolymorphismus, der mehrere Farbphänotypen umfasst. Meist ist die Grundfarbe dunkel graubraun. Es kommen außer der häufigen, namensgebenden Farbvariation mit dem breit längsgestreiften roten Rücken auch dünn rötlich oder braun gestreifte oder überhaupt nicht gestreifte sowie asch- oder bleigraue Individuen vor. Außerdem treten nahezu gänzlich rote (erythristische), albinotische, leukistische, partiell leukistische sowie melanotische oder partiell melanotische Morphen sowie leicht silbrig oder goldmetallisch irisierende Tiere und außerdem Exemplare mit unterschiedlichen Augenfarben auf.[1] Die Individuen durchlaufen während ihres Lebens unterschiedliche Phasen, d. h. eine Phase mit einem grauen oder schwarzen Körper und mit einem roten oder orangefarbenen Streifen auf dem Rücken, der sich vom Nacken bis zum Schwanz erstreckt, die als Redback-phase (Rotrücken-Phase) bezeichnet wird. In der Leadback-phase (Bleifarbige Rücken-Phase) fehlt der rote Streifen, stattdessen ist der Rücken bleigrau oder schwarzbraun gefärbt. Die Körperunterseite ist in allen Farbvariationen weißlich oder hellgrau gefärbt und mit vielen schwärzlichen Sprenkeln versehen. Die Intensität der Sprenkelung kann bei den verschiedenen Formen jedoch erheblich variieren. Farblich unterscheiden sich die Geschlechter nicht. Die Körperoberfläche zeigt 17 bis 20 streifige Riefen, wodurch sich der Rotrücken-Waldsalamander von anderen Salamanderarten unterscheiden lässt.[2]
Ausgewachsene Rotrücken-Waldsalamander haben eine gestreckte, schlanke Gestalt und erreichen bei den Männchen eine Gesamtlänge von 58 bis 91 und bei den Weibchen von 64 bis 90 Millimetern. Bei dem größten bisher gefundenen Individuum wurde eine Gesamtlänge von 122 Millimetern gemessen.[2] Der Schwanz kann bei Angriffen durch Fressfeinde abgeworfen werden, wächst jedoch wieder nach. Der Querschnitt des Schwanzes ist über seine gesamte Länge nahezu kreisförmig. Regenerierende Schwänze sind jedoch seitlich abgeflacht und meist gleichmäßig dunkelgrau. Die Beine sind klein und kurze und haben eine hellgraue Farbe. An den Vorderfüßen befinden sich vier Finger, an den Hinterfüßen fünf Zehen.
Redback-Phase
Leadback-Phase
Form mit braunem Rücken
Seitenansicht
Der Südliche Rotrücken-Waldsalamander (Plethodon serratus) galt lange Zeit als Unterart des Rotrücken-Waldsalamanders. Die Art kommt südlich einer Linie Kansas City – St. Louis – Nashville – Charlotte vor. Nördlich davon lebt der Rotrücken-Waldsalamander.
Das Verbreitungsgebiet des Rotrücken-Waldsalamanders reicht von den kanadischen Seeprovinzen sowie dem Südosten von Québec und Ontario entlang der östlichen Staaten der USA bis nach North Carolina. Er ist auch in den Regionen um die Großen Seen heimisch. Die Salamander besiedeln schattige, feuchte Laubwälder. Sie halten sich in erster Linie in Laubstreu am Boden sowie unter Felsen, Baumstämmen oder in kleinen Höhlen auf. Sie sind auf eine feuchte Umgebung angewiesen, da ihnen Lungen fehlen und sie durch die feuchte Haut atmen.
Als wichtiger Lebensraumfaktor für die Tiere galt lange Zeit der pH-Wert des Bodens, da bei vielen Amphibienarten die Lebensqualität und Entwicklung durch einen hohen Säuregehalt negativ beeinflusst wird. Als Grenzwert wurde ein pH-Wert von 3,7 bis 3,8 ermittelt. Die Wälder Nordamerikas wurden jedoch jahrzehntelang mit sauren Ablagerungen belastet, die zu einer Versauerung des Bodens führten. Einige Amphibien weisen jedoch eine gewisse Säuretoleranz auf, was auf die Möglichkeit einer lokalen Anpassung auf Gebiete mit erhöhten Säurewerten hinweist. So haben im Jahre 2016 durchgeführte Studien ergeben, dass Rotrücken-Waldsalamander-Populationen auch unter Bedingungen mit niedrigerem pH-Wert durchaus uneingeschränkt überleben können.[3]
Rotrücken-Waldsalamander verstecken sich gern unter Baumstämmen, Steinen oder in Erdhöhlen. Meist leben sie einzeln. Sie besetzen eigene Reviere, die sie gegen Artgenossen verteidigen. Während der Paarungszeit, die von Oktober bis Dezember stattfindet, bleiben die Geschlechter jedoch zusammen. Im zeitigen Frühjahr können auch Gruppen von mehreren Tieren nach einer Winterruhe gemeinsam unter Felsen und Baumstämmen gefunden werden. Die Eier werden im Juni und Juli gelegt. Ein Gelege besteht aus drei bis 14 Eiern, die vorrangig an einer feuchten Stelle unter einem verrottenden Baumstamm platziert werden. Im Gegensatz zu vielen Amphibienarten durchleben sie kein aquatisches Larvenstadium. Das Weibchen bewacht die Eier, bis sie nach ca. sechs bis neun Wochen schlüpfen. Brütende Weibchen suchen während dieser Zeit nicht aktiv nach Futter und nehmen nur wenig zufällig vorbeikommende Nahrung auf. Dies führt dazu, dass sie normalerweise zwei Jahre benötigen, um genug neue Energie aufzubauen, damit sie erneut trächtig werden können. Jungtiere erreichen nach zwei Jahren die Geschlechtsreife.
Die Rotrücken-Waldsalamander ernähren sich von einer Vielzahl von Wirbellosen (Evertebrata). Dazu gehören Spinnen, Insekten und deren Larven, Tausendfüßer, Schnecken, Ameisen und Regenwürmer. Geeignete Beute wird gefangen, indem sie ihre Zunge in einer schnellen Vorwärtsbewegung herausstrecken. Während und kurz nach Regenperioden ist die günstigste Zeit zur Nahrungssuche. Zuweilen klettern sie nachts auf Pflanzen, um Beute zu finden. Kannibalismus ist sehr selten, kommt jedoch vor.[4]
Rotrücken-Waldsalamander sind eine wichtige Nahrungsquelle für eine Vielzahl von Schlangen, Vögeln und kleinen Säugetieren sowie für den Nordamerikanischen Ochsenfrosch (Rana catesbeiana). Einige Schlangenarten, wie die Halsbandnatter (Diadophis punctatus), ernähren sich in bestimmten Regionen bevorzugt vom Rotrücken-Waldsalamander.[5] Dieser hat die Fähigkeit, seinen Schwanz ganz oder teilweise abzuwerfen, wenn er von einem Fressfeind angegriffen wird. Der Schwanz wächst anschließend wieder nach. Rotrücken-Waldsalamander sind zwar nicht giftig, können jedoch zur Verteidigung ein für Feinde unangenehmes Drüsensekret absondern.
Für die Ökologie spielen Rotrücken-Waldsalamander insofern eine wichtige Rolle, als sie einerseits eine willkommene Nahrungsquelle für viele andere Tiere darstellen, andererseits auch selbst erhebliche Mengen an Ungeziefer und Schädlingen vertilgen.
Die Art ist in ihren Vorkommensgebieten nicht selten, teilweise sogar sehr zahlreich und wird demzufolge von der Weltnaturschutzorganisation IUCN als „Least Concern = nicht gefährdet“ klassifiziert.[6]
Der Rotrücken-Waldsalamander (Plethodon cinereus), zuweilen auch als Nördlicher Rotrücken-Waldsalamander bezeichnet, ist ein in Nordamerika vorkommender Schwanzlurch aus der Familie der Lungenlosen Salamander (Plethodontidae). Im englischen Sprachgebrauch wird er zuweilen als eastern red-backed salamander oder northern red-backed salamander (Östlicher bzw. Nördlicher Rotrückensalamander) bezeichnet, um ihn von seiner im Süden vorkommenden Schwesterart zu unterscheiden. Der Artname leitet sich von dem lateinischen Wort cinereus mit der Bedeutung „aschgrau“ ab und dürfte sich auf eine Farbvariante des Salamanders beziehen.
Salamander geger abang utawi Salamander geger abrit (Plethodon cinereus) punika salah setunggaling salamander alas ingkang ukuranipun alit.[1] Salamander geger abrit limrahipun manggèn wonten pèrèng alas ing Amérika Lèr pérangan wétan, inggih punika tlatah Missouri; Carolina Utara; Quebec saha Provinsi Maritimeswonten ing Kanada ngantos Minnesota.[1] Salamander geger abang ugi misuwur dados Salamander geger abang lor.[1] Nama punika kanggé mbéntenaken saking Salamander geger abang kidul (P. serratus).[1] Salamander geger abang gadhah kalih variasi warna.[1] Inggih punika variasi geger abang saha werni ingkang langkung peteng inggih punika geger ireng.[1] Kajawi punika wonten variasi sanèsipun inggih punika werni belang kuning, oranye saha pethak.[1]
Salamander geger abarit jaler lan èstri gadhah ciri ingkang bènten.[2] Bèntenipun punika wujud pakananipun saha teritori kawin inggih punika wonten ing sangandhapipun karang saha kayu.[2] Nanging kathah-kathahipun salamander geger abang punika sistem monogami sosial.[2] Salamander punika wiyaraken tlatah sareng-sareng kaliyan salamander geger abang sanèsipun.[2] Salamander geger abang punika gadhah anak nalika wulan Juni saha Juli.[2] Salamander geger abang wadon limrahipun ngasilaken tigan ingkang cacahipun sekawan ngantos pitulas saben satunggal taunipun.[2] Tigan punika lajeng netes nalika sampun 6-8 minggu.[2]
Salamander geger abang utawi Salamander geger abrit (Plethodon cinereus) punika salah setunggaling salamander alas ingkang ukuranipun alit. Salamander geger abrit limrahipun manggèn wonten pèrèng alas ing Amérika Lèr pérangan wétan, inggih punika tlatah Missouri; Carolina Utara; Quebec saha Provinsi Maritimeswonten ing Kanada ngantos Minnesota. Salamander geger abang ugi misuwur dados Salamander geger abang lor. Nama punika kanggé mbéntenaken saking Salamander geger abang kidul (P. serratus). Salamander geger abang gadhah kalih variasi warna. Inggih punika variasi geger abang saha werni ingkang langkung peteng inggih punika geger ireng. Kajawi punika wonten variasi sanèsipun inggih punika werni belang kuning, oranye saha pethak.
The red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus) is a small, hardy woodland salamander species in the family Plethodontidae. It is also known as the redback salamander,[3] eastern red-backed salamander,[3] or the northern red-backed salamander to distinguish it from the southern red-backed salamander (Plethodon serratus). The species inhabits wooded slopes in eastern North America, west to Missouri, south to North Carolina, and north from southern Quebec and the Maritime provinces in Canada to Minnesota.[4] It is one of 56 species in the genus Plethodon. Red-backed salamanders are notable for their color polymorphism and primarily display two color morph varieties ("red-backed" and "lead-backed"), which differ in physiology and anti-predator behavior.[5][6][7]
The red-backed salamander is a small terrestrial salamander, 5.7–10.0 cm (2.2–3.9 in) in total length (including tail), which usually lives in forested areas under rocks, logs, bark, and other debris.[4] It is one of the most numerous salamanders throughout its range.[4]
As with all amphibians, the red-backed salamander has permeable skin. They also lack lungs, a condition which is an ancestral trait of the Plethodontidae.[8] Red-backed salamanders are thus entirely reliant on cutaneous respiration for gas exchange. Permeable skin is susceptible to desiccation and must be kept moist in order to facilitate cutaneous respiration; as a result much of the ecology and behavior of the red-backed salamander is restricted by climatic and microclimatic variables, particularly dryness and temperature.[9]
The skin of red-backed salamanders was found to contain Lysobacter gummosus, an epibiotic bacterium that produces the chemical 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol and inhibits the growth of certain pathogenic fungi.[10]
Plethodon cinereus has color diversity, the common ones are the red-striped morph and the lead-phase. The "red-backed" or "red-stripe" variety has a red dorsal stripe that tapers towards the tail, and the darker variety, known as the "lead-backed" (or simply "lead") phase, lacks most or all of the red pigmentation.[4] The red-backed phase is not always red, but may actually be various other colors (e.g., yellow-backed, orange-backed, white-backed, or a rare erythristic morph in which the body is completely red).[4] Both morphs have speckled black and white bellies.[4] Additional color anomalies of this species also exist, including iridistic, albino, leucistic, amelanistic, and melanistic anomalies.[11] These color morphs are rarer than the red-backed, lead-backed, and erythristic morphs, but still have been reported with consistency among varying populations of this species.[11] polymorphism
Color polymorphism is thought to be an adaptive strategy in a heterogeneous environment, so the maintenance of polymorphism is derived from behavioral and physiological choices. The color polymorphism of The red-striped morph Plethodon cinereus and the lead-phase Plethodon cinereus show different anti-predator responses in behavior, and predator attacks differently based on the color form. Compared to red-striped morph P. cinereus which prefers an "all trunk raised" posture and tends to stay still, the lead-phase P. cinereus is significantly more mobile. Moreover, lead-phase P. cinereus has the ability to automatically cut off the tail, indicating that the two forms also differ in the frequency of being attacked.[7]
As an evidence that polymorphism is to adapt the environment, P. cinereus color morph frequencies are correlated with climatic variables, suggesting habitat temperature and more broadly climate to be potential sources of selective pressure on P. cinereus polymorphism.[5][6] The red-backed form is found with greater frequency in colder regions at more northerly latitudes and easterly longitudes throughout its range, whereas the opposite is true of the lead-backed form.[5][6] Additionally, lead-backed morphs withdraw from surface activity earlier in the autumn than red-backed morphs, presumably to avoid cooling temperatures.[5][12][13] Standard metabolic rate has also been found to differ between the morphs at certain temperatures, with significantly lower metabolic rates being displayed by the lead-backed form at 15 °C;[12] in the same study, lead-backed individuals were also more active on the ground surface at this temperature.[12] These findings suggest that the lead-backed color variant is less tolerant of cool temperatures than the red-backed color variant, and that the two color forms differ physiologically and behaviorally at certain temperatures.[5][6][12][13]
An alternate explanation for the uneven geographic distribution of the red-backed and lead-backed P. cinereus color morphs involves phenotypic plasticity responding to developmental temperature. Although the genetic origins of the P. cinereus polymorphic condition are not fully understood, initial studies indicate that color morph dominance is likely subject to epistasis, and that multiple loci may interact to determine an individual's morph condition.[14][15] However, more recent research indicates that a plastic response to thermal conditions during development also contributes to color morph determination; in one study, P. cinereus eggs incubated at a higher temperature hatched a greater proportion of lead-backed morphs than eggs incubated at a lower temperature.[16] Temperature-dependent color morph determination may therefore also potentially influence the spatial distribution of P. cinereus color morphs.[16]
Red-backed salamanders are mostly insectivorous, but prey on a wide assortment of other small invertebrates including isopods, millipedes, centipedes, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, spiders, and gastropods.[17]
The two primary P. cinereus color morphs also differ in diet.[13][17] The prevalence of certain prey taxa and the overall diversity and quality of prey items have been observed to differ seasonally between the two morphs in the spring and autumn when surface activity is greatest.[13][17] The diets of striped and unstriped P. cinereus differ the most in the spring and fall seasons. The striped salamanders have a red-colored dorsal band that runs from the head/neck to their tail, and the unstriped ones lack this red stripe and are instead totally black. These salamanders are at the surface the most during these seasons. Contrasting diets during the fall and spring are due to differences in two types of prey consumed during this time. In the fall, the striped salamanders eat more entomobryomorph Collembola, the largest species of elongated springtails, as opposed to in the spring when they eat more oribatid mites.[17]
Some studies have suggested that the unstriped morph has adapted to be better suited for drier and warmer conditions explaining the differences in diets. Unstriped morphs are less aggressive and less likely to hold territories because they are more well suited to find a territory that these striped salamanders are less adapted to withstand. The unstriped salamanders can forage in drier leaf litter, so they do not need to protect their territory to the extent that striped morphs do. The less pressure the unstriped salamander feels to hold territory does change what type of access of prey it has access to compared to the striped salamander during the drier months. Striped salamanders defend territories underneath objects such as rocks and logs when the conditions are dry. During these dry conditions, arthropods are forced to hide in these same moist areas that the striped salamanders claim as their territory since some arthropods will desiccate in dry periods. These arthropods then become the (red-backed) striped salamander’s prey while the unstriped salamanders miss this opportunity. This allows striped salamanders to feed on springtails, mites, ants, and other small invertebrates.
There are some disputes on which morph has the more diverse diet. In one study, the autumn diet of red-backed morphs was more diverse and of higher quality, and found to be dominated by mites, springtails, and ants, whereas the most important prey for lead-backed morphs were ants, mites, and isopods.[13] A later study notes that this was because the earlier study only compared diets during the fall season, while the later study compared their diets throughout all of the seasons. The later study concludes that the unstriped morph has a broader diet and encounters prey the striped morph does not. They link this back to unstriped salamanders being able to roam more freely between drier territories during this time.[17]
Distribution of P. cinereus are in close contact with the soil on the forest floor. As deciduous forests mature, acid deposition can accelerate the acidification of soils. Acidic conditions can limit the distribution of amphibians and the numbers of sibling species, while the pH value of soil has a strong effect on the density and distribution of P. cinereus. When choosing between acidic and neutral soils, P. cinereus prefers to occupy more neutral soils. P. cinereus is rarely found in soils with a pH value of 3.7, and relatively more to be found in soils with a pH value of about 3.8 or higher. Juvenile P. cinereus have never been found in soils with a pH value lower than 3.7. Similar conclusions have also been supported in the laboratory. P. cinereus prefers to occupy substrates near neutral pH. A pH value between 2.5 and 3 results in acute mortality, while a pH value between 3 and 4 results in chronic mortality. Low pH will reduce their growth and respiration. Slowed growth and delayed metamorphosis make juvenile P. cinereus more vulnerable to predators and has serious consequences for population survival.
Several other factors, such as moisture and temperature, can affect the population density or dispersion of Botrytis as well. During prolonged dry periods, individuals move down into the soil, while during short dry periods they retreat under logs or rocks. They will avoid very warm areas, and when the temperature drops to 4-5 Celsius degrees, they will retreat to the ground as well. The optimum temperature is 10 to 15 Celsius degrees. Moreover, intraspecific and interspecific competition also affected the distribution of P. cinerea.[18] Individuals confine themselves to moist microhabitats (beneath rocks, woody debris, etc. as well as beneath the soil) for long periods of time in order to maintain hydration when surface conditions are inhospitably dry or hot, and are only active on the surface to travel, forage, or reproduce for short periods. The duration of surface activity is directly limited by the rate of cutaneous water loss to the environment, which is influenced by environmental variables such as altitude, forest canopy cover, and the amount of recent precipitation.[9][19]
Spatial distributions of the salamander Plethodon cinereus is observed to be seasonal. In spring, Plethodon cinereus are more likely to exist in groups of around 2 to 7 individuals under some object covers such as rocks and wood, than in the other seasons, while the density on the forest floor stays constant. This is because that spatial dispute starts in spring. A study in Blackrock Mountain, Virginia indicates that the mean number of salamanders in each quadrant of 100*100 m varies from 1.6 to 3 in spring compared to 0.8 to 1.8 in summer. A significant increase in the spatial distribution of P. cinereus from spring to summer is thought to be due to intraspecific interference competition. The cover objects on the ground can be a good choice of moisture refuge for P. cinereus during the rainy season. The failure of P. cinereus to forage underground causes them to restrict down to areas under and around the cover objects. Aggression and territoriality under resource, food and shelter limitation are the reasons for the observed spacing.[18]
Moreover, the two morphologies have different standard metabolic rates, while lead-phase P. cinereus favor warm habitats or microclimates. So the strong argument is that the geographic distribution of color form is caused by the selection of physiological traits.[7]
Antipredator behavior of P. cinereus was found to differ between the two color phases; the lead-backed phase has a tendency to run away from predators, whereas the red-backed phase often stays immobile and possibly exhibits aposematic coloration.[7] Stress levels of each color phase were estimated by determining the ratio of neutrophil to lymphocyte cells in the blood, and the results suggest stress levels are higher in the lead-backed phase than in the red-backed phase.[20] This may be a consequence of a higher predation risk experienced in the wild by the lead-backed phase, and may also mean lead-phase salamanders could be more vulnerable in captivity settings.[20]
Plethodon cinereus, like many plethodon species, exhibit homing behavior, with homing of females to their nests, as well as non-attending females and males to a home range.[21] This allows for essential contact between a female and her eggs in order to ensure their survival, as well as for non-attending females and males to explore beyond the home range when under predation pressures, or searching for food or cover, and return to their home range if a more favorable microhabitat is not found.[21]
Male Plethodon cinereus actively defends its territory from intrusion by other males and is less aggressive towards invading females and juveniles. Plethodon cinereus usually directs aggressive behavior towards conspecific as well as heterospecific, as long as it's thought to be a potential competitor. Plethodon cinereus positively interacts not only with conspecifics, but also with other potential competitors such as centipedes.[22]
It is necessary to have a visual display in order to elicit the threat posture of P. cinereus, and there will be no obvious aggressive behavior toward conspecifics and heterospecifics if only chemical cues exist. However, P. cinereus will increase time spent in aggressive postures when paired with centipedes but did not show increased aggression when paired with conspecifics. The specific test method was to expose male P. cinereus to four substrate chemical cue treatments separately: control, self, conspecific, or centipede (Scolopocryptops sexspinosus) to determine its behavior in the presence or absence of conspecifics and heterospecific cues reaction.[22]
Their residence status affects the attack level as well. Even if in different residency statuses, they do attack centipedes[22]
Plethodon cinereus coexists with some bacteria. These bacteria help salamanders defend against fungal pathogens. For example, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a fungal pathogen that causes a disease called Chytridiomycosis, has led to a rapid decline in amphibian populations worldwide. Around one-third of amphibians are endangered because of the disease, but some species persist from the infection, and some even clear the pathogen. As evidence, Plethodon cinereus has bacterial symbionts called Microsymbiont Janthinobacterium lividum on the skin of Plethodon cinereus. These metabolites can inhibit the growth of pathogens. This finding suggests an idea for providing long-term protection to individuals who are infected with chytridiomycosis. It also provides a research pathway for future drug development which is to use novel antifungal compounds for the treatment of human pathogens.[23]
Males and females of P. cinereus typically establish separate feeding and/or mating territories underneath rocks and logs. However, some red-backed salamanders are thought to engage in social monogamy, and may maintain co-defended territories throughout their active periods. Breeding occurs in June and July. Females produce from four to 17 eggs in a year. The eggs hatch in 6 to 8 weeks. Not much is known about the dispersal of neonates, although neonates and juveniles are thought to be philopatric.
As in many Plethodon species, female red-backed salamanders have the ability to store sperm as spermatophore, and have been evidenced in doing so up to eight months prior to the oviposition period in June and July.[24] Sperm or spermatophores are not retained following the oviposition period.[24]
The lead-backed are absent in northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. Instead, another phase called erythristic is observed and exclusive in these areas. This phase shows macro- and microgeographic variation in frequency. Regardless of the wide geographic variation, the highest frequency is always under 25%. This phase of P. cinereus mimic Notophthalmus viridescens to protect themselves. Birds selectively avoid to predate all-red or erythristic color P. cinereus because they think that red color is a signal of noxiousness and toxicity. Even if people trained the birds to enhance the avoidance by increasing exposure to red efts (juvenile Notophthalmus viridescens), the frequencies of erythrism is never above 25%.[25]
Roads have various negative effects on animal populations. For example, a major source of direct mortality for many species is accidental collisions with moving vehicles. Due to the slow movement of amphibians, it is estimated that the mortality rate of these animals on roads is as high as 10% of the total population each year. From a genetic point of view, roads also reduce gene flow and thus divide animal populations, causing drift and loss of genetic diversity. Eventually, populations separated by roads may become more and more distinct from each other, thus losing the original population. Amongst different sizes of roads, it is known that the interstate highway leads to increased genetic differentiation of Plethodon cinereus by microsatellite examination. Genetic distances between regions on either side of an interstate highway were significantly larger than those between equally spaced quadrants on the same side of the highway. However, plots on smaller roads were not genetically different compared to that in the case of interstate highways. Narrow paved roads reduce the movement of redback salamanders by approximately 25–75% but do not eliminate the dynamic of the population. And the detection of genetic differences across the interstate means that the spread on this road is reduced by well over 25–75%. So there is little gene flow across very large roads, and the P. cinereus population diverges from each other. The indirect effect of smaller roads on genetic population structure is also not a big issue for terrestrial salamanders and is not a direct effect of mortality and habitat change.[26]
The observed rate of dispersion in P. cinereus is far less than in most of the animals previously studied. Because P. cinereus have very high population densities, this should reduce the effects of genetic drift in isolated populations. From a conservation standpoint, red-backed salamanders are an important research organism because of their behavioral and physiological similarities to many threatened and endangered salamanders.[26]
Moreover, salamanders are largely affected by forest management practices thus impacting the food web dynamics and nutrient cycling of the ecosystem they are residing in. In order to conserve the species, proper forest management practice is essential. For instance, even-aged timber harvesting practices are documented which show significantly low abundance and species richness of amphibian creatures in the area. SCE, so-called structural complexity enhancement, aims to promote the vertical development of differentiated canopies and make the horizontal density variable which then can help to rearrange the basal area, snag and log density. It turns out that SCE brings positive effects to the abundance of the Plethodon cincereus population.[27]
The red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus) is a small, hardy woodland salamander species in the family Plethodontidae. It is also known as the redback salamander, eastern red-backed salamander, or the northern red-backed salamander to distinguish it from the southern red-backed salamander (Plethodon serratus). The species inhabits wooded slopes in eastern North America, west to Missouri, south to North Carolina, and north from southern Quebec and the Maritime provinces in Canada to Minnesota. It is one of 56 species in the genus Plethodon. Red-backed salamanders are notable for their color polymorphism and primarily display two color morph varieties ("red-backed" and "lead-backed"), which differ in physiology and anti-predator behavior.
Plethodon cinereus Plethodon generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Plethodontidae familian sailkatuta dago, Caudata ordenan.
Plethodon cinereus Plethodon generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Plethodontidae familian sailkatuta dago, Caudata ordenan.
Plethodon cinereus est une espèce d'urodèles de la famille des Plethodontidae[1]. En français elle peut être nommée Salamandre cendrée[2] ou Salamandre rayée[3].
Cette espèce se rencontre[1] :
Cette salamandre mesure entre 5,7 et 10 cm de longueur[4].
Plethodon cinereus est une espèce d'urodèles de la famille des Plethodontidae. En français elle peut être nommée Salamandre cendrée ou Salamandre rayée.
Salamander punggung merah (Plethodon cinereus) adalah salamander hutan kecil. Hewan ini mendiami lereng berhutan di Amerika Utara sisi timur; yaitu ke barat hingga Missouri; selatan hingga Carolina Utara; dan utara dari Quebec bagian selatan dan Provinsi Maritimes di Kanada hingga Minnesota. Hewan ini juga dikenal sebagai Salamander punggung merah utara untuk membedakannya dari Salamander punggung merah selatan (P. serratus). Salamander punggung merah ditemukan banyak ditemukan dalam dua variasi warna: nominasi variasi merah, 'punggung merah', begitu juga bentuk yang lebih gelap yang dikenal sebagai 'punggung (hitam) lebam' yang tidak terdapat pada sebagian besar atau seluruh pigmentasi merah yang ditemukan pada bentuk merah[1]. Walau demikian, kadang juga ditemukan variasi dengan berbagai warna lainnya (seperti belang kuning, jingga, atau putih).
Penjantan dan betina memiliki ciri yang berbeda, baik perbedaan makanan ataupun teritori kawin yaitu di bawah karang dan kekayuan. Meski demikian, sebagian salamander punggung merah yang diperhatikan, menerapkan sistem monogami sosial, dan dapat memperluas teritori pertahanan bersama selama periode aktif mereka. Proses kelahiran terjadi pada Juni dan Juli. Betina menghasilkan dari 4 hingga 17 telur tiap tahunnya. Telur-telur tersebut akan menetas dalam 6 hingga 8 minggu. Tidak banyak yang diketahui alasan mengenai pembuangan anak-anak mereka, meskipun diperkirakan anak-anak tersebut dan yang masih muda merupakan filopati (bertahan di dekat tempat menetas hingga 2 tahun). Di samping reproduksi dan penting bagi manusia melakukan perhatian global, salamander punggung merah memiliki peran yang sangat kuat dalam mengurangi tingkat pemanasan global. Biomassa sangat luas dari spesies ini di Amerika Serikat bagian utara mungkin untuk berkontribusi untuk biodome dengan mengonsumsi sejumlah besar invertebrata dan makhluk kecil lainnya yang mempercepat dekomposisi sampah daun dan kayu, sehingga memperkecil kuantitas Karbon dioksida [Co²] secara luar biasa.
Informasi terkait dengan Plethodon cinereus dari Wikispecies.Salamander punggung merah (Plethodon cinereus) adalah salamander hutan kecil. Hewan ini mendiami lereng berhutan di Amerika Utara sisi timur; yaitu ke barat hingga Missouri; selatan hingga Carolina Utara; dan utara dari Quebec bagian selatan dan Provinsi Maritimes di Kanada hingga Minnesota. Hewan ini juga dikenal sebagai Salamander punggung merah utara untuk membedakannya dari Salamander punggung merah selatan (P. serratus). Salamander punggung merah ditemukan banyak ditemukan dalam dua variasi warna: nominasi variasi merah, 'punggung merah', begitu juga bentuk yang lebih gelap yang dikenal sebagai 'punggung (hitam) lebam' yang tidak terdapat pada sebagian besar atau seluruh pigmentasi merah yang ditemukan pada bentuk merah. Walau demikian, kadang juga ditemukan variasi dengan berbagai warna lainnya (seperti belang kuning, jingga, atau putih).
De roodrugsalamander[2] (Plethodon cinereus) is een salamander uit de familie longloze salamanders (Plethodontidae). De soort werd voor het eerst wetenschappelijk beschreven door Jacob Green in 1818. Oorspronkelijk werd de wetenschappelijke naam Salamandra cinerea gebruikt.[3]
Deze soort bereikt een lichaamslengte van ongeveer 10 centimeter en is relatief eenvoudig te herkennen aan de rode tot roestbruine streep op de rug van de meeste exemplaren. Hoewel de zigzagsalamander (Plethodon dorsalis) deze streep meestal ook heeft, zijn deze twee soorten toch makkelijk uit elkaar te houden door een andere lichaamsbouw. De roodrugsalamander is zeer slank en glad en de poten staan enigszins uit elkaar, ook heeft deze soort een lange zijdelings afgeplatte staart en duidelijk zichtbare ribben. De basiskleur is meestal bruin, soms bruingrijs tot zwart. Er komen ook melanische exemplaren voor waarbij de streep ontbreekt.
De habitat bestaat uit vochtige gebieden met een strooisellaag zoals bossen, heidevelden en graslanden met mos. De roodrugsalamander blijft meestal in de buurt van water, hoewel het een typische landbewoner is. Deze soort houdt van wat koelere watertemperaturen en waar hij voorkomt is de salamander meestal erg talrijk. Het verspreidingsgebied beslaat delen van Noord-Amerika, van het noordoosten van de Verenigde Staten tot in zuidoostelijk Canada.
De roodrugsalamander is een nachtdier dat zich overdag verstopt onder stenen en bladeren en tijdens de schemering op jacht gaat.
Het is een carnivoor die jaagt op kleine diertjes. Op het menu staan voornamelijk op de bodem levende insecten en de larven, maar ook andere dieren worden wel buitgemaakt. Voorbeelden van prooidieren zijn wantsen, cicaden, mieren, termieten, springstaartjes en mijten. De salamander klimt soms in planten om op prooien te jagen maar om uitdroging te voorkomen jaaft het dier voornamelijk op het land.
Van de vrouwtjes is bekend dat ze een voorkeur hebben voor een groter mannetje om mee te paren. Ook is het belangrijk dat hij een territorium heeft dat rijk is aan prooidieren maar geen andere vrouwtjes bevat. Hierdoor kan ze haar eieren voorzien van voldoende voedsel.
De roodrugsalamander vertoont enige vorm van monogamie, wat heel zeldzaam is bij de amfibieën. De vrouwtjes waarderen geen mannetjes die de geur van andere vrouwtjes dragen. Ook van de mannetjes is bekend dat ze een vrouwtje dat de geur van mannelijke soortgenoten draagt liever negeren. De mannetjes bewaken het vrouwtje waarmee ze hebben gepaard ook tegen andere mannetjes.[4]
De paring vindt plaats in oktober tot april, waarna er in juni of juli eitjes gelegd worden die door het vrouwtje worden bewaakt tot ze uitkomen. De jonge salamanders jagen in de strooisellaag. Bij droogte wordt het jagen bemoeilijkt, en trekken ze naar de territoria van de volwassen dieren. De volwassen roodrugsalamanders tolereren de jongen binnen hun habitat, in tegenstelling tot volwassen soortgenoten.
De roodrugsalamander (Plethodon cinereus) is een salamander uit de familie longloze salamanders (Plethodontidae). De soort werd voor het eerst wetenschappelijk beschreven door Jacob Green in 1818. Oorspronkelijk werd de wetenschappelijke naam Salamandra cinerea gebruikt.
Plethodon cinereus é uma espécie de anfíbio caudado pertencente à família Plethodontidae. Ocorre em encostas florestadas no este da América do Norte, com limite no Missouri a Oeste, Carolina do Norte a Sul, e sul do Quebec a Norte. É uma de 55 espécies no género Plethodon.
É uma salamandra terrestre pequena (5,7 a 10 cm) e vive em áreas florestadas debaixo de rochas, troncos, cortiça e outros detritos.[1] É uma das salamandras mais numerosas ao longo da sua área de distribuição.[1] São comuns duas variedades ou fases de cor: a de "lista vermelha" tem uma faixa dorsal vermelha que se prolonga pela cauda. e a variedade mais escura que carece da maioria ou toda a pigmentação vermelha.[1] A fase vermelha não é sempre vermelha, podendo ter a lista outras cores como amarelo, laranja ou branco. Em casos raros, o corpo todo pode ser completamente vermelho.[1] Ambas as formas tem abdómens às pintas pretas e brancas.[1]
A pele de Plethodon cinereus pode conter Lysobacter gummosus, uma bactéria epibiótica que produz o químico 2,4-diacetilfluoroglucionol e inibe o crescimento de certos fungos patogénicos.[2]
As duas variedades têm comportamento anti-predador diferente; a fase escura tem tendência a fugir de predadores, enquanto que a fase vermelha fica frequentemente imóvel e exibe possivelmente coloração aposemática.[3] Os níveis de stress de cada fase foram estimados pela determinação da proporção de neutrófilos em relação a linfócitos no sangue, e os resultados sugerem que os níveis de stress são mais elevados na fase escura do que na vermelha.[4] Isto pode ser uma consequência de um maior risco de predação experienciado na natureza pela fase escura, e pode também significar que salamandras de fase escura são mais vulneráveis em cativeiro.[4]
Machos e fêmeas tipicamente estabelecem territórios de alimentação e/ou de acasalemento separados debaixo de pedras e troncos. No entanto, pensa-se que algumas salamandras vermelhas podem estabelecer relações de monogamia social, e podem manter territórios co-defendidos ao longo dos seus períodos activos. Acasalamentos ocorrem em Junho e Julho. As fêmeas produzem de quatro a 17 ovos em um ano. Os ovos eclodem em seis a oito semanas. Não se sabe muito sobre a dispersão de recém-nascidos, embora se pense que estes e juvenis sejam filopátricos. A espécie consome em grande parte invertebrados e outros animais presentes em detritos. Em algumas áreas com bom habitat, estas salamandras são tão numerosas que as sua densidade populacional ultrapassa mul indivíduos por acre.
Plethodon cinereus é uma espécie de anfíbio caudado pertencente à família Plethodontidae. Ocorre em encostas florestadas no este da América do Norte, com limite no Missouri a Oeste, Carolina do Norte a Sul, e sul do Quebec a Norte. É uma de 55 espécies no género Plethodon.
Загальна довжина досягає 5,7—10 см. Голова коротка. Очі опуклі. Тулуб стрункий. Хвіст тонкий. Забарвлена у сірі тони усіх відтінків з червоною смугою вздовж спини.
Полюбляє ліси, парки, сади. Удень ховається в опалому листі, під деревами, в пнях, може рити норки у вологій м'якій землі. Відома своєю прихильністю до одних і тих же схованок. Одну й ту ж саламандру багато років поспіль знаходили під одним каменем або деревом, що впало, звідки вона йшла вночі і незмінно поверталася на день. Живиться дрібними безхребетними.
Статева зрілість настає у 2 роки. Парування, при якому самець передає в клоаку самиці сперматофори, відбувається у жовтні-грудні. У червні-липні наступного року самиця відкладає грудку з 8—17 яєць під каміння або в ямки вологого ґрунту під лісовою підстилкою. Вона оберігає кладку до появи личинок, що відбувається у серпні. Личинки спочатку мають 1,9 см завдовжки, короткі зовнішні зябра, які зникають через декілька днів, розвиток триває на суші ще 2—3 місяці.
Поширена у штатах США: Міннесота, Вісконсин, Іллінойс, Індіана, Мічиган, Огайо, Північна Кароліна, Вірджинія, Західна Вірджинія, Меріленд, Делавер, Пенсильванія, Нью-Джерсі, Нью-Йорк, Нова Англія, провінціях Канади: Онтаріо, Квебек, Нью-Брансвік, Нова Шотландія.
Kỳ giông lưng đỏ (Danh pháp khoa học: Plethodon cinereus) là một loài kỳ giông trong họ Plethodontidae (kỳ giông không phổi). Đây là loại kỳ nhông rừng nhỏ, cứng cáp. Nó sống ở những dốc núi rừng ở phía đông Bắc Mỹ, phía tây đến Missouri, phía Nam đến Bắc Carolina, và phía bắc từ nam Quebec và các tỉnh Maritime thuộc Canada đến Minnesota. Nó còn được biết đến với tên gọi là kỳ giông đỏ vì có khả năng bảo vệ bằng lớp da đỏ hoặc là loài kỳ nhông có màu đỏ ở phía bắc để phân biệt nó với loài lưỡng cư ở miền Nam (Plethodon serratus). Đây là một trong 55 loài thuộc chi Plethodon.
Loài kỳ nhông lưng đỏ là một con kỳ nhông trên mặt đất có kích thước nhỏ (từ 5,7 đến 10,0 cm) thường sống ở các khu rừng dưới đá, gỗ tròn, vỏ cây và các mảnh vụn khác. Đây là một trong số rất nhiều con kỳ nhông trong phạm vi của nó. Da của những con kỳ nhông có màu đỏ được tìm thấy có chứa Lysobacter gummosus, một loại vi khuẩn epibiotic sinh ra chất 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol và ức chế sự phát triển của một số loại nấm gây bệnh. Loài này chủ yếu ăn những động vật không xương sống nhỏ.
Con đực và con đực thường tạo ra các vùng đất để kiếm ăn và /hoặc giao phối riêng biệt dưới đá và các khúc gỗ. Tuy nhiên, một số loài kỳ giông đỏ được cho là thực hiện chế độ một vợ một chồng và có thể duy trì các vùng lãnh thổ được áp dụng trong suốt thời kỳ hoạt động của chúng. Mùa sinh sản diễn ra vào tháng 6 và tháng 7. Con cái đẻ từ 4 đến 17 quả trứng trong một năm. Các trứng nở trong sáu đến tám tuần. Ở một số khu vực có môi trường sống tốt, những con kỳ nhông này rất nhiều, mật độ dân số của chúng có thể vượt quá 1.000 con/mẫu Anh. Công viên Tiểu bang Pokagon ở Indiana là một trong những nơi đó.
Kỳ giông lưng đỏ (Danh pháp khoa học: Plethodon cinereus) là một loài kỳ giông trong họ Plethodontidae (kỳ giông không phổi). Đây là loại kỳ nhông rừng nhỏ, cứng cáp. Nó sống ở những dốc núi rừng ở phía đông Bắc Mỹ, phía tây đến Missouri, phía Nam đến Bắc Carolina, và phía bắc từ nam Quebec và các tỉnh Maritime thuộc Canada đến Minnesota. Nó còn được biết đến với tên gọi là kỳ giông đỏ vì có khả năng bảo vệ bằng lớp da đỏ hoặc là loài kỳ nhông có màu đỏ ở phía bắc để phân biệt nó với loài lưỡng cư ở miền Nam (Plethodon serratus). Đây là một trong 55 loài thuộc chi Plethodon.
Plethodon cinereus Green, 1818
Охранный статус
Красноспинная саламандра[1] (лат. Plethodon cinereus) — вид хвостатых амфибий семейства Безлёгочные саламандры (Plethodontidae).
Общая длина достигает 5,7—10 см[2]. Голова короткая. Глаза выпуклые. Туловище стройное. Хвост тонкий. Окрашена в серые тона всех оттенков с красной полосой вдоль спины.
Любит леса, парки, сады. Днём скрывается в опавшей листве, под деревьями, в пнях, может рыть норки во влажной мягкой земле. Известная своей приверженностью к одним и тем же тайникам. Одну и ту же саламандру много лет находили под одним камнем или упавшим деревом, откуда она уходила ночью и неизменно возвращалась днём. Питается мелкими беспозвоночными.
Половая зрелость наступает в 2 года. Спаривание, при котором самец передает в клоаку самки сперматофоры, происходит в октябре-декабре. В июне-июле следующего года самка откладывает комок из 8—17 яиц под камни или в ямки влажной почвы под лесной подстилкой. Она предохраняет кладку до появления личинок, которое происходит в августе. Личинки сначала длиной 1,9 см, имеют короткие наружные жабры, которые исчезают через несколько дней, развитие продолжается на суше ещё 2—3 месяца.
Вид распространён в США (штаты: Миннесота, Висконсин, Иллинойс, Индиана, Мичиган, Огайо, Северная Каролина, Вирджиния, Западная Вирджиния, Мэриленд, Делавэр, Пенсильвания, Нью-Джерси, Нью-Йорк, Новая Англия) и Канаде (провинции: Онтарио, Квебек, Нью-Брансвик, Новая Шотландия).
Красноспинная саламандра (лат. Plethodon cinereus) — вид хвостатых амфибий семейства Безлёгочные саламандры (Plethodontidae).
Общая длина достигает 5,7—10 см. Голова короткая. Глаза выпуклые. Туловище стройное. Хвост тонкий. Окрашена в серые тона всех оттенков с красной полосой вдоль спины.
Любит леса, парки, сады. Днём скрывается в опавшей листве, под деревьями, в пнях, может рыть норки во влажной мягкой земле. Известная своей приверженностью к одним и тем же тайникам. Одну и ту же саламандру много лет находили под одним камнем или упавшим деревом, откуда она уходила ночью и неизменно возвращалась днём. Питается мелкими беспозвоночными.
Половая зрелость наступает в 2 года. Спаривание, при котором самец передает в клоаку самки сперматофоры, происходит в октябре-декабре. В июне-июле следующего года самка откладывает комок из 8—17 яиц под камни или в ямки влажной почвы под лесной подстилкой. Она предохраняет кладку до появления личинок, которое происходит в августе. Личинки сначала длиной 1,9 см, имеют короткие наружные жабры, которые исчезают через несколько дней, развитие продолжается на суше ещё 2—3 месяца.
Вид распространён в США (штаты: Миннесота, Висконсин, Иллинойс, Индиана, Мичиган, Огайо, Северная Каролина, Вирджиния, Западная Вирджиния, Мэриленд, Делавэр, Пенсильвания, Нью-Джерси, Нью-Йорк, Новая Англия) и Канаде (провинции: Онтарио, Квебек, Нью-Брансвик, Новая Шотландия).
紅背蠑螈（学名：Plethodon cinereus）是一種細小的無肺螈屬。牠們棲息在北美洲東部，西至密蘇里州，南至北卡羅萊納州，北至魁北克南部及加拿大至明尼蘇達州沿海省份。牠們主要有兩種顏色形態：紅色的「紅背」及較深色的「鉛背」[2]，另外也有一些其他顏色的形態，如黃色、橙色、白色等。
雄性及雌性的紅背蠑螈的覓食及交配地區會有所不同。不過，一些紅背蠑螈相信是一夫一妻制的，形成了一個共同地盤。牠們會於6-7月間進行繁殖。雌螈每年會產4-17顆卵。6-8個星期後卵就會孵化。有關幼螈出生後分散的資料有限，但一般相信牠們是戀巢性的，會留在出生地附近達2年之久。
紅背蠑螈吃大量無脊椎動物及其他岩屑間的生物。由於這些生物會加快枯葉及枯樹的分解，釋出大量的二氧化碳，故此紅背蠑螈擁有大量的生物質能。
紅背蠑螈對環境的耐性使牠們成為了一種受歡迎的寵物。飼養牠們並不需要很大的籠子，籠子兩側須有氣孔及密封。牠們需要一些浮木及葉堆遮蔽處。籠子內須有水源，也要保持土壤濕潤。溫度須保持在58-65℉，若高於75℉紅背蠑螈就會死亡或鑽入更深層的土壤。牠們可以吃蟋蟀、蚯蚓或黃粉蟲。[3]
.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
