Associated Forest Cover
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Osage-orange is not included in any of the forest types recognized by the
Society of American Foresters (13). In moist, well-drained minor bottom lands
in northwestern Louisiana and nearby parts of Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas, it
is found with white oak Quercus alba), hickories (Carya spp.),
white ash (Fraxinus americana), and red mulberry (Morus rubra)
(37). In Nebraska and Kansas, it invades overgrazed pastures, accompanied
by honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos) and is succeeded by black walnut
(Juglans nigra), oaks Quercus spp.), hackberry (Celtis spp.),
hickories, and elms (Ulmus spp.) (18). Among the most common
associates on lime stone- derived soils in middle Tennessee and neighboring
portions of Kentucky and Alabama are eastern redcedar (Juniperus
virginiana), black walnut, hickories, and elms (45).
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Climate
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Within the natural range of Osage-orange, average annual temperature ranges
from about 18° to 21° C (65° to 70° F), July temperature
averages 27° C (80° F) and January temperature ranges from 6° to
7° C (43° to 45° F) with an extreme of -23° C (-10°
F). The frost-free period averages 240 days. Average annual precipitation
ranges from 1020 to 1140 min (40 to 45 in), and April to September rainfall
from 430 to 630 min (17 to 25 in).
Osage-orange is hardy as far north as Massachusetts but succumbs to
winter-kill in northeastern Colorado and the northern parts of Nebraska, Iowa,
and Illinois (34,36).
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Damaging Agents
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Although Osage-orange is one of the healthiest tree
species in North America, it is attacked by some parasites. Cotton root rot,
caused by Phymatotrichum omnivorum, attacks Osage-orange and most other
windbreak species in Texas, Oklahoma, and Arizona (59). Losses are greatest in
plantings on dry soil where rainfall is scant. Cotton root rot is the only
serious disease.
Two species of mistletoe, Phoradendron serotinum and P.
tomentosum, grow in the branches and cause witches' brooms. Osage-orange
ornamentals in the Northeast have occasionally succumbed to Verticilliurn wilt,
caused by Verticillium albo-atrum. Leafspot diseases are caused by
Ovularia maclurae, Phyllosticta maclurae, Sporodesmium maclurae, Septoria
angustissima, Cercospora maclurae, and Cerotelium fici. Seedlings in
a Nebraska nursery have been killed by damping-off and root rot caused by
Phythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani (21). Phellinus ribis
attacks stemwood exposed in wounds. Poria ferruginosa and P.
punctata are the only two wood-destroying basidiomycetes reported on
Osage-orange; they occur only on dead wood, mainly in tropical and subtropical
parts of the western hemisphere (21). Maclura mosaic virus and cucumber mosaic
virus have been identified in leaf tissue of Osage-orange in Yugoslavia (35).
Osage-orange trees are attacked by at least four stem borers: the mulberry
borers (Doraschema wildii and D. alternatum) (4), the painted
hickory borer (Megacyllene caryae), and the red-shouldered hickory borer
(Xylobiops basilaris) (8). The twigs are parasitized by several scale
insects including the European fruit lecanium (Parthenolecanium corni),
the walnut scale (Quadraspidiotus juglansregiae) the cottony maple scale
(Pulvinaria innumerabilis) the terrapin scale (Mesolecanium
nigrofasciatum), and the San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus)
(25,46). The fruit-tree leafroller (Archips argyrospilus) feeds on
opening buds and unfolding leaves.
Osage-orange is attacked by, but is not a principal host of, the fall
webworm (Hyphantria cunea) (55), an Eriophyid mite, Tegolophus
spongiosus (51), and the fourspotted spider mite, Tetranychus canadensis
(4).
Osage-orange trees and several other species in 1 to 5-year-old plantations
on old fields in the prairie region of Illinois were partially or completely
girdled by mice. Severity of damage was greatest where weeds were most abundant
(26).
Windbreaks on the Great Plains, unless given cultivation during their early
years, are invaded by herbaceous vegetation, become sod bound, and are
permanently damaged (33,38,39). This vegetation may harbor rodents. Grazing is
not satisfactory for herbage control; multiple-row windbreaks should be fenced
to exclude livestock.
Osage-orange sustained less damage by insects, diseases, drought, hail, and
glaze than any other species planted in the Prairie States Forestry Project.
Along with bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) it survived better than any
other deciduous species on uplands of the Southern Plains (7,38).
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Flowering and Fruiting
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Osage-orange is dioecious. The simple, green,
four-part flowers appear soon after the leaves on the same spurs, opening from
April through June, and are wind pollinated. Male flowers are long peduncled
axillary racemes 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 in) long on the terminal leaf spur of
the previous season; female flowers are in dense globose heads, axillary to the
leaves, about 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter (2). The female flower in ripening
becomes very fleshy, forming a large multiple fruit or syncarp composed of
1-seeded drupelets. The fruit ripens from September through October. The ripe
fruit, 7.6 to 15 ern (3 to 6 in) in diameter, yellowish-green, resembles an
orange, often weighing more than a kilogram (2.2 lb). Fruits average 23/dkl (80
to the bu) (53). When bruised, the fruit exudes a bitter milky juice which may
cause a skin rash and which will blacken the fruit on drying.
Female trees often produce abundant fruit when no male trees exist nearby,
but such fruit contains no seeds.
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Genetics
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There is no known literature on the genetics of Osage-orange, and no
information on geographic races is available. A thornless cultivar, Maclura
pomifera var. inermis (André) Schneid., can be propagated by
cuttings or scions taken from high in the crowns of old trees, where the twigs
are thornless (30,31). The only known hybrid, x Macludrania hybrida
André, is an intergeneric cross: x Macludrania = Cudrania x
Maclura. Cudrania tricuspidata (Carr.) Bureau is a spiny shrub or small
tree, native to China, Japan, and Korea. The Maclura parent is variety
inermis. The hybrid is a small tree with yellowish furrowed bark and
short, woody spines (2,41). Some authorities believe that the tropical
dye-wood, fustic & ChIorophora tinctoria (L.) Gaud.é belongs
in the genus Maclura; however, the majority opinion is that there is
only one species of Osage-orange (28).
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Growth and Yield
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Osage-orange is a small tree or large shrub
averaging 9 m (30 ft) in height at maturity. Isolated trees on good sites may
reach heights of as much as 21 m (70 ft); crowded trees usually do not grow so
tall. In windbreak plantings on the Great Plains, Osage-orange grew 6 m (20 ft)
tall on average sites during a 20-year period; on some sites it grew 12 m (40
ft) tall (39).
Branchlets growing in full sunlight bear sharp, stout thorns. Slow-growing
twigs in the shaded portions of the crown of mature trees are thornless. The
thorns, 1.3 to 2.5 cm (0.5 to 1 in) long, are modified twigs. They form in leaf
axils on 1-year-old twigs. Shade-killed lower branches remain on the tree many
years. Regional estimates, based on the 19641966 Forest Surveys, indicated
virtually no Osage-orange of commercial size and quality on forest land in
Oklahoma, Texas, and Louisiana. There are two reasons for this: the species
usually grows on nonforest land, and merchantability standards for forest trees
do not apply to Osage-orange. Mature trees have short, curved boles and low,
wide, deliquescent crowns. Even in closed stands on good sites, less than half
the stems contain a straight log, 3 m (10 ft) long, sound and free of shake.
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Reaction to Competition
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Osage-orange is tolerant according to some
authors (6,37) and very intolerant according to others (3). Overall, it is most
accurately classed as intolerant of shade. The occurrence and circumstances of
natural regeneration suggest intolerance, but the growth of planted
Osage-orange in hedges and shelterbelts, under strong competition, indicates
tolerance. How vigorously and at how advanced an age the species responds to
release has not been deter-mined. Severe competition does not prevent abundant
seed production. Osage-orange sprouts vigorously, even following cutting of
interior rows in windbreaks.
No literature on the silviculture of naturally regenerated forest stands of
Osage-orange is known.
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Rooting Habit
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Osage-orange is characteristically deep rooted, but
because it has been planted so widely, the species is usually off-site, where
its rooting habit is variable. When the tree grows on shallow, fertile soils
over limestone, the lateral rootspread is tremendous (32).
Excavation of root systems in 7-year-old or older shelterbelts revealed a
lateral radius of 4.3 m (14 ft) and a depth of more than 8.2 m (27 ft) for
Osage-orange near Goodwell, OK (9). The soil was Richfield silt loam. Most of
the lateral roots were in the uppermost 0.3 m (1 ft) of soil. Excavations in
Nebraska revealed a lateral radius of 2.1 m (7 ft) and a depth of 1.5 m (5 ft)
for 3-year-old Osage-orange in Wabash silt loam; for 23-year-old Osage-orange
in Sogn silty clay loam, lateral radius was 4.9 m (16 ft) and depth was 2.4 m
(8 ft) (47). At both ages, there was a well-developed taproot, and most of the
long laterals originated within the first 0.3 m (I ft) of soil. At 3 years,
most of the long laterals were within the first 0.6 m (2 ft) of soil; at 23
years, laterals were as abundant in the eighth as in the first foot of soil.
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Seed Production and Dissemination
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Female trees bear good seed crops
nearly every year, beginning about the 10th year. Commercial seed-bearing age
is optimum from 25 to 65 years, and 75 to 100 years may be the maximum (53).
Germinative capacity averages 58 percent. Seeds are nearly I cm (0.4 in) in
length. The number of clean seeds ranges from 15,400 to 35,300, averaging
30,900/kg (7,000 to 16,000, averaging 14,000/lb). Livestock, wild mammals, and
birds feed on the fruit and disseminate the seed. The seeds have a slight
dormancy that is easily overcome by soaking in water for 48 hours or by
stratifying in sand or peat for 30 days. Fruit stored over winter in piles
outdoors is easily cleaned in the spring, and the seed germinates promptly.
Viability can be maintained for at least 3 years by storing cleaned, air-dried
seeds in sealed containers at 5° C (41° F) (56). Recommended sowing
depth is about 6 to 13 min (0.25 to 0.5 in); soil should be firmed.
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Seedling Development
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Germination is epigeal. Natural regeneration
apparently requires exposed mineral soil and full light. A study of survival
and growth in the Prairie States Forestry Project windbreaks indicated average
survival of Osage-orange at age 7 years to be 68 percent, ranking seventh of 16
"shrubs"; total height was 2.4 m (8 ft), ranking fifth of 16; and
crown spread was 1.8 m (6 ft). Osage-orange was usually planted in the shrub
(outer) rows and sometimes in the tree (inner) rows. It grows too fast,
however, to be considered a shrub and often overtops slower growing conifers
(33).
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Special Uses
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Osage-orange has been planted in great numbers, first as a field hedge,
before barbed wire became available, secondly as a windbreak and component of
shelterbelts, and thirdly to stabilize soils and control erosion.
The single-row field hedge proved to be a valuable windbreak on the prairie;
evidence of this was the raised ground level under 15-year-old hedges, caused
by accumulation of windborne soil material. Hedges around every quarter-section
were common, especially in areas of deep sand (20,38). These hedges were a
source of durable posts. Prairie farmers customarily clearcut hedges on a 10-
to 16-year cycle, obtaining about 2,500 fence posts per kilometer (4,000 per
mi) of single-row hedge. The slash was piled over the stumps to protect the new
sprouts from browsing livestock. Pole-sized and larger Osage-orange trees are
practically immune to browsing, but seedlings and tender sprouts are highly
susceptible. Recommended practice is to thin the new sprout stands to 240
vigorous stems per 100 m (73/100 ft), 3 to 5 years after the clearcut, and to
protect the sprouts from fire. If inadvertently burned, the sprouts should be
cut back immediately to encourage new, vigorous growth (20).
Osage-orange heartwood is the most decay-resistant of all North American
timbers and is immune to termites. The outer layer of sapwood is very thin;
consequently, even small-diameter stems give long service as stakes and posts
(40,43). About 3 million posts were sold annually in Kansas during the early
1970's. The branch wood was used by the Osage Indians for making bows and is
still recommended by some archers today.
The chemical properties of the fruit, seed, roots, bark, and wood may be
more important than the structural qualities of the wood. A number of
extractives have been identified by researchers, but they have not yet been
employed by industry (11,12,23, 24,44,58). Numerous organic compounds have also
been obtained from various parts of the tree (16,44,57). An antifungal agent
and a nontoxic antibiotic useful as a food preservative have been extracted
from the heartwood (5,24).
Osage-orange in prairie regions provides valuable cover and nesting sites
for quail, pheasant, other birds, and animals (20,33), but the bitter-tasting
fruit is little eaten by wildlife. Reports that fruit causes the death of
livestock have been proven wrong by feeding experiments in several States.
Osage-orange has been successfully used in strip mine reclamation. Its ease
of planting, tolerance of alkaline soil, and resistance to drought are
desirable qualities (1,14,29). These qualities plus growth, long life, and
resistance to injury by ice, wind, insects, and diseases make Osage-orange a
valued landscape plant (15,30,31).
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Vegetative Reproduction
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Osage-orange may be vegetatively propagated
using root cuttings or with greenwood cuttings under glass. To propagate
thornless male (nonfruiting) clones for ornamental use, scions or cuttings
should be taken only from the mature part of the crown of a tree past the
juvenile stage. Perhaps the easiest way to grow selected stock is by grafting
chip buds onto nursery-run seedlings and plastic-wrapping the graft area
(30,31).
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Distribution
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The natural range of Osage-orange is in the Red River drainage of Oklahoma,
Texas, and Arkansas; and in the Blackland Prairies, Post Oak Savannas, and
Chisos Mountains of Texas (28). According to some authors the original range
included most of eastern Oklahoma (34), portions of Missouri (49,54), and
perhaps northwestern Louisiana (28,49).
Osage-orange has been planted as a hedge in all the 48 conterminous States
and in southeastern Canada. The commercial range includes most of the country
east of the Rocky Mountains, south of the Platte River and the Great Lakes,
excluding the Appalachian Mountains.
-The native range of osage-orange.
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Brief Summary
provided by Silvics of North America
Moraceae -- Mulberry family
J. D. Burton
Osage-orange (Maclura pomifera) produces no sawtimber, pulpwood, or
utility poles, but it has been planted in greater numbers than almost any other
tree species in North America. Known also as hedge, hedge-apple, bodark,
bois-d'arc, bowwood, and naranjo chino, it made agricultural settlement of the
prairies possible (though not profitable), led directly to the invention of
barbed wire, and then provided most of the posts for the wire that fenced the
West. The heartwood, bark, and roots contain many extractives of actual and
potential value in food processing, pesticide manufacturing, and dyemaking.
Osage-orange is used in landscape design, being picturesque rather than
beautiful, and possessing strong form, texture, and character.
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