Grey Headed Albatross

The grey-headed albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma) also known as the gray-headed mollymawk, is a large seabird from the albatross family. It has a circumpolar distribution, nesting on isolated islands in the Southern Ocean and feeding at high latitudes, further south than any of the other mollymawks. Its name derives from its ashy-gray head, throat and upper neck.

Taxonomy

Mollymawks are a type of albatross that belong to the family Diomedeidae from the order Procellariiformes, along with shearwaters, fulmars, storm petrels, and diving petrels. They share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns, although the nostrils of an albatross are on the sides of the bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between seven and nine horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used against predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights.^[3] They also have a salt gland situated above the nasal passage that helps desalinate their bodies, to compensate for the ocean water they imbibe. It excretes a concentrated brine from the nostrils.^[4]

Etymology

The name chrysostoma is derived from two Greek words. Khrusos means "gold" and stoma means "the mouth", in reference to its golden bill.^[5]

Description

The grey-headed albatross averages 81 cm (32 in) in length and 2.2 m (7.2 ft) in wingspan. Weight can range from 2.8 to 4.4 kg (6.2 to 9.7 lb), with a mean mass of 3.65 kg (8.0 lb).^[6] It has a dark ashy-grey head, throat, and upper neck, and its upper wings, mantle, and tail, are almost black. It has a white rump, underparts, and a white crescent behind its eyes. Its bill is black, with bright yellow upper and lower ridges, that shades to pink-orange at the tip. Its underwings are white with a lot of black on the leading edge and less on the trailing edge. Juveniles have a black bill and head and a darker nape. Its eye crescent is indistinct and its underwing is almost completely dark.^[7]

Range and habitat

Grey-headed albatrosses nest in colonies on several islands in the Southern Ocean, with large colonies on South Georgia in the South Atlantic, and smaller colonies on Islas Diego Ramírez, Kerguelen Islands, Crozet Islands, Marion Island, and Prince Edward Islands in the Indian Ocean, Campbell Island and Macquarie Island south of New Zealand, and Chile. While breeding, they will forage for food within or south of the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone.^[8][9] Birds that roost in the Marion Island area forage for food in the sub-tropical zone.^[10] Juveniles or non-breeding adults fly freely throughout all the southern oceans,^[7] north to 35°S.^[11]

Behaviour

Chick at nest

Feeding

At sea the grey-headed albatross is highly pelagic, more so than other mollymawks, feeding in the open oceans rather than over the continental shelves. They feed predominantly on squid, taking also some fish, crustacea, carrion, cephalopods, and lampreys.^{[12][13][14][15]} Krill is less important as a food source for this species, reflecting their more pelagic feeding range. They are capable of diving as deep as 7 m (23 ft) to chase prey, but do not do so frequently.

Reproduction

A single egg is laid in a large nest, typically built on steep slopes or cliffs with tussock grass,^[7] and incubated for 72 days. Studies at South Georgia's Bird Island have shown that the growing chick is fed 616 g (21.7 oz) of food every 1.2 days, with the chick increasing in weight to around 4,900 g (170 oz). Chicks then tend to lose weight before fledging, which happens after 141 days. Chick will generally not return to the colony for 6–7 years after fledging, and will not breed for the first time until several years after that. If a pair has managed to successfully raise a chick it will not breed in the following year, taking the year off.^[7] During this time spent away from the colony they can cover great distances, often circling the globe several times.

Conservation

Flying in Drake's Passage, Southern Ocean

The IUCN classifies this bird as endangered due to rapidly declining numbers in South Georgia which holds around half the world's population.^[1] It has an occurrence range of 79,000,000 km² (31,000,000 sq mi) and a breeding range of 1,800 km² (690 sq mi),^[7] with a population, estimated in 2004, of 250,000.^[16][17] Estimates place 48,000 pairs at South Georgia Island,^[18] 6,200 on Marion Island,^[19] 3,000 pairs on Prince Edward Islands,^[20] 7,800 pairs on Campbell Island,^[21] 16,408 pairs in Chile,^[22] 84 pairs on Macquarie Island, 5,940 on Crozet Island, and 7,905 on Kerguelen Islands^[23]

Populations have been shrinking based on different studies. Bird Island numbers have been reduced 20% to 30% in the last 30 years.^[24] Marion Island registered 1.75% reduction per year until 1992 and now appears to be stable.^[25] Campbell Island has seen reduction of 79% to 87% since the 1940s.^[26] Overall, the trends looks like a 30-40% reduction over 90 years (3 generations).^[7] Illegal or unregulated fishing in the Indian Ocean for the Patagonian toothfish, Dissostichus eleginoides resulted in 10–20,000 dead albatrosses, mainly this species, in 1997 and 1998.^[27][28][29] Longline fishing is responsible for other deaths.^[23][30]

To assist this species, studies are being undertaken at most of the islands. Also, Prince Edward Islands is a special nature preserve, and Campbell Island^[31] and Macquarie Island^[32] are World Heritage Sites.

Footnotes

References

• Arata, J.; Moreno, C. A. (2002). "Progress report of Chilean research on albatross ecology and conservation". Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Working Group on Fish Stock Assessment.
• Arata, J.; Robertson, G.; Valencia, J.; Xavier, J. C.; Moreno, C. A. (2004). "Diet of Grey-headed Albatrosses at Diego Ramirez Islands, Chile: ecological implications" (PDF). Antarctic Science. 16 (3): 263–275. Bibcode:2004AntSc..16..263A. doi:10.1017/s095410200400207x. S2CID 51991611.
• BirdLife International (2008). "Grey-headed Albatross - BirdLife Species Factsheet". Data Zone. Retrieved 22 Feb 2009.
• Brands, Sheila (14 Aug 2008). "Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification - Diomedea subg. Thalassogeron -". Project: The Taxonomicon. Retrieved 22 Feb 2009.
• Brooke, M. (2004). "Procellariidae". Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850125-1.
• CCAMLR (1998). Report of the XVII Meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart. Hobart, Australia: Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link)
• CCAMLR (1997). Report of the XVI Meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart. Hobart, Australia: Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link)
• Cherel, Y.; Weimerskirch, H.; Trouve, C. (2002). "Dietary evidence for spatial foraging segregation in sympatric albatrosses (Diomedea spp.) rearing chicks at Iles Nuageuses, Kerguelen". Marine Biology. 141 (6): 1117–1129. doi:10.1007/s00227-002-0907-5. S2CID 83653436.
• Clay, T.A.; Small, C.; Tuck, G.N.; Pardo, D; Carneiro, A.P.B.; Wood, A.G.; Croxall, J.P.; Crossin, G.T.; Phillips, R.A. (2019). "A comprehensive large‐scale assessment of fisheries bycatch risk to threatened seabird populations". Journal of Applied Ecology. 141 (6): 1117–1129. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.13407.
• Clements, James (2007). The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World (6th ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4501-9.
• Crawford, R. J. M.; Cooper, J.; Dyer, B. M.; Greyling, M.; Klages, N. T. W.; Ryan, P. G.; Petersen, S.; Underhill, L. G.; Upfold, L.; et al. (2003). "Populations of surface nesting seabirds at Marion Island, 1994/95-2002/03". African Journal of Marine Science. 25: 427–440. doi:10.2989/18142320309504032. S2CID 83807556.
• Croxall, J. P.; Gales, R. (1998). "Assessment of the conservation status of albatrosses". In Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (eds.). Albatross biology and conservation. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons.
• Croxall, J. P.; Prince, P. A.; Rothery, P.; Wood, A. G. (1998). "Population changes in albatrosses at South Georgia". In Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (eds.). Albatross biology and conservation. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons. pp. 69–83.
• Croxall, J. P.; Silk, J.R.D.; Phillips, R.A.; Afanasyev, V.; Briggs, D.R. (2005). "Global Circumnavigations: Tracking year-round ranges of nonbreeding Albatrosses". Science. 307 (5707): 249–250. Bibcode:2005Sci...307..249C. doi:10.1126/science.1106042. PMID 15653503. S2CID 28990783.
• del Hoyo, Josep, Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (1992). Handbook of Birds of the World Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5
• Double, M. C. (2003). "Procellariiformes (Tubenosed Seabirds)". In Hutchins, Michael; Jackson, Jerome A.; Bock, Walter J.; Olendorf, Donna (eds.). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. 8. Vol. Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins. Joseph E. Trumpey, Chief Scientific Illustrator (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 107–111. ISBN 978-0-7876-5784-0.
• Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dobkin, David, S.; Wheye, Darryl (1988). The Birders Handbook (First ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. pp. 29–31. ISBN 978-0-671-65989-9.
• Gales, R. (1998). "Albatross populations: status and threats". In Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (eds.). Albatross biology and conservation. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons.
• Gotch, A. F. (1995) [1979]. "Albatrosses, Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Petrels". Latin Names Explained A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals. New York, NY: Facts on File. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-8160-3377-5.
• Moore, P. J. (2004). "Abundance and population trends of mollymawks on Campbell Island". Science for Conservation. Wellington, NZ: Department of Conservation. 242.
• Nel, D. C.; Lutjeharms, J. R. E.; Pakhomov, E. A.; Ansorge, I. J.; Ryan, P. G.; Klages, N. T. W. (2001). "Exploitation of mesoscale oceanographic features by Grey-headed Albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma in the southern Indian Ocean". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 217: 15–26. Bibcode:2001MEPS..217...15N. doi:10.3354/meps217015.
• Nel, D. C.; Ryan, P. G.; Crawford, R. J. M.; Cooper, J.; Huyser, O. (2002). "Population trends of albatrosses and petrels at sub-Antarctic Marion Island". Polar Biology. 25 (2): 81–89. doi:10.1007/s003000100315. S2CID 11970816.
• Nel, D. C.; Ryan, P. G.; Watkins, B. P. (2002a). "Seabird mortality in the Patagonian Toothfish longline fishery around the Prince Edward Islands". Antarctic Science. 14 (2): 151–161. Bibcode:2002AntSc..14..151N. doi:10.1017/s0954102002000718. S2CID 83997049.
• Phillips, R. A.; Silk, J. R. D.; Phalan, B.; Catry, P.; Croxall, J. P. (2004). "Seasonal sexual segregation of two Thalassarche albatross species: competitive exclusion, reproductive role specialization or foraging niche divergence?". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 271 (1545): 1283–1291. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2718. PMC 1691717. PMID 15306353.
• Poncet, S.; Robertson, G.; Phillips, R. A.; Lawton, K.; Phalan, B.; Trathan, P. N.; Croxall, J. P. (2006). "Status and distribution of wandering Black-browed and Grey-headed Albatrosses breeding at South Georgia". Polar Biology. 29 (9): 772–781. doi:10.1007/s00300-006-0114-9. S2CID 21411990.
• Prince, P. A. (1980). "The food and feeding ecology of Grey-headed Albatross Diomedea chrysostoma and Black-rowed Albatross D. melanophris". Ibis. 122 (4): 476–488. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919x.1980.tb00902.x.
• Prince, P. A.; Croxall, J. P.; Trathan, P. N.; Wood, A. G. (1998). "The pelagic distribution of South Georgia albatrosses and their relationships with fisheries". In Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (eds.). Albatross biology and conservation. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons.
• Ryan, P. G.; Cooper, J.; Dyer, B. M.; Underhill, L. G.; Crawford, R. J. M.; Bester, M. N. (2003). "Counts of surface-nesting seabirds breeding at Prince Edward Islands, Summer 2001/02". African Journal of Marine Science. 25: 441–451. doi:10.2989/18142320309504033. S2CID 84355648.
• Taylor, G. A. (2000). "Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Wellington: Department of Conservation". Threatened Species Occasional Publication. 16.
• Xavier, J. C.; Croxall, J. P.; Trathan, P. N.; Wood, A. G. (2003). "Feeding strategies and diets of breeding grey-headed and wandering albatrosses at South Georgia". Marine Biology. 143 (2): 221–232. doi:10.1007/s00227-003-1049-0. S2CID 85569322.