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Colorado River Toad Sonoran Desert Toad

Incilius alvarius (Girard ex Baird 1859)

Description

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Adults are usually large, stout-bodied toads, 110-187 mm long from snout to vent. Their olive skin is smooth, leathery, and scattered with small rounded tubercles often set in rust colored spots. Behind the angle of the jaws there is at least one conspicuous white tubercle. The length of each paratoid gland is twice the paratoid width, and equal to the distance from the nostril to the tympanum. On the dorsal surfaces of the limbs there are several enlarged glands that resemble the paratoids. Above each eye curves a distinct cranial crest.This species was featured as News of the Week on 24 February 2020:Smoking the dried secretions from toads is known for its psychedelic effects and recent investigations indicate it may alleviate depression, anxiety, and symptoms of PTSD. Uthaug et al. (2019) sought to determine the sub-acute and long-term therapeutic applications of the dried toxins from the Colorado River Toad Incilius alvarius, which has high concentrations of the psychoactive compound 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (or 5-MeO-DMT). The authors implemented a series of questionnaires before and after (up to 24-hour and again at 4-weeks post) a single inhalation of the substance in a naturalistic setting. Participants were more satisfied with their lives and had improved mental states immediately after their experience and these feelings were still present at the 4-week survey. Depression and anxiety decreased to a significant degree 4-weeks post exposure. Clearly investigations into 5-MeO-DMT for its therapeutic benefits continue to show promise.

Reference

Fouquette, M. J., Jr (1963). ''Bufo alvarius.'' Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, 93.1-93.4.

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Distribution and Habitat

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Found from southern Arizona(USA), through most of Sonora to northern Sinaloa (Mexico). Its range extends into the southeastern parts of California, USA and the northeastern corner of Baja California, Mexico. These toads are primarily found in the desert, but also occur in grassland and low elevation oak-woodland. They frequently take refuge in rodent burrows. Though they often breed in temporary pools, they appear to be dependant on the presence of a permanent water source.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors

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Habitat destruction and possibly pesticide use have caused populations to become extinct. Collecting by certain groups is also a threat to populations in some areas. In California, populations occur along the Colorado River, which have been severely depleted. It is listed as a State Species of Special Concern (CA DFW 2019).
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors

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Primarily nocturnal.These toads appear in Tuscon just prior to the summer showers, and congregate once the rains begin. They breed in temporary pools, croaking incessantly. Males have a reduced vocal sac and their call is weak. Their tadpoles are strikingly different from those of related species Bufo boreas and B. canorus, being gray or golden brown. The larval period is believed to be no more than a month. Their diet includes beetles, grasshoppers, spiders, small lizards, Bufo cognatus and Scaphiopus couchi.
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Relation to Humans

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The glands of the toads produce a toxin (5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine or 5-MeO-DMT) that can cause hallucinations in humans, and therefore is a controlled substance.
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Life Cycle

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Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis

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bibliographic citation
Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Morphology

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Dark olive green color and leathery skin. They are 110-187mm in length. A very large toad with cranial crests, elongate parotid glands, raised warts on hind legs (Robinson 2001).

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry

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Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Life Expectancy

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Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
9.2 years.

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Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Habitat

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The main part of its range is from sea-level to 1600 m (5300 ft). It can be found in a variety of desert and semi-arid habitats: brushy desert with creosote bush and mesquite washes, semi-arid grasslands and woodlands. It is semi-aquatic and is usually associated with large, somewhat permanent

streams. It is occasionally found near small springs, temporary rain pools, human-made canals and irrigation ditches. They frequently live in rodent burrows (Robinson 2001, Mayhew 1968).

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Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Distribution

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Incilius alvarius is found in the northern parts of Mexico, the southern parts of Arizona and New Mexico, and the southeast corner of California (Stebbins 1985, Robinson 2001).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

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Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Trophic Strategy

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Incilius alvarius is carniverous and is known to eat snails, beetles, spiders, grasshoppers, lizards, mice, and other smaller toad species. A long sticky tongue aids in catching prey (Mayhew 1968).

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Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits

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Control crop pests such as snails (Mayhew 1968).

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Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Conservation Status

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US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Reproduction

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These toads appear when the summer showers start and breed in the temporary pools that form after the rains begin. Males croak incessantly, but have a relatively weak call, compared to other frogs and toads. They are an egg laying species and the larval period is believed to be 1 month. The tadpoles are a yellow/brown color (Mayhew 1968, Robinson 2001, Stebbins 1985).

Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

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Brunelle, R. 2001. "Incilius alvarius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Incilius_alvarius.html
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Rachel Brunelle, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Brief Summary

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At 7 inches or more, the Sonoran Desert toad is one of the largest toads native to North America. Adults have a uniformly green to greenish-grey topside of their bodies with a creamy white underside. Large white turbercles, or “warts”, are found at the jaw. They have relatively smooth skin aside from a few lumps on their hind legs. Recently metamorphosed toadlets will be tan to green with orange or red spots on the topside. Unlike other male toads in the region, male Sonoran Desert toads do not have dark throats. The males develop darkened, thick calluses on the inside of the thumbs of the forelimbs during the breeding season. They are toxic and eat mostly small rodents, insects and small reptiles. The Sonoran Desert toad burrows for eight to ten months of the year.

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Bufo alvarius ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Bufo alvarius és una espècie d'amfibi que viu al sud-oest dels Estats Units i al nord de Mèxic.

Es troba amenaçada d'extinció per la pèrdua del seu hàbitat natural.

Referències

 src= A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Bufo alvarius Modifica l'enllaç a Wikidata



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Bufo alvarius: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Bufo alvarius és una espècie d'amfibi que viu al sud-oest dels Estats Units i al nord de Mèxic.

Es troba amenaçada d'extinció per la pèrdua del seu hàbitat natural.

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Ropucha coloradská ( Czech )

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Ropucha coloradská (Incilius alvarius) nebo ropucha koloradská je ropucha žijící v severním Mexiku a na jihozápadě Spojených států amerických. Její kůže a jed obsahují 5-MeO-DMT a bufotenin, halucinogenní tryptaminy.

Své jméno získala podle řeky Colorado, ale své oblasti se vyskytuje i na poušti. Je masožravá, pojídá malé hlodavce, hmyz, malé plazy a jiné žáby. Aktivní je v noci.

Reference

V tomto článku byl použit překlad textu z článku Colorado River toad na anglické Wikipedii.

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-10]

Externí odkazy

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Ropucha coloradská: Brief Summary ( Czech )

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Ropucha coloradská (Incilius alvarius) nebo ropucha koloradská je ropucha žijící v severním Mexiku a na jihozápadě Spojených států amerických. Její kůže a jed obsahují 5-MeO-DMT a bufotenin, halucinogenní tryptaminy.

Své jméno získala podle řeky Colorado, ale své oblasti se vyskytuje i na poušti. Je masožravá, pojídá malé hlodavce, hmyz, malé plazy a jiné žáby. Aktivní je v noci.

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Colorado River toad

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The Colorado River toad (Incilius alvarius), also known as the Sonoran Desert toad, is a toad species found in northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States. It is well known for its ability to exude toxins from glands within its skin that have psychoactive properties.

Description

The Colorado River toad can grow to about 190 millimetres (7.5 in) long and is the largest toad in the United States apart from the non-native cane toad (Rhinella marina). It has a smooth, leathery skin and is olive green or mottled brown in color. Just behind the large golden eye with horizontal pupil is a bulging kidney-shaped parotoid gland. Below this is a large circular pale green area which is the tympanum or ear drum. By the corner of the mouth there is a white wart and there are white glands on the legs. All these glands produce toxic secretions. Its call is described as, "a weak, low-pitched toot, lasting less than a second."[4]

Dogs (Canis familiaris) that have attacked toads have suffered paralysis or even death. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) have learned to pull a toad away from a pond by the back leg, turn it on its back and start feeding on its belly, a strategy that keeps the raccoon well away from the poison glands.[5] Unlike other vertebrates, this amphibian obtains water mostly by osmotic absorption across its abdomen. Toads in the family Bufonidae have a region of skin known as "the seat patch", which extends from mid abdomen to the hind legs and is specialized for rapid rehydration. Most of the rehydration is done through absorption of water from small pools or wet objects.[6]

Distribution and habitat

Range of Incilius alvarius in the United States

In the United States, the Colorado River toad is found in the lower Colorado River and the Gila River catchment areas, in extreme southeastern New Mexico and much of southern Arizona. It is considered possibly extirpated from California.[7] In Mexico, the toad is found in the states of Sonora, Sinaloa, and Chihuahua. It lives in both desert and semi-arid areas throughout its range. It is semiaquatic and is often found in streams, near springs, in canals and drainage ditches, and under water troughs.[5] The Colorado River toad is known to breed in artificial water bodies (e.g., flood control impoundments, reservoirs) and as a result, the distributions and breeding habitats of these species may have been recently altered in south-central Arizona.[8] It often makes its home in rodent burrows and is nocturnal.

Biology

The Colorado River toad is sympatric with the spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus spp.), Great Plains toad (Anaxyrus cognatus), red-spotted toad (Anaxyrus punctatus), and Woodhouse's toad (Anaxyrus woodhousei). Like many other toads, they are active foragers and feed on invertebrates, lizards, small mammals, and amphibians. The most active season for toads is May–September, due to greater rainfalls (needed for breeding purposes). The age of I. alvarius individuals in a population at Adobe Dam in Maricopa County, Arizona, ranged from 2 to 4 years; other species of toad have a lifespan of 4 to 5 years.[9] The taxonomic affinities of I. alvarius remain unclear, but immunologically, it is similarly close to the boreas and valliceps groups.[10]

Breeding

The breeding season starts in July, when the rainy season begins, and can last up to August. Normally, 1–3 days after the rain is when toads begin to lay eggs in ponds, slow-moving streams, temporary pools or man-made structures that hold water. Eggs are 1.6 mm in diameter, 5–7 mm apart, and encased in a long single tube of jelly with a loose but distinct outline. The female toad can lay up to 8,000 eggs.[11]

Psychotropic uses

The toad's primary defense system is glands that produce a poison that may be potent enough to kill a grown dog.[12] These parotoid glands also produce the 5-methoxy-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT)[13] and bufotenin (which is named after the Bufo genus of toads); both of these chemicals belong to the family of hallucinogenic tryptamines. Bufotenin can be toxic.[14]

When vaporized, a single deep inhalation of the poison produces strong psychoactive effects within 15 seconds.[15] After inhalation, the user usually experiences a warm sensation, euphoria, and strong visual and auditory hallucinations, due to 5-MeO-DMT's high affinity for the 5-HT2 and 5-HT1A serotonin receptor subtypes.[16]

Bufotenin is a chemical constituent in the secretions and eggs of several species of toads belonging to the genus Bufo, but the Colorado River toad (Incillius alvarius) is the only toad species in which bufotenin is present in large enough quantities for a psychoactive effect. Extracts of toad secretion, containing bufotenin and other bioactive compounds, have been used in some traditional medicines such as ch’an su (probably derived from Bufo gargarizans), which has been used medicinally for centuries in China,[17] as a herbal remedy often illegally imported to the USA that can be prepared as a tea. [18]

The toad was "recurrently depicted in Mesoamerican art",[19] which some authors have interpreted as indicating that the effects of ingesting Bufo secretions have been known in Mesoamerica for many years; however, others doubt that this art provides sufficient "ethnohistorical evidence" to support the claim.[17]

In addition to bufotenin, Bufo secretions also contain digoxin-like cardiac glycosides, and ingestion of the poison can be fatal. Ingestion of Bufo toad toxins and eggs by humans has resulted in several reported cases of poisoning,[20][21][22] some of which resulted in death.[22][23][24] The first reported death associated with the ingestion of ch'an su was that of a young woman who consumed it as a prescribed (by a Chinese herbalist) Chinese herbal remedy mixed into a tea (an approximately 100ml bowl). Immediately upon ingesting the ch'an tea, the woman experienced vomiting, difficulty breathing, and gastric tenderness, which spurred her husband to take her to the emergency room, where she died two and a half hours after drinking the tea.[25]

Contemporary reports indicate that bufotenin-containing toad toxins have been used as a street drug; that is, as a supposed aphrodisiac,[26] ingested orally in the form of ch’an su,[22] and as a psychedelic, by smoking or orally ingesting Bufo toad secretion or dried Bufo skins. The use of chan'su and love stone (a related toad toxin preparation used as an aphrodisiac in the West Indies) has resulted in several cases of poisoning and at least one death.[22][27] The practice of orally ingesting toad secretions has been referred to in popular culture and in the scientific literature as "toad licking" and has drawn media attention.[28] Albert Most published a booklet titled Bufo alvarius: The Psychedelic Toad of the Sonoran Desert[29][30] in 1983 which explained how to extract and smoke the secretions.

Among the notable people who have spoken publicly about their experiences with the psychoactive agents in the poison are boxer Mike Tyson,[31] comedian Chelsea Handler,[32] podcaster Joe Rogan,[33] television personality Christina Haack,[34] and motivational speaker Anthony Robbins.[35]

On October 31, 2022 the United States National Park Service posted a warning on Facebook that people should not handle or lick the toad.[36][37][38] Despite the warning's wide coverage in media, the post was made humorously and the Park Service has no records of people licking or otherwise harassing the toads in parks.[39]

U.S. state laws

Toad at night in Tucson

The substance, 5-MeO-DMT, which are often dried into crystals and smoked, found in the toxins the toad excretes when it is threatened is considered illegal in the United States, and categorized as a Schedule 1 substance, though law enforcement are increasingly less likely to enforce the laws with its growing popularity.[40]

The toads received national attention in 1994 after The New York Times Magazine published an article about a California teacher who became the first person to be arrested for possessing secretion of the toads.[41][42] Bufotenin had been outlawed in California since 1970.[43]

In November 2007, a man in Kansas City, Missouri, was discovered with an I. alvarius toad in his possession, and charged with possession of a controlled substance after they determined he intended to use its secretions for recreational purposes.[44][45] In Arizona, one may legally bag up to 10 toads with a fishing license, but it could constitute a criminal violation if it can be shown that one is in possession of this toad with the intent to smoke its secretions.[46]

None of the U.S. states in which I. alvarius is or was indigenous – California, Arizona, and New Mexico – legally allows a person to remove the toad from the state. For example, the Arizona Game and Fish Department is clear about the law in Arizona: "An individual shall not...export any live wildlife from the state; 3. Transport, possess, offer for sale, sell, sell as live bait, trade, give away, purchase, rent, lease, display, exhibit, propagate...within the state."[46]

In California, I. alvarius has been designated as "endangered" and possession of this toad is illegal. "It is unlawful to capture, collect, intentionally kill or injure, possess, purchase, propagate, sell, transport, import or export any native reptile or amphibian, or part thereof..."[47]

Threatened species

Due to the rising popularity in collecting this toad, compounded with other threats such as motorists running over them, and predators such as raccoons eating them, U.S. states such as New Mexico have listed them as "threatened" and that collecting I. alvarius is unlawful in those states.[48][49] Collecting these toads is also thought to cause stress to them, in particular during the process of "milking" where collectors rub the toads under the chin to cause it to secrete the poison in the form of a milky substance that is then scraped from the body of the toad. Robert Villa, who serves as president of the Tucson Herpetological Society, said in a 2022 New York Times interview, “There’s a perception of abundance, but when you begin to remove large numbers of a species, their numbers are going to collapse like a house of cards at some point."[40]

Efforts to breed the toads in large quantities to offset their losses in the wild are criticized as potentially attracting predators to these areas, and creating a disease vector for pathogens such as chytrid fungus, which can then spread to devastate more of them in the wild. Synthetic forms of the drug that collectors seek in the toad poison are fairly easy to produce and may offset overcollection.[40]

References

  1. ^ Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera. (2004). "Incilius alvarius". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T54567A11152901. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54567A11152901.en. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
  2. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  3. ^ Frost, Darrel R. (2021). "Incilius alvarius (Girard, 1859)". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.1. American Museum of Natural History. doi:10.5531/db.vz.0001. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
  4. ^ National Audubon Society: Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians
  5. ^ a b Badger, David; Netherton, John (1995). Frogs. Shrewsbury, England: Swan Hill Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN 1-85310-740-9.
  6. ^ Shibata, Yuki; Takeuchi, Hiro-aki; Hasegawa, Takahiro; Suzuki, Masakazu; Tanaka, Shigeyasu; Hillyard, Stanley D.; Nagai, Takatoshi (2011). "Localization of water channels in the skin of two species of desert toads, Anaxyrus (Bufo) punctatus and Incilius (Bufo) alvarius". Zoological Science. 28 (9): 664–670. doi:10.2108/zsj.28.664. PMID 21882955. S2CID 207287044.
  7. ^ "Sonoran Desert Toad - Incilius alvarius". www.californiaherps.com. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  8. ^ Gergus, Erik W. A.; Malmos, Keith B.; Sullivan, Brian K. (1999). "Natural hybridization among distantly related toads (Bufo alvarius, Bufo cognatus, Bufo woodhousii) in Central Arizona". Copeia. 1999 (2): 281–286. doi:10.2307/1447473. JSTOR 1447473.
  9. ^ "COLORADO RIVER TOAD (Bufo alvarius)". Species Accounts for the Lower Colorado River Multi-Species Conservation Program (PDF). Boulder City, Nevada: Lower Colorado River Multi-Species Conservation Program. September 2008. pp. 330–342.
  10. ^ Sullivan, Brian K.; Malmos, Keith B.; Movin, T. (1994). "Call variation in the Colorado River Toad (Bufo alvarius): behavioral and phylogenetic implications". Herpetologica. 50 (2): 146–156. doi:10.1007/BF00690963. JSTOR 3893021. PMID 3893021. S2CID 22694946.
  11. ^ Behler, J.L (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. Knopf; 1 edition (November 12, 1979). pp. 743. ISBN 0394508246.
  12. ^ Phillips, Steven J.; Wentworth Comus, Patricia, eds. (2000). A Natural History of the Sonoran Desert. University of California Press. p. 537. ISBN 0-520-21980-5.
  13. ^ Erspamer, V.; Vitali, T.; Roseghini, M.; Cei, J.M. (July 1967). "5-Methoxy- and 5-Hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius" (PDF). Biochemical Pharmacology. 16 (7): 1149–1164. doi:10.1016/0006-2952(67)90147-5. PMID 6053590.
  14. ^ Repke DB, Torres CM (2006). Anadenanthera: visionary plant of ancient South America. New York: Haworth Herbal Press. ISBN 978-0-7890-2642-2.
  15. ^ Weil, Andrew T.; Davis, Wade (January 1994). "Bufo alvarius: a potent hallucinogen of animal origin". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 41 (1–2): 1–8. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(94)90051-5. PMID 8170151.
  16. ^ Krebs-Thomson, Kirsten; Ruiz, ErbertM.; Masten, Virginia; Buell, Mahalah; Geyer, MarkA. (December 2006). "The roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptors in the effects of 5-MeO-DMT on locomotor activity and prepulse inhibition in rats". Psychopharmacology. 189 (3): 319–329. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0566-1. PMID 17013638. S2CID 23396616.
  17. ^ a b Davis W, Weil A (1992). "Identity of a New World Psychoactive Toad". Ancient Mesoamerica. 3: 51–9. doi:10.1017/s0956536100002297. S2CID 162875250.
  18. ^ Ko, R. J.; Greenwald, M. S.; Loscutoff, S. M.; Au, A. M.; Appel, B. R.; Kreutzer, R. A.; Haddon, W. F.; Jackson, T. Y.; Boo, F. O.; Presicek, G. (1996). "Lethal Ingestion of Chinese Tea Containing Ch' an Su". The Western Journal of Medicine. 164 (1): 71–75. PMC 1303306. PMID 8779214.
  19. ^ Kennedy AB (1982). "Ecce Bufo: The Toad in Nature and in Olmec Iconography". Current Anthropology. 23 (3): 273–90. doi:10.1086/202831. S2CID 143698915.
  20. ^ Hitt M, Ettinger DD (1986). "Toad toxicity". N Engl J Med. 314 (23): 1517–8. doi:10.1056/NEJM198606053142320. PMID 3702971.
  21. ^ Ragonesi DL (1990). "The boy who was all hopped up". Contemporary Pediatrics. 7: 91–4.
  22. ^ a b c d Brubacher JR, Ravikumar PR, Bania T, Heller MB, Hoffman RS (1996). "Treatment of toad venom poisoning with digoxin-specific Fab fragments". Chest. 110 (5): 1282–8. doi:10.1378/chest.110.5.1282. PMID 8915235.
  23. ^ Gowda RM, Cohen RA, Khan IA (2003). "Toad venom poisoning: resemblance to digoxin toxicity and therapeutic implications". Heart. 89 (4): 14e–14. doi:10.1136/heart.89.4.e14. PMC 1769273. PMID 12639891.
  24. ^ Lever, Christopher (2001). The Cane Toad: The History and Ecology of a Successful Colonist. Westbury Academic & Scientific Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84103-006-7.
  25. ^ Ko, R. J.; Greenwald, M. S.; Loscutoff, S. M.; Au, A. M.; Appel, B. R.; Kreutzer, R. A.; Haddon, W. F.; Jackson, T. Y.; Boo, F. O.; Presicek, G. (1996). "Lethal Ingestion of Chinese Herbal Tea Containing Ch'an Su". The Western Journal of Medicine. 164 (1): 71–75. PMC 1303306. PMID 8779214.
  26. ^ Rodrigues, R.J. Aphrodisiacs through the Ages: The Discrepancy Between Lovers’ Aspirations and Their Desires. ehealthstrategies.com
  27. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1995). "Deaths associated with a purported aphrodisiac—New York City, February 1993 – May 1995". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 44 (46): 853–5, 861. PMID 7476839.
  28. ^ The Dog Who Loved to Suck on Toads. NPR. Accessed on May 6, 2007.
  29. ^ Most, A. "Bufo avlarius: The Psychedelic Toad of the Sonoran Desert". erowid.org. Retrieved 2007-08-12.
  30. ^ How ‘bout them toad suckers? Ain’t they clods? Archived September 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Smoky Mountain News. Accessed on May 6, 2007
  31. ^ Gastelum, Andrew (17 November 2021). "Mike Tyson Says He 'Died' From Smoking Psychedelic Toad Venom". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  32. ^ Schmidt, Ingrid (10 February 2019). "Chelsea Handler Talks Cannabis Brand, Smoking Toad Venom, Marijuana Facials and More". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  33. ^ Romero, Simon (20 March 2022). "Demand for This Toad's Psychedelic Toxin Is Booming. Some Warn That's Bad for the Toad". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  34. ^ López, Canela (July 2021). "'Flip or Flop' star Christina Haack said smoking toad venom made her less egotistical and prepared her for a relationship". Insider. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  35. ^ Chubb, Hannah (12 July 2021). "Christina Haack Revealed She Smoked Psychedelic Toad Venom — But What Is It? A Doctor Explains". People Magazine. Archived from the original on 12 July 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  36. ^ "National Park Service issues unusual—but fun—warning about a toad".
  37. ^ "Well that's toad-ally terrifying…". Facebook.
  38. ^ Kim, Juliana (2022-11-06). "The National Park Service wants humans to stop licking this toad". NPR. Retrieved 2022-11-08.
  39. ^ Blevins, Jason (2022-11-18). "No, people aren't licking toads in national parks". The Colorado Sun. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
  40. ^ a b c Romero, Simon (2022-03-20). "Demand for This Toad's Psychedelic Toxin Is Booming. Some Warn That's Bad for the Toad". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  41. ^ "Missionary for Toad Venom Is Facing Charges". The New York Times. 20 February 1994.
  42. ^ "Couple Avoid Jail In Toad Extract Case". The New York Times. 1 May 1994.
  43. ^ Bernheimer, Kate (2007). Brothers & beasts: an anthology of men on fairy tales. Wayne State University Press. pp. 157–159. ISBN 978-0-8143-3267-2.
  44. ^ "'Toad Smoking' Uses Venom From Angry Amphibian to Get High". FOX News. Kansas City. 3 December 2007.
  45. ^ Shelton, Natalie (7 November 2007). "Drug sweep yields weed, coke, toad". KC Community News. Archived from the original on 14 December 2007.
  46. ^ a b AZGFD.gov Archived 2008-01-11 at the Wayback Machine
  47. ^ "Title 14. Division 1. Subdivision 1. Chapter 5., § 40(a)".
  48. ^ 19.33.6 NMAC Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. nmcpr.state.nm.us
  49. ^ 19.35.10 NMAC Archived 2012-09-10 at the Wayback Machine. nmcpr.state.nm.us
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Colorado River toad: Brief Summary

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The Colorado River toad (Incilius alvarius), also known as the Sonoran Desert toad, is a toad species found in northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States. It is well known for its ability to exude toxins from glands within its skin that have psychoactive properties.

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Incilius alvarius ( Spanish; Castilian )

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El sapo del desierto sonorense o sapo del río Colorado (Incilius alvarius) es una especie de anfibio de la familia Bufonidae.[2]

Distribución y hábitat

Se distribuye por el suroeste de Estados Unidos (sureste de California, sur de Arizona y noreste de Nuevo México) y el noroeste de México (Sonora y noroeste de Sinaloa). Su hábitat natural va desde las tierras bajas áridas y las praderas áridas a bosques de roble, sicomoro o nogal en los cañones de montaña.

Estado de conservación

En la lista roja de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza se considera desde el 2004 a Incilius alvarius como una especie en la categoría bajo preocupación menor en cuanto a su estado de conservación.[3]​ Un estudio académico del 2019 recomienda actualizar el estado de conservación por las consideraciones éticas e impactos ecológicos por la explotación creciente de la secreción del sapo que contiene 5-MeO-DMT y bufotenina.[4]

Taxonomía

Incilius alvarius fue descrito por primera vez por el médico y zoólogo francés Charles Frédéric Girard y publicado en el Report on the United States and Mexican boundary survey :made under the direction of the secretary of the Interior (2) tomo 1: 26 de Spencer Fullerton Baird en 1895.[5]

Sinonimia
  • Bufo alvarius (Girard en Baird, 1859)[6]
  • Cranopsis alvaria (Girard en Baird, 1859)
  • Ollotis alvaria (Girard en Baird, 1859)
  • Phrynoidis alvarius (Girard en Baird, 1859)

Uso ritual del Bufo Alvarius

En la actualidad existe una práctica de creciente popularidad del uso ritual de la secreción que contienen las glándulas parótidas de este sapo situadas en el cuello, la curva del codo y la ingle. La sustancia está compuesta por diversos compuestos químicos, entre los cuales se han encontrado veintiún alcaloides.[7]

Se utiliza entre usuarios de sustancias psicoactivas que lo consideran una práctica ancestral de culturas indígenas. Normalmente suele ser practicado como parte de una búsqueda espiritual y también con fines terapéuticos, como por ejemplo la disminución de los síntomas de enfermedades psiquiátricas (ansiedad, depresión, trastorno de estrés postraumático, trastornos del uso de alcohol y drogas). Sin embargo, todavía no han sido confirmados científicamente los efectos terapéuticos que se aclaman y el empleo de la sustancia puede conllevar graves riesgos de salud o derivar incluso en la muerte.[7]

Las toxinas se activan al ser absorbidas directamente por las mucosas de la boca, la nariz o los ojos. La secreción se suele fumar en pipa o inhalando de un vaporizador, aunque aun de esta forma existen riesgos. Es altamente peligroso cuando se utiliza junto a otros combinados psicoactivos como el ayahuasca o el iboga.

Se trata de una práctica ritual que comenzó a extenderse en los años ochenta en grupos y círculos new age. Su consumo se ha popularizado y mediatizado a raíz de su vinculación con culturas indígenas del Desierto de Sonora en México. Sobre todo, tras la introducción de la práctica en el año 2011 a miembros del grupo étnico comca'ac de Punta Chueca, Sonora, por intermediación de una organización civil de sonorenses de Hermosillo constituida por miembros de gestión cultural, humanidades y el arte, proyecto actualmente denominado Fundación OTA.C.[7]

El 4 de junio de 2020 se conocía la noticia de que el actor porno Nacho Vidal estaba siendo investigado junto a otras personas por homicidio involuntario tras el fallecimiento del fotógrafo José Luis Abad durante un ritual con este veneno de sapo organizado en su casa.[8][9][10][11][12]

Referencias

  1. Geoffrey Hammerson & Georgina Santos-Barrera (2004). «Incilius alvarius». Lista Roja de especies amenazadas de la UICN 2013.1 (en inglés). ISSN 2307-8235. Consultado el 7 de octubre de 2013.
  2. «Catalogue of Life : Incilius alvarius (Girard in Baird, 1859)». www.catalogueoflife.org. Consultado el 16 de abril de 2019.
  3. «The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species». IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Consultado el 16 de abril de 2019.
  4. Miroslav, Mateos y Cortina (2019): 48.
  5. United States.; States, United; Baird, Spencer Fullerton; Conrad, T. A.; Emory, William H.; Englemann, George; Girard, Charles; Hall, James et al. (1859). Report on the United States and Mexican boundary survey :made under the direction of the secretary of the Interior /. v.2:pt.1:Reptiles and Fish (Interior). C. Wendell, printer,. Consultado el 31 de agosto de 2019. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda)
  6. «ITIS Standard Report Page: Incilius alvarius». www.itis.gov. Consultado el 16 de abril de 2019.
  7. a b c Horák, Miroslav; Segovia, Elizabeth Mateos; Bello, Alí Cortina (2019). «Bufo alvarius: evidencias literarias y controversias en torno a su uso tradicional». Medicina naturista 13 (1): 43-49. ISSN 1576-3080. Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2020.
  8. Redacción (4 de junio de 2020). «El mortal ritual con veneno de sapo por el que acusan de homicidio al actor de porno Nacho Vidal». BBC News Mundo. Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2020.
  9. «¿Qué es el rito del sapo bufo por el que fue detenido Nacho Vidal?». El HuffPost. 4 de junio de 2020. Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2020.
  10. «Rito del sapo bufo: Qué es el veneno presuntamente suministrado por Nacho Vidal». La Vanguardia. 3 de junio de 2020. Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2020.
  11. Domínguez (Levante-EMV), Teresa (3 de junio de 2020). «Detenido Nacho Vidal por la muerte del fotógrafo José Luis Abad en un rito chamánico». elperiodico. Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2020.
  12. «Detenido Nacho Vidal por la muerte de un hombre en un ritual chamánico». El Caso. Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2020.

Bibliografía

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Incilius alvarius: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

provided by wikipedia ES

El sapo del desierto sonorense o sapo del río Colorado (Incilius alvarius) es una especie de anfibio de la familia Bufonidae.​

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Incilius alvarius ( Basque )

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Incilius alvarius Incilius generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Bufonidae familian sailkatuta dago, Anura ordenan.

Erreferentziak

Ikus, gainera

(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
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Incilius alvarius: Brief Summary ( Basque )

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Incilius alvarius Incilius generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Bufonidae familian sailkatuta dago, Anura ordenan.

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Koloradonkonna ( Finnish )

provided by wikipedia FI

Koloradonkonna eli Coloradojoenkonna (Incilius alvarius) on Yhdysvalloissa ja Meksikossa elävä rupikonnalaji.

Ulkonäkö ja koko

Koloradonkonna on aikuisena 11-19 cm pitkä. Oliivinvihreässä nahkamaisessa ihossa on pyöreitä näppylöitä. Silmien yläpuolella on voimakkaat kulmakaaret.[2]

Levinneisyys ja elinympäristö

Koloradonkonnaa tavataan Meksikossa ja Yhdysvaltojen eteläosissa Kalifornian, Arizonan ja New Mexicon eteläosissa. Se on hävinnyt Kaliforniasta lähes kokonaan.[1] Koloradonkonnat elävät aavikolla, ruohikolla ja tammimetsiköissä. Ne kutevat tilapäisiin lammikoihin, mutta tarvitsevat aikuiselämässään myös ympärivuotisen vesilähteen.[2]

Konnan suhde ihmiseen

Koloradonkonnan rauhaset erittävät myrkkyjä (esimerkiksi 5-metoksidimetyylitryptamiini, bufoteniini), jotka vaikuttavat päihdyttävästi ihmisiin. Konnien keräileminen ja mahdollisesti hyönteismyrkyt ovat ajaneet paikallisia populaatioita sukupuuttoon.[2]

Lähteet

  1. a b Incilius alvarius IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004. International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Iucnredlist.org. (englanniksi)
  2. a b c Incilius alvarius Amphibia Web. Viitattu 10.1.2016.

Aiheesta muualla

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Koloradonkonna: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Koloradonkonna eli Coloradojoenkonna (Incilius alvarius) on Yhdysvalloissa ja Meksikossa elävä rupikonnalaji.

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Incilius alvarius ( French )

provided by wikipedia FR

Incilius alvarius est une espèce d'amphibiens de la famille des Bufonidae[1].

Répartition

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Distribution

Cette espèce se rencontre jusqu'à 1 610 m d'altitude[1] :

Habitat

Il vit dans les déserts et les zones semi-arides. Malgré cet habitat, il ne peut se passer d'eau. Il est semi-aquatique et se retrouve souvent dans les ruisseaux, à proximité de sources, et dans les canaux et les fossés de drainage.

Description

 src=
Incilius alvarius
 src=
Incilius alvarius
 src=
Incilius alvarius

Incilius alvarius mesure de 110 à 187 mm[2].

Comportement

Pour se protéger de la chaleur du jour, il a un mode de vie nocturne. Dans la journée, il se cache, et s'installe souvent dans des terriers de rongeurs abandonnés.

Alimentation

Incilius alvarius est un carnivore, et mange de petits rongeurs, des insectes, de petits reptiles et d'autres espèces de crapauds. En pratique, toute proie vivante et à la bonne taille peut être ingérée. À l'instar de nombreux crapauds, Incilius alvarius a une longue langue collante qui aide à la capture de ses proies.

Reproduction

Le crapaud pond généralement dans des mares saisonnières formées par les pluies. Les pontes ont lieu après le début des chaleurs de l'été. Eu égard au caractère temporaire des mares de pontes, la transformation est très rapide : les têtards brun-jaune se transforment en petits crapauds en un mois.

Caractère psychotrope

La peau de l'animal sécrète un dérivé de la sérotonine, la 5MEO-DMT qui est un psychotrope hallucinogène mis en évidence en 1968.

Les sécrétions sont fumées, voire parfois ingérées.

Aux États-Unis, des campagnes ont dû être engagées afin de préserver cette espèce dont les peaux se vendaient séchées dans ce but. Il s'agissait de protéger l'animal contre un usage qui avait explosé à la suite de plusieurs mises en avant médiatiques, en précisant qu'il n'était pas nécessaire de le tuer pour récolter la substance[3].

Respect the toad

Publication originale

  • Baird, 1859 : Reptiles of the boundary, with notes by the naturalists of the survey. Report of the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, Under the Order of Lieut. Col. W.H. Emory, Major First Cavalry, and United States Commissioner, volume 2, Part II, Reptiles, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., p. 1-35, (texte intégral).

Notes et références

  1. a et b Amphibian Species of the World, consulté lors d'une mise à jour du lien externe
  2. AmphibiaWeb. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA, consulté lors d'une mise à jour du lien externe
  3. Denis Richard, Jean-Louis Senon et Marc Valleur, Dictionnaire des drogues et des dépendances, Paris, Larousse, 2004, 626 p. (ISBN 2-03-505431-1)
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Incilius alvarius: Brief Summary ( French )

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Incilius alvarius est une espèce d'amphibiens de la famille des Bufonidae.

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Incilius alvarius ( Galician )

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Incilius alvarius (antes chamado Bufo alvarius) é unha especie de sapo que vive no norte de México e suroeste de Estados Unidos. Produce unha toxina en forma de exsudado das glándulas da pel, que contén 5-MeO-DMT e bufotenina.

Descrición

 src=
Área de distribución de Incilius alvarius nos Estados Unidos (tamén vive no noroeste de México)

Pode medrar ata 19 cm de longo e é o sapo máis grande dos Estados Unidos coa excepción de Rhinella marina. Ten unha pel de aspecto coriáceo lisa, verde oliva ou marrón con pintas. Xusto detrás do seu ollo dourado con pupila horizontal hai unha avultada glándula paratiroide con forma de ril. Baixo esta hai unha grande área circular verde clara, que é o tímpano. Na comisura da boca hai unha verruga branca e glándulas brancas nas patas. Todas estas glándulas producen secrecións tóxicas.

Os cans que atacan estes sapos poden quedar paralizados ou morrer. Os mapaches aprenderon a empurrar o sapo nunha lagoa pola pata de atrás, poñelo patas arriba e empezar a comelo polo ventre, unha estratexia que evita poñerse en contacto coas glándulas velenosas.[2] A diferenza doutros vertebrados, este anfibio obtén auga principalmente por absorción osmótica a través do seu abdome. Os sapos da familia bufonidae teñen unha rexión de pel que se estende desde o medio do abdome ata as patas anteriores e está especializada en realizar unha rápida rehidratación. A maioría da rehidratación faise por absorción de auga de pequenas pozas ou obxectos húmidos.[3]

Distribución e hábitat

Atópase nas áreas da parte inferior do río Colorado e o río Gila, no suroeste de California, Novo México e gran parte do sur de Arizona, así como no noroeste de México. Vive tanto no deserto coma en áreas semiáridas da súa zona de distribución. É semiacuático e a miúdo atópase en ríos, preto de fontes en canles e regos de drenaxe, e baixo abeberadeiros de auga.[2] A especie coñécese por reproducirse en corpos de auga artificiais (por exemplo, encoros para o control de inundacións, depósitos) e como resultado as distribucións e hábitats reprodutores desta especie pode que se visen alterados recentemente na zona sur central de Arizona.[4] A miúdo usa as escavacións feitas por roedores como o seu fogar e é nocturno. A súa chamada descríbese como “un feble, bocinazo de ton grave, que dura menos dun segundo.”[5]

Bioloxía

É unha especie simpátrica cos sapos Scaphiopus spp., Anaxyrus cognatus, Anaxyrus punctatus e Anaxyrus woodhousei. Como moitos outros sapos, buscan activamente comida e aliméntanse de invertebrados, lagartos, pequenos mamíferos e anfibios. A estación máis activa para os sapos é de maio a setembro, debido ás maiores precipitacións de chuvia (que cómpren para a reprodución). A idade á que chega I. alvarius vai de 2 a 4 anos na poboación de Adobe Dam no condado de Maricopa, Arizona; porén, outras especies da familia dos sapos teñen unha maior duración da vida de 4 a 5 anos.[6] As afinidades taxoómicas de I. alvarius non están claras, pero inmunoloxicamente está igualmente próximo aos grpos boreas e valliceps.[7]

Reprodución

A estación reprodutora empeza en maio, cando comeza a estación chuviosa e pode durar ata agosto. Normalmente, de 1 a 3 días despois das chuvias os sapos empezan a poñer ovos en lagoas, ríos de augas lentas, pozas temporais ou estruturas feitas polo home que conteñen auga. Os ovos son de 1,6 mm de diámetro, separados uns doutros 5–7 cm, e encapsulados nun só tubo de xelatina cun perfil non nítido pero distinguible. A femia pode poñer ata 8.000 ovos.[8]

Usos enteoxénicos

O sistema de defensa principal deste sapo son as súas glándulas produtoras de veleno, que pode ser suficientemente potente para matar un can grande.[9] Estas glándulas paratiroides producen 5-MeO-DMT (5-metoxi-dimetiltriptamina)[10] e bufotenina (que recibe ese nome polo xénero Bufo dos sapos); ambos os compostos pertencen á familia das triptaminas alucinóxenas. Unha soa inhalación profunda deste veleno produce un forte efecto psicoactivo en só 15 segundos.[11] Despois da inhalación, o usuario adoita experimentar unha sensación de calor, euforia e fortes alucinacións visuais e auditivas, debido á alta afinidade da 5-MeO-DMT polos receptores dos subtipos 5-HT2 e 5-HT1A.[12].

Leis estatais

En Estados Unidos causou grande expectación a noticia do arresto en 1994 dun mestre de California por posuír o veleno deste sapo, a primeira persoa arrestada por ese motivo.[13][14] A substancia era bufotenina, que estaba prohibida en California desde 1970.[15]

 src=
O sapo pola noite en Tucson.

En 2007 en Kansas City, Missouri un home que tiña na súa posesión un espécieme de I. alvarius foi detido e acusado de posesión de substancias controladas ao determinarse que o tiña para usar as súas secrecións con propósitos recreativos.[16][17] En Arizona, pódese posuír unha bolsa cun máximo de 10 destes sapos cunha licenza de pesca, pero pode ser un crime se se descobre que se posúe coa intención de fumar o seu veleno.[18]

Ningún dos estados nos que I. alvarius é (ou era) nativo (California, Arizona e Novo México) permite que unha persoa leve legalmente o sapo fóra do estado. Por exemplo, o Departamento de Pesca e Caza de Arizona é claro sobre a lei que impera en Arizona: "Un individuo non... exportará ningunha especie silvestre viva do estado; 3. O transporte, posesión, oferta ou venda, venda como isco vivo, comercio, doazón, compra, alugueiro, usufructo, mostra, exhibición, propagación... dentro do estado..." non están permitidas.[18]

En California, I. alvarius foi designado como especie "en perigo" e a posesión deste sapo é ilegal. "Non é legal capturar, recoller, matar ou danar intencionalmente, posuír, comprar, propagar, vender, transportar, importar ou exportar calquera réptil ou anfibio nativo ou parte del..."[19]

En Novo México, este sapo está na lista de especies "ameazadas" e, igualmente, recoller I. alvarius é ilegal.[20][21]

Notas

  1. "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Consultado o 2018-10-27.
  2. 2,0 2,1 Badger, David; Netherton, John (1995). Frogs. Shrewsbury, England: Swan Hill Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN 1 85310 740 9.
  3. Zoological Science. Zoological Society of Japan. pp. 664–670.
  4. Gergus, Erik W. A.; Malmos, Keith B.; Sullivan, Brian K. (1999). "Natural hybridization among distantly related toads (Bufo alvarius, Bufo cognatus, Bufo woodhousii) in Central Arizona". Copeia 1999 (2): 281–286. JSTOR 1447473. doi:10.2307/1447473.
  5. National Audubon Society: Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians
  6. "Lower Colorado River Multi-Species Conservation Program". September 2008: 330–342.
  7. Sullivan, Brian K.; Malmos, Keith B.; Movin, T. (1994). "Call variation in the Colorado River Toad (Bufo alvarius): behavioral and phylogenetic implications". Herpetologica 50 (2): 146–156. JSTOR 3893021. PMID 3893021.
  8. Behler, J.L. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. Knopf; 1 edition (November 12, 1979). p. 743. ISBN 0394508246.
  9. Phillips, Steven J.; Wentworth Comus, Patricia, eds. (2000). A Natural History of the Sonoran Desert. University of California Press. p. 537. ISBN 0-520-21980-5.
  10. Erspamer, V.; Vitali, T.; Roseghini, M.; Cei, J.M. (July 1967). "5-Methoxy- and 5-Hydroxyindoles in the skin of Bufo alvarius". Biochemical Pharmacology 16 (7): 1149–1164. doi:10.1016/0006-2952(67)90147-5.
  11. Weil, Andrew T.; Davis, Wade (January 1994). "Bufo alvarius: a potent hallucinogen of animal origin.". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 41 (1-2): 1–8. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(94)90051-5.
  12. Krebs-Thomson, Kirsten; Ruiz, ErbertM.; Masten, Virginia; Buell, Mahalah; Geyer, MarkA. (December 2006). "The roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptors in the effects of 5-MeO-DMT on locomotor activity and prepulse inhibition in rats". Psychopharmacology 189 (3): 319–329. ISSN 0033-3158. PMID 17013638. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0566-1.
  13. "Missionary for Toad Venom Is Facing Charges". New York Times. 20 February 1994.
  14. "Couple Avoid Jail In Toad Extract Case". New York Times. 1 May 1994.
  15. Bernheimer, Kate (2007). Brothers & beasts: an anthology of men on fairy tales. Wayne State University Press. pp. 157–159. ISBN 0-8143-3267-6.
  16. "'Toad Smoking' Uses Venom From Angry Amphibian to Get High". FOX News (Kansas City). 3 December 2007. Arquivado dende o orixinal o 03 de novembro de 2012. Consultado o 21 de abril de 2019.
  17. Shelton, Natalie (7 November 2007). "Drug sweep yields weed, coke, toad". KC Community News. Arquivado dende o orixinal o 14 de decembro de 2007. Consultado o 21 de abril de 2019.
  18. 18,0 18,1 "AZGFD.gov" (PDF). Arquivado dende o orixinal (PDF) o 11 de xaneiro de 2008. Consultado o 21 de abril de 2019.
  19. "Title 14. Division 1. Subdivision 1. Chapter 5., § 40(a)".
  20. 19.33.6 NMAC Arquivado 04 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine.. nmcpr.state.nm.us
  21. 19.35.10 NMAC Arquivado 10 de setembro de 2012 en Wayback Machine.. nmcpr.state.nm.us

Véxase tamén

Bibliografía

  • Pauly, G. B., D. M. Hillis, and D. C. Cannatella. (2004) The history of a Nearctic colonization: Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of the Nearctic toads (Bufo). Evolution 58: 2517–2535.
  • Frost, Darrel R.; Grant, Taran; Faivovich, JuliÁN; Bain, Raoul H.; Haas, Alexander; Haddad, CÉLIO F.B.; De SÁ, Rafael O.; Channing, Alan; Wilkinson, Mark; Donnellan, Stephen C.; Raxworthy, Christopher J.; Campbell, Jonathan A.; Blotto, Boris L.; Moler, Paul; Drewes, Robert C.; Nussbaum, Ronald A.; Lynch, John D.; Green, David M.; Wheeler, Ward C.; et al. (2006). "The Amphibian Tree of Life". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 297: 1–370. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2.

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Incilius alvarius: Brief Summary ( Galician )

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Incilius alvarius (antes chamado Bufo alvarius) é unha especie de sapo que vive no norte de México e suroeste de Estados Unidos. Produce unha toxina en forma de exsudado das glándulas da pel, que contén 5-MeO-DMT e bufotenina.

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Incilius alvarius ( Croatian )

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Incilius alvarius (Sinonimi: Bufo alvarius, Cranopsis alvaria, Ollotis alvaria, Phrynoidis alvarius /Hrvatskog naziva nema, a u drugim jezicima poznata je kao sonoran desert toad i colorado river toad (engleski) i Sapo del desierto-sonorense (španjolski) [1],/ vrsta sjevernoameričke otrovne žabe roda Bufo, porodice Bufonidae raširene u polupustinjskim i pustinjskim krajevima na američkom jugozapadu u području rijeke Colorado i sjevernom Meksiku. Najpoznatija je po tome što joj koža sadržava vrlo snažan psihodelički triptamin 5-MeO-DMT i bufotenin. Hrani se malenim glodavcima, insektima i reptilima.

Izvori

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Incilius alvarius: Brief Summary ( Croatian )

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Incilius alvarius (Sinonimi: Bufo alvarius, Cranopsis alvaria, Ollotis alvaria, Phrynoidis alvarius /Hrvatskog naziva nema, a u drugim jezicima poznata je kao sonoran desert toad i colorado river toad (engleski) i Sapo del desierto-sonorense (španjolski) ,/ vrsta sjevernoameričke otrovne žabe roda Bufo, porodice Bufonidae raširene u polupustinjskim i pustinjskim krajevima na američkom jugozapadu u području rijeke Colorado i sjevernom Meksiku. Najpoznatija je po tome što joj koža sadržava vrlo snažan psihodelički triptamin 5-MeO-DMT i bufotenin. Hrani se malenim glodavcima, insektima i reptilima.

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Incilius alvarius ( Italian )

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Incilius alvarius (Girard, 1859) è un anfibio della famiglia dei Bufonidi, diffuso nel deserto di Sonora (Stati Uniti sud-occidentali e Messico settentrionale).[2]

Ha delle ghiandole sulla schiena che secernono 5-metossi-N,N-dimetiltriptamina, bufotenina, S-metossi-Nmetiltriptamina, serotonina e 5-idrossi-Nmetiltriptamina, sostanze allucinogene.[3]

Note

  1. ^ (EN) Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera 2004, Incilius alvarius, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020.
  2. ^ (EN) Frost D.R. et al., Incilius alvarius (Girard, 1859), in Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0, New York, American Museum of Natural History, 2014. URL consultato il 7 novembre 2014.
  3. ^ Rospi psichedelici, su psiconautica.in. URL consultato il 18 luglio 2011 (archiviato dall'url originale il 5 marzo 2016).

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Incilius alvarius: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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Incilius alvarius (Girard, 1859) è un anfibio della famiglia dei Bufonidi, diffuso nel deserto di Sonora (Stati Uniti sud-occidentali e Messico settentrionale).

Ha delle ghiandole sulla schiena che secernono 5-metossi-N,N-dimetiltriptamina, bufotenina, S-metossi-Nmetiltriptamina, serotonina e 5-idrossi-Nmetiltriptamina, sostanze allucinogene.

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Coloradopad ( Dutch; Flemish )

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Herpetologie

De coloradopad[2] (Incilius alvarius) is een kikker uit de familie padden (Bufonidae).[3]

De wetenschappelijke naam was lange tijd Bufo alvarius, later Ollotis alvaria. De soort werd voor het eerst wetenschappelijk beschreven door Charles Frédéric Girard in 1859. Oorspronkelijk werd de wetenschappelijke naam Bufo alvarius gebruikt en later werd de soort ingedeeld bij onder andere de geslachten Phrynoidis en Cranopsis.

Uiterlijke kenmerken

De maximale lichaamslengte varieert van 11 tot 19 centimeter, gemiddeld ongeveer 15 centimeter. Het is hiermee een van de grootste soorten padden in Noord-Amerika. De vrouwtjes worden gemiddeld groter dan de mannetjes. De kleur aan de rugzijde varieert van olijfgroen tot bruin. De kikker is te herkennen aan de grote, enigszins van elkaar afstaande wratten die een afstekende donkere tot oranje kleur hebben. Typische kenmerken zijn de grote, witte wrat aan iedere mondhoek, een blauwgrijs tympanum (trommelvlies) en enkele zeer grote kliercomplexen aan de achterpoten. Juveniele dieren hebben lichte wratten met een donker midden, waardoor de wratten nog meer afsteken.

Giftigheid

De enorme gifklieren achter de ogen bevatten hetzelfde gif als andere soorten, maar vanwege de hoeveelheid kunnen bijvoorbeeld honden en katten overlijden nadat ze deze kikker gebeten hebben. Mensen kunnen na aanraking van de coloradopad hallucinaties krijgen van de stof 5-MeO-DMT, flauwvallen en in grotere hoeveelheden zijn de gevolgen erger. Dit wordt veroorzaakt door de stof bufotenine welke een van de meest potente verbindingen in de huidafscheiding is. Bufotenine is uit de huidafscheiding van de kikker te isoleren. In de afscheiding is ook de verbinding 5-MeO-DMT aanwezig, waarvan de effecten vergelijkbaar zijn met DMT.

Deze soort is de belangrijkste 'drug-pad' die weleens wordt ingevoerd om een psychoactieve ervaring te krijgen. Veel mensen denken dat hiervoor de gifklieren gelikt worden, echter is dit gevaarlijk. Het gif moet eerst ontdaan worden van de giftige stof bufotenine. De roes wordt veroorzaakt door de huidafscheiding die de psychoactieve stof 5-MeO-DMT bevat. Het gif van de kikker kan resulteren in hevige misselijkheid, duizeligheid en bij een overdosis tot een coma of tot de dood. Sommige Amerikaanse staten hebben zelfs speciale 'anti-paddenlik'-wetten ingevoerd om de jeugd te behoeden.

Verspreiding en habitat

 src=
Verspreidingsgebied in het groen.

De coloradopad komt voor in delen van Noord-Amerika en leeft in de landen Mexico en de Verenigde Staten.[4] In de VS is de soort echter recentelijk uitgezet of ontsnapt. De kikker is alleen actief na een regenbui, bij droogte verstopt het dier zich tussen de bladeren van struiken en bomen of onder het mos. De habitat bestaat uit vochtige, open gebieden als graslanden, moerassen en bergstreken met eikenbossen, meestal in de buurt van water of een vochtige plek tussen de vegetatie.

Levenswijze

Ondanks de grootte maakt de pad zachte lokgeluiden, de kwaakblazen zijn niet ontwikkeld. De eitjes worden afgezet in stilstaande, meestal permanente wateren. De eitjes worden in lange, gelatine-achtige strengen gelegd en de kikkervisjes ontwikkelen zich erg snel; een maand na uitkomen kruipen ze al op het land. Wat betreft voedsel is deze soort niet kieskeurig; alles wat in de bek past en beweegt komt in aanmerking. De coloradopad eet voornamelijk insecten en geleedpotigen, maar ook hagedissen, muizen en andere soorten kikkers worden gegeten.

Referenties
  1. (en) Coloradopad op de IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
  2. Grzimek, Bernhard, Het leven der dieren deel V: Vissen (II) en amfibieën, Kindler Verlag AG, 1971, Pagina 506, 507. ISBN 90 274 8625 5.
  3. Darrel R. Frost - Amphibian Species of the World: an online reference - Version 6.0 - American Museum of Natural History, Incilius alvarius.
  4. Amphibia Web, Incilius alvarius.
Bronnen
  • (en) - Darrel R. Frost - Amphibian Species of the World: an online reference - Version 6.0 - American Museum of Natural History - Incilius alvarius - Website Geconsulteerd 26 november 2016
  • (en) - Amphibiaweb - Incilius alvarius - Website
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Coloradopad: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De coloradopad (Incilius alvarius) is een kikker uit de familie padden (Bufonidae).

De wetenschappelijke naam was lange tijd Bufo alvarius, later Ollotis alvaria. De soort werd voor het eerst wetenschappelijk beschreven door Charles Frédéric Girard in 1859. Oorspronkelijk werd de wetenschappelijke naam Bufo alvarius gebruikt en later werd de soort ingedeeld bij onder andere de geslachten Phrynoidis en Cranopsis.

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Bufo alvarius ( Portuguese )

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O Bufo alvarius ou Sapo do Rio Colorado, também conhecido como o Sapo do Deserto de Sonora, é um sapo que secreta substâncias com propriedades psicoativas, achado no sudoeste dos Estados Unidos e no norte do México.

A pele e o veneno do Bufo alvarius contém 5-MeO-DMT e bufotenina. O início dos efeitos ocorrem segundos após fumar/injetar, ou minutos depois de cheirar. A experiência é as vezes descrita como similar a uma experiência de quase-morte.

Descrição

Sapos de aparência grande e gordo, adultos facilmente chegar a 100-190 mm de comprimento. Eles têm o azeite relativamente suave, brilho, cor de pele, cinza escura ou marrom. A barriga é cor creme. Recursos são duas a quatro verrugas brancas atrás o canto dos lábios e grandes verrugas nos braços e pernas. Muito grande, localizado logo atrás dos olhos e acima da membrana timpânica, glândulas parótidas que como o descanso de suas glândulas de pele secretam um veneno de aspecto leitoso veneno suficiente para matar um gato ou um cão pequeno e causar irritação grave por simples contacto com a mucosa.

Biologia

Noturno, eles vivem em áreas moderadamente áridas ou deserta. Eles são capazes de mover em alguns saltos de velocidade ou executando em quatro pernas. De hábitos semi-aquático, geralmente encontrados perto de água, nascentes, lagos, lagoas temporárias, canais e valas. Eles se alimentam de pequenos roedores, insetos, aranhas, lagartos, caracóis e outras espécies de sapos. Activos nas noites de chuva, especialmente entre Maio e Julho durante as chuvas de Verão, passam a maior parte do dia em tocas escavadas por eles próprios ou pensamento de pequenos roedores. Pouco antes de chuvas da Primavera, os sapos Rio Colorado reuniram-se em lagoas e riachos de reprodução. O acasalamento ocorre entre Maio e julho Após o amplexo, cada fêmea depositados em águas rasas uma média de 7.500-8.000 ovos em tubos longos gelatinosos. Os girinos eclodem depois de 12 dias. Sua expectativa de vida é estimada entre 5 e 15 anos.

Curiosidades

"Pele e secreção de glândulas parótidas contem 5-MeO-DMT e bufotenina, alucinógenos da família das triptaminas que parecem exceder a potência psicodélica do LSD.

Um número crescente de pessoas à procura de drogar lambendo secreções tóxicas na parte de trás desses sapos, mas como lamber a parte de trás do sapo é considerado perigoso, a maioria dos usuários preferem fumar o extrato seco do veneno. Aparentemente, o calor produzido na combustão consome parte das substâncias tóxicas.

Em novembro de 2007, um homem de Kansas City foi descoberto com uma alvarius b. em seu poder e acusado de posse de substância proibida após determinar a intenção de utilizar a secreção da rã como droga.

Fotos

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Bufo alvarius: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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O Bufo alvarius ou Sapo do Rio Colorado, também conhecido como o Sapo do Deserto de Sonora, é um sapo que secreta substâncias com propriedades psicoativas, achado no sudoeste dos Estados Unidos e no norte do México.

A pele e o veneno do Bufo alvarius contém 5-MeO-DMT e bufotenina. O início dos efeitos ocorrem segundos após fumar/injetar, ou minutos depois de cheirar. A experiência é as vezes descrita como similar a uma experiência de quase-morte.

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Koloradoflodpadda ( Swedish )

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Koloradoflodpadda, Bufo alvarius, är en padda från södra Nordamerika som tillhör släktet Bufo och familjen äkta paddor.

Utseende

Koloradoflodpaddan är en stor padda med en enfärgat grön, gröngrå till mörkbrun ovansida med stora, vita vårtor vid mungiporna och bakbenen, samt kraftiga parotidkörtlar. I övrigt är skinnet slätt. Undersidan är ljust beigefärgad. Hanarna får mörka parningsvalkar på tummarnas insidor under lektiden. Nyligen förvandlade ungpaddor har en ryggfärg som ofta drar sig åt gulbrunt med röda eller orange fläckar. Längden hos vuxna djur uppgår till 10 till 19 cm.[2] [3]

Utbredning

Arten finns i södra Arizona, sydligaste New Mexico och nordvästra Mexico (delstaten Sinaloa).[1] Tidigare fanns den även i sydöstra hörnet av Kalifornien, men den har inte påträffats där sedan 1970-talet.[2]

Vanor

Koloradoflodpaddan lever i områden med buskvegetation, ängar och lövskogsområden, gärna torra sådana, där den ofta söker skydd under inaktivitetsperioder i övergivna smågnagarbon.[1] [4] Paddan är framför allt aktiv nattetid, särskilt under de monsunartade sommarregnen.[3]

Föda och predation

Arten livnär sig av ett stort antal djur som mångfotingar, spindlar, skorpioner, skorpionspindlar, steklar, skalbaggar, gräshoppor, termiter, snäckor, andra grodor, ödlor och möss. Själv utgör arten föda åt framför allt tvättbjörnar, men även fåglar och reptiler. De vuxna djuren är dock skyddade mot andra predatorer än tvättbjörnar på grund av sin giftiga och starkt hallucinogena hudavsöndring.[4] Denna har också utnyttjats av vissa drogrelaterade subkulturer, som mjölkar och röker den torkade avsöndringen, eller ägnar sig åt att slicka paddorna. Detta beteende är olagligt i vissa av USA:s delstater, som även har narkotikaklassat giftet.[3]

Fortplantning

Lek och larvutveckling sker i lugna vatten som dammar och långsamma vattendrag.[1] Parningssäsongen varar mellan sen vår till tidig höst,[3] under vilken honan kan lägga mellan 7 500 till 8 000 ägg i ett långt, geleartat band. Grodynglet förvandlas inom 1 månad.[4]

Status

Koloradoflodpaddan är klassificerad som livskraftig ("LC") av IUCN, och populationen är stabil, trots den tidigare tillbakagången i Kalifornien.[1]

Referenser

  1. ^ [a b c d e] Incilius alvarius IUCN (2004). Auktorer: Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera (engelska) Läst 2009-11-07
  2. ^ [a b] Bill Woodin, Beth Woodin. Bufo alvarius - Sonoran Desert Toad” (på engelska). Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_desert_toad.php. Läst 7 november 2009.
  3. ^ [a b c d] Bufo alvarius - Sonoran Desert Toad” (på engelska). CaliforniaHerps.com. Arkiverad från originalet den 31 oktober 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20091031211611/http://www.californiaherps.com/frogs/pages/b.alvarius.html. Läst 7 november 2009.
  4. ^ [a b c] M.J. Fouquette Jr, Charles W. Painter, Priya Nanjappa (2009). Bufo alvarius (på engelska). AmphibiaWeb, University of California. http://www.amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&table=amphib&special=one_record&where-genus=Bufo&where-species=alvarius. Läst 7 november 2009.

Externa länkar

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Koloradoflodpadda: Brief Summary ( Swedish )

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Koloradoflodpadda, Bufo alvarius, är en padda från södra Nordamerika som tillhör släktet Bufo och familjen äkta paddor.

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Колорадская жаба ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
Царство: Животные
Подцарство: Эуметазои
Без ранга: Вторичноротые
Подтип: Позвоночные
Инфратип: Челюстноротые
Надкласс: Четвероногие
Подкласс: Беспанцирные
Инфракласс: Batrachia
Надотряд: Прыгающие
Отряд: Бесхвостые
Подотряд: Neobatrachia
Надсемейство: Hyloidea
Семейство: Жабы
Род: Incilius
Вид: Колорадская жаба
Международное научное название

Incilius alvarius (Girard, 1859)

Синонимы
  • Bufo alvarius Girard, 1859
  • Phrynoidis alvarius (Girard, 1859)
  • Cranopsis alvaria (Girard, 1859)
  • Ollotis alvaria (Girard, 1859)
Ареал

изображение

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Систематика
на Викивидах
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Изображения
на Викискладе
ITIS 773562NCBI 30324EOL 313912

Колорадская жаба[1] (лат. Incilius alvarius) — вид жаб, обитающий в северной Мексике и на юго-западе США. Их кожа и яд содержит 5-MeO-DMT и буфотенин.

Описание

Колорадская жаба достигает в длину 19 сантиметров и является самой большой жабой США, если не считать тростниковую жабу, которая для этой местности является чужеродным видом. Жаба имеет гладкую, жёсткую кожу оливково-зелёного или пёстро-коричневого цвета. По бокам головы находятся большие околоушные железы, которые вырабатывают ядовитый секрет. Яд содержит 5-MeO-DMT, схожий по действию с ЛСД, но менее сильный, и применявшийся ещё индейцами для галлюциногенных целей посредством облизывания кожи земноводного. Собаки, нападавшие на жабу, бывали парализованы или даже убиты. Еноты научились вытаскивать жаб за заднюю лапу из пруда, переворачивать на спину и начинать поедать её с брюха, что держит их в стороне от ядовитых желез[2].

Жаба является плотоядной, питается мелкими грызунами, насекомыми, рептилиями, а также другими видами жаб. Как и многие жабы, она имеет длинный, липкий язык, при помощи которого она ловит свою добычу.

  • Bufo-alvarius-coloradokröte.jpg

Примечания

  1. Ананьева Н. Б., Боркин Л. Я., Даревский И. С., Орлов Н. Л. Пятиязычный словарь названий животных. Амфибии и рептилии. Латинский, русский, английский, немецкий, французский. / под общей редакцией акад. В. Е. Соколова. — М.: Рус. яз., 1988. — С. 37. — 10 500 экз.ISBN 5-200-00232-X.
  2. Badger, David. Frogs. — Shrewsbury, England : Swan Hill Press, 1995. — P. 93-94. — ISBN 1 85310 740 9.


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Колорадская жаба: Brief Summary ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию

Колорадская жаба (лат. Incilius alvarius) — вид жаб, обитающий в северной Мексике и на юго-западе США. Их кожа и яд содержит 5-MeO-DMT и буфотенин.

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科羅拉多河蟾蜍 ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科
二名法 Bufo alvarius
Girard in' Baird, 1859

科羅拉多河蟾蜍學名Bufo alvarius)是一種有毒的蟾蜍,原產於美國西南部及墨西哥北部。它的皮肤和毒液中含有5-甲氧基二甲基色胺蟾毒色胺

蟾蜍的毒腺位於眼下,於嬉皮士的年代,有些嬉皮士為了尋求刺激而舔蟾蜍表皮的毒腺,以獲得快感及迷幻的感覺。[1]

在電視劇《F檔案》的其中一集,這種蟾蜍被指可引起精神心理效應,使受害者幻想被攻擊而死。

描述

科罗拉多河蟾蜍是食肉动物,吃小老鼠,昆虫及小型爬行动物和其他的蟾蜍。与许多蟾蜍一样,它有一个很长带有粘液的舌头。它生活在沙漠和半干旱地区。它是半水生的,往往发现在溪流,温泉的附近,以及运河和排水沟渠。它常常在啮齿类动物的洞穴的筑巢,并且昼伏夜出,它叫声响亮刺耳。

夏季阵雨后,蟾蜍在小的雨水池中产卵,约一个月后,花黄褐色的蝌蚪变成蟾蜍在陆地上移动移动。他们可长至4-7英寸。

參考

外部連結

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科羅拉多河蟾蜍: Brief Summary ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科

科羅拉多河蟾蜍(學名:Bufo alvarius)是一種有毒的蟾蜍,原產於美國西南部及墨西哥北部。它的皮肤和毒液中含有5-甲氧基二甲基色胺蟾毒色胺

蟾蜍的毒腺位於眼下,於嬉皮士的年代,有些嬉皮士為了尋求刺激而舔蟾蜍表皮的毒腺,以獲得快感及迷幻的感覺。

在電視劇《F檔案》的其中一集,這種蟾蜍被指可引起精神心理效應,使受害者幻想被攻擊而死。

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cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
维基百科作者和编辑