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Brief Summary ( İngilizce )

Catalog of Hymenoptera in America North of Mexico tarafından sağlandı
The Chalcidoidea are among the most difficult groups of Hymenoptera to identify because of their small size and the lack of adequate keys to the North American species. Several species vie for the distinction of being the smallest insect (about 0.2 mm long), and most species are less than 3-4 mm long. The characters used to distinguish chalcidoids from other Hymenoptera include the presence of a prepectus, failure of the pronotum to meet the tegula, 13 or fewer segments comprising the geniculate antenna, and drastically reduced wing venation. ~Ashmead (1904) recognized 14 families and provided the first comprehensive modern classification of the Chalcidoidea. Despite its many errors, this was a prodigious work and remarkable considering the primitive optical equipment and state of knowledge about the Chalcidoidea at that time. Nikol'skaya (1952) elevated the number of families to 24, and Boucek and Hoffer (1957) (subsequently translated by Peck, 1964) recognized 18 families. In this catalog Burks has reduced the number of families to eleven. Casual thought may lead one to wonder why there is so much inconsistency among workers regarding higher classification of chalcidoids. These classifications are based on external morphology, and the chalcidoids are exceedingly plastic morphologically. This plasticity generates differences of opinion over the limits of higher taxa because workers weight characters differently. ~Chalcidoids are found in all zoogeographical regions, in all terrestrial habitats, and all families are found in each zoogeographic region. Despite their omnipresence, chalcidoids remain one of the poorest known superfamilies. Taxonomically, the western Palearctic fauna is best known, followed by the Nearctic. The remainder of the zoogeographical regions (Neotropical, Ethiopian, Australian, and Oriental) are almost completely unknown with respect to their endemic faunas. Much of our knowledge of chalcidoids stems from species which are associated with agriculture. ~The body size and searching habits of chalcidoids make them suitable for fossilization in resinous amber, but fossil records of the Chalcidoidea are incomplete. Fewer than 50 species are known, and these belong to less than half of the chalcidoid families. The most comprehensive accounts of fossil chalcidoids are by Brues (1910), Doutt (1973), and Yoshimoto (1975). The last study provides a summary of knowledge about fossil chalcidoids. Yoshimoto (1975) reports that mymarids, trichogrammatids, and tetracampids are referable to the Cretaceous Period (70-90 million years before present). ~Owing to the paucity of knowledge about fossil chalcidoids and their morphological plasticity, the relationship of this superfamily to other parasitic Hymenoptera has not been conclusively established. We are not certain that the Chalcidoidea are monophyletic in the Hennigian sense, although some investigators have that opinion. An interpretation of chalcidoid phylogeny based on the known fossil record is provided by Yoshimoto (1975). ~The actual numerical dimension of the Chalcidoidea can only be speculated. The ichneumonid specialist Henry Townes (1969) has estimated that there are 60,000 species of Ichneumonidae. DeBach (1974) has estimated that somewhere between 70-90 percent of the parasitic Hymenoptera remain to be described. I believe that the Chalcidoidea will ultimately be recognized as larger than the Ichneumonidae. There are some who would disagree with this estimate, but their estimates are based on impressions developed from examining species that repeatedly have been submitted for identification. These species mostly are associated with the agroecosystem and represent only a portion of the total chalcidoid fauna. My primary interest in making these assertions is to stimulate research on the Chalcidoidea because they are a fertile area for investigations in biology, behavior, ecology, and systematics. ~Chalcidoids have diverse and frequently specialized feeding habits. Most species of chalcidoids are parasitic, but phytophagy probably has evolved several times in the Chalcidoidea because it is found in several distantly related taxa and many unrelated species of plants serve as hosts. Phytophagy is found most frequently in association with gall-forming habits, but the evolutionary significance of this observation remains unknown. ~Agaonids demonstrate the most intimate expression of phytophagy in the Chalcidoidea. This group is poorly represented in North America because all agaonids develop in fig seeds (Ficus spp.), and these plants occur naturally only in tropical and subtropical climates. All figs are dependent on agaonids for pollination, and agaonids can only develop within the receptacles of Ficus. Host specificity seems to be the trend in agaonids with each species of fig having its own agaonid for pollination (Ramirez, 1970 a,b; Grandi, 1961). Numerous other chalcidoids are associated with Ficus as inquilines (Hill, 1967 a,b). ~Other taxa of chalcidoids with phytophagous species include the Eurytomidae, Torymidae, brachyscelidiphagine Pteromalidae, and Tanaostigmatidae. ~Some ecologists prefer to use the term parasitoid to characterize parasitic insects. Protelean parasite is a phrase often used to distinguish between typical parasites and insects that are parasitic in the larval stage only (Askew, 1971). ~One definition of parasitism for all parasitic organisms is impractical because animal species are parasitic in many different ways. The parasitological definition of parasitism in the sense of parasitic worms and protozoa is unsuitable in the present context because parasitic chalcidoids do not behave in a manner consistent with that definition. Therefore it seems more appropriate to list some of the biological attributes of parasitic chalcidoids. Parasitic chalcidoids are characterized as follows: (1) they are obligate parasites in the larval stage only; (2) they require only one host to complete development; (3) they attack related taxa (other arthropods and usually insects); (4) if the parasite completes development, the host invariably dies; (5) the ratio of size between the parasite and host approximates unity (except in some cases where the parasitic larvae are gregarious or polyembryonic delevopment occurs). ~Adults of some species host feed, but the significance of this behavior is not always clear. Host feeding may provide nutrients necessary for ovary or egg development, or it may be a convenient source of nutrients necessary for sustaining life (Flanders, 1953; Doutt, 1964; Quezada et al., 1973). ~Parasitism by insects reaches its most elaborate development in the Chalcidoidea. Primary parasitism (larval development on a phytophagous host) is the most common type of parasitism by chalcidoids. Hyperaparasitism (a parasite attacking another species of parasite) is found almost exclusively in the Hymenoptera, and reaches its most extensive development in the Chalcidoidea as indicated by the fact that most families have hyperparasitic species. Further evidence of the extensiveness of hyperparasitism in this superfamily is found in the fact that several types of hyperparasitism have evolved in the group. These include secondary (a parasite attacking a primary parasite), tertiary (a parasite attacking a secondary parasite) and quaternary (a parasite attacking a tertiary parasite). Hyperparasitism probably evolves out of primary parasitism in situations involving strong interspecific competition. ~An unusual type of hyperparasitism occurs in Coccophagoides utilis Doutt and various related genera such as Coccophagus, Encarsia, and Prospaltella. Female larvae develop as primary parasites of armored-scale insects, and the male larvae develop as hyperparasites of their own females (Broodryk and Doutt, 1966). This phenomenon is called adelphoparasitism or autoparasitism and appears restricted to the aphelinines (Zinna, 1961; Flanders, 1959, 1967). ~Parasitic chalcidoids can be categorized on the basis of where the egg is deposited and how the larva feeds. Most species attack the host directly, but adult female eucharitids and perilampine pteromalids oviposit on vegetation and the first-instar larva (planidium) searches for the host (Smith, 1912; Clausen, 1940 a,b). Species in which the adult female directly attacks the host lay their eggs on the host's body and the larvae develop externally, or deposit their eggs inside the host's body and the larvae develop internally. There is a tendency for parasites that attack exposed hosts to develop internally (exception: elachertine Eulophidae), and parasites that attack concealed hosts to develop externally. ~The intra- and interspecific relationships among parasitic chalcidoids vary. Some species are solitary (one parasite per host), and others are gregarious (several parasites per host). When more than one parasite species develops on a host simultaneously, the condition is termed multiple parasitism. When more eggs of one parasite species are laid on a host than can develop to maturity, the condition is termed superparasitism. Supernumerary individuals are eliminated through larval combat or physiological suppression (Salt, 1961). ~the distinction between parasitism and predation sometimes fails, and some chalcidoids could be called predators. A prime distinction between parasites and predators is that predators frequently consume several prey, but parasites consume only one host per individual. The eunotine pteromalids and some mymarids could be regarded as egg predators because their larvae feed externally on scale-insect eggs in the "brood chamber" after they are oviposited by the female scale-insect (Clausen, 1940 a). ~Parasitic species that attack many species of hosts are called polyphagous; parasitic species that attack only a few species of hosts are called stenophagous; and parasitic species that attack only one species of host are monophagous. Complete host specificity is difficult to establish because it is based essentially on negative evidence. The fact that a parasite will not attack a host under some conditions does not constitute proof that it will not parasitize that species. Nevertheless, there is a tendency towards specialization in the Chalcidoidea, and this is reflected by: (1) repeated recovery of a parasite from a host species over a large area, but not from related host species that occur sympatrically; (2) demonstrated preference for a host species when a choice is available; (3) superior reproductive capability on a host species; and (4) physical limitations that prevent a parasite from attacking a potential host. ~Some polyphagous chalcidoids appear to prefer habitats rather than a taxonomically cohesive group of hosts. For example, Zagrammosoma species parasitize leaf-mining insects whether they are Lepidoptera, Diptera, or perhaps Hymenoptera. In contrast, related Diglyphus species parasitize only leaf-mining agromyzid Diptera. Other chalcidoids are extremely polyphagous. Dibrachys cavus (Walker) is an example. This species, like several others, has an exceedingly long host list that includes representatives of several orders. It usually develops as a primary parasite, but frequently also acts as a facultative hyperparasite (Graham, 1969). No explanation has been provided as to why one species should be so polyphagous and a closely related, morphologically similar species should be stenophagous or even monophagous. ~Likewise, there are associations between host stage attacked and the taxonomic assignment of the parasite. For instance, the Trichogrammatidae and Mymaridae exclusively develop on the egg stage of other insects and the spalangine pteromalids are pupal parasites (Annecke and Doutt, 1961; Boucek, 1963; Doutt and Viggiani, 1968). ~Chalcidoids parasitize more hosts in more different taxonomic categories than any other group of parasitic insects. This spectrum extends from spider eggs (Desantisca) to aculeate Hymenoptera (Melittobia, Leucospidae). A detailed account of the biology of chalcidoids requires more space than is available here. However, a short summary of some interesting host relationships is provided. ~A bizarre host association is found in Ixodiphagus and Hunterellus (Encyrtidae) whose species are primary, internal parasites of tick larvae and nymphs. These genera are cosmopolitan and may prove to be beneficial insects in tick control (Cooley and Kohls, 1934; Cole, 1965; Doube and Heath, 1975). ~The mymarid Caraphractus cinctus Walker is unusual in that it parasitizes dytiscid beetle eggs that are submerged beneath the surface of the water. The female parasite swims in the water by vibrating her wings and oviposits in the host's eggs. Females have considerable discriminative ability, and can detect eggs that have been parasitized (Jackson, 1958, 1966). ~The Eucharitidae are parasitic on Formicidae. The association apparently is an old one, and eucharitids oviposit on vegetation visited by worker ants. The eggs hatch, and the triungulin larvae are phoretically transported to the ant nest. Inside the nest the triungulin larvae eventually move into the brood chamber where they parasitize immature ants (Clausen, 1923; 1940 b,c). ~Other information about host association of chalcidoids is limited by a lack of knowledge about the immature stages of many groups of potential hosts. However, the higher taxonomic categories that include the most host species for chalcidoids include Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera. Chalcidoids generally have failed to adapt to the nymphal stage of paurometabolous insects. The host spectrum of chalcidoids is being expanded constantly by more comprehensive biological studies of other insects. Given the diversity of habits, host associations, and stages attacked, it seems reasonable to conclude that any insect potentially includes several niches where a chalcidoid can develop. ~All known Hymenoptera develop parthenogenetically and chalcidoids demonstrate three types: arrhenotoky, thelytoky, and deuterotoky. Arrhenotoky is the most common type of parthenogenesis among chalcidoids. Uninseminated arrhenotokous females deposit haploid eggs that develop into hemizygous males. Inseminated arrhenotokous females produce female offspring from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs. Arrhenotoky is a mechanism whereby lethal and deliterious genes can be relatively rapidly eliminated from a population and superior genotypes can be relatively rapidly selected. ~Thelytoky is parthenogenesis in which males are unknown or rare and females produce females by various asexual mechanisms. Cytologically, diploidy is maintained by apomixsis and automixsis. Apomixsis (ameiotic thelytoky) is characterized by an absence of meiosis, and chromosome number is not reduced. Automixis (meiotic thelytoky) has reduction divisions, and diploidy is maintained in several ways. Rossler and DeBach (1973) review the methods of maintaining a constant chromosome number. ~Thelytoky is common among parasitic Hymenoptera, but the extent of thelytoky in the Chalcidoidea is not known because our knowledge of their biology is limited. Many species are known from the original description only, and many species have been described from the female sex only. Thelytoky may be more common than now realized. In the rather well known genus Aphytis, DeBach (1969) records that about 30 of the species are thelytokous. ~The evolutionary significance of thelytoky is an issue of debate. Traditional views hold that thelytoky is an "evolutionary blind alley". However, Rossler and DeBach (1972) have shown that at least one species of thelytokous chalcidoid has females that are capable of sexual reproduction. ~Deuterotoky is parthenogenesis in which unfertilized eggs develop into both sexes. The cytological mechanism of deuterotoky has not been examined in chalcidoids. This form of parthenogenesis is common in some other animals, and has been reported in some species of chalcidoids (Doutt, 1959). ~The cytogenetics of the Hymenoptera have been reviewed by Crozier (1975). That paper points to a lack of knowledge developed about chalcidoid karyotypes and cytological phenomena. ~Hymenoptera are haplodiploid and this has been confused with sex determination. The correlation between males being haploid and females being diploid is positive and strong, but haploidy and diploidy in themselves do not determine sex. Diploid males are known to occur (Whiting, 1945). Several theories have been advanced to explain sex determination in the Hymenoptera, but in no instance has one theory proven adequate to explain determination in all groups (Whiting, 1940, 1943; daCunha and Kerr, 1957; Slobodchikoff and Daly, 1971). Crozier (1975) suggests that any general theory should accommodate the multiple allele case with as little modification as possible. ~Polyembryony is a cytological phenomenon in which a single egg develops into many individual progeny. Among Hymenoptera the process occurs in the Platygastridae (Proctotrupoidea) and copidosomatine Encyrtidae (Silvestri, 1906; Leiby, 1922, 1926). ~Sex ratio in many species of animals approximates unity. In arrhenotokous chalcidoids the sex ratio usually is female biased and fluctuates between 60 and 80 percent female. Numerous factors have been implicated in the determination of sex ratio including size, stage, or species of host (Abdelrahman, 1974 a,b; Avidov and Podoler, 1968; Clausen, 1940 a), rate of oviposition (Abdelrahman, 1974 b), egg orientation (King, 1961), genetic factors (Wilkes, 1964), differential mortality (Roberts, 1933; Flanders, 1937; Abdelrahman, 1974 a), density fluctuations (Flanders, 1956), nutrition (Flanders, 1965; Moran et al., 1969), and many others. This list could be lengthened substantially and its only limitation now is lack of research. ~Mayr (1969) defines sibling species as "pairs or groups of closely related species which are reproductively isolated but morphologically identical or nearly so." Recent studies of chalcidoids have demonstrated that this group has many sibling species complexes (Hafez and Doutt, 1954; Claridge and Askew, 1960; DeBach, 1959, 1960, 1969; Khasimuddin and DeBach, 1976 a,b,c,; Rao and DeBach, 1969 a,b,c). These complexes suggest that chalcidoids are in an active state of evolution and speciating rapidly. Factors of chalcidoid biology that promote rapid speciation include: (1) short generation time; (2) several generations per season; (3) intensive inbreeding via sib mating; (4) microgeographic isolation; and (5) host preference. ~Chalcidoids are the most important group in applied biological control. Other taxa (Tachinidae, Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, Proctotrupoidea) are used extensively in biological control, but species-for-species chalcidoids have been used more successfully. DeBach (1964) lists 25 pest species with which complete biological control was achieved. Chalcidoids are responsible for control in 13 of these programs, a number far greater than any other taxonomic group. Agricultural pests in these control programs include many Homoptera, but some Coleoptera have also been controlled by chalcidoids (Taylor, 1937; Tooke, 1953; Williams et al., 1951). ~It is a pleasure to acknowledge the comments and suggestions on the preceding account made by the following individuals: Kenneth Cooper, Paul DeBach, Eric Grissell, Peter Price, and David Rosen.
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Catalog of Hymenoptera in America North of Mexico. 1979. Prepared cooperatively by specialists on the various groups of Hymenoptera under the direction of Karl V. Krombein and Paul D. Hurd, Jr., Smithsonian Institution, and David R. Smith and B. D. Burks, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Insect Identification and Beneficial Insect Introduction Institute. Science and Education Administration, United States Department of Agriculture.

Calcidoïdeus ( Katalanca; Valensiyaca )

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La superfamília de vespes calcidoïdeus (Chalcidoidea) pertany a l'ordre d'insectes Hymenoptera[1] i té 22.000 espècies conegudes i s'estima que en total n'hi ha de 60.000 a 500.000, cosa que significa que la majoria encara s'han de descobrir i de descriure. Inclouen el més petit dels insectes coneguts:Dicopomorpha echmepterygis. Els calcídids són vespetes de color fosc, sovint metàl·lic blau o verd amb el cos complexament esculpit.

La majoria de les espècies són parasitoides d'altres insectes, atacant-los en l'estadi d'ou o de larva. Els seus hostes es troben com a mínim dins 12 ordres d'insectes diferents, incloent Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera i altres Hymenoptera, com també dos ordres d'Arachnida, i fins i tot una família de nematodes. Unes poques espècies són fitòfagues. Com a grup, els Chalcidoidea són beneficiosos pels humans per al control de plagues agrícoles i moltes espècies s'han importat per a fer aquest control biològic.

Taxonomia

Chalcidoidea és una superfamília d'himenòpters i la classificació taxonòmica està en contínua revisió. Hi ha 19 famílies reconegudes:

Hi ha també una família extinta, Khutelchalcididae Rasnitsyn, Basibuyuk & Quicke, 2004.

Referències

  1. «Arbre taxonòmic de Chalcidoidea» (en anglès). Catalogue of life, 29-12-2012.

Bibliografia

Enllaços externs

 src= A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Calcidoïdeus Modifica l'enllaç a Wikidata


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Calcidoïdeus: Brief Summary ( Katalanca; Valensiyaca )

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La superfamília de vespes calcidoïdeus (Chalcidoidea) pertany a l'ordre d'insectes Hymenoptera i té 22.000 espècies conegudes i s'estima que en total n'hi ha de 60.000 a 500.000, cosa que significa que la majoria encara s'han de descobrir i de descriure. Inclouen el més petit dels insectes coneguts:Dicopomorpha echmepterygis. Els calcídids són vespetes de color fosc, sovint metàl·lic blau o verd amb el cos complexament esculpit.

La majoria de les espècies són parasitoides d'altres insectes, atacant-los en l'estadi d'ou o de larva. Els seus hostes es troben com a mínim dins 12 ordres d'insectes diferents, incloent Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera i altres Hymenoptera, com també dos ordres d'Arachnida, i fins i tot una família de nematodes. Unes poques espècies són fitòfagues. Com a grup, els Chalcidoidea són beneficiosos pels humans per al control de plagues agrícoles i moltes espècies s'han importat per a fer aquest control biològic.

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Chalcidky ( Çekçe )

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Chalcidky (Chalcidoidea) jsou nadčeledí blanokřídlého hmyzu, která zahrnuje 19 čeledí a přes 22 000 známých druhů. Kvůli velikosti chalcidek je jejich výzkum složitý a odhaduje se, že může existovat více než 500 000 druhů. Velká část chalcidek parazituje na vajíčkách jiných druhů hmyzu, jako jsou brouci, motýli a mouchy nebo některých pavoukovců. Mají převážně hnědou nebo černou barvu (jejich název pochází z řeckého khalkos, což znamená měď), někdy jsou modré nebo zelené, ale například zástupci čeledě Leucospidae se zbarvením podobají vosám. Chalcidky mají průsvitná křídla.

 src=
Chalcidka Leucospis gigas

Některé jsou označovány za škůdce, jiné se zase naopak využívají proti jinému škodnému hmyzu. Dříve byla za „chalcidky“ v češtině označována jen čeleď Chalcididae, pro kterou se ale dnes používá český název stehnatky (stehnatkovití)[1]. Významnou roli ve výzkumu a zařazení chalcidek hrál český entomolog Zdeněk Bouček.


Reference

  1. OTTO Jan: Ottův slovník naučný, 12. díl (1897), s. 16
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Chalcidky: Brief Summary ( Çekçe )

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Chalcidky (Chalcidoidea) jsou nadčeledí blanokřídlého hmyzu, která zahrnuje 19 čeledí a přes 22 000 známých druhů. Kvůli velikosti chalcidek je jejich výzkum složitý a odhaduje se, že může existovat více než 500 000 druhů. Velká část chalcidek parazituje na vajíčkách jiných druhů hmyzu, jako jsou brouci, motýli a mouchy nebo některých pavoukovců. Mají převážně hnědou nebo černou barvu (jejich název pochází z řeckého khalkos, což znamená měď), někdy jsou modré nebo zelené, ale například zástupci čeledě Leucospidae se zbarvením podobají vosám. Chalcidky mají průsvitná křídla.

 src= Chalcidka Leucospis gigas

Některé jsou označovány za škůdce, jiné se zase naopak využívají proti jinému škodnému hmyzu. Dříve byla za „chalcidky“ v češtině označována jen čeleď Chalcididae, pro kterou se ale dnes používá český název stehnatky (stehnatkovití). Významnou roli ve výzkumu a zařazení chalcidek hrál český entomolog Zdeněk Bouček.


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Erzwespen ( Almanca )

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 src=
Leucospis gigas besitzt die wespentypische schwarz-gelbe Färbung.
 src=
Die Flügeladerung der Erzwespen ist stark reduziert. Mv = Marginalader, Smv = Submarginalader, Pmv = Postmarginalader, Stv = Stigmalader, St = Stigma, U = Uncus

Die Erzwespen (Chalcidoidea) bilden eine Überfamilie der Hautflügler, zu der einige der kleinsten geflügelten Insekten zählen. Sie werden selten größer als 5 Millimeter.[1] Die ungeflügelten Männchen von Dicopomorpha echmepterygis[2] werden nur 0,11 bis 0,24 Millimeter lang.[3] Die meisten Arten sind Parasitoide, rund 80 Arten werden zu den Pflanzenschädlingen gezählt.[4]

Die Erzwespen umfassen etwa 22.000 beschriebene Arten weltweit,[5] von denen wenigstens 2000 Arten in Mitteleuropa vorkommen. Die Erzwespen werden wegen ihrer geringen Größe von den Menschen kaum wahrgenommen. Oft werden sie mit kleinen Fliegen oder anderen Hautflüglern verwechselt. Im Gelände ist die genaue Bestimmung schwierig.[1] Daher wird die Zahl der noch unentdeckten Arten als besonders hoch angesehen, die gesamte Artenzahl innerhalb der Überfamilie wird auf 400.000[6] bis 500.000[3] geschätzt.

Merkmale

Der deutschsprachige Name Erzwespen rührt von der metallischen grünen, blauen, bronzenen oder purpurnen Färbung der meisten Arten her. Einige Arten zeigen aber auch die wespentypische schwarz-gelbe Warnfärbung oder andere Farben.

Die Aderung der Flügel ist gegenüber den anderen Überfamilien der Wespen stark reduziert. Sie haben in den häutigen Vorderflügeln keine vollständig durch Adern umrandeten Zellen. Erzwespen haben nur je eine Ader auf dem vorderen Rand der beiden Vorder- und Hinterflügel. Auf dem Vorderflügel verzweigt sich diese Marginalader in einen postmarginalen und einen stigmalen Ast, einige wenige Arten weisen gar keine Verzweigung auf.[1]

Nur die Scelionidae und Platygastridae aus der Überfamilie der Platygastroidea (früher zu den Zehrwespenartigen oder Proctotrupoidea gerechnet) haben eine ähnlich reduzierte Flügeladerung. Von diesen Gruppen sind die Erzwespen leicht zu unterscheiden, weil sie zwischen der Basis des Vorderflügels und dem Pronotum ein zusätzliches Sklerit, den Prepectus, aufweisen, so dass der Vorderflügel von der seitlichen Ecke des Pronotums leicht abgesetzt erscheint.[1]

Die Erzwespen haben lange Sensillen auf den Fühlern, die oft als parallele weiße Linien entlang der Fühlerglieder zu erkennen sind.[1]

Lebensweise

Die überwiegende Mehrzahl der Erzwespenarten ernährt sich im Larvenstadium parasitisch. Dabei können Eier, Larven und Puppen sowie die Adultstadien der Wirte befallen werden. Mehrere Arten der Erzwespen sind aber auf bestimmte Pflanzen spezialisiert, andere leben als Larven räuberisch. Auch wenn die meisten Arten eine besondere Spezialisierung aufweisen, wird innerhalb der Überfamilie insgesamt eine große Vielfalt von Nahrungstypen und Ernährungsweisen genutzt. Oft ist die Lebensweise auch zwischen den Arten einer einzigen Gattung höchst unterschiedlich.

Parasitoide

Unter den parasitischen Erzwespen sind sowohl Endoparasiten, die sich als Larven innerhalb der Wirte ernähren, als auch Ectoparasiten, die auf den Wirtstieren leben. Es gibt Gregärparasitismus, bei dem mehrere Parasiten der gleichen Art einen Wirt befallen, aber hauptsächlich Solitärparasitismus, bei dem sich nur eine Larve von einem Wirt ernährt. Der Befall mit Erzwespenlarven endet meist mit dem Tod des Wirtstiers, es handelt sich also bei den Erzwespen in der Mehrzahl um Parasitoide. Wie bei den Schlupfwespen oder den Grabwespen werden von den Weibchen meist schon die Eier in bzw. auf das Wirtstier gelegt. Die ausschlüpfenden Larven der Erzwespen ernähren sich dann bis zu ihrer Verpuppung von dem Tier.

Pflanzenschädlinge

Phytophage Arten gibt es in den Familien Eurytomidae (z. B. Eurytoma amygdala, deren Larven in den Früchten des Mandelbaums leben), Eulophidae, Pteromalidae, Tanaostigmatidae und Torymidae. Alle Arten der Familie der Feigenwespen (Agaonidae) entwickeln sich in Feigen. Es werden Pflanzen aus insgesamt 44 verschiedenen Pflanzenfamilien von Erzwespen befallen.[3]

Räuberische Larven

Einige Larven von Arten der Familie der Encyrtidae sind freilebend und ernähren sich räuberisch von den Eiern verschiedener Napfschildläuse. Andere aus der Familie der Eurytomidae, erbeuten die Larven von Gallwespen.[3]

Familien mit Auswahl von Arten

Die Erzwespen werden in derzeit 19 Familien unterteilt, von denen die größte die Familie Eulophidae mit nahezu 4500 Arten ist.[3] Es gibt 90 Unterfamilien.

Einzelnachweise

  1. a b c d e E. E. Grissell & M. E. Schauff: A Handbook of the Families of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). Entomological Society of Washington, Washington, D.C., 1990 S. 1–85 Online (Memento des Originals vom 10. August 2011 im Internet Archive)  src= Info: Der Archivlink wurde automatisch eingesetzt und noch nicht geprüft. Bitte prüfe Original- und Archivlink gemäß Anleitung und entferne dann diesen Hinweis.@1@2Vorlage:Webachiv/IABot/peet.tamu.edu
  2. E. L. Mockford: A new species of Dicopomorpha (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) with diminutive, apterous males. Annales of the Entomological Society of America, 90, S. 115–120, 1997
  3. a b c d e J. S. Noyes: Universal Chalcidoidea Database. About Chalcoids. Revised June 2003 Online
  4. Stefan Schmidt, Olga Schmidt, Till Osten: ChalcIS-D: Information System Chalcidoidea Germany (Hymenoptera) englischsprachiges Poster (PDF; 236 kB) von ChalcIS-D: Chalcidoidea Informations-System für Deutschland
  5. J. S. Noyes: Interactive Catalogue of World Chalcidoidea, 2nd edition. Taxapad and the Natural History Museum, London 2002
  6. J. S. Noyes: Encyrtidae of Costa Rica (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea), 1. The subfamily Tetracneminae, parasitoids of mealybugs (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Memories of the American Entomological Institute, 62, 2000
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Erzwespen: Brief Summary ( Almanca )

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 src= Leucospis gigas besitzt die wespentypische schwarz-gelbe Färbung.  src= Die Flügeladerung der Erzwespen ist stark reduziert. Mv = Marginalader, Smv = Submarginalader, Pmv = Postmarginalader, Stv = Stigmalader, St = Stigma, U = Uncus

Die Erzwespen (Chalcidoidea) bilden eine Überfamilie der Hautflügler, zu der einige der kleinsten geflügelten Insekten zählen. Sie werden selten größer als 5 Millimeter. Die ungeflügelten Männchen von Dicopomorpha echmepterygis werden nur 0,11 bis 0,24 Millimeter lang. Die meisten Arten sind Parasitoide, rund 80 Arten werden zu den Pflanzenschädlingen gezählt.

Die Erzwespen umfassen etwa 22.000 beschriebene Arten weltweit, von denen wenigstens 2000 Arten in Mitteleuropa vorkommen. Die Erzwespen werden wegen ihrer geringen Größe von den Menschen kaum wahrgenommen. Oft werden sie mit kleinen Fliegen oder anderen Hautflüglern verwechselt. Im Gelände ist die genaue Bestimmung schwierig. Daher wird die Zahl der noch unentdeckten Arten als besonders hoch angesehen, die gesamte Artenzahl innerhalb der Überfamilie wird auf 400.000 bis 500.000 geschätzt.

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Chalcid wasp ( İngilizce )

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Torymus female, family Torymidae
Balcha indica, family Eupelmidae

Chalcid wasps (/ˈkælsɪd/, from Greek khalkos 'copper', for their metallic colour)[1] are insects within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, part of the order Hymenoptera. The superfamily contains some 22,500 known species, and an estimated total diversity of more than 500,000 species, meaning the vast majority have yet to be discovered and described.[2] The name "chalcid" is often confused with the name "chalcidid", though the latter refers strictly to one constituent family, the Chalcididae, rather than the superfamily as a whole; accordingly, most recent publications (e.g.,[2]) use the name "chalcidoid" when referring to members of the superfamily.

Most chalcid wasps are parasitoids of other insects, though other life styles are known, with the herbivorous fig wasps acting as pollinators. Various species are used as biological pest control agents or in scientific research.

Description

Chalcidoids are generally small wasps, averaging 1.5 mm in length and usually being less than 3 mm. The body is often metallic in colour. The wings may be developed, reduced or absent. When the wings are developed, they have reduced venation or sometimes none at all.[3]

However, the group is morphologically very diverse. Chalcidoids range in size from up to 41.7 mm long (females of the pelecinellid Doddifoenus wallacei, this length includes the ovipositor[4]) to merely 0.13 mm long (males of the mymarid Dicopomorpha echmepterygis). Various lineages have convergently evolved features such as enlarged femora, enlarged acropleura, reduced numbers of antennal and tarsal segments, reduced wings or reduced wing venation. Some have significant sexual dimorphism: male fig wasps are "turtle-like fighting machines" that are very different to the females, while males of the aforementioned D. echmepterygis lack eyes, ocelli, mouthparts, antennal flagella or wings.[2]

Ecology

Most chalcidoids are parasitoids, their hosts including insects, spiders, ticks and mites, pseudoscorpions and even gall-forming nematodes. Some species parasitise a wide range of hosts, while others have a narrow host range. They attack host life stages ranging from eggs to adults. The superfamily includes primary, secondary and tertiary parasitoids, both ecto- and endoparasitoids, and both solitary and gregarious parasitoids.[2][5]

There are also herbivorous chalcidoids within the families of Agaonidae, Epichrysomallidae, Eurytomidae, Eulophidae, Melanosomellidae, Ormyridae, Pteromalidae, Tanaostigmatidae and Torymidae. Agaonidae only develop within figs.[2][5][6]

Predation is exhibited by larvae of some Encyrtidae (prey on coccid eggs) and some Eurytomidae (prey on Cynipidae larvae).[5]

Importance

Chalcidoidea is one of the most important taxa of biological control agents. They are used to control pest insects in both natural and agricultural ecosystems.[2] Some herbivorous species are also used in biological control, such as the melanosomellid Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae for control of the weed Acacia longifolia.[5]

There are also chalcidoids that are agricultural pests themselves, mainly attacking plant seeds. Bruchophagus attack seeds of legumes (e.g. alfalfa), Systole attack seeds of Apiaceae used as spices (e.g. coriander) and Megastigmus attack seeds of Pinaceae grown in plantations.[5]

Females of family Agaonidae are important as pollinators of figs.[7]

Some chalcidoids, especially those in genera Trichogramma (Trichogrammatidae) and Nasonia (Pteromalidae) are model organisms in scientific research. They have been used to study sex determination, the influence of bacterial endosymbionts and the genetics of speciation.[2] The genome of moth parasitoid Copidosoma floridanum was sequenced as part of the i5K project.[8]

Taxonomy

Chalcidoidea is a superfamily of Hymenoptera, whose family constituency is in constant flux, as new hypotheses of relationships are constantly being proposed and rejected; with the advent of molecular systematics, it seems that the future will see further revisions of the classification in use today.

There are fifty extant families recognized at present:

There are also two extinct families:

Of these families, at least five are known to be artificial groups (paraphyletic), and are being - or will be - divided into several families, or perhaps fused with existing families. The most problematic, the Pteromalidae, has recently been split into 24 families, and Eupelmidae into three families.[9]

Identification

  • Key to families Grissell, E. E., and M. E. Schauff. 1990. A handbook of the families of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera).Entomological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C.) Handbook 1:1-85. Online at [1]
  • Gibson, G. A. P., Huber, J. T., and J. B. Woolley. 1997. Annotated keys to the genera of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). NRC Research Press.[2]

References

  1. ^ "Chalcid". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2009. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h John M. Heraty; Roger A. Burks; Astrid Cruaud; et al. (4 January 2013). "A phylogenetic analysis of the megadiverse Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera)". Cladistics. 29 (5): 466–542. doi:10.1111/CLA.12006. ISSN 0748-3007. Wikidata Q54530727.
  3. ^ "Superfamily Chalcidoidea - Chalcidoid Wasps". bugguide.net. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  4. ^ LARS KROGMANN; ROGER A. BURKS (11 August 2009). "Doddifoenus wallacei, a new giant parasitoid wasp of the subfamily Leptofoeninae (Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae), with a description of its mesosomal skeletal anatomy and a molecular characterization". Zootaxa. 2194 (1): 21–36. doi:10.11646/ZOOTAXA.2194.1.2. ISSN 1175-5334. Wikidata Q97498568.
  5. ^ a b c d e "Chalcidoidea". www.nhm.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  6. ^ a b Petr Janšta; Astrid Cruaud; Gérard Delvare; Guénaëlle Genson; John Heraty; Barbora Křížková; Jean-Yves Rasplus (1 November 2017). "Torymidae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) revised: molecular phylogeny, circumscription and reclassification of the family with discussion of its biogeography and evolution of life-history traits". Cladistics. 34 (6): 627–651. doi:10.1111/CLA.12228. ISSN 0748-3007. Wikidata Q63378934.
  7. ^ Cook, James M.; Rasplus, Jean-Yves (2003). "Mutualists with attitude: coevolving fig wasps and figs". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 18 (5): 241–248. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00062-4.
  8. ^ "Copidosoma floridanum Genome Project". BCM-HGSC. 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  9. ^ Roger A. Burks; Mircea-Dan Mitroiu; Lucian Fusu; et al. (20 December 2022). "From hell's heart I stab at thee! A determined approach towards a monophyletic Pteromalidae and reclassification of Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera)". Journal of Hymenoptera Research. 94: 13–88. doi:10.3897/JHR.94.94263. ISSN 1070-9428. Wikidata Q115923766.

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Chalcid wasp: Brief Summary ( İngilizce )

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Leucospis gigas, family Leucospidae Eurytoma gigantea female, family Eurytomidae Torymus female, family Torymidae Balcha indica, family Eupelmidae

Chalcid wasps (/ˈkælsɪd/, from Greek khalkos 'copper', for their metallic colour) are insects within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, part of the order Hymenoptera. The superfamily contains some 22,500 known species, and an estimated total diversity of more than 500,000 species, meaning the vast majority have yet to be discovered and described. The name "chalcid" is often confused with the name "chalcidid", though the latter refers strictly to one constituent family, the Chalcididae, rather than the superfamily as a whole; accordingly, most recent publications (e.g.,) use the name "chalcidoid" when referring to members of the superfamily.

Most chalcid wasps are parasitoids of other insects, though other life styles are known, with the herbivorous fig wasps acting as pollinators. Various species are used as biological pest control agents or in scientific research.

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Chalcidoidea ( İspanyolca; Kastilyaca )

wikipedia ES tarafından sağlandı
 src=
Muscidifurax raptor hembra, familia Pteromalidae depositando huevos en un pupario de mosca.
 src=
Eurytoma gigantea hembra, familia Eurytomidae
 src=
Torymus hembra, familia Torymidae
 src=
Balcha indica, familia Eupelmidae

Los calcidoideos (Chalcidoidea) son una superfamilia de himenópteros apócritos.[1]​ Son uno de los grupos más numerosos dentro de los himenópteros, con alrededor de 22 000 especies conocidas. Se calcula que hay entre 60 000 y 500 000 especies, lo cual quiere decir que la mayoría aún no han sido descritas.[2]

Las calcidoideos son unas avispitas pequeñas de color oscuro, en algunos casos con brillos metálicos azules o verdes y con una compleja textura de la superficie del cuerpo. También se las reconoce por la reducción de las venas de las alas, semejante a la de otras superfamilias de Parasitica. Juegan un importante papel en los ecosistemas y aún no se ha llegado a valorar la magnitud de su importancia.

La mayoría de las especies son parasitoides de otros insectos. Generalmente parasitan los huevos o las larvas de otros insectos, aunque también suelen atacar a otras etapas del ciclo biológico. Sus huéspedes pertenecen por lo menos a 12 órdenes diferentes de insectos, incluyendo a Lepidoptera (mariposas y polillas), Diptera (moscas, mosquitos, etc.), Coleoptera (escarabajos), Hemiptera (chinches, etc.) y a otros himenópteros, así como también a dos órdenes de Arachnida y a una familia de nematodos.

Unas pocas especies son fitófagos y la larva vive dentro de y se alimenta de las semillas, tallos o agallas. En general es un grupo beneficioso para la humanidad porque muchos calcidoideos sirven para el control biológico. Algunas son importadas a otros países para controlar las plagas de insectos.

Se las encuentra en todo tipo de hábitat, especialmente en las flores, follaje, hojarasca, pero a menudo pasan desapercibidas por su pequeño tamaño. Incluyen a algunos de los insectos más pequeños conocidos, por ejemplo Dicopomorpha echmepterygis.

Identificación

La mayoría son de color oscuro, algunas metálicas verdes o azules. Generalmente tienen las alas recostadas sobre el abdomen en momentos de reposo. Las antenas generalmente tienen un codo; nunca más de 13 segmentos.

  • Clave de familias: Grissell, E. E., and M. E. Schauff. 1990. A handbook of the families of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera).Entomological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C.) Handbook 1:1-85.
  • Clave de géneros de la región neártica: Gibson, G. A. P., Huber, J. T., and J. B. Woolley. 1997. Annotated keys to the genera of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). NRC Research Press.[1]

Taxonomía

La taxonomía de las familias de Chalcidoidea está en flujo continuo a medida que surgen nuevas hipótesis. Con el advenimiento de la sistemática molecular seguramente habrá nuevas revisiones.[3]

Hay 19 familias reconocidas en el presente:

Se conocen dos familias extintas:

Se sabe que por lo menos cinco de todas estas familias son grupos artificiales (parafiléticos) y se los está subdividiendo en varias familias o en otros casos fusionando con otras familias. El más problemático es Pteromalidae y en algunas clasificaciones se considera que hay hasta ocho linajes independientes que han sido agrupados debido a semejanzas superficiales.

Referencias

  1. «Chalcid». The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4ª edición). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2009. Consultado el 3 de septiembre de 2013.
  2. Heraty, John M.; Burks, Roger A.; Cruaud, Astrid; Gibson, Gary A. P.; Liljeblad, Johan; Munro, James; Rasplus, Jean-Yves; Delvare, Gerard; Janšta, Peter; Gumovsky, Alex; Huber, John; Woolley, James B.; Krogmann, Lars; Heydon, Steve; Polaszek, Andrew; Schmidt, Stefan; Darling, D. Chris; Gates, Michael W.; Mottern, Jason; Murray, Elizabeth; Dal Molin, Ana; Triapitsyn, Serguei; Baur, Hannes; Pinto, John D.; van Noort, Simon; George, Jeremiah; Yoder, Matthew (2013). «A phylogenetic analysis of the megadiverse Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera)». Cladistics 29 (5): 466-542. ISSN 0748-3007. doi:10.1111/cla.12006.
  3. http://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/chalcidoids/familyindex.html
  4. http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=216545
  • Clave de las familias: Grissell, E. E., and M. E. Schauff. 1990. A handbook of the families of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera).Entomological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C.) Handbook 1:1-85. En Internet [2]

 title=
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Chalcidoidea: Brief Summary ( İspanyolca; Kastilyaca )

wikipedia ES tarafından sağlandı
 src= Leucospis gigas, familia Leucospidae.  src= Muscidifurax raptor hembra, familia Pteromalidae depositando huevos en un pupario de mosca.  src= Eurytoma gigantea hembra, familia Eurytomidae  src= Torymus hembra, familia Torymidae  src= Balcha indica, familia Eupelmidae

Los calcidoideos (Chalcidoidea) son una superfamilia de himenópteros apócritos.​ Son uno de los grupos más numerosos dentro de los himenópteros, con alrededor de 22 000 especies conocidas. Se calcula que hay entre 60 000 y 500 000 especies, lo cual quiere decir que la mayoría aún no han sido descritas.​

Las calcidoideos son unas avispitas pequeñas de color oscuro, en algunos casos con brillos metálicos azules o verdes y con una compleja textura de la superficie del cuerpo. También se las reconoce por la reducción de las venas de las alas, semejante a la de otras superfamilias de Parasitica. Juegan un importante papel en los ecosistemas y aún no se ha llegado a valorar la magnitud de su importancia.

La mayoría de las especies son parasitoides de otros insectos. Generalmente parasitan los huevos o las larvas de otros insectos, aunque también suelen atacar a otras etapas del ciclo biológico. Sus huéspedes pertenecen por lo menos a 12 órdenes diferentes de insectos, incluyendo a Lepidoptera (mariposas y polillas), Diptera (moscas, mosquitos, etc.), Coleoptera (escarabajos), Hemiptera (chinches, etc.) y a otros himenópteros, así como también a dos órdenes de Arachnida y a una familia de nematodos.

Unas pocas especies son fitófagos y la larva vive dentro de y se alimenta de las semillas, tallos o agallas. En general es un grupo beneficioso para la humanidad porque muchos calcidoideos sirven para el control biológico. Algunas son importadas a otros países para controlar las plagas de insectos.

Se las encuentra en todo tipo de hábitat, especialmente en las flores, follaje, hojarasca, pero a menudo pasan desapercibidas por su pequeño tamaño. Incluyen a algunos de los insectos más pequeños conocidos, por ejemplo Dicopomorpha echmepterygis.

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Chalcidoidea ( Fransızca )

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Les Chalcidiens (Chalcidoidea ou chalcidoïdes en français) forment une super-famille qui regroupe une vingtaine de familles composées en large majorité d'insectes entomophages, principalement des guêpes. Ce sont des hyménoptères térébrants représentant 22 000 espèces au niveau mondial, soit autour des 10 % de la totalité des hyménoptères.

Certaines espèces sont phytophages tels les Agaonidae, Blastophaga sur les figues, les Callinomidae seminivores, quelques Eurytomidae cécidogènes ainsi que les Tanaostigmatidae.

Les familles les plus importantes sont celles des Pteromalidae, Eulophidae, Aphelinidae, Trichogrammatidae et Encyrtidae qui ont fourni 80 % des succès obtenus en lutte biologique classique contre les insectes déprédateurs des cultures ou des milieux forestiers.

Morphologie

 src=
Certaines espèces, telle Torymus calcaratus sont colorées et présentent des reflets métalliques

Les Chalcidoidea ont en commun avec le groupe des Proctotrupoidea les caractères suivants :

  • antennes coudées entre le scape et le pédicelle (à l'exception des Eucharitidae) ;
  • scape relativement long ;
  • nervation alaire très réduite.

Ils s'en distinguent par :

  • très souvent présence du prepectus entre le pronotum et la tégula ;
  • si absence, alors éclat métallique ou fémur III épaissi ;
  • tête souvent peu sclérifiée ;
  • si une couleur est présente, c'est un Chalcidoidea.

Liste des familles de Chalcidoidea

Références

  • Barnard, P.C. (Ed.) 1999. Identifying British Insects and Arachnids. An annotated bibliography of key works. xii+353pp. Cambridge University Press.
  • Boucek, Z. 1988. Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). A biosystematic revision of genera of fourteen families, with a reclassification of species. :832pp.. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, U.K., Cambrian News Ltd; Aberystwyth, Wales.
  • Gauld, I.D. & Bolton, B. (Eds) 1988. The Hymenoptera. Xi+332pp. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK (Reprinted and revised, 1996; (ISBN 0-19-858521-7)).
  • Gibson, G.A.P., Huber, J.T. & Woolley, J.B. (Eds) 1993. Annotated keys to the genera of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) xi+794pp. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada (ISBN 0-660-16669-0).
  • Goulet, H. & Huber, J.T. (Eds) 1993. Hymenoptera of the World: an identification guide to families. vii+668pp. Research Branch, Agriculture Canada.
  • Hanson, P. & Gauld, I.D., 1995. The Hymenoptera of Costa Rica. xx+893pp. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK (ISBN 019-854905-9)
  • Noyes, J.S. 1998. Catalogue of Chalcidoidea of the World. CD-ROM Series, ETI, Amsterdam, Netherlands (ISBN 3-540-14675-X).
  • Noyes, J.S. & Valentine, E.W. 1989. Chalcidoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera) - introduction, and review of genera in smaller families. Fauna of New Zealand 18:1-91.
  • Peck, O., Boucek, Z. & Hoffer, A. 1964. Keys to the Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (Insecta: Hymenoptera). Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada No 34:170pp, 289 figs.
  • Sharma, B.R., 1988. Keys to the insects of the European part of the USSR. Volume III Hymenoptera Part II. Oxonian Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India; (ISBN 90-04-08806-7).

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Chalcidoidea: Brief Summary ( Fransızca )

wikipedia FR tarafından sağlandı

Les Chalcidiens (Chalcidoidea ou chalcidoïdes en français) forment une super-famille qui regroupe une vingtaine de familles composées en large majorité d'insectes entomophages, principalement des guêpes. Ce sont des hyménoptères térébrants représentant 22 000 espèces au niveau mondial, soit autour des 10 % de la totalité des hyménoptères.

Certaines espèces sont phytophages tels les Agaonidae, Blastophaga sur les figues, les Callinomidae seminivores, quelques Eurytomidae cécidogènes ainsi que les Tanaostigmatidae.

Les familles les plus importantes sont celles des Pteromalidae, Eulophidae, Aphelinidae, Trichogrammatidae et Encyrtidae qui ont fourni 80 % des succès obtenus en lutte biologique classique contre les insectes déprédateurs des cultures ou des milieux forestiers.

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Chalcidoidea ( İtalyanca )

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Chalcidoidea è una superfamiglia di Imenotteri, che raggruppa un gran numero di insetti parassitoidi e iperparassitoidi. Si stima sia la superfamiglia di insetti più vasta tra tutte: il numero delle specie descritte varia, secondo le fonti, da 19.000[1] a 25.000[2]. Si stima che il numero reale di specie sia compreso fra 60.000 e 100.000.

Descrizione

 src=
Venature delle ali di un Calcidoide
Smv: vena submarginale o subcostale
Mv: vena marginale
Pmv: vena postmarginale
Stv: vena stigmale o radiale
St: stigma
U: uncus

I Calcidoidei sono insetti di piccole dimensioni, con corpo che raramente supera il centimetro di lunghezza: in genere varia da 0,5 mm a 8 mm, ma vi sono anche specie con il corpo lungo appena 0,2 mm. La pigmentazione mostra spesso colori iridescenti o con riflessi metallici.

Il capo ha antenne genicolate, cioè piegate ad angolo, composte da meno di 16 antennomeri. Il pronoto non raggiunge lateralmente le tegule (fatta eccezione per specie molto piccole).

Le ali sono caratterizzate dall'assenza di pterostigma e dalla venulazione molto ridotta, composta da un solo ramo, da alcuni interpretato come fusione della subcosta con il radio (Sc+R). La nomenclatura adottata è spesso influenzata da questa semplificazione morfologica[2]: il tratto prossimale, detto vena submarginale o vena subcostale, decorre parallelamente al margine anteriore. Nel tratto intermedio, detto vena marginale percorre il margine anteriore, poi si divide, in corrispondenza della zona stigmatica, in due rami: quello anteriore, detto vena postmarginale rappresenta un prolungamento della vena marginale e decorre lungo il margine anteriore; quello posteriore, detto vena radiale o vena stigmale si dirige verso il centro della regione remigante. Le altre venature sono ridotte ad esili tracce. In ragione di questa semplificazione non esiste una suddivisione in cellule vere e proprie: l'ala anteriore è suddivisa in due regioni: una prossimale, compresa fra la vena submarginale e il tratto prossimale del margine anteriore, corrisponde alla cellula costale, quella distale si estende per tutta la regione remigante e viene detta disco. Adottando la nomenclatura di maggiore condivisione, la cellula R1, in altri termini quella compresa fra il ramo del radio e il settore radiale s'interpreterebbe come la cella di forma triangolare, indefinita perché aperta, compresa fra la postmarginale e la stigmale. Come in tutti i Terebranti, anche nei Calcidoidei l'ala anteriore è priva del lobo anale. La semplificazione morfologica dell'ala anteriore si ripete poi in quella posteriore.

L'addome mostra un gastro non compresso e un peziolo che si collega alla parte distale del propodeo. L'ottavo urotergo è visibile. L'ovopositore non raggiunge dimensioni notevoli (come ad esempio avviene negli Ichneumonoidea), tuttavia è in genere ben visibile sotto l'addome.

Lo sviluppo postembrionale passa attraverso 4 o 5 stadi di larva e uno di pupa. La larva di I età è in genere di tipo imenotteriforme, ma possono essere rappresentati anche altri tipi di larve. La larva matura è imenotteriforme. Lo stadio di pupa si svolge in alcuni casi all'interno di un bozzolo di seta, talvolta protetto in parte dagli escrementi della larva, ma nella maggior parte dei Calcidoidei si svolge senza protezione presso le spoglie della vittima.

Biologia

Nonostante le piccole dimensioni giocano un ruolo significativo nell'ecosistema e la loro importanza non deve essere sottovalutata. La maggior parte delle specie sono infatti parassitoidi di uova o stadi preimmaginali di altri insetti (rincoti, lepidotteri, ditteri, Imenotteri e coleotteri) oppure predatrici oofaghe. Sono frequenti anche casi di iperparassitismo. Alcune specie di Calcidoidei sono invece fitofaghe e le larve crescono all'interno di semi, gambi e galle oppure svolgono un complesso ruolo nell'impollinazione di alcune piante in un rapporto di vera e propria simbiosi. Non mancano casi di relazioni trofiche complesse o atipiche, come il passaggio dalla fitofagìa al parassitoidismo o viceversa o l'autoparassitismo.

Molte specie di questo gruppo sono utilizzate nei programmi di controllo biologico, tuttavia non va trascurato il ruolo delle popolazioni naturali degli ausiliari nel controllo della dinamica di popolazione di molti importanti fitofagi.

Tassonomia

Trattandosi di un raggruppamento così vasto per numero e distribuzione geografica e sul quale sono stati avanzati pochi studi, la sistematica dei Calcidoidei risulta tutt'oggi in via di sviluppo, cosicché la posizione di molte specie è ambigua e oggetto di nuove proposte sistematiche.
A complicare gli studi si riscontra in alcuni Calcidoidei una propensione all'ibridazione tra specie. In particolare in Aphelinidae e Trichogrammatidae si riscontra la nascita di piccole comunità ibride denominate specie criptiche, irriconoscibili data la fusione degli elementi distintivi delle specie di partenza e spesso anche sessualmente fertili. Alcuni hanno avanzato la creazione di un nuovo taxon per classificare queste "morfo-specie", definite anche come specie fratello, semi-specie, razza, stirpe o biotipo.

La scarsa osservazione di questa superfamiglia ha reso inoltre impossibile delineare delle caratteristiche riconoscitive importanti. D'altronde si osserva che una stessa progenie non conserva costanti le proprie caratteristiche, probabilmente perché la morfologia viene influenzata dall'ospite. Ad esempio sì è riscontrato che lo sviluppo in ospiti dalle dimensioni esigue causa la formazione di ocelli più ravvicinati, ovopositori più corti, ecc. Ancora si aggiunge un relativo dimorfismo stagionale (specialmente in Torymidae e Eulophidae) basato sulle condizioni atmosferiche e sulla temperatura; dimorfismo che può condizionare, ad esempio, una colorazione più scura o più brillante o una variazione della lunghezza alare. Tutt'oggi sono considerate famiglie appartenenti ai Chalcidoidea le seguenti:

Lotta biologica

I Calcidoidei sono tra gli insetti maggiormente utilizzati per il controllo biologico di organismi dannosi. Le specie impiegate rientrano per lo più nelle famiglie degli Aphelinidae e degli Encyrtidae.

Tra gli Aphelinidae il genere Encarsia è tra i parassitoidi maggiormente utilizzati. Molte specie si sono dimostrate utilissime nel controllo biologico di Aleyrodidae (mosche bianche) e Diaspididae (cocciniglie): l'E. perplexa nel controllo dell'Aleurocanthus woglumi nel sud degli USA e nei Caraibi, l'E. smithi nel controllo dell'Aleurocanthus spiniferus e l'E. inaron contro alcuni fitofagi delle querce in California.
L'esempio più conosciuto di specie appartenenti al genere Encarsia è tuttavia E. formosa, forse il parassitoide più utilizzato per il controllo biologico in tutto il Mondo. Ha trovato ampio spazio nel controllo dell'Aleurodide delle serre ed è divenuto largamente reperibile anche in commercio. Altri esempi da ricordare sono l'E. berlesei utilizzato per controllare la Cocciniglia bianca del Pesco e l'E. perniciosi contro la Cocciniglia di San José.
Tra gli Aphelinidae sono stati largamente utilizzati anche esemplari dei generi Eretmocerus e Aphytis, questi ultimi specialmente per il controllo dei Diaspididae.

Le specie della famiglia Encyrtidae hanno rappresentato egualmente una risorsa molto importante nei programmi di controllo biologico, specialmente nelle regioni dai climi più caldi dove sono in grado di adattarsi meglio rispetto agli Aphelinidae.

Gli interventi di maggior successo si sono ottenuti nella lotta ai danni provocati dalle cocciniglie, tra cui il più recente e fruttuoso esempio è quello dell'Anagyrus lopezi del Sud America per il controllo del Phenacoccus manihoti. Questa cocciniglia fu scoperta per la prima volta in Congo nel 1973 e nella metà degli anni ottanta è arrivata a coprire quasi l'intera Africa subsahariana minacciando di distruggere la principale fonte di carboidrati di oltre ducecentomila persone. L'A. lopezi fu rilasciato in Nigeria tra i primi anni del 1980 e la fine del 1990 arrivando a controllare completamente l'espansione smisurata del P. manihoti. Il costo totale di questo programma, dal 1988, è arrivato a toccare i 15.000 dollari ma le stime compensano la spesa valutando un risparmio di più di 250.000 dollari l'anno per i danni evitati alle piantagioni.

Un altro programma di controllo biologico che ha dato grandi risultati ma meno conosciuto è quello dei primi degli anni ottanta che ha previsto l'utilizzo del Neodusmetia sangwani per il controllo dell'Antonina graminis nel sud degli Stati Uniti. Con una spesa iniziale di non più 0,2 mila dollari si stima d'aver evitato circa duececentomila dollari annui di danni che avrebbero colpito la foraggicoltura e la zootecnica del Texas. L'Antonina graminis è oggi sotto controllo dal Texas e la Florida al sud del Brasile, sin oltre i confini del Nuovo Mondo.

Tra le specie parassitoidi maggiormente utilizzate in Europa è da ricordare il Psyllaephagus pilosus, liberato dal 1993 in Irlanda, Galles e Francia per il controllo della Psilla dell'eucalyptus. Il programma ha dato ottimi risultati tant'è che il P. pilosus è stato di recente introdotto (probabilmente accidentalmente) anche in alcune regioni del Sud America, comprese Perù e Argentina.

Nel controllo dei parassiti vegetali sono stati introdotti alcuni Calcidoidei fitofagi, come lo Pteromalide Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae. Questa specie australiana è stata introdotta nel sud dell'Africa nel 1982 per il controllo dell'Acacia longifolia, offrendo anche in questo caso risultati soddisfacenti.

Nonostante l'impiego come parassitoidi cataloghi questa superfamiglia fra gli insetti utili, più di 80 specie sono maggiormente conosciute per la loro azione nociva nei confronti dei prodotti agricoli. La maggior parte di questi esemplari appartiene alla famiglia degli Eurytomidae e dei Torymidae. Tra i primi i generi maggiormente conosciuti sono forse i Bruchophagus, che attaccano spesso semi di diversi leguminose, come l'erba medica (Medicago sativa); e i Systole, fitofagi di varie Apiaceae utilizzate come spezie (come il coriandolo, Coriandrum sativum).

Note

  1. ^ (EN) Systematic Entomology Laboratory - Chalcidoids Archiviato il 17 novembre 2007 in Internet Archive.
  2. ^ a b Viggiani Gennaro. Lotta biologica ed integrata. Liguori editore. Napoli, 1977. ISBN 88-207-0706-3

Bibliografia

  • Chinery Michael. Guida degli insetti d'Europa. Franco Muzzio editore, 1998; ISBN 88-7413-025-2
  • Viggiani Gennaro. Lotta biologica ed integrata. Liguori editore. Napoli, 1977. ISBN 88-207-0706-3
  • (EN) E. Eric Grissell and M. E. Schauff. 1997. A Handbook of the Families of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera): Second Edition, Revised. Entomological Society of Washington. 87pp
  • (EN) Ferriere, Ch. e Kerrich, G.J. "Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea" Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects (VIII vol.), 1963

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Chalcidoidea: Brief Summary ( İtalyanca )

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Chalcidoidea è una superfamiglia di Imenotteri, che raggruppa un gran numero di insetti parassitoidi e iperparassitoidi. Si stima sia la superfamiglia di insetti più vasta tra tutte: il numero delle specie descritte varia, secondo le fonti, da 19.000 a 25.000. Si stima che il numero reale di specie sia compreso fra 60.000 e 100.000.

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Chalcidoidea ( Latince )

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Chalcidoidea (a Graeco χαλκος 'cuprum', ob eorum colorem metallicum[1]) sunt apocrita ordinis Hymenopterorum, cui superfamiliae sunt circa 22 500 specierum notarum, sed tota diversitas aestimata plus quam 500 000 specierum continet, quod significat maiorem partem nondum repertam et descriptam esse.[2] Nomen chalcidoidea non confundendum est cum chalcididis, quamquam hic sensu stricto solum Chalcididas, unam e familiis attingit, non omnen superfamiliam, quam ob causam studia recentioria nomine chalcidoideorum ad species superfamiliae appellandas utuntur.

Plurimae ex speciebus sunt parasitoidea aliorum insectorum, qui ovis vel stationi larvae hospitis aggrediuntur, sed alii circuli vitae agnoscuntur. Hospites in saltem duodecim ordinibus insectorum reperiuntur, inter quae Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, et alia Hymenoptera, cum duobus ordinibus arachnidorum et adeo una familia nematodorum. Exempli gratia, unum ex eis apocritis paucas mortes in Leptidea sinapis efficit.[3]

Chalcidoidea sunt perparva apocrita coloris obscuri, plerumque nigri vel fusci, sed saepe caerulei vel viridis metallici, corpore multimodis sculpto. Minuta alarum venatio propria agnoscitur, venationi in aliis hymenopterorum parasiticorum superfamiliis visa similis.

Taxinomia

Superfamiliae hodie sunt undeviginti familiae exstantes:

Etiam est familia exstincta, Khutelchalcididae Rasnitsyn, Basibuyuk & Quicke, 2004. Ex his familiis, saltem quinque sunt greges artificiosi (paraphyletici), qui in nonnullas familias vel inter familias exstantes aliquando digerantur. Pteromalidae, una e familiis difficillimis, in nonnullis classificationibus usque ad octo stirpes sui generis continere potest, una digestae ob proprietates superficierum.

Nexus interni

Notae

  1. Chalcid (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2009 .
  2. Heraty, John M.; Burks, Roger A.; Cruaud, Astrid; Gibson, Gary A. P.; Liljeblad, Johan; Munro, James; Rasplus, Jean-Yves; Delvare, Gerard et al (2013). "A phylogenetic analysis of the megadiverse Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera)". Cladistics 29 (5): 466–542 .
  3. Warren et Bourne (1998).

Bibliographia

  • Gibson, G. A. P., J. T. Huber, et J. B. Woolley. 1997. Annotated keys to the genera of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). NRC Research Press.
  • Grissell, E. E., et M. E. Schauff. 1990. A handbook of the families of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). Vasingtoniae: Entomological Society of Washington. Handbook 1:1-85. Textus.
  • Warren, M. S., et N. A. D. Bourne. 1998. Wood White (Leptidea sinapis). Butterfly Conservation Project.

Nexus externi

Commons-logo.svg Vicimedia Communia plura habent quae ad Chalcidoidea spectant.
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Chalcidoidea: Brief Summary ( Latince )

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Chalcidoidea (a Graeco χαλκος 'cuprum', ob eorum colorem metallicum) sunt apocrita ordinis Hymenopterorum, cui superfamiliae sunt circa 22 500 specierum notarum, sed tota diversitas aestimata plus quam 500 000 specierum continet, quod significat maiorem partem nondum repertam et descriptam esse. Nomen chalcidoidea non confundendum est cum chalcididis, quamquam hic sensu stricto solum Chalcididas, unam e familiis attingit, non omnen superfamiliam, quam ob causam studia recentioria nomine chalcidoideorum ad species superfamiliae appellandas utuntur.

Plurimae ex speciebus sunt parasitoidea aliorum insectorum, qui ovis vel stationi larvae hospitis aggrediuntur, sed alii circuli vitae agnoscuntur. Hospites in saltem duodecim ordinibus insectorum reperiuntur, inter quae Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, et alia Hymenoptera, cum duobus ordinibus arachnidorum et adeo una familia nematodorum. Exempli gratia, unum ex eis apocritis paucas mortes in Leptidea sinapis efficit.

Chalcidoidea sunt perparva apocrita coloris obscuri, plerumque nigri vel fusci, sed saepe caerulei vel viridis metallici, corpore multimodis sculpto. Minuta alarum venatio propria agnoscitur, venationi in aliis hymenopterorum parasiticorum superfamiliis visa similis.

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Bronswespen (superfamilie) ( Felemenkçe; Flemish )

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Insecten

De bronswespen (Chalcidoidea) zijn een superfamilie van vliesvleugeligen (Hymenoptera). Zo'n 22.000 soorten in deze superfamilie zijn beschreven, maar hun aantal wordt veel hoger geschat.

De meeste soorten zijn parasitoïden die parasiteren op eitjes, larven en andere ontwikkelingsstadia van andere insecten.

Families

Er zijn 20 beschreven families:

 src=
Catolaccus grandis (Pteromalidae)
Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
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Bronswespen (superfamilie): Brief Summary ( Felemenkçe; Flemish )

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De bronswespen (Chalcidoidea) zijn een superfamilie van vliesvleugeligen (Hymenoptera). Zo'n 22.000 soorten in deze superfamilie zijn beschreven, maar hun aantal wordt veel hoger geschat.

De meeste soorten zijn parasitoïden die parasiteren op eitjes, larven en andere ontwikkelingsstadia van andere insecten.

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Chalcidider ( Norveççe )

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 src=
Vinge hos vepser i gruppen Chalcidider.
Smv: subcosta
Mv: marginal åre (costa)
Pmv: postmarginal åre
Stv: stigmal åre
U: uncus
St: vingemerke, (stigma)
Illustrasjon (Giancarlo Dessì)

Chalcidider eller chalcidoide vepser (Chalcidoidea) hører til årevingene. Gruppen regnes som parasittveps, selv om noen arter er plantespisere og ikke parasitter.

Chalcidider er en av de mest artsrike gruppene av vepser og består av omtrent 22 000 kjente arter. Det er antatt at artstallet er mye høyere, et sted mellom 60 000 og 500 000 arter. Særlig i tropiske områder er det mange uoppdagede arter.

En interessant gruppe er fikenvepsene, som spiller en viktig rolle i bestøvningen av fiken.

Utseende

Chalcidoide vepser er svært små vepser, mange av artene er knapt en millimeter lange. Fargene varierer mye, men de fleste er mørke på farge og ofte metallisk farget i grønt eller blått.

er små, har mørk farve, ofte metallisk blå eller grønne. De kjennes også på at vingene er redusert.

Vingene er klare eller svakt røykfarget og karakteristiske for de chalcidoide vepsene. Vingemerket er lite og bare enkelte årer i framkant av vingen er tydelig. Resten av vingen er uten et markert årenett, men har små korte hår på oversiden.

Levevis

De fleste artene er parasittoider på andre insekter. Hunnen legger egg på eller i verten når denne er i egg eller larvestadiet. Vertene finnes både blant sommerfugler, tovinger, biller og plantesugere.

Noen få arter er planteetere, og larvene ernærer seg på innsiden av frø, stengler og galler.

Disse vepsene fins nesten overalt, og særlig på blomster og plantemateriale, skjønt de ofte blir oversett på grunn av sin lille størrelse.

Chalcidoide vepser tilhører gruppen av insekter med fullstendig forvandling (holometabole insekter), som gjennomgår en metamorfose i løpet av utviklingen. Mellom larvestadiet og det voksne stadiet er et puppestadie, en hvileperiode, der vepsens indre og ytre organer endres. Larvens bøyelige og myke kropp omdannes til en puppe med et hardt skall. Når skallet er hardt begynner omdanningen fra larve til den voksne (imago) vepsen. De indre organer brytes i varierende grad ned til en cellemasse. En omorganisering skjer og dyret bygges opp igjen.

Nyttige insekter

Chalcidoide vepser som gruppe betraktet er generelt nyttige for mennesker; de holder en rekke insekter som regnes for skadedyr under kontroll. Mange arter har blitt importert for å holde bestanden av skadedyr nede. Biologisk kontroll av skadedyr skjer vanligvis bare i veksthus og ikke i det fri.

De har en viktig betydning i økosystemer, som kanskje ikke forstås fullt ut.

Systematisk inndeling

Systematikken for gruppen Chalcidider (Calcaoidea) er ennå ikke avklart og endringer kan derfor skje.

I tradisjonell systematikk har de chalcidoide vepsene blitt delt inn i disse familiegruppene.

Treliste

Litteratur

  • Grissell, E. E., and M. E. Schauff. 1990. A handbook of the families of Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera).Entomological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C.) Handbook 1:1-85. Online

Kilder

Eksterne lenker

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Chalcidider: Brief Summary ( Norveççe )

wikipedia NO tarafından sağlandı
 src= Vinge hos vepser i gruppen Chalcidider.
Smv: subcosta
Mv: marginal åre (costa)
Pmv: postmarginal åre
Stv: stigmal åre
U: uncus
St: vingemerke, (stigma) Illustrasjon (Giancarlo Dessì)

Chalcidider eller chalcidoide vepser (Chalcidoidea) hører til årevingene. Gruppen regnes som parasittveps, selv om noen arter er plantespisere og ikke parasitter.

Chalcidider er en av de mest artsrike gruppene av vepser og består av omtrent 22 000 kjente arter. Det er antatt at artstallet er mye høyere, et sted mellom 60 000 og 500 000 arter. Særlig i tropiske områder er det mange uoppdagede arter.

En interessant gruppe er fikenvepsene, som spiller en viktig rolle i bestøvningen av fiken.

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Chalcidoidea ( Portekizce )

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Chalcidoidea é uma superfamília de vespas que pertence à ordem de insetos Hymenoptera. É um dos grupos mais numerosos dentro de Hymenoptera, com cerca de 22.000 espécies conhecidas. Estima-se que existam entre 60.000 a 100.000 espécies, extrapolando-se até a 500.000 ou 10% das espécies de insetos.[1]

Vespas calcidoides são minúsculas; a maioria tem menos de 3 mm de comprimento. Os machos adultos das menores espécies conhecidas (Mymaridae) têm apenas 0,11 mm de comprimento. A maioria são vespas de cores escuras, muitas vezes com detalhes no corpo complexos de cor azul ou verde metálico. Também são reconhecidas pela característica de nervação reduzida das asas, similar ao que é visto em outras superfamílias de vespas parasitas.

São importantes tanto como agentes de controle biológico de pragas agrícolas quanto como as próprias pragas.

Características

 src=
Algumas espécies, como Torymus calcaratus, são coloridas e possuem brilho metálico

São pequenos insetos, que geralmente variam de 0,5 mm a 8 mm, mas também existem espécies de apenas 0,2 mm. A maioria apresenta cores escuras, às vezes marrons, amarelas ou avermelhadas; muitas vezes com complexos detalhes de cor azul ou verde iridescente ou com reflexos metálicos. A cabeça e mesossoma são fortemente esclerotizados, geralmente pontuados. A cabeça possui antenas geniculadas, ou seja, dobradas em ângulo, compostas por menos de 15 artículos.[2]O pronoto em vista lateral não atinge a tégula (exceto para espécies muito pequenas).[3][4][5] As asas são caracterizadas pela ausência de veias transversas no pterostigma e pela venulação muito reduzida, composta por um único ramo.[5]

Outras características da superfamília são, conforme citado no trabalho de Damolin & Melo (2004):[6]

  • Ausência de "células" fechadas,[nota 1] na asa anterior (no caso de espécies em que as asas estão presentes);
  • Sensilas placoides (placas multiporosas) em pelo menos um dos flagelômeros antenais;
  • Prepecto externamente visível (oculto em membros da família Rotoitidae);
  • Espiráculo mesotorácico na margem lateral do mesoscuto (caráter mais confiável);
  • Antenas geniculadas, com normalmente menos de 15 artículos e com o flagelo diferenciado em clava e funículo.

Biologia

Apesar de seu pequeno tamanho, eles desempenham um papel significativo no ecossistema.[5] A maioria das espécies são parasitoides de outros insetos,[7] atacando o ovo ou estágio larval de seu hospedeiro, embora muitos outros ciclos de vida sejam conhecidos. Os casos de hiperparasitismo também são frequentes.[8] Esses hospedeiros podem ser encontrados em pelo menos 12 ordens de insetos diferentes, incluindo Lepidoptera (borboletas e mariposas), Diptera (moscas verdadeiras), Coleoptera (besouros), Hemiptera (insetos verdadeiros) e outros Hymenoptera, bem como duas ordens de Arachnida e até mesmo uma família de Nematoda.[9]

Além dos parasitoides, há algumas espécies com o hábito fitófago, as larvas alimentam-se dentro de sementes, caules, galhas etc.[5] Espécies da família Agaonidae se desenvolvem apenas em figos, e outras também são fitófagas, como Eurytomidae, Eulophidae, Pteromalidae, Tanaostigmatidae e Torymidae, associadas a 44 famílias de plantas diferentes. O hábito predador é encontrado em algumas larvas, como, por exemplo, algumas larvas de Encyrtidae que alimentam-se de ovos de Coccoidea, e Eurytomidae que são predadores de larvas de Cynipoidea.

Taxonomia

Chalcidoidea é uma superfamília de Hymenoptera, cujas famílias estão em fluxo constante à medida que novas hipóteses estão sendo propostas e rejeitadas constantemente. Por se tratar de um agrupamento tão vasto em termos de número e distribuição geográfica, a sistemática de Chalcidoidea ainda está se desenvolvendo, de modo que a posição de muitas espécies é ambígua e objeto de novas propostas. O número, a definição e os limites das famílias estão em um estado de mudança desde o início do século XIX.[10] Com os avanços da sistemática molecular, novas revisões da classificação em uso hoje serão vistas futuramente.

Existem dezenove famílias existentes reconhecidas no momento:

Existem também duas famílias extintas:

Destas famílias, pelo menos cinco são conhecidos como grupos artificiais (parafiléticos), e estão sendo - ou serão - subdivididos em várias famílias, ou talvez fundidos com famílias existentes. O mais problemático é Pteromalidae e, em algumas classificações, considera-se que há até oito linhagens independentes, agrupadas por causa de semelhanças superficiais.

Controle biológico

Os insetos da superfamília Chalcidoidea estão entre mais utilizados para o controle biológico de organismos prejudiciais. Algumas das espécies utilizadas pertencem às famílias Pteromalidae, Aphelinidae, Mymaridae, Chalcididae e Encyrtidae.[11][5]

Referências

  1. «Sobre Os Chalcidoidea». Portal de Biodiversidade de Chalcidoidea | UFES. 31 de janeiro de 2019. Consultado em 20 de outubro de 2020
  2. Antonio Macedo. «Hymenoptera». Laboratório de Hymenoptera do Museu de Zoologia da USP. Consultado em 20 de outubro de 2020
  3. Martins, A. L. (28 de julho de 2013). Dryinidae (Hymenoptera, Chrysidoidea) de áreas de preservação da Mata Atlântica do estado de São Paulo, com especial referência a Dryinus Latreille (Tese)
  4. «Key to Superfamilies, Families and Some Subfamilies of Parasitic Hymenoptera». ucr.edu. 14 de agosto de 2013. Consultado em 20 de outubro de 2020
  5. a b c d e Krombein, Karl V. (1979). Catalog of hymenoptera in America north of Mexico. vol. 1. [S.l.]: Washington :Smithsonian Institution Press,
  6. DALMOLIN, A.; MELO, G.A.R. (21 jan. 2010), Chalcidoidea, UFPR Online (publicado em ago. 2004), consultado em 25 de janeiro de 2010, cópia arquivada em 5 de maio de 2012
  7. Bhuiya, BA; Chowdhury, SH; Kabir, MH (1997). «An annotated list of chalcidoid parasitoids (Hymenoptera) of coccoidea (Hemoptera) on guava in Bangladesh». Bangladesh Journal of Zoology. 25: 53–64
  8. Tavares, M. T.; Araujo, B. C. (2007). «Espécies de Chalcididae (Hymenoptera, Insecta) do Estado do Espírito Santo, Brasil». Campinas: Biota Neotropica. 7 (2). ISSN 1676-0611. doi:10.1590/S1676-06032007000200024 !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
  9. Constantino, Reginaldo; Diniz, Ivone R; Motta, Paulo C (2002). Textos de entomologia. Brasília: Universidade de Brasília !CS1 manut: Usa parâmetro autores (link)
  10. Grissell, E. Eric;Schauff, M. E. (1997). «Chalcidoidea | Systematics, Biology, and General Information». Arquivado do original em 9 de outubro de 2007 !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
  11. Daiane Carmo, Daniel Neves e Lucas Arcanjo. «Inimigos Naturais de Pragas Agrícolas» (PDF). Museu de Entomologia | UFV. Consultado em 20 de outubro de 2020

Notas

  1. em entomologia, células são áreas da asa, delimitadas pelas nervuras ou por estas e a margem da asa.
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Chalcidoidea: Brief Summary ( Portekizce )

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Chalcidoidea é uma superfamília de vespas que pertence à ordem de insetos Hymenoptera. É um dos grupos mais numerosos dentro de Hymenoptera, com cerca de 22.000 espécies conhecidas. Estima-se que existam entre 60.000 a 100.000 espécies, extrapolando-se até a 500.000 ou 10% das espécies de insetos.

Vespas calcidoides são minúsculas; a maioria tem menos de 3 mm de comprimento. Os machos adultos das menores espécies conhecidas (Mymaridae) têm apenas 0,11 mm de comprimento. A maioria são vespas de cores escuras, muitas vezes com detalhes no corpo complexos de cor azul ou verde metálico. Também são reconhecidas pela característica de nervação reduzida das asas, similar ao que é visto em outras superfamílias de vespas parasitas.

São importantes tanto como agentes de controle biológico de pragas agrícolas quanto como as próprias pragas.

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Glanssteklar ( İsveççe )

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Glanssteklar eller malmsteklar (Chalcidoidea) är en överfamilj inom insektsordningen steklar, tillhörande underordningen midjesteklar och gruppen parasitsteklar. Det finns runt 22 000 beskrivna arter världen över och troligen många tusen till som ännu inte är upptäckta och beskrivna.

De flesta arter är små, många är mindre än en millimeter långa, och gruppen inkluderar några av de minsta bevingade insekterna som man känner till, dvärgsteklar. Till gruppens största arter hör de i familjen Leucospidae, vilka mäter 4-17 millimeter. Många arter är mörka eller har metallglänsande blå eller grön färg.

Gruppens ekologi är mycket varierad eftersom den består av så många familjer och arter, men de flesta arter som man känner till är parasitoider på andra insekter. Det finns i flera familjer dock även arter som är växtätare. Några har ett mycket specialiserat levnadssätt som exempelvis fikonsteklar som bara utvecklas i fikon. Det finns också en del glanssteklar som har rovlevande larver.

Familjer

Överfamiljen Chalcidoidea omfattar 19 familjer med nu levande arter.

Bildgalleri

Källor

Externa länkar

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Glanssteklar: Brief Summary ( İsveççe )

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Glanssteklar eller malmsteklar (Chalcidoidea) är en överfamilj inom insektsordningen steklar, tillhörande underordningen midjesteklar och gruppen parasitsteklar. Det finns runt 22 000 beskrivna arter världen över och troligen många tusen till som ännu inte är upptäckta och beskrivna.

De flesta arter är små, många är mindre än en millimeter långa, och gruppen inkluderar några av de minsta bevingade insekterna som man känner till, dvärgsteklar. Till gruppens största arter hör de i familjen Leucospidae, vilka mäter 4-17 millimeter. Många arter är mörka eller har metallglänsande blå eller grön färg.

Gruppens ekologi är mycket varierad eftersom den består av så många familjer och arter, men de flesta arter som man känner till är parasitoider på andra insekter. Det finns i flera familjer dock även arter som är växtätare. Några har ett mycket specialiserat levnadssätt som exempelvis fikonsteklar som bara utvecklas i fikon. Det finns också en del glanssteklar som har rovlevande larver.

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Хальциды ( Rusça )

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Царство: Животные
Подцарство: Эуметазои
Без ранга: Первичноротые
Без ранга: Линяющие
Без ранга: Panarthropoda
Надкласс: Шестиногие
Класс: Насекомые
Надотряд: Hymenopterida
Надсемейство: Хальциды
Международное научное название

Chalcidoidea Latreille, 1817

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Систематика
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Изображения
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ITIS 153658NCBI 7422EOL 692FW 216546

Хальци́ды[1] (Chalcidoidea) — надсемейство подотряда Стебельчатобрюхие отряда Перепончатокрылые, включающее мельчайших представителей всего класса насекомые. Включает около 22 000 описанных видов, распространённых по всему миру. Потенциальное общее число видов оценивается от 375 000 до 500 000 таксонов (Heraty & Gates 2003, Noyes 2003).[2] Для Средней Европы указано 2000 видов. Большинство видов мелкие и даже микроскопические (от 0,2 до 5 мм). Жилкование крыльев почти полностью редуцировано до пары жилок.

Биология

Это паразитические насекомые, откладывающие свои яйца в тело хозяев (насекомых и других членистоногих). В случае заражения яиц хозяев называются яйцеедами. Взрослые особи питаются нектаром, сладкими выделениями тлей, гемолимфой хозяев.

Некоторые хальцидоиды способны паразитировать на водных насекомых (Dytiscidae, Hygrobiidae, Hemiptera, Odonata) и следовать за ними в воду. Среди них в Европе обнаружены 2 вида Trichogrammatidae, 5 видов Mymaridae и 9 видов Eulophidae. Некоторые виды (Prestwichia aquatica Lubb., P. solitaria Rusch.) полностью адаптированы к жизни в воде и умирают без неё на открытом воздухе, другие виды (Mestocharis bimacularis Dalm.) живут на воздухе долгое время. Некоторые способны плавать под водой с помощью ног (Prestwichia Lubb.) или своих крыльев (Caraphractus Walk., Aprostocetus Westw.).[3]

Выделение шёлка

Выделение шёлкоподобного вещества и коконопрядение у личинок отсутствует у большинства представителей Chalcidoidea. Изредка встречается выделение шёлка и у имаго, например, у 2 родов наездников Chalcidoidea (Eupelmus, Signophora)[4].

Генетика

Гаплоидный набор хромосом n = 3—12.[5]

Значение

Многие виды используются в биологическом методе борьбы с насекомыми-вредителями. Это, прежде всего, наездники-яйцееды из семейств Pteromalidae, Eulophidae, Aphelinidae и Encyrtidae. Некоторые (Blastophaga) являются ценными опылителями инжира.

Классификация

Классификация группы значительно изменялась. Количество семейств хальцидоидов изменялось от 1 (Westwood 1840, Howard 1885-86, Handlirsch 1925) до 9 (Riek 1970), 11 (Burks in Krombein et al. 1979), 14 (Ashmead 1904), 16 (Yoshimoto 1984), 18 (Bouceck in Peck et al., 1964; Graham 1969), 20 (Foerster 1856) и до 24 (Никольская 1952). К концу XX века было принято 21 семейство (Boucek 1988) или 20 (Gibson 1993). Известно около 2000 родов (Noyes 1990). Следующие семейства ранее трактовались некоторыми авторами в качестве подсемейств: Leucospidinae (Chalcididae); Eupelminae, Signiphorinae. Aphelininae (Encyrtidae); Eucharitinae, Ormyrinae, Perilampinae (Pteromalidae); Agaoninae (Torymidae); Elasminae (Eulophidae). К 2018 году число семейств установилось на уровне 24[6][7][8].

Палеонтология

Древнейшие находки надсемейства известны из Мелового периода, где обнаружены представители только двух семейств, Mymaridae и Tetracampidae (Yoshimoto 1975, Darling & Sharkey 1990, Engel & Grimaldi 2007). Предположительно к хальцидоидам относят верхнемеловой вид Chalscelio orapa. Ископаемое семейство Khutelchalcididae Rasnitsyn, Basibuyuk & Quicke, 2004 известно из Юрского и Мелового периодов (Rasnitsyn et al. 2004), однако его размещение в составе надсемейства Chalcidoidea было отвергнуто некоторыми авторами (Gibson et al., 2007)[2]. В 2018 году из бирмансокго мелового янтаря описано ископаемое семейство Diversinitidae из трёх видов (Diversinitus attenboroughi, Burminata caputaeria и Glabiala barbata)[8].

Семейства

24 семейства (Zhang, 2013), включая два ископаемых (Khutelchalcididae Rasnitsyn, Basibuyuk & Quicke, 2004 с одним видом[6] и Diversinitidae Haas, Burks & Krogmann, 2018[8]) и три семейства, добавленные в 2013 году[7].

Примечания

  1. Биологический энциклопедический словарь / Гл. ред. М. С. Гиляров; Редкол.: А. А. Баев, Г. Г. Винберг, Г. А. Заварзин и др. — М.: Сов. энциклопедия, 1986. — С. 683. — 831 с. — 100 000 экз.
  2. 1 2 Heraty, J.M.; Darling, D.C. 2009: Fossil Eucharitidae and Perilampidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Baltic Amber. Zootaxa, 2306: 1-16.
  3. Victor Fursov. A review of European Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) parasitizing the eggs of aquatic insects. Архивировано 8 апреля 2008 года. Bulletin of Irish Biogeographical Society, 1995, vol. 18 p. 2-12.
  4. Fisher B. L. & Robertson H. G. Silk production by adult workers of the ant Melissotarsus emeryi (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in South African fynbos (англ.) // Insectes Sociaux : Журнал. — Birkhäuser Verlag, 1999. — Vol. 46, no. 1. — P. 78—83. — ISSN 1420-9098. — DOI:10.1007/s00040005.
  5. Gokhman Vladimir E. (2000). Karyology of parasitic Hymenoptera: current state. // Hymenoptera: evolution, biodiversity and biological control (Andrew D. Austin, Mark Dowton). Csiro Publishing, 2000. — pp.1—468 (198—206).
  6. 1 2 Zhang, Z.-Q. «Phylum Athropoda». — In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) «Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)». (англ.) // Zootaxa / Zhang, Z.-Q. (Chief Editor & Founder). — Auckland: Magnolia Press, 2013. — Vol. 3703, no. 1. — P. 1–82. — ISBN 978-1-77557-248-0 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-77557-249-7 (online edition). — ISSN 1175-5326.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Heraty, J. M., Burks, R. A., Cruaud, A., Gibson, G.A.P., Liljeblad, J., Munro, J., Rasplus, J.-Y., Delvare, G., Janšta, P., Gumovsky, A., Huber, J.T., Woolley, J.B., Krogmann, L., Heydon, S.L., Polaszek, A., Schmidt, S., Darling, D.C., Gates, M.W., Mottern, J., Murray, E., Molin, A.D., Triapitsyn, S., Baur, H., Pinto, J.D., Noort, S.v., George, J., & Yoder, M. J. (2013). A phylogenetic analysis of the megadiverse Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). Cladistics. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cla.12006.
  8. 1 2 3 Haas M., Burks R.A., Krogmann L. (2018). new lineage of Cretaceous jewel wasps (Chalcidoidea: Diversinitidae). PeerJ 6:e4633 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4633
  9. Gibson, G. A. P. & Huber, J. T. (2000). Review of the family Rotoitidae (Hymenoptera; Chalcidoidea), with description of new genus and species from Chile. Journal of Natural History, 34, 2293–2314. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/002229300750037901
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Хальциды: Brief Summary ( Rusça )

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Хальци́ды (Chalcidoidea) — надсемейство подотряда Стебельчатобрюхие отряда Перепончатокрылые, включающее мельчайших представителей всего класса насекомые. Включает около 22 000 описанных видов, распространённых по всему миру. Потенциальное общее число видов оценивается от 375 000 до 500 000 таксонов (Heraty & Gates 2003, Noyes 2003). Для Средней Европы указано 2000 видов. Большинство видов мелкие и даже микроскопические (от 0,2 до 5 мм). Жилкование крыльев почти полностью редуцировано до пары жилок.

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コバチ ( Japonca )

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曖昧さ回避 この項目では、コバチについて説明しています。その他の用法については「コバチ (曖昧さ回避)」をご覧ください。
コバチ上科 Blastophaga psenes.jpg
Blastophaga psenes (L., 1758).
(イチジクコバチ科)
分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 節足動物門 Arthropoda : 昆虫綱 Insecta : ハチ目(膜翅目) Hymenoptera 亜目 : 細腰亜目(ハチ亜目) Apocrita 上科 : コバチ上科 Chalcidoidea
  • 本文参照

コバチ(小蜂)は、ハチ目(膜翅目:まくしもく)・細腰亜目(さいようあもく)・コバチ上科 Chalcidoidea の昆虫の総称(時にムカシホソハネコバチ上科 Mymarommatoidea を含めて言うこともある)。ほとんどの種で体長が数mmから1mm以下と非常に小さく、さまざまな動植物に寄生する寄生蜂類である。

概要[編集]

大型種では16mmほどにもなるが、これは本グループにおいては例外的な巨大さで、大部分は数mmか1mm以下である。全昆虫のうち最小の種もこの上科のもので、体長0.2mmほどである。しかし微小ではあっても、形態は他のハチと基本的に同じで、6本の脚と発達した複眼や単眼をもち、通常は4枚のを持っている。ただし翅脈は非常に単純化しており、時に翅が縮小したり消失している種もある。特にオスのみが翅を持たないものもある。様々な色のものがあるが、緑色の金属光沢をもつものや黒っぽいものが多い。動物に寄生するものは他の昆虫の幼虫や蛹などに寄生することが多く、植物に寄生するものは虫こぶの原因となるものもある。

植物に寄生するものは、モウソウチクマダケに寄生するモウソウタマコバチやマダケコバチ(共にカタビロコバチ科)など害虫として知られているものもある一方で、カイガラムシなどの害虫に寄生する種(クワコナカイガラトビコバチなどトビコバチ科に多い)は人間にとって益虫であると見なされている。

分類[編集]

 src=
Leucospis gigas Fabricius, 1793
(シリアゲコバチ科)
  • Mymarommatoidea ムカシホソハネコバチ上科
    • Mymarommatidae ムカシホソハネコバチ科
    • †Serphitidae 化石のみ(Serphitoidea 上科として分けることもある)
  • Chalcidoidea コバチ上科
    • Agaonidae イチジクコバチ科
    • Aphelinidae ツヤコバチ科
    • Chalcididae アシブトコバチ科
    • Encyrtidae トビコバチ科
    • Eucharitidae アリヤドリコバチ科
    • Eulophidae ヒメコバチ科(Elasmidae ノミコバチ科(ホソナガコバチ科)を含む)
    • Eupelmidae ナガコバチ科
    • Eurytomidae カタビロコバチ科
    • Khutelchalcididae
    • Leucospidae シリアゲコバチ科
    • Mymaridae ホソハネコバチ科
    • Ormyridae タマヤドリコバチ科
    • Perilampidae マルハラコバチ科
    • Pteromalidae コガネコバチ科
    • Rotoitidae
    • Signiphoridae クロツヤコバチ科
    • Tanaostigmatidae マメトビコバチ科
    • Tetracampidae クビナガコバチ科(ケブカコバチ科)
    • Torymidae オナガコバチ科
    • Trichogrammatidae タマゴコバチ科

参考文献[編集]

  • Henri Goulet & John T. Huber ed. (1993) Hymenoptera of the world : An identification guide to families. Agriculture Canada. ISBN 0-660-14933-8

関連項目[編集]

外部リンク[編集]

執筆の途中です この項目は、動物に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めていますPortal:生き物と自然プロジェクト:生物)。
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コバチ: Brief Summary ( Japonca )

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コバチ(小蜂)は、ハチ目(膜翅目:まくしもく)・細腰亜目(さいようあもく)・コバチ上科 Chalcidoidea の昆虫の総称(時にムカシホソハネコバチ上科 Mymarommatoidea を含めて言うこともある)。ほとんどの種で体長が数mmから1mm以下と非常に小さく、さまざまな動植物に寄生する寄生蜂類である。

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