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Squid Studies Provide Valuable Insights Into Hearing Mechanisms ( İngilizce )

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The ordinary squid, Loligo pealii -- best known until now as a kind of floating buffet for just about any fish in the sea -- may be on the verge of becoming a scientific superstar, providing clues about the origin and evolution of the sense of hearing. In a hangar-like research building at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), biologist T. Aran Mooney is exploring virtually uncharted waters: Can squid hear? Is their hearing sensitive enough to hear approaching predators? How do squid and other marine species rely on sound to interact, migrate, and communicate? Will the burgeoning cacophony of sound in the ocean disrupt marine life's behavior and threaten their survival? The sound in the ocean is increasing…commercial shipping, oil and gas exploration…those make a lot of noise," Mooney says. "And you don't know how that is going to affect the animal unless you know what it hears. Mooney, a postdoctoral scholar at WHOI, has undertaken seminal investigations into the hearing of this seminal creature in the marine food web. His study is published Oct. 15, in the Journal of Experimental Biology. "Almost every type of marine organism feeds somehow off the squid," says Mooney. Not just fish, but also many birds, seals, sea lions, and dolphins and toothed whales depend heavily on squid. Whales, according to Mooney, consume some 320 metric tons of squid a year; people eat another 280 metric tons annually. Mooney says it may be the squid's role as a predator's entrée that holds the key to understanding the importance of hearing among squid and other ocean creatures. This is because predator avoidance is a key pressure for evolving hearing capabilities. If you can hear your predators approaching, you have a better chance of avoiding them. Eventually, he said, a better understanding of how squid hear may shed light on human hearing as well. Despite their importance in the marine food web, little is known about how well squid hear and whether they rely on hearing to navigate, sense danger, and communicate with each other. Until recently, it wasn't clear that they even hear at all. It is known now, through the work of Mooney and others, that the squid hearing system has some similarities and some differences compared to human hearing. Squid have a pair of organs called statocysts, balance mechanisms at the base of the brain that contain a tiny grain of calcium, which maintains its position as the animal maneuvers in the water. These serve a function similar to human ear canals. Each statocyst is a hollow, fluid-filled sac lined with hair cells, like human cochlea. On the outside of the sac, the hair cells are connected to nerves, which lead to the brain. "It's kind of like an inside-out tennis ball," Mooney said, "hairy on the inside, smooth on the outside." The calcium grain, called a statolith, enables the squid to sense its position in the water, based on which hair cells it's in contact with at a given moment. Normally it rests near the front of the sac, touching some of the hair cells. When a squid moves quickly -- as it does when it flees an approaching predator -- the heavy calcium stone lags behind slightly before catching up to the hair cells. "Kind of like your stomach on a roller coaster," Mooney said. "The hair cells are very sensitive and can detect the calcium statolith lagging behind, then catching up." Structurally, the statocyst "is analogous to our auditory system," said Mooney, who began his hearing research while working on his Ph.D. at the University of Hawaii. The statocyst, he thinks, "is on its way to becoming an ear" like the more familiar ears of vertebrates. But to what extent does it function as an ear? "One of the obvious questions is, 'Can this acceleration-sensing 'ear' to also detect sounds?' Then, if they can hear sounds 'Do squid hear their predators coming?' " Mooney asked. To find out if squid have true, functioning "ears," Mooney tests whether the nerves coming from the statocysts send impulses in response to sound. He anesthetizes a squid and attaches an electrode just under the skin near the nerves that extend from the statocysts. He attaches another sensor into the squid's back to get baseline measurements of electrical signals, because that part of the body should not respond to sounds. He then lowers the squid into a shallow, 3-foot-wide tank. Also in the tank is a speaker that can emit a broad range of sound frequencies -- pure tones repeated about 1,000 times for each frequency. He then records the 1,000 responses to each. Averaging those 1,000 responses reduces the natural, random electrical noise in the body yielding the electrical signals, in millivolts, that occur along the nerves after each tone. This hearing test method is similar to those used to checking hearing in human infants. His preliminary findings indicate that nerve responses showed the squid "actually do hear," he said. "But they only hear up to a certain frequency, about 500 Hz, which is pretty typical of a lot of fish that don't hear very well." Humans hear from about 20-20,000 Hz. Squid also do not detect the very high frequency sounds of dolphin echolocation clicks. That may help explain why squid are such a prolific food source: They may not always hear well enough to get out of the way of approaching predators. But when Mooney and his post-doc advisor [name?] put the squid in a CT scanner, they found that squid may avoid predators in another way: they are almost the same density as water. That is, when squid were scanned in water, the CT could not image the squid body, illustrating that squid are nearly transparent to sound. This would likely make them very difficult for echolocating predators to detect. So, perhaps, squid could not take the evolutionary leap to adapt ears to detect very high frequencies, but being close in density to water is advantageous for several reasons, including avoiding predators. Still, its auditory mechanisms have been good enough to make squid successful in an evolutionary sense. What, then, is the main purpose of the squid's hearing system? Mooney said his work falls under the heading of "sensory biology," the study of how animals use their sensory systems to figure out the world around them. After the initial tests to see how sensitive squid are to sounds and their frequency range, he next studies will be to try to determine how important those abilities are to the animal. Do squid rely on sound to interact, migrate, communicate? In one set of experiments Mooney will move the speakers to different positions and measure the nerves' response to see if they sense the location of that speaker. It's been suggested that a primary evolutionary drive behind hearing is to locate where the sound source is," he said. "If your mother is calling to you, you have to know where your mother is. If there's a predator coming you'd better darn well know where that predator is coming from so that you can get out of the way. Another question Mooney wants to pursue is how much -- if at all, squid are affected by sounds of human origin in the ocean. Loud sounds, whether a sudden explosion or continuous ship traffic, might cause squid to migrate unnaturally just to escape the racket. Mooney also thinks squid statocysts can tell scientists a lot about how ears originated and evolved. "Humans, fish, and lots of animals use hair cells to detect sound and movement. Their hair cell structures are similar to squid, but also quite different," said Mooney. "There is probably a basic structure which evolved millions of years ago, but vertebrates and invertebrates have taken quite different evolutionary paths since. By learning more about squid hearing and squid hair cells, we might learn what is important in human hearing and human hair cells, or other animals for that matter," he said. Down the road, squid ears and hair cells might be models for examining human hearing. But that's just speculative right now. We need to learn more about the basic functioning of squid ears first." Paul Nachtigall, a biologist at the University of Hawaii who advised Mooney on his doctoral research on hearing and echolocation in whales and dolphins, said Mooney's research on squid hearing mechanisms and the ecological uses of hearing in squid are "groundbreaking. Aran was launched out of here with great success," said Nachtigall, "and his rocket appears to have reached stage two prior to reaching a stellar orbit. Mooney's work with squid is funded by The Grass Foundation and a WHOI Independent study award from the Andrew W. Mellon Fund for Innovative Research.

Alloteuthis media ( Katalanca; Valensiyaca )

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Alloteuthis media és una espècie de calamar comestible,és de mida menuda. És l'espècie tipus del seu gènere, Alloteuthis. Viu a l'Atlàntic oriental.

Descripció

La seva llargada màxima és de 12 cm. Les femelles són més grosses que no pas els mascles. La llargada a la seva maduresa és de mitjana de 9'5 cm en les femelles i de 5'5 cm en els mascles.[1]

Mant llarg, menys estret que en Alloteuthis subulata, acabat en pic. Cap més estret que el mant. Tentacles llargs; replegats cap enrere ultrapassen la vora superor de les aletes. Massa tentacular estreta. Conquilla dorsal interna (pluma) no calcificada, molt estreta i transparent. Coloració blanquinosa amb taquetes puntiformes rosàcies.[2]

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Alloteuthis media: Brief Summary ( Katalanca; Valensiyaca )

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Alloteuthis media és una espècie de calamar comestible,és de mida menuda. És l'espècie tipus del seu gènere, Alloteuthis. Viu a l'Atlàntic oriental.

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Alloteuthis media ( İngilizce )

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Alloteuthis media, the midsize squid or little squid, is a species of squid in the family Loliginidae from the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea.[1][3] It is generally a by-catch species in trawl fisheries, although there is an active fishery in the western Mediterranean.[1]

Description

Alloteuthis media is hard to tell apart from Alloteuthis subulata. The arms and tentacles of A. media are proportionately slender compared to A. subulata but the two species are best separated by the lateral edge of the mantle, which in A. media extends into a short pointed tail of up to 10mm in length in adults. It grows to a total body length of 200 mm long, with a maximum mantle length of 120mm and the females being larger than the males,[4] with the length of the heart-shaped fins, including the tail, is less than a half the length of the mantle. The hear shape of the fins is produced by their convex anterior ends and then their narrowing posterior edges which become part of the pointed tail.[3] The tentacular club is broad and the diameter of the largest of the suckers in the club is 9–14 % of the width of head. The pairs of suckers in the centre of the club are attached at almost right angles to the axis of the club.[5] In males the hectocotylus is on the Left ventral arm which typically has 11 normal suckers in a ventral row (plus or minus 1), with papillae towards the tip.[6] Sexual maturity is reached in females when they attain about 95mm in length and 55mm in males.[4]

Distribution

Alloteuthis media occurs in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, reported as having a southern limit at Cape Blanc,[5] around 20°N, and a northern one at 60°N in the eastern Atlantic. It is rare in the North Sea with records from the Irish Sea and English Channel on the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. More recently it has not been recorded north of the Iberian Peninsula In the Mediterranean Sea it is widespread and its distribution includes the Sea of Marmara.[6]

Biology

Alloteuthis media is found over occurs on sandy and muddy substrates and prefers waters between 0 and 200m in depth in coastal areas and over the continental shelf, although a maximum depth of 500m has been recorded. It undertakes seasonal migrations between offshore and coastal waters, similar to other neritic species of squid. Spawning is continuous in the western Mediterranean but peaks of mature adults can be discerned, the early on in February when large individuals can be found at depths of 150–200m and these begin to move into shallow to spawn over sandy substrates in March and April, spawning occurs to a lesser among beds of Posidonia sea grass. The later spawning group, is made up of smaller individuals than the earlier group and they migrate onshore during June and July and spawn later in the year. Depending on the water temperature the squid return to deeper waters by late autumn. In the northern Tyrrhenian Sea there are also two peaks of spawning activity, the early one in May and the later in September. Sexual maturity is attained at a variety of size ranges, as seen in other Mediterranean cephalopods, with the eastern populations maturing at smaller mantle lengths than the western. In the eastern Mediterranean the smallest mature females have a mantle length of 37mm, the smallest mature males have one of 32mm while in the western part of that sea the smallest mature females have mantle lengths of 80 mm while that of the smallest mature females measures 50 mm. Females in the eastern basin lay more eggs than those in the west and the eggs they lay are larger which suggests that this species has a higher reproductive productivity in the eastern Mediterranean compared to the western. The male's spermatophores vary between 2.3 and 3.4mm in length and each male bears no more than 170 spermatophores. The females lay the eggs several batches and they are held in short, gelatinous capsules, similar to the capsules of Loligo vulgaris, but less robust and transparent rather than opaque.[6] The egg clusters, each containing up to 1400 eggs,[4] are adhered to hard objects on the sea bed such as shells, corals and stones). Alloteuthis media is a predator which uses crustaceans, molluscs and small fishes as prey. Their life cycle is estimated to be around a year for males and eighteen months for females.[6]

Taxonomy

Recent molecular analyses suggest that Alloteuthis media and A. subulata may be conspecific and that they are the extreme ends of a morphological gradient.[4] In which case the name Alloteuthis media applied by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 would have priority over Jean Baptiste Lamarck's A. subulata which dates from 1798.[2] However, further analyses suggest that these are indeed two sister species which can be reliably separated by the size of the central suckers of the tentacular club and that in fact there is a genetic divergence between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean populations of A. media.[6]

Fisheries

Alloteuthis media is normally a bycatch in trawl fisheries for other species but it is marketed throughout most of the Mediterranean with other Alloteuthis species. In the western Mediterranean it is actively fished for in a trawl fishery and in the winter it is captured at depths of 150m to 200m and from between 50m and 150m in spring, summer and autumn. Its seasonal abundance varies widely, but there is little annual variation. Commercial interest in this species varies according to location and the catch is marketed in both fresh and frozen forms.[6]

References

  1. ^ a b c Allcock, A.L.; Taite, M. (2019). "Alloteuthis media". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T163027A964854. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T163027A964854.en. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  2. ^ a b c Bieler R, Bouchet P, Gofas S, Marshall B, Rosenberg G, La Perna R, Neubauer TA, Sartori AF, Schneider S, Vos C, ter Poorten JJ, Taylor J, Dijkstra H, Finn J, Bank R, Neubert E, Moretzsohn F, Faber M, Houart R, Picton B, Garcia-Alvarez O, eds. (2022). "Alloteuthis media (Linnaeus, 1758)". MolluscaBase. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  3. ^ a b Wilson, E. (1999). Tyler-Walters H.; Hiscock K. (eds.). "Little squid (Alloteuthis media)". Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN). The Marine Biological Association of the UK. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
  4. ^ a b c d Vecchione, Michael; Richard E. Young (2010). "Alloteuthis media (Linnaeus 1758) Midsize squid". The Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
  5. ^ a b M.J. de Kluijver; S.S. Ingalsuo; R.H. de Bruyne. "Alloteuthis media". Mollusca of the North Sea. ETI Bioinformatics: Marine Species Identification Portal. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Jereb, P.; Vecchione, M.; Roper, C.F.E. (2010). "Family Loliginidae". In Jereb, P.; Roper, C.F.E. (eds.). Cephalopods of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopod species known to date. Volume 2. Myopsid and Oegopsid Squids. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-92-5-106720-8.
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Alloteuthis media: Brief Summary ( İngilizce )

wikipedia EN tarafından sağlandı

Alloteuthis media, the midsize squid or little squid, is a species of squid in the family Loliginidae from the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. It is generally a by-catch species in trawl fisheries, although there is an active fishery in the western Mediterranean.

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Alloteuthis media ( Galiçyaca )

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Alloteuthis media é unha especie de molusco cefalópodo da subclase dos coleoideos, superorde dos decapodiformes, orde dos téutidos, suborde dos miopsinos e familia dos lolixínidos, unha das tres que integran o xénero Alloteuthis.[2]

É unha especie moi semellante a outra do mesmo xénero, Alloteuthis subulata.

Taxonomía

Descrición

A especie foi definida en 1758 por Linneo na páxina 659 do tomo 1º do seu Systema Naturæ co nome de Sepia media.[2]

Etimoloxía

Para a do xénero, véxase Alloteuthis,

O epíteto epecífico, media, e nominativo singular do adxectivo latino medius, -a, -um, "que está no medio", "intermedio".

Sinónimos

Ademais de polo nome actualmente válido, a especie coñeceuse tamén polos sinónimos:[2]

  • Alloteuthis medius (Linnaeus, 1758)
  • Loligo marmorae Vérany, 1839
  • Loligo parva Froriep, 1806
  • Loligo urceolata Risso, 1854 (sin. dubidoso)
  • Loligo urceolatus Risso, 1854
  • Sepia media Linnaeus, 1758 (protónimo)

Nomes galegos

Rolán e Otero Schmitt danlle os nomes castelanizados de puntilla e calamar,[3] mentres que Lahurta e Vázque denomínana puntilla pequena.[4]

Nota taxonómica

Análises moleculares recentes suxiren que Alloteuthis media e A. subulata poden seren conespecíficas, e que son os extremos dun gradiente morfolóxico.[5] De confirmarse isto, o nome Alloteuthis media aplicado por Carl Linnaeus, como vimos, no seu Systema Naturæ en 1758 tería prioridade sobre Alloteuthis subulata de Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, que data de 1798.[6] Porén, outras análises suxiren que ambas son dúas especies irmás que pueden separarse de maneira confiábel polo tamaño dos tentáculos centrais e que, de feito, existe unha diverxencia xenética entre as poboacións de A. media do Atlántico e do Mediterráneo.[7]

Características

As principais características desta especie son:[3][5]

  • A súa aparencia é a dunha lura pequeniña.
  • É moi semellante a Alloteuthis subulata, pero diferéncianse en que os tentáculos de A. media son máis delgados cós de A. subulata e, especialmente polo bordo lateral do manto, que en A. media se estende nunha cola curta e acabada en punta de até 10 mm de lonxitude nos adultos.
  • A súa coloración é agrisada.
  • O corpo ten unha lonxcitude total de até os 20 cm, sendo a lonxitud máxima do manto de 12 cm. As femias son máis grandes cós machos.
  • As aletas do manto teñen forma de corazón e incluída a cola, ten unha lonxitud de menos da metade da do manto.

Hábitat e distribución

Tanto Alloteuthis media como a súa conxnere A. subulata, son demersais,[1] e viven sobre fondos areosos e lamacentos,[3] pero tamén poden estar presentes sobre substratos duros.[1]

A. media vive desde a superficie até os 350 m de profundidade.[3]

A especie encóntrase en todo o Atlántico norte oriental e no mar Mediterráneo, desde os 20º N até o seu límite meridional no cabo Branco, na fronteira entre Mauritania e o Sáhara Occidental, aos 60º N.[8] É rara no mar do Norte, con rexistros no mar de Irlanda e no canal da Manchaa finais do século XIX e principios do XX. No mar Mediterráneo está moi estendida, e a súa área de distribución inclúe o mar de Mármara.[9]

Non hai información sobre o estado da poboación e sobre o súa tendencia desta especie. Porén, Jereb et al. (2015) informan que é particularmente abundante nas costas ibéricas occidentais e no banco Sahariano.[9]

En Galicia é algo abundante, preto da costa.[3]

Bioloxía e ecoloxía

Non hai certeza de que os rexistros antigos de Alloteuthis media se asignaran correctamente a esta especie, dada a súa semellanza co A. subulata e, polo tanto, calquera información sobre a súa bioloxía e ecoloxía debe tomarse con precaución. A información máis completa para A. media aínda está a recopilarse no mar de Cataluña. Jereb et al. (2015) dan unha revisión máis detallada da súa bioloxía.[9]

Pouco se sabe sobre a dieta de A. media. Por outra parte, rexistrouse que a especie forma parte da dieta dos depredadores como peixes e cetáceos, con identificacións baseadas no exame de picos, pero a miúdo con identificación só a nivel de xénero.[10]

O ciclo vital desta especie é probabelmente de un ano. Porén, informacións recollidas no mar Exeo suxiren que aínda pode que sexa un puoco más curto.[10] A madurez sexual alcánzase nas femias cando miden uns 9,5 cm de lonxitude e, nos machos,cando acadan os 5,5 cm.[5] Observacións no golfo de Nápoles e no Mediterráneo oriental dedúcese que a desova se producese durante todo o ano. Sen embargo, a información do mar catalán suxire unha tempada de desova máis restrinxida (marzo-octubro).[10]

Pesca

Alloteuthis media é unha especie comstíbel e moi apreciada gastronomicamente.[3] Normalmente é unha captura incidental na pesca de arrastre doutras especies, pero comercialízase na maior parte do Mediterráneo coa outra especie, A. subulata. No Mediterráneo occidental péscase activamente nunha pescaría de arrastre, e en inverno captúrase a profundidades de 150 s 200 m, e entre os 50 e os 150 m en primavera, verán e outono. A súa abundancia estacional varía amplamente, pero hai pouca variación anual. O interese comercial desta especie varía segundo a situación, e as capturas comercialízanse tanto en fresco como conxelada.[9]

Ameazas

A pesca non regulada e unha ameaza potencial para esta especie.[1]

Estado de conservación

Os expertos da Unión Internacional para a Conservación da Natureza e dos Recursos Naturais (UICN) cualifica o status da especie como CC (sen datos) porque se require unha investigación taxonómica para delimitarla da súa conxénere Alloteuthis subulata. Dado que esta especie se explota en gran parte da súa área de distribución, requírese con urxencia este traballo.[1]

Notas

  1. 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 Allcock, A. L. & Taite, M. (2019): Alloteuthis media na Lista vermella da UICN. Versión 2020-1. Consultada o 21 de marzo de 2020.
  2. 2,0 2,1 2,2 Alloteuthis media (Linnaeus, 1758) no WoRMS. Consultado o 20 de marzo de 2020.
  3. 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 Rolán & Otero Schmitt 1996, p. 277.
  4. Lahuerta & Vázquez 2000, p. 292.
  5. 5,0 5,1 5,2 Vecchione, Michael & Richard E. Young (2010): Alloteuthis media (Linnaeus 1758) Midsize squid. The Tree of Life Web Project. Consultado oo 21 de marzo de 2020.
  6. Alloteuthis subulata (Lamarck, 1798) no WoRMS.
  7. P. Jereb & C. F. E. Roper, eds. (2010): Cephalopods of the World an Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Cephalopod Species Known to Date. Volume 2 Myopsid and Oegopsid Squids. Roma: FAO. ISBN 978-92-5106-720-8, pp. 48–49.
  8. M. J. de Kluijver; S. S. Ingalsu & R. H. de Bruyne. "Alloteuthis media". Mollusca of the North Sea. ETI Bioinformatics: Marine Species Identification Portal. Consultado o 21 de marzo de 2020.
  9. 9,0 9,1 9,2 9,3 Jereb, P.; Allcock, A. L.; Lefkaditou, E.; Piatkowski, U.; Hastie, L. C. & Pierce, G. J., eds. (2015): Cephalopod biology and fisheries in Europe: II. Species Accounts. Co-operative Research Reports. Copenhagen: ICES. ISBN 978-87-7482-155-7.
  10. 10,0 10,1 10,2 Arkhipkin, A. I. et al. (2015: "World Squid Fisheries". Reviews in Fisheries Science and Aquaculture 23 (2): 92-252.

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Alloteuthis media: Brief Summary ( Galiçyaca )

wikipedia gl Galician tarafından sağlandı

Alloteuthis media é unha especie de molusco cefalópodo da subclase dos coleoideos, superorde dos decapodiformes, orde dos téutidos, suborde dos miopsinos e familia dos lolixínidos, unha das tres que integran o xénero Alloteuthis.

É unha especie moi semellante a outra do mesmo xénero, Alloteuthis subulata.

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Alloteuthis media ( Felemenkçe; Flemish )

wikipedia NL tarafından sağlandı

Alloteuthis media is een inktvissensoort uit de familie van de Loliginidae.[1] De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1758 door Linnaeus.

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
  1. Gofas, S. (2012). Alloteuthis media (Linnaeus, 1758). Geraadpleegd via: World Register of Marine Species op http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=153134
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Alloteuthis media ( Portekizce )

wikipedia PT tarafından sağlandı

Alloteuthis media é uma espécie de molusco pertencente à família Loliginidae.

A autoridade científica da espécie é Linnaeus, tendo sido descrita no ano de 1758.

Trata-se de uma espécie presente no território português, incluindo a zona económica exclusiva.

Referências

  • Alloteuthis media - World Register of Marine Species (consultado em 29 de dezembro de 2013).

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Alloteuthis media: Brief Summary ( Portekizce )

wikipedia PT tarafından sağlandı

Alloteuthis media é uma espécie de molusco pertencente à família Loliginidae.

A autoridade científica da espécie é Linnaeus, tendo sido descrita no ano de 1758.

Trata-se de uma espécie presente no território português, incluindo a zona económica exclusiva.

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Habitat ( İngilizce )

World Register of Marine Species tarafından sağlandı
shelf

Referans

van der Land, J. (ed). (2008). UNESCO-IOC Register of Marine Organisms (URMO).

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Katkıda bulunan
Jacob van der Land [email]