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Moniliophthora roreri (Cif.) H. C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny 1978

Moniliophthora roreri ( İngilizce )

wikipedia EN tarafından sağlandı

Moniliophthora roreri is a basidiomycete fungus that causes frosty pod rot disease, one of the most serious problems for cacao (Theobroma cacao— the source of chocolate) production in Latin America. This disease and together with witches’ broom disease (caused by M. perniciosa) and black pod rot (caused by Phytophthora sp.) constitute the cacao disease trilogy.[1] It causes serious losses in southwestern parts of South America; spores are dry and powdery and are spread easily by water movement, wind, or movement of pods; disease spread is highest during periods of high rainfall.[2]

The fungus

Taxonomy

Originally, M. roreri was described as an anamorphic ascomycete, Monilia roreri Cif., due to the absence of a recognizable fruiting body or a sexual stage and other similarities to species of Monilia.[3] Later on it was noticed that the septa of the pathogen contained dolipores and septal pore caps, which are features of basidiomycete fungi. Consequently, Monilia roreri was reclassified and given its current name, Moniliophthora roreri (Cif.) H.C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny.[4] More recently, it was shown that M. roreri and the causal agent of witches’ broom of cacao, M. perniciosa, are sister species within the mushroom family Marasmiaceae.[5]

Host range

The main hosts of M. roreri are plants in the Malvaceae that belong to the genus Theobroma, such as T. cacao, T. gileri, T. bicolor, and T. grandiflorum, as well as plants in the closely related genus Herrania.[6] In contrast, the sister species M. perniciosa has a much broader host range, including hosts in the Solanaceae, Malpighiaceae, and Bignoniaceae.[7]

Infection process and symptomatology

M. roreri is a hemibiotrophic fungus that forms swollen irregularly shaped intercellular mycelia.[8] The infection process starts when conidia of M. roreri land on the surface of the pods. Then they germinate and penetrate the pod directly through the epidermis,[9] causing internal damage in the early stages of the disease. The initiation of the necrotrophic phase begins when asexual spore masses are produced on the pod surface.[10] External symptoms like dark spots on the surface of pods can be seen only after 40 to 80 days post infection; thus infected pods during the early stages appear asymptomatic, which is one factor that has led to the unwitting movement of infected pods by humans. One week after the appearance of dark lesions, the characteristic white powder of the disease appears on the surface of infected pods. The powdery appearance is due to the presence of millions of conidia that can reach up to 44 million per square centimeter with a mature infected pod capable of producing more than seven billion spores.[11]

History of the disease

First report

The first verified report of frosty pod rot is from Ecuador in 1895; some years later in the region of Quevedo, Ecuador in 1918, the most famous outbreak in the history of the disease was reported, causing abandonment of most of the cacao plantations over a period of three years. However, an earlier disease in Colombia may have also been caused by M. roreri. In 1817 in the region of Santander, Colombia, a disease with symptomology that matches that of frosty pod rot was reported; therefore, many researchers believe the first known report of frosty pod rot of cacao was in Colombia around one century before the famous outbreak in Ecuador.[12]

Spread

Before the 1950s, M. roreri was confined to Ecuador, Colombia, and western Venezuela. However, during the last 50 years, the disease has spread southward into Peru (in 1988), and northward into all cacao-growing areas of Central America (Costa Rica, 1978; Nicaragua, 1979; Honduras, 1997; Guatemala, 2002; Belize, 2004 and Mexico, 2005),[12][13] in many cases resulting in abandonment of the entire plantation by farmers. The presence of the disease was confirmed in El Salvador and Bolivia in 2009 and 2012, respectively, where the fungus probably arrived some years before.[14] This invasive behavior of the disease represents a threat to cacao growers from Brazil and also to areas outside of Latin America where the majority of the world cocoa is currently produced.[12][15]

Economic impact of the disease

In Colombia, specifically in the Santander region, average annual losses are of 40% of dry cacao equivalent to US$33 million due to the disease.[12] In Ecuador, during the 1918 outbreak, cacao exportation was reduced from 46,000 to 37,700 tons due to frosty pod rot.[12] In Peru, around 16,500 ha of cacao were abandoned mostly as a result of frosty pod rot, with a final result that Peru went from being an exporter of chocolate to a net importer.[16] In Mexico, in the state of Tabasco, the first report of the disease was in April 2005,[17] and by 2007, frosty pod rot had invaded all cacao areas of the state, becoming the major limiting factor to cacao production there, as well as in Nicaragua and Honduras.[12][18]

References

  1. ^ Fulton, RH (1989). "The Cacao Disease Trilogy : Black Pod, Monilia Pod Rot, and Witches' Broom". Plant Disease. 73 (7): 601–603. doi:10.1094/pd-73-0601.
  2. ^ "Cocoa (cacao) - Diseases and Pests, Description, Uses, Propagation". www.plantvillage.org. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  3. ^ Ciferri, R.; Parodi, E. (1933). "Descrizione del fungo che causa la "Moniliasi" del cacao". Phytopathologische Zeitschrift. 5: 539–542.
  4. ^ Evans, HC; Satlpers, JA; Samson, RA; Benny, GL (1978). "On the taxonomy of Monilia roreri, an iomportant pathogen of Theobroma cacao in South America". Canadian Journal of Botany. 56 (20): 2528–2532. doi:10.1139/b78-305.
  5. ^ Aime, M.C.; Phillips-Mora, W. (2005). "The causal agents of witches' and frosty pod rot of cacao (chocolate, Theobroma cacao) form a new lineage of Marasmiaceae". Mycologia. 97 (5): 1012–1022. doi:10.3852/mycologia.97.5.1012. PMID 16596953.
  6. ^ Evans, HC (1986). "A reassessment of Moniliophthora (Monilia) pod rot of cocoa". Cocoa Growers' Bulletin. 37: 34–43.
  7. ^ Meinhardt, Lyndel; Rincones, J; Bailey, B; Aime, MC; Griffith, GW; Zhang, D; Pereira, G (2008). "Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal agent of witches' broom disease of cacao: what's new from this old foe?". Molecular Plant Pathology. 9 (5): 577–588. doi:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00496.x. PMC 6640444. PMID 19018989.
  8. ^ Griffith, GW; Nicholson, J; Nenninger, A; Birch, RN; Hedger, JN (2003). "Witches' broom and frosty pods: two major pathogens of cacao". New Zealand Journal of Botany. 41 (3): 423–435. doi:10.1080/0028825x.2003.9512860.
  9. ^ Suárez, C (1971). Estudio del mecanismo de penetración y del proceso de infección de Monilia roreri Cif. Par. en frutos de cacao (Theobroma cacao). Guayaquil, Ecuador: Universidad de Guayaquil. p. 54p.
  10. ^ Bailey, Bryan A.; Evans, Harry C.; Phillips‐Mora, Wilbert; Ali, Shahin S.; Meinhardt, Lyndel W. (2018). "Moniliophthora roreri, causal agent of cacao frosty pod rot". Molecular Plant Pathology. 19 (7): 1580–1594. doi:10.1111/mpp.12648. ISSN 1364-3703. PMC 6638017. PMID 29194910.
  11. ^ Campuzano, H (1971). Proceedings of the Eighth International Cocoa Research Conference, 1981, Cartagena, Colombia. Cartagena, Colombia: Cocoa Producer’s Alliance. pp. 425–428.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Phillips-Mora, Wilbert (2003). Origin, Biogeography, Genetic Diversity and Taxonomic Affinities of the Cacao Fungus Moniliophthora roreri as determined using Molecular, Phytopathological and Morpho-Physiological Evidence. Reading, UK: The University of Reading.
  13. ^ Phillips-Mora, Wilbert; Aime, M. C.; Wilkinson, M. J. (2007). "Biodiversity and biogeography of the cacao (Theobroma cacao) pathogen Moniliophthora roreri in tropical America". Plant Pathology. 56 (6): 911–922. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2007.01646.x.
  14. ^ Phillips-Mora, Wilbert; Arciniegas-Leal, A.; Mata-Quiros, A.; Motamayor-Arias, J.C. (2013). "Catalogue of cacao clones selected by CATIE for commercial plantings; CATIE Technical series. Technical manual #105/". 1: 68. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ^ Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. "FAOSTAT".
  16. ^ Krauss, U; Soberanis, W (2001). "Rehabilitation of diseased cacao fields in Peru through shade regulation and timing of biocontrol measures". Agroforestry Systems. 53 (2): 179–184. doi:10.1023/A:1013376504268. S2CID 9733917.
  17. ^ Phillips-Mora, W; Coutiño, A; Ortiz, C; López, A; Hernández, J; Aime, MC (2006). "First report of Moniliophthora roreri causing frosty pod rot (moniliasis disease) of cocoa in México". Plant Pathology. 55 (4): 584. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2006.01418.x.
  18. ^ Ramirez-Gonzalez, S.I. (2008). "Moniliasis a challenge to achieve the sustainability of cacao in Mexico". Technol. Marcha. 21: 97–110.

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Moniliophthora roreri: Brief Summary ( İngilizce )

wikipedia EN tarafından sağlandı

Moniliophthora roreri is a basidiomycete fungus that causes frosty pod rot disease, one of the most serious problems for cacao (Theobroma cacao— the source of chocolate) production in Latin America. This disease and together with witches’ broom disease (caused by M. perniciosa) and black pod rot (caused by Phytophthora sp.) constitute the cacao disease trilogy. It causes serious losses in southwestern parts of South America; spores are dry and powdery and are spread easily by water movement, wind, or movement of pods; disease spread is highest during periods of high rainfall.

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Moniliophthora roreri ( İspanyolca; Kastilyaca )

wikipedia ES tarafından sağlandı

Moniliophthora roreri es una especie de un hongo Basidiomycota que causa la enfermedad de moniliasis, uno de los problemas más graves para el cacao (Theobroma cacao— fuente del chocolate) y su producción en Latinoamérica. Esta enfermedad y la enfermedad llamada "escoba de bruja" (producida por M. perniciosa) y la enfermedad de la Phytophthora (producida por Phytophthora sp.) constituyen la trilogía de enfermedades del cacao.[1]

El hongo

Taxonomía

Originalmente M. roreri fue descrito como un Ascomycota, Monilia roreri Cif., debido a la ausencia de una etapa de reproducción sexual a través de la reproducción del hongo, similar a las otras especies de Monilia.[2]​ Luego se describió que la septa del patógeno contenía doliporos y capas de poros septales, que son características de los hongos Basidiomycotas. Consecuentemente Monilia roreri fue reclasificado y se le dio su nuevo nombre, Moniliophthora roreri (Cif.) H.C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny.[3]​ Más recientemente, se demostró que M. roreri y el agente casual de la escoba de bruja de cacao, M. perniciosa, son especies hermanas dentro de la familia de hongos Marasmiaceae.[4]

Rango de hospedaje

El rango de hospedaje de M. roreri son plantas en el Malvaceae Que forman parte al género Teobroma, como T. cacao, T. gileri, T. bicolor, y T. grandiflorum así como plantas relacionadas al género Herrania.[5]​ En contraste con la especie hermana, M. perniciosa tiene mucho más rango de hospedaje como los géneros Solanaceae, Malpighiaceae y Bignoniaceae.[6]

Proceso de infección y sintomatología

M. roreri es un hongo hemibiotrófico que forma irregularidades en el micelio intracelular.[7]​ El proceso de infección empieza cuando los conidios de M. roreri llegan a la superficie de las mazorcas. Ahí germinan y penetran la mazorca directamente desde la epidermis,[8]​ causando daños internos en las primeras etapas de la enfermedad. Síntomas externos como pequeñas partes oscuras en la superficie de las mazorcas pueden ser vistas después de 40 a 80 días de infección; además, las mazorcas infectadas son asintomáticas en las primeras etapas de la infección, que es un factor que no le da la oportunidad a los humanos para saber si están transportando mazorcas infectadas. Una semana después de la aparición de lesiones oscuras, el característico polvo blanco de la enfermedad en la superficie de las mazorcas infectadas. La apariencia polvorienta es debido a la presencia de millones de conidias que pueden alcanzar a 44 millones por centímetro cuadrado en una mazorca madura infectada, esta es capaz de crear 7 mil millones de esporas.[9]

Reproducción sexual

La moniliasis es una enfermedad interesante, ya que su agente clásico, M. roreri, viene a partir de una familia que tiene reproducciones sexuales pero nunca se ha visto que produzca otro hongo u otro tipo de reproducción sexual. Además, no hay evidencia de una etapa sexual en la reproducción de este hongo, por lo tanto, su reproducción es más rápida.

Historia de la enfermedad

Primer reporte

El primer reporte verificado de moniliasis fue en Ecuador en 1895; unos años después en la región de Quevedo, Ecuador en 1918 la más famosa historia de la infección fue reportada, causando el abandono de la mayoría de las plantaciones de cacao por un periodo de 3 años. Sin embargo, hay un reporte más reciente de la enfermedad en Colombia que también pudo haber sido causada por M. roreri. En 1817 en la región de Santander, Colombia, una enfermedad que con la sintomatología de la moniliasis fue reportada; además, muchos investigadores creen que el primer reporte de moniliasis en el cacao fue en Colombia alrededor de un siglo antes del famoso abandono en Ecuador.[10]

Reproducción

Before the 1950s M. roreri was confined to Ecuador, Colombia and western Venezuela. However, during the last 50 years the disease has spread southward into Perú (in 1988), and northward into all cacao-growing areas of Central America (Costa Rica, 1978; Nicaragua, 1979; Honduras, 1997; Guatemala, 2002; Belice, 2004) and México, 2005),[10][11]​ in many cases resulting in abandonment of the entire plantation by farmers. The presence of the disease was confirmed in El Salvador and Bolivia in 2009 and 2012, respectively, where the fungus probable arrived some years before.[12]​ This invasive behavior of the disease represents a threat to cacao growers from Brazil and also to areas outside of Latin America where the majority of the world cocoa is currently produced.[10][13]

Impacto económico de la enfermedad

En Colombia, más específicamente en la región de Santander, las pérdidas anuales son del 40% del cacao seco, que equivale a 33 millones de US$ debido a la enfermedad.[10]​ En 1918 en Ecuador, la exportación de cacao fue reducida de 46,000 toneladas a 37,700 toneladas debido a la moniliasis.[10]​ En Perú, cerca de 16,500 hectáreas de cacao fueron abandonadas por el resultado de la moniliasis, con un resultado final de convertir a Perú de un exportador de chocolate, a un exportador pequeño.[14]​ En México, en el estado de Tabasco, el primer reporte de la enfermedad fue en abril de 2005,[15]​ y en el 2007 la moniliasis invadió todas las áreas de cacao del estado, convirtiéndola en el mayor factor limitador de la producción de cacao como también en Nicaragua y Honduras.[10][16]

Referencias

  1. Fulton, RH (1989). «La trilogía de enfermedades del cacao: Moniliasis, Phytophthora y "escoba de bruja" (en inglés)». Plant Disease 73: 601-603. doi:10.1094/pd-73-0601.
  2. Ciferri, R.; Parodi, E. (1933). «Descrizione del fungo che causa la "Moniliasi" del cacao.». Phytopathologische Zeitschrift 5: 539-542.
  3. Evans, HC; Satlpers, JA; Samson, RA; Benny, GL (1978). «On the taxonomy of Monilia roreri, an iomportant pathogen of Theobroma cacao in South America.». Canadian Journal of Botany 56: 2528-2532. doi:10.1139/b78-305.
  4. Aime, M.C.; Phillips-Mora, W. (2005). «The causal agents of witches' and frosty pod rot of cacao (chocolate, Theobroma cacao) form a new lineage of Marasmiaceae». Mycologia 97 (5): 1012-1022. doi:10.3852/mycologia.97.5.1012. La referencia utiliza el parámetro obsoleto |coautores= (ayuda)
  5. Evans, HC (1986). «A reassessment of Moniliophthora (Monilia) pod rot of cocoa.». Cocoa Growers' Bulletin 37: 34-43.
  6. Meinhardt, Lyndel; Rincones, J; Bailey, B; Aime, MC; Griffith, GW; Zhang, D; Pereira, G (2008). «Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal agent of witches' broom disease of cacao: what's new from this old foe?». Molecular Plant Pathology 9 (5): 577-588. doi:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00496.x.
  7. Griffith, GW; Nicholson, J; Nenninger, A; Birch, RN; Hedger, JN (2003). «Witches' broom and frosty pods: two major pathogens of cacao». New Zealand Journal of Botany 41 (423- 435).
  8. Suárez, C (1971). Estudio del mecanismo de penetración y del proceso de infección de Monilia roreri Cif. Par. en frutos de cacao (Theobroma cacao). Guayaquil, Ecuador: Universidad de Guayaquil. p. 54p.
  9. Campuzano, H (1971). Proceedings of the Eighth International Cocoa Research Conference, 1981, Cartagena, Colombia. Cartagena, Colombia: Cocoa Producer’s Alliance. pp. 425-428.
  10. a b c d e f Phillips-Mora, Wilbert (2003). Origin, Biogeography, Genetic Diversity and Taxonomic Affinities of the Cacao Fungus Moniliophthora roreri as determined using Molecular, Phytopathological and Morpho-Physiological Evidence (en inglés). Reading, UK: The University of Reading.
  11. Phillips-Mora, Wilbert; Aime, M. C.; Wilkinson, M. J. (2007). «Biodiversity and biogeography of the cacao (Theobroma cacao) pathogen Moniliophthora roreri in tropical America». Plant Pathology 56: 911-922. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2007.01646.x.
  12. Phillips-Mora, Wilbert; Arciniegas-Leal, A.; Mata-Quiros, A.; Motamayor-Arias, J.C. (2013). Catalogue of cacao clones selected by CATIE for commercial plantings; CATIE Technical series. Technical manual #105/ 1. p. 68.
  13. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. «FAOSTAT».
  14. Krauss, U; Soberanis, W (2001). «Rehabilitation of diseased cacao fields in Peru through shade regulation and timing of biocontrol measures». Agroforestry Systems 53: 179-184.
  15. Phillips-Mora, W; Coutiño, A; Ortiz, C; López, A; Hernández, J; Aime, MC (2006). «First report of Moniliophthora roreri causing frosty pod rot (moniliasis disease) of cocoa in México». Plant Pathology 55 (4): 584. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2006.01418.x.
  16. Ramirez-Gonzalez, S.I. (2008). «Moniliasis a challenge to achieve the sustainability of cacao in Mexico». Technol. Marcha 21: 97-110.

 title=
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wikipedia ES

Moniliophthora roreri: Brief Summary ( İspanyolca; Kastilyaca )

wikipedia ES tarafından sağlandı

Moniliophthora roreri es una especie de un hongo Basidiomycota que causa la enfermedad de moniliasis, uno de los problemas más graves para el cacao (Theobroma cacao— fuente del chocolate) y su producción en Latinoamérica. Esta enfermedad y la enfermedad llamada "escoba de bruja" (producida por M. perniciosa) y la enfermedad de la Phytophthora (producida por Phytophthora sp.) constituyen la trilogía de enfermedades del cacao.​

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Moniliophthora roreri ( Szl )

wikipedia SZL tarafından sağlandı

Moniliophthora roreri je grzib[3], co go nojprzōd ôpisoł Raffaele Ciferri, a terŏźnõ nazwã doł mu H.C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny 1978. Moniliophthora roreri nŏleży do zorty Moniliophthora i familije Marasmiaceae.[4][5] Żŏdne podgatōnki niy sōm wymianowane we Catalogue of Life.[4]

Przipisy

  1. H.C. Evans (2002), In: Mycologist 16(4):151
  2. Ciferri & Parodi (1933), In: Phytopath. Z. 6(5):542
  3. H.C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny (1978), In: Can. J. Bot. 56(20):2530
  4. 4,0 4,1 Bisby F.A., Roskov Y.R., Orrell T.M., Nicolson D., Paglinawan L.E., Bailly N., Kirk P.M., Bourgoin T., Baillargeon G., Ouvrard D. (red.): Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life: 2019 Annual Checklist.. Species 2000: Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands., 2019. [dostymp 24 września 2012].
  5. Species Fungorum. Kirk P.M., 2010-11-23

Galeryjŏ fotografiji

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Moniliophthora roreri: Brief Summary ( Szl )

wikipedia SZL tarafından sağlandı

Moniliophthora roreri je grzib, co go nojprzōd ôpisoł Raffaele Ciferri, a terŏźnõ nazwã doł mu H.C. Evans, Stalpers, Samson & Benny 1978. Moniliophthora roreri nŏleży do zorty Moniliophthora i familije Marasmiaceae. Żŏdne podgatōnki niy sōm wymianowane we Catalogue of Life.

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Moniliophthora roreri ( Vietnamca )

wikipedia VI tarafından sağlandı

Moniliophthora roreri là một bệnh cây cacao ở châu Mỹ.

Liên kết ngoài

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Moniliophthora roreri: Brief Summary ( Vietnamca )

wikipedia VI tarafından sağlandı

Moniliophthora roreri là một bệnh cây cacao ở châu Mỹ.

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