Spotted sandpiper eggs are vulnerable to predation by predators such as deer mice, mink, weasels, river otters, yellow-headed blackbirds, red-winged blackbirds, song sparrows and ruddy turnstones. Chicks are predated by common grackles, American crows, gulls and mink. Adult spotted sandpipers are taken by least weasels, short-tailed weasels and a variety of raptors.
When threatened, spotted sandpipers perform a display by positioning their body upright and their bill forward. They extend their wings outward and upward, raise their breast feathers, open their bill and fan their tail. Nesting spotted sandpipers may also fake an injury, known as the Broken Wing Display in order to draw predators away from their nest. The Broken Wing Display is performed by crawling low to the ground with the wings flapping on the ground and the tail spread and lowered while squealing.
Known Predators:
Spotted sandpipers use vocalizations and physical displays to communicate. The calls of spotted sandpipers are largely variations on a weet note, that is repeated at different pitches, intensities and rates to communicate different messages. Vocalizations can be used to communicate alarm, to maintain contact with chicks, in courtship, and to distract predators from one's nest. Physical displays are used to threaten others, to solicit a mate and to show submission, among other purposes.
Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Spotted sandpipers are common and widespread. Global population estimates appear to be stable at about 250,000 individuals. Threats to spotted sandpipers include pesticide poisoning, hunting and injury and foot loss due to leg-banding.
Spotted sandpipers are not threatened or endangered. They are listed as a species of "least concern" by the IUCN, and are not listed under any of the CITES appendices. They are, however, protected under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act.
US Migratory Bird Act: protected
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: no special status
The eggs of this species weigh about 9.6 g and take about 21 days for incubation, with the time decreasing as the season progresses. When they hatch, A. macularius are covered with down and weigh about 6.0 g. Within the first day, they are walking, eating and stretching their wings. Hunting for immobile food starts at 1-2 days, and stalking moving prey begins at 3-5 days. Actitis macularius chicks are brought up mostly by the male, and feed themselves. At about 11 days, chicks start to lift off the ground. At about 15 days, chicks show weak flight, and at about 18 days, chicks can completely lift themselves off the ground and fly a significant distance. Actitis macularius begin breeding at 1 year. (Maxson and Oring, 1980; Oring, et al., 1997)
There are no known adverse effects of spotted sandpipers on humans.
Spotted sandpipers eat a wide variety of insects. It is possible that they help control insects that humans view as pests.
Spotted sandpipers affect the populations of the species they eat. They also provide food for their predators.
Spotted sandpipers are opportunistic carnivores. They eat nearly all animals that are small enough for them to eat, with the exception of toad tadpoles. Examples of commonly eaten foods include midges, fish, mayflies, flies, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, worms, caterpillars, mollusks, crustaceans, spiders, and carrion.
Spotted sandpipers forage on the ground. They capture most prey by thrusting their head forward and catching the prey in their bill. They also catch prey by pecking the ground, hopping to catch flying insects, and picking insects off of vegetation. Often, spotted sandpipers will dip insects in water before eating them, although the reason for this is unclear. Spotted sandpipers are visual hunters, mainly using sight to catch prey. When breeding, females increase their food intake to offset the energy spent producing eggs. While incubating, males increase their time dedicated to finding and catching prey by 44.9%.
Animal Foods: amphibians; fish; carrion ; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; mollusks; terrestrial worms
Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore )
Spotted sandpipers (Actitis macularius) are found throughout North and Central America, including the western Caribbean islands. Their breeding range extends from the northern Arctic to the southern United States. Their wintering grounds range from the extreme southern United States to southern South America, along with all the Caribbean islands. Spotted sandpipers live year-round along the western coast of the United States and in parts of California. They are found in very small numbers across parts of Europe, Russia, Siberia and on Canton and Marshall Islands in the Pacific Ocean.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic ; neotropical (Native ); oceanic islands
Spotted sandpipers breed in a variety of habitats ranging in elevation from sea level to 4,700 m. Females typically defend a breeding territory that includes a shoreline (of a stream or lake, for example), a semi-open area for nesting and patches of dense vegetation. These territories may be found in sage-brush, grasslands, forests, fields, lawns and parks among other habitats.
During spring and fall migrations, spotted sandpipers prefer freshwater habitats, such as lakes, rivers and marshes, though they can also be found along the coasts and in estuaries. In winter, spotted sandpipers can be found in coastal and interior areas, nearly anywhere where water is present.
Range elevation: 0 to 4,700 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; polar ; terrestrial ; saltwater or marine ; freshwater
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest
Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; coastal ; brackish water
Wetlands: marsh
Other Habitat Features: suburban ; riparian ; estuarine
The oldest known spotted sandpiper lived at least 12 years. Most do not live nearly that long.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 12 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 109 months.
Spotted sandpipers are medium-sized sandpipers, 10 to 18 cm long with wingspans of 37 to 40 cm. Females are 20 to 25% larger than males, weighing 43 to 50 g compared to 34 to 41 g for males. Spotted sandpipers are brown to olive gray on their crown, nape, back and wings, and bright white on their face, throat, chest and belly. Their common name derives from the bold black spots on their white undersides. Females tend to have larger spots that extend lower on the belly compared to males. While in flight, spotted sandpipers display a white wing-stripe and a plain rump and tail.
Range mass: 34 to 50 g.
Range length: 10 to 18 cm.
Range wingspan: 37 to 40 cm.
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger; sexes colored or patterned differently
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Spotted sandpipers are polyandrous. Females of this species may mate with upwards of 4 mates each year. Females may begin with one mate with whom they share parental responsibilities. As additional males arrive, females compete for additional mates, leaving the males to perform the majority of parental care.
Mating System: polyandrous
Spotted sandpipers breed between May and August. Females establish a breeding territory about 4 days before males begin arriving. They then court a mate, and the pair builds a nest together. The nests are built in the ground and consist of weeds or stems padding a shallow depression in the dirt. They are typically located in marshes, on coastlines, and near other water sources. The female then lays a clutch of 4 eggs (occasionally 3). Each female may lay up to 5 clutches per year. The eggs are incubated for 19 to 22 days (average 21 days) by the male and by the female to a lesser extent. The chicks are precocial; they are able to walk within four hours of hatching and are able to feed themselves soon thereafter. They are brooded primarily by the male for the first several days after hatching. The young sandpipers remain with their parent(s) for at least 4 weeks after hatching. After becoming independent, the young sandpipers join post-breeding flocks. These sandpipers will be able to breed the next summer when they are about 1 year old.
Breeding interval: Female spotted sandpipers can lay up to 5 clutches per breeding season.
Breeding season: Spotted sandpipers breed between May and August.
Range eggs per season: 20 (high) .
Average eggs per season: 20.
Range time to hatching: 19 to 22 days.
Average time to hatching: 21 days.
Range fledging age: 1 to 24 hours.
Range time to independence: 4 (low) weeks.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous ; sperm-storing
Male spotted sandpipers provide the majority of parental care. Females contribute in varying amounts to nest building, incubation and raising the chicks during the fledgling stage.
Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Male, Female)
Named for the dark-spotted breast of breeding individuals, the Spotted Sandpiper in summer is also characterized by its medium-length yellow bill, olive back, and black eye-stripes. In winter, the Spotted Sandpiper loses its spots, leaving behind a plain white breast. This is a medium-sized (7 ½ inches) sandpiper with a plump body and small head characteristic of shorebirds. Males and females are similar to one another in all seasons. One of the most widely-distributed sandpiper species in North America, Spotted Sandpipers breed from northern Canada and Alaska down to northern California, New Mexico, Missouri, and Virginia. In winter, this species migrates south to southern California, the desert southwest and coastal regions of the southeast. Some populations winter as far south as Central America and the Caribbean. The Spotted Sandpiper’s wide distribution is influenced by its ability to inhabit numerous types of shoreline habitats, including streams, ponds, and waterlogged grasslands. Spotted Sandpipers prefer freshwater habitats during the summer breeding season. In winter, they may also be found near saltwater, particularly on mudflats and lagoons. Spotted Sandpipers are most easily observed foraging along the water’s edge. They may be seen bobbing up and down as they probe the mud for small insect larvae and crustaceans, which make up the majority of their diet. This species is primarily active during the day.
Named for the dark-spotted breast of breeding individuals, the Spotted Sandpiper in summer is also characterized by its medium-length yellow bill, olive back, and black eye-stripes. In winter, the Spotted Sandpiper loses its spots, leaving behind a plain white breast. This is a medium-sized (7 ½ inches) sandpiper with a plump body and small head characteristic of shorebirds. Males and females are similar to one another in all seasons. One of the most widely-distributed sandpiper species in North America, Spotted Sandpipers breed from northern Canada and Alaska down to northern California, New Mexico, Missouri, and Virginia. In winter, this species migrates south to southern California, the desert southwest and coastal regions of the southeast. Some populations winter as far south as Central America and the Caribbean. The Spotted Sandpiper’s wide distribution is influenced by its ability to inhabit numerous types of shoreline habitats, including streams, ponds, and waterlogged grasslands. Spotted Sandpipers prefer freshwater habitats during the summer breeding season. In winter, they may also be found near saltwater, particularly on mudflats and lagoons. Spotted Sandpipers are most easily observed foraging along the water’s edge. They may be seen bobbing up and down as they probe the mud for small insect larvae and crustaceans, which make up the majority of their diet. This species is primarily active during the day.
The spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularius) is a small shorebird. Together with its sister species the common sandpiper (A. hypoleucos), it makes up the genus Actitis. They replace each other geographically; stray birds may settle down with breeders of the other species and hybridize.
The spotted sandpiper was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1766 in the twelfth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tringa macularia.[2] The type locality is Pennsylvania.[3] The species is now placed together with common sandpiper in the genus Actitis that was introduced in 1811 by the German zoologist Johann Illiger.[4][5] The genus name Actitis is from Ancient Greek aktites meaning "coast-dweller" from akte meaning "coast". The specific epithet macularius is Latin meaning "spotted".[6] The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.[5]
Adults have short yellowish legs and an orange bill with a dark tip. The body is brown on top and white underneath with black spots. These spots vary in degree over the course of spotted sandpipers' lives, becoming especially prevalent around the breeding season. The overall health of spotted sandpipers may be suggested by the "spottiness" of an individual. Generally, females with more "spottiness" were healthier than those who did not have as many spots. The condition of males based on the amount of spots they exhibit is yet to be determined. Additionally, spot size gets smaller and the spot shape becomes more irregularly shaped as age increases. Spotted sandpipers also feature a white supercilium.[7]
Non-breeding birds, depicted below, do not have the spotted underparts, and are very similar to the common sandpiper of Eurasia; the main difference is the more washed-out wing pattern visible in flight and the normally light yellow legs and feet of the spotted sandpiper. The Actitis species have a distinctive stiff-winged flight low over the water. They also have a distinctive walk in which their tails bob up and down. Males and females exhibit similar physical measurements, but differ in weight; females tend to be about 20-25% heavier than males.[8]
Measurements:[9]
Spotted sandpipers are a philopatric species.[8] Their breeding habitat is near fresh water across most of Canada and the United States. They migrate to the southern United States, the Caribbean, and South America, and are very rare vagrants to western Europe. These are not gregarious birds, and are seldom seen in flocks. Spotted sandpipers are the most widespread species of their kind in North America due to their high breeding rates and their ability to adapt to various environmental pressures.[8]
Breeding grounds are chosen based on various environmental factors, but tend to be in the proximity of bodies of water that offer some coverage from vegetation. Successful breeding sites may be used repeatedly until either the site becomes physically unsuitable (from overgrown vegetation or flooding) or predation becomes too severe. The females usually arrive at breeding grounds before the males do and establish their territories. Males arrive to breeding sites later, but it is uncertain whether or not they will arrive to the same breeding sites that some females have chosen.[10] The search for mates amongst female spotted sandpipers is much more competitive than finding potential mates is for males.[8]
During each summer breeding season, females may mate with and lay clutches for more than one male, leaving incubation to them. This is called polyandry. Male spotted sandpipers take care of the offspring, both before and after the offspring hatch. They will incubate their eggs for about 20–23 days.[8] Male parents of first clutches may father chicks in later male's clutches, probably due to sperm storage within female reproductive tracts, which is common in birds. Females that fail to find additional mates usually help incubate and rear chicks. "Prior to incubation, blood plasma concentrations of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone are substantially higher in males than in females" and these levels plummet 25-fold in males as incubation proceeds.[11] Additionally, mated females have testosterone concentrations that are 7 times higher than those of unmated females.[11] Due to their polyandrous behavior, spotted sandpipers tend to produce more offspring compared to other species of sandpipers.[10]
These birds forage on ground or water, picking up food by sight. They may also catch insects in flight. They eat insects (such as flies, beetles, grasshoppers, mayflies, midges, crickets and caterpillars),[12][13] crustaceans and other invertebrates (such as spiders, snails, other molluscs and worms),[12][13] as well as small fish and carrion.[12][13] As they forage, they can be recognized by their constant nodding and teetering.
The main predators of spotted sandpipers include raptors, mustelids, mice, and gulls. Most of these predators target the sandpipers' chicks and eggs.[14]
Although there has been some decline in the population of spotted sandpipers, their conservation status is currently of least concern. However, the decrease of spotted sandpipers is not projected to slow or stop in the future. The destruction of their natural habitats due to increasing wildfires causes problems for breeding and raising offspring. Additionally, the gradual increase in temperatures poses a problem for newborn sandpipers.[15]
The word Actitis comes from the Greek word for "coast-dweller", while the word macularius comes from the Latin word for "spotted".[16]
Front view
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Non-breeding plumage
Spotted sandpiper hunting in the Wallkill River Wildlife Refuge in New Jersey and New York (state)
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Spotted sandpiper foraging in Fox River Grove, Illinois
The spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularius) is a small shorebird. Together with its sister species the common sandpiper (A. hypoleucos), it makes up the genus Actitis. They replace each other geographically; stray birds may settle down with breeders of the other species and hybridize.
