The Jefferson salamander is involved in a hybrid complex with three other species of mole salamanders (A. laterale, A. texanum, and A. tigrinum) throughout eastern North America. Usually the hybrids result in triploid females. These females are thought to reproduce gynogenetically, they use sperm from a sympatric, diploid male to initiate the development of the eggs without incorporating the male genome. Some females, however, do reproduce through hybridogenesis, where the maturing egg eliminates an entire genome. The embryonic mortality rates of salamanders in hybrid complexes is much higher than that of diploid salamander species. Studies have found that temperature is of great importance in the hybrid Ambystoma. At reduced temperatures triploid females are expected to reproduce by gynogenesis, while at higher temperatures hybridogenesis increases. This variation in breeding patterns has significant bearings on the genetic composition of hybrid populations (Bogart 1988).
The Jefferson salamander is not currently listed as threatened or endangered. To continue this species' survival relatively undisturbed, woodland habitats near suitable breeding ponds need to be preserved. The increase habitat fragmentation due to roads, leads to the deaths of many salamanders during their spring migration. The Jefferson salamander is also particularly vulnerable to habitat acidification. When pH levels fall too low they become lethal to the larvae and eggs (Harding 1997).
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis
Ecologically, salamanders appear to play important roles in the organization of many terrestrial and aquatic communities. They are increasingly being used as indicators of environmental heath. Salamanders have also proven to be valuable tools in examining various problems in disciplines such as evolution, ecology, animal behavior, physiology, and genetics. Probably most important to the human population is the medical research on salamanders. This includes research to understand the basis for limb and tissue regeneration in vertebrates (salamanders have extraordinary regeneration ability), the study of genetic disorder inheritance, and research exploring the possible therapeutic value of toxic skin secretions in treating human diseases such as cancer (Petranka 1998).
The Jefferson salamander generally feeds on insects and other invertebrate species. The larvae are found to consume small zooplankton after hatching and move on to organisms such as nematodes, aquatic insect larvae, insects, and snails. Larvae may become cannibalistic and feed on small larvae of their own kind and others. Because the adult salamanders spend most of the time, outside of the breeding season, hidden in the ground or under leaf litter their exact feeding habits are not known. It is presumed that they feed on earthworms and other invertebrates found in the soil (Pentranka 1998).
The Jefferson salamander is distributed in patches from southern New England, south and southwest through Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Virginia (Petranka 1998).
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
The Jefferson salamander is restricted to sites containing suitable breeding ponds and shows a strong affinity for upland forests. It prefers relatively undisturbed deciduous woodlands, especially moist, well-drained upland forests (Petranka 1998).
Terrestrial Biomes: forest
The Jefferson salamander can vary from a dark brown, brownish gray or slate gray dorsum and may have light blue speckles scattered along the sides, tail, and occasionally extending onto the back. The speckling is most apparent in younger individuals and may disappear in older adults. The vent region is a grayish color and the ventrum is a pale, sometimes silvery, color. Ambystomid salamanders are generally characterized by prominent costal grooves, short, rounded heads, and stout bodies with robust limbs. The Jefferson salamander, however, has relatively long, slender limbs and toes comparatively. The tail is laterally compressed and extends almost as long as the body. The average adult length ranges from 10.7 to 21 cm, with females being in the upper part of the range, and 12 to 14 costal grooves are present. Breeding males have swollen vents and appear more slender than the egg carrying females. The tail is also longer and more laterally compressed in males. Outside of the breeding season both sexes are darker and less conspicuously marked. Larvae are a yellowish green color with dark blotches on the back. They possess a relatively uncolored caudal fin, and display external gills upon hatching. Older larvae have a mottled greenish gray dorsum and may be marked along the sides with small yellowish spots while the ventrum is pale and generally unmarked (Harding 1997, Petranka 1998).
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry
The Jefferson salamander is one of the earliest seasonal breeders, migrating to breeding ponds in late winter or early spring, often before the ground and ponds are completely thawed. The first group of males typically precedes the arrival of the first females. Current data suggest that while males breed annually, females may skip one or more years before breeding again. Salamanders are unique among amphibians in practicing internal fertilization. During courtship, the male deposits a spermatophore, a packet of sperm that the female picks up with the lips of her cloaca. The spermatophore is then stored in her spermatheca until she is ready to lay her eggs. While there is no direct cloacal contact, fertilization is internal. Females may begin to lay eggs one to two days after mating. The eggs are 2-2.5 mm in diameter and are encircled by a vitelline membrane and three jelly envelopes. They are generally deposited in small gelatinous clusters and are attached to underwater sticks or vegetation. If the pond should freeze, the eggs are then protected below the surface of the water. The egg masses generally vary in numbers of 20 to 30 eggs per mass but may have anywhere between 1 and 60 eggs per mass. Females will produce a total of 100 to 280 eggs in one breeding season. The length of the incubation varies. In a controlled setting with temperatures around 21oC eggs will hatch in about two weeks, but under more typical, natural conditions, may take up to 14 weeks depending on the time the eggs were laid. The average embryonic survival to hatching is observed to be positively correlated with egg mass size. Hatching success can be very high, however, larvae survival rate is generally very low due to predation. The newly hatched larvae range in length from 1.0 to 1.4 cm. In two to three months the surviving larvae metamorphosied into terrestrial salamanders. If the breeding pond threatens to prematurely dry up, metamorphosis will occur sooner with smaller larvae. The newly metamorphosized individuals range from 4.8 to 7.5 cm and are able to breed in two to three years. The average life span of the Jefferson salamander is six years or longer (Flank 1999, Harding 1997, Petranka 1998).
Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
The Jefferson salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum) is a mole salamander native to the northeastern United States, southern and central Ontario, and southwestern Quebec. It was named after Jefferson College in Pennsylvania.[2][3]
It is typically dark gray, brown, or black on its dorsal surface, but a lighter shade on its anterior. Some individuals may also have silver or blue specks on their sides; the area around the vent is usually gray. These salamanders are slender, with a wide nose and distinctive long toes, and range in size from 11 to 18 cm (4.3 to 7.1 in).
Like other mole salamanders, the Jefferson salamander burrows; they have well-developed lungs suited for this purpose. Nocturnal by nature, they can be spotted by day during the mating season. Breeding occurs in early spring, after the snow in the area has melted.
Eggs are laid in small agglomerations attached to submerged twigs or other natural support at the pond's edge. Clutches can contain between 5 and 60 eggs, averaging about 30. The age at which they first breed, and the frequency with which they breed, are unknown; females are estimated to first breed at 22 months, and males at 34 months. Eggs develop rapidly, and may hatch within 15 days. Larvae stay in the pond from two to four months, during which time they grow to between 3 and 8 times their hatching size.
A unique reproductive tactic for the Bluespotted-Jefferson Salamander Complex exists in nature. The Jefferson salamander is now known not to breed in the lab with the blue-spotted salamander, which was previously thought to produce "hybrids", the silvery salamander and Tremblay's salamander, between this supposed mating of Jefferson salamander and Blue-spotted salamander. The silvery salamander and Tremblay's salamander are now known through genetic testing to be polyploid females (only 2% of males survive and they are sterile). These most often possess two of each chromosome from the Jefferson salamander and one of each chromosome from the blue-spotted salamander, resulting in an LJJ genotype (also called a Tremblay's salamander.) This genotype results when these polyploid females mate with a pure Jefferson salamander male, incorporating (often in warmer water conditions) the chromosome from the pure male Jefferson salamander into her egg, usually having an LJ diploid chromosome set or LJJ triploid chromosome set, to produce LJJ or LJJJ offspring, respectively. Often in cooler conditions, the LJ or LJJ female may mate with the Jefferson salamander male and only "borrow" his spermatozoan to trigger genetic cloning of herself, not adding his chromosome (J) to her egg. The same polyploid reproductive strategy occurs for other mole salamander species. The presence of these polyploids makes it difficult to visually identify which species an individual may be, skewing population measures for both species.
The secretive adults tend to hide under stones or logs, or in leaf litter and other underbrush in deciduous forests during damp conditions. They are usually not found in conifer forests, likely due to the dryness and prickliness of some pine and spruce needles, which may injure amphibians with their thin skins. They are found burrowed underground for most of the year during dry or freezing conditions. They must get below the frost line (about 18 inches) in order to survive winter conditions in northern latitudes. They often burrow in rich sandy soils found in upland deciduous forests or sometimes in older-growth damp hemlock forests.
Because breeding sites are usually close to the over-wintering burrows, migration to their breeding area is quick, and usually occurs during or immediately after a heavy rainfall. The breeding sites they choose are fishless ponds and vernal pools, filled with spring snow meltwater in northern latitudes. Some breeding ponds may be hundreds of yards (meters) away from their forest home in fragmented landscapes.
Jefferson salamanders are one of the first amphibians to emerge in springtime at the northern edge of their range in southern Ontario where they are seen "snowshoeing" across the still frozen understory of the forest to reach partially melted breeding ponds. Males migrate first with females following shortly thereafter. These salamanders have small pores on their heads which exude a whitish liquid when they are handled, suggesting that they may leave a scent trail during migration,[4] Ambystoma jeffersonianum is often found in the same habitat as the spotted salamander.
The larvae are carnivorous, typically consuming aquatic invertebrates. An insufficient food supply may result in cannibalistic behaviour. Adults are also carnivorous, eating a variety of small invertebrates.
The Jefferson salamander is a species of least concern globally, but its habitat is threatened in parts of its range.[1] In Ontario, it has been classified as an endangered species since 11 June 2011,[5] and throughout Canada it is a threatened species.[6] The government of Ontario has designated the species as a specially protected amphibian, which provides protection to the species and its habitats.[6]
It is also considered a state-threatened species in Illinois.[7]
The Jefferson salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum) is a mole salamander native to the northeastern United States, southern and central Ontario, and southwestern Quebec. It was named after Jefferson College in Pennsylvania.
It is typically dark gray, brown, or black on its dorsal surface, but a lighter shade on its anterior. Some individuals may also have silver or blue specks on their sides; the area around the vent is usually gray. These salamanders are slender, with a wide nose and distinctive long toes, and range in size from 11 to 18 cm (4.3 to 7.1 in).
Like other mole salamanders, the Jefferson salamander burrows; they have well-developed lungs suited for this purpose. Nocturnal by nature, they can be spotted by day during the mating season. Breeding occurs in early spring, after the snow in the area has melted.
