Bonnet macaques use their sensitive hands to gather tactile information on their environment and to participate in grooming. Like many other primates, they have keen vision and can see in color. Vision is relied on heavily to find food, navigate the landscape, and communicate to conspecifics. They have slightly reduced olfaction with narrow, downward facing nostrils. Bonnet macaques use taste to distinguish when fruit is ripe. Alarm calls are an important form of communication. This is a loud vocalization that is emitted in response to detection of a predator.
"Grinning and clicking" is used to express affection and relieve tension. It is characterized by a wide grin with repeated clicking of the tongue. Dominant and subordinate individuals use this form of communication.
"Embracing" occurs when two large males meet. They embrace each other, grip each other’s genitals, and display grinning and clicking behavior. Social tension may be relieved in this greeting behavior.
Females do not advertise sexual receptivity, as they have no sexual swellings. Older, dominant males consort and mate with the same female for several days. Younger males spend less time consorting and mate with several females over the same time span.
Social rank is communicated mostly through maturity, which can be difficult to observe. Some studies have resorted to inducing intra-group aggression through artificial feeding to determine dominance relationships. Results demonstrate that dominance is linear in both males and females.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists bonnet macaques as lower risk/least concern.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Bonnet macaques and other macaque species are sometimes considered pests where they live near human. They can be aggressive and destructive in their efforts to steal food. They also raid crops.
Negative Impacts: crop pest; household pest
Villagers will often sell fruit or rice to tourists specifically to feed macaques at tourist attractions.
Positive Impacts: ecotourism
Bonnet macaques often live sympatrically with Nilgiri langurs (Tachypithecus johnii) and Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus). There is limited competition between these species because of dietary differences. Langurs eat more leaves while bonnet macaques are more omnivorous. Populations that live in forests may help in the dispersal of trees through their frugivory.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds
Bonnet macaque populations often rely on food generated by living near human populations. They often inhabit temples where tourists feed them or they take food offerings left at the feet of religious figures. They also raid nearby houses, tourist buses, food stalls, backyard gardens, and large trash piles for food. Populations that do not live near human settlements eat fruits, foliage, insects, and occasional bird eggs or lizards. One account found that a population mainly ate berries, flowers, and young leaves of Lantana, which blooms year-round. Though fruit and young leaves of pongam, fig, karwanda, acacia, tamarind, and nihm were main food items as well. Their favorite food was reported to be grasshoppers (Sugiyama, 1971). Johnson, Hill and Cooper (2007) found that 9 categories made up their diet: vegetation, fruit, human food, soil, seeds, wood, insect, non-food items, and unidentified items. Temple macaque populations ate more vegetation, human food, soil, wood, non-food and unknown items. Forest populations ate more fruit, insects and seeds.
Animal Foods: reptiles; eggs; insects
Plant Foods: leaves; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; nectar; flowers
Primary Diet: omnivore
Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native )
Bonnet macaques are found in a variety of habitats, including evergreen high forest and dry deciduous forest of the Western Ghat Mountains. They are highly arboreal and are strong swimmers. They often wander onto dry prairies, although it is not their preferred habitat. Bonnet macaques coexist with several primate species, including Nilgiri langurs (or hooded leaf monkeys Trachypithecus johnii), lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus), and Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus).
Bonnet macaques live as commensals with humans and are most abundant on the outskirts of human settlements. In those areas they rely on trash and food generated by villagers and visitors. They are often found sleeping and eating in large Ficus trees which line roads near human settlements.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest
Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural
Captive lifespan in bonnet macaques is up to 35 years. However, few individuals in wild populations make it to this advanced age. Most females in wild populations do not reach the age of menopause, around 27 years old. Lifespan is usually cut short due to predation, car collisions, or disease.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 35 (high) years.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 20 to 25 years.
Typical lifespan
Status: captivity: 25 to 30 years.
There are two distinct subspecies recognized: dark-bellied bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata radiata) and pale-bellied bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata diluta). As their common name suggests, bonnet macaques have a whirl of hair radiating from the center of the head. They are grayish brown or golden brown in color. They have hairless faces, which appear pink in the females.
Range mass: 3.9 Kg (female) to 6.7 Kg (male) g.
Range length: 35 to 60 excluding tail cm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
Bonnet macaques emit high-pitched alarm calls when predators are sighted. They live in groups, which increases the level of vigilance for predators. The alarm call is produced by all members of the group and sounds like “kern kern”. Once an alarm is sounded the community rushes to the shelter of the tree canopy or a bush. In general, the dominant male is the first to come down. Other members paired in twos or threes follow him. Additional data suggests that bonnet macaques are able to recognize and respond to alarm calls of other primate species in the area. They seem to learn the alarm calls of Nilgiri langurs (also called hooded leaf monkeys, Trachypithecus johnii), Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus), and lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silena) if they are exposed to them frequently enough. Juveniles begin to respond to these alarm calls and the ability to detect them seems to improve with age and experience. Bonnet macaques respond most strongly to alarm calls from their own troop.
Bonnet macaques are preyed on by leopards, tigers, eagles, crocodiles, dholes, feral dogs, and large snakes. They are also killed by humans.
Known Predators:
Bonnet macaques live in multi-male multi-female groups. Group ranking is linear, with older individuals being more dominant. Females are philopatric, while males disperse to other social groups. There is period in which juvenile males are solitary, as in Japanese and rhesus macaques. Bonnet macaque males form unique bonds. Dominant males tolerate the sexual activity of young males, who begin sexual interactions at 2 years old and are able to mate at age 3. Evidence suggests that young males are primarily partnered with young or sub-dominant females. However, adult and adolescent males are equally sexually active with females in estrous, which may translate to higher reproductive success for adolescent males. The primary difference between adolescent and adult males seems to be access to dominant females. High-ranking males have a tendency to relate and mate with the same female over a period of several days while younger males might mate with several females in a short amount of time.
Bonnet macaque females do not have sexual swellings, unlike other macaque females. The absence of such swellings in this species may be linked to male cohesion.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Bonnet macaque populations reproduce annually in discrete mating seasons. Most sources agree that the mating season peaks around September to October to produce a birthing season around February and April. Sexual activity is observed throughout the year and seasonality varies greatly by source and population. However, few matings occur during the dry season, late February through early April.
For macaques rate of growth and sexual maturation depends upon feeding and social conditions. In general females reach sexual maturity around 3 years old, typically giving birth to their first offspring at age 4. Male puberty begins at age 3 with full testicular enlargement at age 4 to 5. Gestation averages 24 weeks and the female gives birth to one infant. Infants nurse their mothers until 6 to 7 months old. The average time between births is 1 to 2 years. Female reproductive lifespan produces on average 5 offspring before they undergo menopause around 27 years old.
Breeding interval: Bonnet macaques breed once anually.
Breeding season: Breeding season varies regionally, but peaks from September to October.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Average gestation period: 168 days.
Range weaning age: 6 to 7 months.
Range time to independence: 9 to 12 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 32 to 40 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2.5 to 5 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
Infants are kept close to their mother for the first six months to a year of life. They ride on her back or are carried in her arms. The mother provides nourishment by nursing for the first 6 to 7 months. After an infant is weaned it remains close to its mother, as it is still somewhat dependent upon its mother for access to food. By one year old young bonnet macaques are able to fend for themselves.
The mother also provides the majority of protection during this time. She usually keeps the infant safe in her arms and is very protective. If an alarm is sounded when the mother-infant pair is apart, the mother will often put herself in harms way to grab the infant and escape. The whole community contributes to the protection of young. Sometimes young adult males will go by themselves or with several mothers to recover isolated infants.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents
The bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), also known as zati,[2] is a species of macaque endemic to southern India. Its distribution is limited by the Indian Ocean on three sides and the Godavari and Tapti Rivers, along with its related competitor the rhesus macaque in the north.[1][3][4] Land use changes in the last few decades have resulted in changes in its distribution boundaries with the rhesus macaque, raising concern for its status in the wild.[5][6]
The bonnet macaque is diurnal, arboreal, and terrestrial. Males have a head-body length of 51.5–60 cm (20.3–23.6 in) with a 51–69 cm (20–27 in) tail while females are 34.5–52.5 cm (13.6–20.7 in) with a 48–63.5 cm (18.9–25.0 in) tail. Males weigh 5.4–11.6 kg (12–26 lb) and females 2.9–5.5 kg (6.4–12.1 lb).[7] It can live up to 35 years in captivity.[8]
The bonnet macaque feeds on fruits, nuts, seeds, flowers, invertebrates, and cereals. In southern India, this macaque exists as commensal to humans, feeding on food given by humans and raiding crops and houses.[8]
Two subspecies of bonnet macaques have been identified:[7]
Bonnet macaques attain reproductive maturity when they are three to four years old.[9] The majority of births take place from February to April, before the arrival of the monsoon.[9] Bonnet monkeys are polygynandrous.[10] The gestation period lasts 24 weeks and a single infant is the normal result of a pregnancy.[9] The young will breast feed for six to seven months and begin assisted feedings of solid food from their mother thereafter.[9] Other members of the troop, especially related females, will express interest in the infant in its first months of life.[11]
The bonnet macaque has a very wide range of gestures and behaviors, which can be easily differentiated. Lip-smacking is one of the most common affiliative behaviors, where one individual may open and close its mouth in rapid succession, with its tongue between its teeth and its lips pressing against each other, giving an audible sound. A grimace is the most common gesture of fear or submission that a subordinate shows to a dominant individual during aggressive encounters. It consists of pulling back its upper lip, showing its upper teeth. It also has distinct alarm calls for predators such as pythons and leopards.[12][13]
The bonnet macaque are very social animals and they communicate in a different range of facial expressions. The bonnet macaque, like other macaques, shares a linear dominance hierarchy; the alpha male is the most dominant male of the troop, followed by a beta male and a gamma male, and so on according to their dominance. Similarly, females also follow this linear hierarchy. The male and female hierarchies are different and of a non-overlapping or non-mixing types. Males are usually dominant over females.[14] In their social groups females tend to stay in the same group they were born in, whereas males tend to disperse.[7]
The females' dominance hierarchy is stable, whilst the males' dominance hierarchy is very dynamic. In the male hierarchy, males close in rank often fight to rise in rank. A male has the best chance of obtaining a high rank in his prime age, resulting in the greatest benefits to reproduction. High-ranking individuals have first access to breeding females. Females are receptive during only a few months in a year, resulting in competition between males. In this situation, the ranks established by aggressive encounters come into play. Most of these aggressive encounters are easily resolved, but competition between similarly built or similarly aggressive males results in brutal and sometimes fatal fights. Female bonnet macaques attempt kidnappings of lower-ranking females. These are done mostly by mother females and the majority of the time they are not successful in completing it.[15] Different males may employ various means to rise in rank. Coalition formation between unrelated males to oust a more dominant male has been observed. Males often move from troop to troop to gain a higher rank with the resulting benefits. However, males remaining in a single troop have been observed to rise to become dominant male of that troop.
An important note is male bonnet macaques are generally far more laid back and carefree in their social lives than many other macaque species. Competition among male bonnet macaques is much more subdued and there is a much higher emphasis on pacifism. Male bonnet macaques groom each other, hug each other, sleep near each other, play together and engage in male-male mounting as a social defuser. While assertive males may take measures to monopolize matings, they cannot control females and these females will mate promiscuously, as macaques do. Some mysterious environmental pressures must have driven the bonnet macaque to form an unusually egalitarian social structure. Why this trend crops up convergently in separate macaque species rather than being an ancestral macaque trait is an enigma. A possible driving force may be these pacifist species inhabit more fertile habitats with more abundant food. Bonnet macaques are also strong swimmers.[8]
In the case of females, the stable dominance hierarchy is a result of female philopatry, when individuals tend to remain with the troop into which they are born. This results in the formation of matrilinear groupings of closely related females.[8]
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juvenile The bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), also known as zati, is a species of macaque endemic to southern India. Its distribution is limited by the Indian Ocean on three sides and the Godavari and Tapti Rivers, along with its related competitor the rhesus macaque in the north. Land use changes in the last few decades have resulted in changes in its distribution boundaries with the rhesus macaque, raising concern for its status in the wild.
The bonnet macaque is diurnal, arboreal, and terrestrial. Males have a head-body length of 51.5–60 cm (20.3–23.6 in) with a 51–69 cm (20–27 in) tail while females are 34.5–52.5 cm (13.6–20.7 in) with a 48–63.5 cm (18.9–25.0 in) tail. Males weigh 5.4–11.6 kg (12–26 lb) and females 2.9–5.5 kg (6.4–12.1 lb). It can live up to 35 years in captivity.
The bonnet macaque feeds on fruits, nuts, seeds, flowers, invertebrates, and cereals. In southern India, this macaque exists as commensal to humans, feeding on food given by humans and raiding crops and houses.
