Comments
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Disjunct inland populations of Chamaecyparis nootkatensis occur in British Columbia and Oregon (V. J. Krajina et al. 1982).
In addition to variation in habit within the species, occasional plants have divergent forms of foliage. One collection (Canada, British Columbia, dry woods near Victoria, S . Flowers s . n ., 1 Aug 1950, UC, WIU) has older foliage typical of the species, with all newer foliage strongly flattened, with facial and lateral leaves of strongly unequal size, and with smaller cones. In light of the foliar and habit phenotypes recognized in the horticultural literature (for example, A. J. Rehder [1949] listed, with full bibliographic citations, 22 published varieties and forms best considered as cultivars), no taxonomic significance is attached to this variation here.
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Description
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Trees to 40 m or dwarfed at high elevations; trunk to 2 m diam. Bark grayish brown, 1--2 cm thick, irregularly fissured. Branchlet sprays pinnate. Leaves of branchlets mostly 1.5--2.5 mm, stout, occasionally glandular on keel, apex rounded to acute or acuminate, bases of facial leaves often overlapped by apices of subtending facial leaves; glands usually absent (circular when present). Pollen cones 2--5 mm, grayish brown; pollen sacs yellow. Seed cones maturing and opening the first year, in some populations the second year (J. N. Owens and M. Molder 1975), 8--12 mm broad, glaucous, dark reddish brown, becoming resinous; scales 4--6. Seeds 2--4 per scale, 2--5 mm, wing equal to or broader than body.
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Distribution
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B.C.; Alaska, Calif., Oreg., Wash.
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Habitat
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Coastal mountain ranges; 0--1500m.
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Synonym
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Cupressus nootkatensis D. Don in Lambert, Descr. Pinus 2: 113. 1824
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Associated Forest Cover
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Alaska-cedar occasionally grows in pure stands but is usually found
singly or in scattered groups mixed with other tree species. Associated
species change with latitude. In California, Alaska-cedar may be found
with California red fir (Abies magnifica), Brewer spruce (Picea
breweriana), incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), Pacific yew
(Taxus brevifolia), and western white pine (Pinus monticola);
in Oregon and Washington, with mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana),
subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), whitebark pine (Pinus
albicaulis), Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir
(Abies procera), western white pine, and western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla); in British Columbia, with Pacific silver fir, western
white pine, western redcedar (Thuja plicata), mountain hemlock,
western hemlock, and shore pine (Pinus contorta); in Alaska, with
western redcedar, western hemlock, mountain hemlock, Sitka spruce (Picea
sitchensis), and shore pine.
Alaska-cedar is a component of the following Society of American
Foresters forest cover types (5):
205 Mountain Hemlock
223 Sitka Spruce
224 Western Hemlock
225 Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce
226 Coastal True Fir-Hemlock
227 Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock
228 Western Redcedar
Shrubs commonly associated with Alaska-cedar in Oregon, Washington, and
British Columbia are: big whortleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum),
ovalleaf whortleberry (V. ovalifolium), Alaska blueberry (V.
alaskaense), rustyleaf menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), Cascades
azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum), and copperbush (Cladothamnus
pyroliflorus). These shrubs, except Rhododendron albiflorum and
Vaccinium membranaceum, are associates in Alaska as well. Other
plant associates include fiveleaf bramble (Rubus pedatus), bunchberry
(Cornus canadensis), queenscup (Clintonia uniflora), ferny
goldthread (Coptis asplenifolia), deerfern (Blechnum spicant),
claspleaf twistedstalk (Streptopus amplexifolius), rosy
twistedstalk (S. roseus), and skunkcabbage (Lysichitum
americanum).
Recognized vegetative communities from British Columbia south are Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis/Lysichitum americanum and Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis/Rhododendron albiflorum (7). In southeast Alaska, a
common association in the open conifer forest surrounding bogs is Pinus
contorta-Tsuga heterophylla-Thuja plicata-Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis/Vaccinium ovalifolium-V. alaskaense-Ledum
groenlandicum/Sphagnum squarrosum (25).
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Climate
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Alaska-cedar is notable within the cypress family for its tolerance of
cool and wet conditions. The climate of its natural range is cool and
humid. Climatic conditions at elevations where Alaska-cedar grows in the
Cascade Range of Washington are somewhat comparable to those at sea level
in coastal Alaska (table 1). Growing seasons are short.
Table 1- Climate in the range of Alaska-cedar¹
Average Annual
Location
Elevation
Temper-
ature
Precipi-
tation
Snowfall
Frost-free period
m
°C
mm
cm
days
Washington²
1206
4
2340
1140
114
Alaska:
Sitka
4
7
2130
114
149
Cordova
12
5
2260
340
111
ft
°F
in
in
days
Washington²
3,958
39
92
450
114
Alaska:
Sitka
13
45
84
45
149
Cordva
39
41
89
134
111
¹Compiled from
U.S. Weather Service records.
²Stampede Pass near Mount Rainier.
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Damaging Agents
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Alaska-cedar is relatively free from damage by
insects. No infestations of defoliating insects are known (1). Both Phloeosinus
sp. and the bark-boring, round-headed beetles of the genus Atimia
are often found under the bark of dead, dying, or weakened trees and
occasionally on healthy trees (9). Phloeosinus cupressi is a
secondary agent that only attacks trees in advanced stages of decline
(14). A total of 78 taxa of fungi have been reported on Alaska-cedar
throughout its range, including 50 in Alaska (14). The wood, however, is
very durable and resistant to fungal attack, partly because of naturally
occurring chemicals-nootkatin, chamic acid, and chaminic acid-in the
heartwood that inhibit fungal growth at low concentrations (4). Certain "black-stain"
fungi are capable of degrading nootkatin, thereby increasing the
susceptibility of the heartwood to decay (24). Living trees often attain
great age, and over time heart-rotting fungi cause considerable loss and
defect in standing trees (15).
Since at least 1880, Alaska-cedar has suffered advancing decline and
mortality on more than 100 000 ha (247,000 acres) of bog and semibog land
in southeast Alaska. Abiotic factors appear to be responsible, but the
primary cause remains unknown (14).
In southeast Alaska, brown bears (Ursa arctos) frequently cause
basal scarring by biting and stripping bark. Scarring is most common on
well drained sites. This wounding results in fungal attack, which in time
reduces volume and value of butt logs (14).
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Flowering and Fruiting
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Alaska-cedar is monoecious. Flowering
occurs from April in the southern part of the range to June in the north.
The tiny inconspicuous yellow or reddish male pollen-bearing strobili and
green female cones are borne on the tips of branchlets. Pollination occurs
from mid-April to late May in cones that were initiated the previous
summer. Cones generally mature in 2 years, but in the southern part of the
range they may mature in I year. Both first- and second-year cones occur
on the same branch and may easily be confused. Mature cones are about 12
mm (0.5 in) in diameter and globe-shaped. Mature and immature cones are
nearly the same size, so care must be taken to collect only mature cones
for seed. Immature cones are green and soft, often with purple markings,
and are home near the tips of branchlets. Mature cones are yellow-green
and hard, often with brown markings, and are borne farther from the branch
tips.
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Genetics
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Information on genetic variation of Alaska-cedar is not available (10);
however, 15 horticultural varieties of Alaska-cedar are recognized. An
intergeneric hybrid, Cupressocyparis x leylandii (Cupressus macrocarpa
x Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), has been described in Great Britain
(16). This hybrid can be propagated from cuttings and has been planted at
numerous locations in temperate regions with good results.
Other intergeneric hybrids include Cupressocyparis x notabilis Mitchell
(Cupressus glabra x Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) and Cupressocyparis
x ovensii (Cupressus lusitanica x Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) (19).
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Growth and Yield
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Alaska-cedar is slow growing and long lived.
In Washington, dominant trees on better sites are typically 30 to 38 m
(100 to 125 ft) tall; in British Columbia, they are 90 cm (36 in) in
d.b.h. and 23 to 30 m (75 to 100 ft) tall; and in Alaska, dominant trees
are often 60 cm (24 in) in d.b.h. and 24 m (80 ft) tall, although larger
trees are common. The largest tree on record, located in Olympic National
Park, WA, has a d.b.h. of 3.7 m (12.0 ft), a height of 37 m (120 ft), and
a crown spread of 8.2 m (27 ft) (13). Growth rates of 16 to 20 rings per
centimeter (40 to 50/in) are common. In Alaska, suppressed trees 15 cm (6
in) in d.b.h. are frequently more than 300 years old; dominant and
codominant trees 60 to 90 cm (24 to 36 in) in d.b.h. are from 300 to more
than 700 years old. Trees that are extremely old have been reported; a
hollow tree 180 cm (70 in) in d.b.h. had 1,040 growth rings in the 30-cm
(12-in) outer shell (1).
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Reaction to Competition
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Alaska-cedar is considered tolerant of
shade in the southern part of its range but less tolerant toward the
north. Overall, it is classed as shade tolerant. South of Mt. Rainier, WA,
Alaska-cedar establishes some seedlings and is shade tolerant enough to
survive under moderately dense canopies, but forest-grown seedlings fail
to develop a strong upright trunk. Most trees on forest sites appear to
have been established after disturbance (2). In Alaska, young stands are
often even aged, and mixed or nearly pure stands of Alaska-cedar rarely
contain seedlings or saplings in the understory. Reproduction of western
hemlock is abundant, however, indicating that Alaska-cedar is less
tolerant than hemlock (1).
Most Alaska-cedar timber has come from logging mixed old-growth stands
in which the species is a minor component. Because of its slow rate of
growth in relation to other commercial species, there has been little
interest in management of Alaska-cedar for timber on the more productive
sites. It may be well suited for planting on cold, wet sites, however,
especially at high elevations where other species are less likely to
thrive. It survives heavy snow loads because of its narrow, flexible crown
and drooping branches, and its flexibility allows it to survive on
avalanche tracks. Interest in management of Alaska-cedar is relatively
new, and information on growth and yield of young stands is not available.
Volume tables are available for old-growth trees (6).
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Rooting Habit
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In bogs, roots of prostrate clumps of
Alaska-cedar often tend to be shallow and to develop in complex patterns
associated with a long history of branch layering (14). Root systems of
krummholz Alaska-cedar-apparently the result of root sprouting and
layering-have been observed to extend 100 feet (3). Understory trees have
shown adventitious rooting the year after partial burial by volcanic
tephra (26). Information is not available on the rooting habit of mature
trees on well drained sites.
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Seed Production and Dissemination
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Large crops of Alaska-cedar
seed occur at intervals of 4 or more years (12). The proportion of filled
seeds from mature cones is generally low and extremely variable. One study
in British Columbia showed that the number of seeds per cone averaged 7.2;
the proportion of filled seeds was only 29 percent (21). Cleaned seeds
average 240,000/kg (109,000/lb) (12). Information is not available on the
distance seeds are disseminated by wind. Seeds of Alaska-cedar are heavier
than seeds of the closely related Port-Orford-cedar and probably are not
disseminated beyond the 120 m (400 ft) reported for that species.
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Seedling Development
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Germination is epigeal, and the rate tends
to be low. Warm stratification followed by cold stratification greatly
improves germination, but optimum stratification schedules have not been
developed. In British Columbia and Alaska, seeds ripen from mid-September
to late September and are shed during dry periods in the fall and early
winter. Empty cones remain on trees for 1 year or more.
Formation of both pollen cones and seed cones can be induced in juvenile
trees by foliar application of gibberellin-A3 under conditions
of long day length. Cones induced by gibberellin-A3 yield
higher percentages of filled seeds with higher rates of germination than
cones that develop under natural conditions. Seed orchards should offer
the opportunity for treatment and thereby provide a practical means of
increasing cone production (22).
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Soils and Topography
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Alaska-cedar grows most commonly on Histosols and Spodosols. Best growth
and development are on slopes with deep, well-drained soils. It is seldom
found on the better sites, however, because of competition from faster
growing associates. More frequently, it is found on thin organic soils
over bedrock and is able to survive and grow on soils that are deficient
in nutrients. It grows well on soils rich in calcium and magnesium and
frequently on Lithosols developed from andesite, diorite, gabbro, or
basaltic rocks (18). It is a common component of "scrub" stands
on organic soils at low elevations in Alaska, and on organic subalpine
soils. At high elevations and on half-bog sites, it often develops a
shrublike or prostrate form.
Alaska-cedar grows at elevations from 600 to 2300 m (2,000 to 7,500 ft)
in the Cascade Range in Oregon and Washington and occasionally down to sea
level on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington and the west coast of
Vancouver Island. In Oregon, most Alaska-cedar grows on ridges and peaks
from 1500 to 1700 m (5,000 to 5,600 ft) high in the western Cascades
between the Clackamas and McKenzie rivers, but it can grow throughout much
of the moisture conditions present at high elevations in the Cascade Range
from central Oregon north (2). On the southern British Columbia mainland,
it usually grows between 600 and 1500 m (2,000 and 5,000 ft) but is found
at lower elevations northward until it reaches sea level at Knight Inlet.
From there, north and west to Prince William Sound in Alaska, it is found
from sea level to tree line, up to 900 m (3,000 ft) in southeast Alaska
and 300 m (1,000 ft) around Prince William Sound.
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Special Uses
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Special attributes of Alaska-cedar wood include durability, freedom from
splitting and checking, resistance to acid, smooth-wearing qualities, and
excellent characteristics for milling (11,23). It is suitable for
boatbuilding, utility poles, heavy flooring, framing, bridge and dock
decking, marine piling, window boxes, stadium seats, water and chemical
tanks, cooling towers, bedding for heavy machinery, furniture, patterns,
molding, sash, doors, paneling, toys, musical instruments, and carving.
The wood is highly regarded in Japan, and most high-quality logs are
exported.
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Vegetative Reproduction
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Alaska-cedar reproduces vegetatively
under a variety of natural conditions from low-elevation bogs to krummholz
at tree line (1,3,20,23). In southeast Alaska, layering is common on
low-elevation bog sites, less common on better drained sites (14). In
contrast, from Mount Rainier, WA, southward to California, layering is
most common on drier, high-elevation sites (2). The species can also be
reproduced from cuttings. Container stock suitable for planting has been
produced in the greenhouse in 1 year by potting young cuttings treated
with indolebutyric acid (17).
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Brief Summary
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Cupressaceae -- Cypress family
A. S. Harris
Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), also known as Alaska
yellow-cedar, yellow-cedar, Alaska cypress, and Nootka cypress, is an
important timber species of northwestern America. It is found along the
Pacific coast in Alaska and British Columbia, in the Cascade Range of
Oregon and Washington, and at a number of isolated locations (1,10). It is
confined to a cool, humid climate. Toward the south, Alaska-cedar rarely
grows below 600 m (2,000 ft) in elevation; but north of midcoastal
British Columbia, it grows from sea level to tree line. It is one of the
slowest growing conifers in the Northwest. The wood is extremely durable
and is excellent for specialty uses. Little effort is being made to manage
the species to assure a continuing supply.
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Distribution
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Alaska-cedar grows from northern California to Prince William Sound, AK
Except for a few isolated stands, it is found within 160 km (100 miles) of
the Pacific coast. Isolated stands in the Siskiyou Mountains, CA, near the
Oregon border mark its southern limit (2). In Oregon and Washington,
Alaska-cedar grows in the Cascade Range and Olympic Mountains; scattered
populations are found in the Coast Ranges and in the Aldrich Mountains of
central Oregon (8). In British Columbia and north to Wells Bay in Prince
William Sound, AK, it grows in a narrow strip on the islands and coastal
mainland. An exception in British Columbia is an isolated stand near
Slocan Lake about 720 km (450 mi) inland.
- The native range of Alaska-cedar.
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