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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 6.4 years (captivity)
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Без наслов ( англиски )

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The marine iguana has filled an interesting niche that no other living lizard does. It depends on the marine environment. To rid itself of the salt consumed while eating, A. cristatus excretes concentrated salt crystals from a nasal gland. The marine iguana regulates its body temperature by alternating from cold ocean water to basking on rocks near shore.

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Roy, K. 2000. "Amblyrhynchus cristatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Amblyrhynchus_cristatus.html
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Conservation Status ( англиски )

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It is important to conserve the biodiversity of the marine iguana because it is a unique and interesting animal. It is necessary to protect their island refuges from feral pests and human exploitation because they are long lived animals that can not sustain added mortality.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable

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Roy, K. 2000. "Amblyrhynchus cristatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Amblyrhynchus_cristatus.html
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Benefits ( англиски )

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The marine iguana does not affect humans because humans do not inhabit most of the islands they live on. The main food for the marine iguana is algae and that is not resource we compete for either.

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Roy, K. 2000. "Amblyrhynchus cristatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Amblyrhynchus_cristatus.html
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Trophic Strategy ( англиски )

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The marine iguana feed almost exclusively on marine algae (Cogger and Zweifel 1998). Larger members of the species feed more often by diving at high tide while smaller animals are restricted to intertidal feeding at low tide (Laurie and Brown II 1990). A major change in the marine algal flora occurred between November 1982 and July 1983. This coincided with abnormally high rainfall, sea level, and sea surface temperatures associated with El Nino-Southern Oscillation Event (ENSO). ENSO events are described as a mass of low-salinity nutrient-poor surface water moving south in the eastern tropical pacific. This causes a decrease in biological productivity and decreases survival and reproduction of animals dependant on the effected ecosystem. This was followed by unusually high mortality of maine iguanas (Laurie and Brown II 1990).

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Roy, K. 2000. "Amblyrhynchus cristatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Amblyrhynchus_cristatus.html
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Distribution ( англиски )

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The marine iguana inhabits the Galapagos Islands which form an archipelago off the coast of South America. The volcanic Galapagos has never been attached to another land mass so it is believed that iguanas rafted over water from South America (Cogger and Zweifel 1998). Some researchers believe that the land iguanas and the marine iguana diverged from a common ancestor at least 10 MY on the former islands of the archipelago which are now below sea level (Rassmann et. al. 1997).

Biogeographic Regions: oceanic islands (Native )

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Habitat ( англиски )

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The marine iguana is found on the volcanic islands of the Galapagos. Many of the islands have steep rock cliffs, low rock ledges and intertidal flats. A. cristatus needs access to the ocean and a sandy area to lay eggs. They evolved in a habitat that is limited in predators. On Santa Fe an island in the Galapagos the predator are hawks, short-eared owls, snakes, hawk-fish, and crabs. With so few natural predators the marine iguana is very vulnerable to feral predators such as rats, dogs and cats. The feral animals can affect egg survival and adult mortality. Females are especially at risk of predation when going to the open nesting areas.

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Roy, K. 2000. "Amblyrhynchus cristatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Amblyrhynchus_cristatus.html
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Life Expectancy ( англиски )

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Average lifespan
Sex: male
Status: captivity:
6.4 years.

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Morphology ( англиски )

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Amblyhynchus cristatus is a grey to black iguana with pyramid-shaped dorsal scales. They have shorter more blunt snouts than land iguanas, and they have a slightly laterally compressed tail. The young have a lighter color dorsal stripe (Rassmann et. al. 1997).

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Roy, K. 2000. "Amblyrhynchus cristatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Amblyrhynchus_cristatus.html
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Reproduction ( англиски )

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Males defend mating territories during the three-month annual breeding season. Females lay one to six eggs in burrows dug 30 to 80 cm deep. The eggs are laid in sand or volcanic ash up to 300m or more inland. Females guard the burrow for several days then leave the eggs to finish incubation, which is approximately 95 days. Nesting months are January through April depending on the island.

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Roy, K. 2000. "Amblyrhynchus cristatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Amblyrhynchus_cristatus.html
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Biology ( англиски )

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Galapagos marine iguanas are active during the day and spend the first few hours after sunrise basking in the sun in preparation for activity. The vast majority of individuals in each colony feed almost exclusively on marine algae in the intertidal zones during low tide. Only the largest five percent of individuals dive into the water for food, mostly during the hot midday hours (9). The waters are extremely cold, and cause the iguana to lose heat rapidly when feeding. This forces them to return to the rocks and warm up in the sun again. In fact, an iguana's size and the way it retains or loses heat determines its method of feeding. Small individuals, which lose heat quickly, forage on rocks at low tide, scraping algae off the surface, and rarely dive into the sea. Larger individuals, however, do not lose as much heat and so they can be active for longer. They graze seaweeds in the shallow water around two to five metres in depth but can dive up to 25 metres down to rocks where there is an abundance of algae, and no competition from other iguanas (5). While feeding they also consume a great deal of salt solution which, in excess, can be toxic. They therefore excrete concentrated salt crystals from a nasal gland by sneezing (4). Activity slows between noon and late evening, and before sunset the iguana retreats into crevices or beneath boulders for the night (2). This species breeds every year over a three month period, during which the males defend mating territories (4). Individuals breed normally just once every two years (9). Careful not to waste energy, they rely on less energetically expensive bluffs or bites to protect their territory. The nesting months are January through to April depending on the island (5). Females lay between one and six eggs up to 300 meters inland, in sand or volcanic ash burrows that are 30 to 80 centimetres deep. Females often guard the burrows for several days then leave the eggs to finish incubation, which takes approximately 95 days. When the young hatch they look like and act like miniature adults, and have no parental care (7)
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Conservation ( англиски )

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The Galapagos marine iguana occurs in one of the most biodiverse areas of the world. The Galapagos Islands have long been studied and protected and were influential in the formulation of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection (2). Most recently, in March 1998, a 133,000 km² area was designated as the Galapagos Marine Reserve, making it one of the world's largest protected areas. Detailed conservation and research programmes have been developed which focus on studying the islands' ecology, the effects of environmental fluctuations on species, and the effects of humans on wildlife (11). Controlling introduced feral animals on the islands is the most important and urgent measure, and the Galapagos National Park and the Charles Darwin station are tackling this problem (12). Long-term conservation efforts focusing on other aspects are also essential to allow this unique species to recover (12).
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Description ( англиски )

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Galapagos marine iguanas are the world's only marine lizards (4). They inhabit the Galapagos Islands and, in the absence of mammalian predators, have adapted well to the harsh marine environment. Superficially they resemble large lizards, though they have evolved blunt noses for grazing on seaweed, laterally flattened tails to assist swimming, and powerful limbs with strong claws to help them cling to rocks (5). They are grey to black in colour, though during the mating season they may have blotches of coppery green and red on their scaled body which may result from the consumption of a particular seaweed that blooms in the summer months. These iguanas have obelisk-shaped dorsal scales running from the head to the tail (6). Males are considerably larger than females, though the sexes are similar in appearance. Juveniles also look the same, but are generally darker in colour (2).
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Habitat ( англиски )

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This species often lives in colonies where shallow reefs occur with an extensive intertidal zone and a rocky coastline (8). They are found basking on stretches of low cliffs, about two to five metres above sea level, but may also climb to heights of 80 metres. They also need access to sandy areas in which to bury their eggs (2). Though the Galapagos Islands straddle the equator, the water is extremely cold from surrounding ocean currents (5).
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Range ( англиски )

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This iguana is endemic to the Galapagos Islands, which form an archipelago off the coast of South America. These are volcanic islands, and have never been attached to a land mass, so it is thought that the iguanas rafted over water from South America around 10 to 15 million years ago (7).
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Status ( англиски )

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The Galapagos marine iguana is classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List (1) and listed on Appendix II of CITES (3). Subspecies: Amblyrhynchus cristatus mertensi and A. c. nanus are classified as Endangered (EN) and A. c. albemarlensis, A. c. cristatus, A. c. hassi, A. c. sielmanni and A. c. venustissimus are classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List (1).
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Threats ( англиски )

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Galapagos marine iguanas have evolved anti-predator behaviours towards the native Galapagos Hawk (Buteo galapagoensis) but are also threatened by introduced cats, dogs and rats. These feral animals eat iguanas and their eggs and have decimated hatchling populations in many colonies (1) (2). This species is also sensitive to environmental fluctuations caused by El Nino (5). This natural phenomenon is caused by a failing of the trade winds resulting in an increase in sea temperature of about 4.3 degrees Celsius along with an increase in sea levels and precipitation (2). On average, El Nino occurs every 12.3 years, although the 1982 to 1983 event was the most severe for around 100 years (2). The environmental fluctuations and the following invasion of an alga (Giffordia mitchelliae) excluded the normal food species of the Galapagos marine iguana, causing the death of 50 percent of the population (8). Oil spills and marine pollution are also very serious threats as they destroy food reserves and the nesting beaches. A recent oil spill from an Ecuadorian tanker in January 2001 spilled millions of litres of oil and fuel into the waters of the Galapagos Islands. In the following year, around 15,000 iguanas on the Island of Santa Fe alone died; over 60 percent of the entire island population. Scientists believe the oil may have killed the bacteria that the iguanas need to help digest algae, making it impossible for them to absorb nutrients (10). Fortunately, iguanas can increase their reproduction rate when population densities are low (such as after El Nino events), and thus can potentially recover from disasters to some extent (9).
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One Species at a Time Podcast ( англиски )

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No iguana wants to be cooked alive on a hot rock and then served up as dinner for a Galapagos hawk. But it turns out the marine iguanas have a strategy that warns them of the presence of hawks they can’t see. They learned to tune in to a kind of police scanner…the alarm calls of mockingbirds.

Listen to the podcast, meet the scientists, and hear intriguing extra audio on the Learning + Education section of EOL.

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Seelikkewaan ( африканс )

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Die Seelikkewaan (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) is 'n likkewaan wat die unieke eienskap onder moderne likkewane besit om onder water te kan oorleef en kos te soek. Die likkewane word slegs in die Galapagos-eilande gevind, maar het na al die eilande in die eilandgroep versprei. Hulle woon hoofsaaklik op die rotsagtige strande van Galapagos, maar kan soms ook in die moerasse en manglietstrande gevind word.

Beskrywing

Tydens sy besoek aan die eilande, het Charles Darwin die likkewane se voorkoms walglik gevind, en die volgende oor hulle geskryf:

Die swart Lawarotse word besoek deur groot (2-3 voet) mees akelige, lomp Likkewane. Hulle is so swart soos die poreuse rotse waaroor hulle kruip & soekende na hulle prooi van die See. Ek noem hulle 'kwajongens van die duisternis'. Hulle pas verseker goed by die land wat hulle bewoon.[2]

Seelikkewane is egter nie altyd swart nie: die jonger likkewane het 'n ligter dorsale streep en sommige van die volwassenes is grys, eerder as swart. Die rede vir die donker kleure is die spesie se behoefte om hitte so spoedig moontlik te absorbeer, ten einde die periode van letargie ná 'n tydperk in die water te verkort. Hulle eet amper uitsluitlik seewier, maar dit bevat egter meer sout as wat die reptiele nodig het. Seelikkewane het dus spesiale neuskliere waarmee hulle die oortollige sout kan uitnies terwyl hulle in die son lê en bak; gevolglik lyk hulle gesigte ook soms wit. Volwasse mannetjies se kleur verskil van seisoen tot seisoen. Tydens die paarseisoen is die mannetjies op die suidelike eilande die kleurvolste, met rooi en blougroen kleure. Die mannetjies op die eiland Santa Cruz is in hierdie seisoen baksteenrooi en swart, terwyl die mannetjies op Fernandina-eiland baksteenrooi en 'n dowwe groen is.

'n Ander verskil tussen die likkewane is hulle grote, wat verskil van eiland tot eiland. Die likkewane op Fernandina- en Isabela-eiland is die grootste likkewane wat in die Galapagos aangetref word. Die kleinste likkewane word op die Genovesa-eiland aangetref.

Volwasse mannetjies is omtrent 1,3 m, terwyl die wyfies aansienlik kleiner is, met 'n gemiddelde lengte van 0,6 m. Die mannetjies kan tot 1,5 kg weeg.

Gedrag

 src=
'n Seelikkewaan swem in die water by Fernandina-eiland.

Seelikkewane is koudbloedig en kan dus slegs 'n beperkte tyd onder water spandeer, waar hulle hulle kos vandaan kry. Hoe dieper hulle duik, hoe kouer is die water en hoe korter is die tyd wat hulle onder die oppervlak kan spandeer (wanneer hulle al hulle liggaamshitte verloor, verstyf hulle spiere en kan hulle nie meer beweeg nie). Deur in die vlak water (tot 15 m diep) om die eiland te swem, kan hulle afsonderlike duike van tot 'n halfuur onderneem. Die meeste duike duur egter slegs 'n paar minute en dan in besonder vlak water (tot 5 m diep).[3] Na die duike keer hulle terug na hulle gebied om in die son te bak en weer warm te word. Wanneer hulle koud is, kan die seelikkewaan nie effektief beweeg nie en is hy 'n maklike teiken vir hulle natuurlike vyande. Hulle word dus uiters aggressief vóór hulle opwarm: siende dat hulle nie in die periode kan weghardloop nie, sal hulle probeer om hulle aanvallers te byt. Die mannetjies word ook hoogs verdedigend tydens die broeiseisoen. Die mannetjies versamel groot groepe wyfies waarmee hulle sal paar, en beskerm die wyfies teen ander mannetjie-likkewane.

Bronnelys

  • Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus. In: IUCN 2007. 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. www.iucnredlist.org. Laaste besoek op 25 September 2007.
  • Rothman, Robert, Marine Iguana Galapagos Pages. Rochester Institute of Technology. Retrieved 16 August 2006.

Verwysings

  1. Nelson et al (2004). Amblyrhynchus cristatus. 2006 IUBN-rooilys van bedreigde spesies. Internasionale Unie vir die Bewaring van die Natuur 2006. Verkry op 11 May 2006. Databasis inskrywing gee kort verdediging hoekom hierdie spesie nie bedreigd is nie.
  2. Die oorspronklike Engelse teks: "The black Lava rocks on the beach are frequented by large (2-3 ft) most disgusting clumsy Lizards. They are as black as the porous rocks over which they crawl & seek their prey from the Sea. I call them 'imps of darkness'. They assuredly well become the land they inhabit."
  3. Volgens Dr. Robert Rothman, van Galapagos Pages duur tipiese duike slegs 'n paar minute in dieptes van minder as 5 meter, maar Darwin het gerapporteer dat 'n bemanningslid 'n likkewaan vir 'n uur onder die water gehou het, waarna dit steeds gelewe het. Volgens die World Conservation Union kan volwasse mannetjies tot twintig meter diep gevind word.
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Seelikkewaan: Brief Summary ( африканс )

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Die Seelikkewaan (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) is 'n likkewaan wat die unieke eienskap onder moderne likkewane besit om onder water te kan oorleef en kos te soek. Die likkewane word slegs in die Galapagos-eilande gevind, maar het na al die eilande in die eilandgroep versprei. Hulle woon hoofsaaklik op die rotsagtige strande van Galapagos, maar kan soms ook in die moerasse en manglietstrande gevind word.

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Igwan-mor ( бретонски )

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An igwan-mor (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) a zo ur stlejvil a vev en Inizi Galápagos. Ar spesad nemetañ eo er genad Amblyrhynchus.

 src=
Igwan en Bahía Tortuga - Amblyrhynchus cristatus Santa Cruz (Galápagos).


 src=
Penn un igwan-mor
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Leguán mořský ( чешки )

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ikona
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Můžete Wikipedii pomoci tím, že ho vylepšíte. Jak by měly články vypadat, popisují stránky Vzhled a styl, Encyklopedický styl a Odkazy.

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Konkrétní problémy: rozdělit do odstavců

Leguán mořský (Amblyrhynchus cristatus)[2] je vejcorodý ještěr, žijící na ekvádorském souostroví Galapágy[3] v Tichém oceánu, dorůstající do délky 1 metru.

Popis

Vyznačuje se masivní hlavou a velkým tělem. Jako jediný z ještěrů hledá potravu v moři. Živí se mořskými řasami u souostroví Galapágy. Je navyklý na nízké teploty a přebytek soli. Dospělý jedinec se může ponořit až do hloubky 12 metrů a být pod hladinou oceánu déle než hodinu. Za normálních okolností však loví pomocí nehlubokých ponorů a lov netrvá déle než 10 minut. Pokud leguáni nehledají potravu, sluní se na kamenech a skalách. Často lze pozorovat až tisícové houfy leguánů na jedné části pobřeží. Během páření jsou samci agresivní a bojují mezi sebou o samice. Dobrých míst k hnízdění je tak málo, že tisíce samic často kladou společně vajíčka do písku. Obvykle samice naklade 1 až 6 vajec. Mládě se líhne za 2-3 měsíce. Mláďata shánějí potravu v přílivové zóně a ukrývají se v rozsedlinách kvůli rackům a jiným mořským ptákům, kteří by je mohli sežrat.

Galerie

Reference

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-09]
  2. ZICHA, Ondrej. Leguán mořský. www.biolib.cz [online]. [cit. 2017-05-23]. Dostupné online. (česky)
  3. Kde Darwin odhalil evoluci. Galapágy, unikátní laboratoř živé přírody. iDNES.cz [online]. 2013-03-11 [cit. 2017-05-23]. Dostupné online.

Externí odkazy

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Leguán mořský: Brief Summary ( чешки )

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Leguán mořský (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) je vejcorodý ještěr, žijící na ekvádorském souostroví Galapágy v Tichém oceánu, dorůstající do délky 1 metru.

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Havleguan ( дански )

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Galapagos Havleguanen (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) er en leguan der kun findes på Galapagosøerne. Den havde oprindelig ikke forbindelse til havet, men kan være kommet til Galapagosøerne med drivtømmer og siden tilpasset sig de nye omgivelser.

Dette bekræftede Charles Darwins evolutionsteori, da havleguanerne udviklede bredere haler, så de lettere kunne svømme i havet. De har også udviklet en kortere snude, så de kan komme helt tæt på de sten de spiser alger fra. De mindre havleguaner spiser alger fra sten oppe på land, efter at der har været højvande og alger er skyllet op på stenene. De større havleguaner dykker derimod ned i vandet, hvor de spiser alger fra de sten de finder dernede. Da de store havleguaner svømmer under havets overflade får de store mængder salt ind, som de derefter nyser ud.

Når havleguanerne er voksne, har de få fjender, kun hajer og Galapagosvågen, hvor deres reder tiltrækker både fugle og slanger.

Havleguanen yngler i december, hvor den lægger op til seks æg.

Da havleguanen er koldblodet, kan dens muskler blive lammede af at svømme nede i havet i for lang tid. Derfor er det afgørende for dens overlevelse at nå op på land, hvor den genvinder varmen på de solvarme klipper. Når det bliver nat, og den varmende sol går ned, samles de i grupper med op til 50 individer, hvor de holder hinanden varme. De solvarme klipper kan også være en trussel, da klipperne kan blive op til 60°C, og kan dræbe leguanen, hvis den ligger der for længe.[kilde mangler].

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    Havleguan: Brief Summary ( дански )

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    Galapagos Havleguanen (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) er en leguan der kun findes på Galapagosøerne. Den havde oprindelig ikke forbindelse til havet, men kan være kommet til Galapagosøerne med drivtømmer og siden tilpasset sig de nye omgivelser.

    Dette bekræftede Charles Darwins evolutionsteori, da havleguanerne udviklede bredere haler, så de lettere kunne svømme i havet. De har også udviklet en kortere snude, så de kan komme helt tæt på de sten de spiser alger fra. De mindre havleguaner spiser alger fra sten oppe på land, efter at der har været højvande og alger er skyllet op på stenene. De større havleguaner dykker derimod ned i vandet, hvor de spiser alger fra de sten de finder dernede. Da de store havleguaner svømmer under havets overflade får de store mængder salt ind, som de derefter nyser ud.

    Når havleguanerne er voksne, har de få fjender, kun hajer og Galapagosvågen, hvor deres reder tiltrækker både fugle og slanger.

    Havleguanen yngler i december, hvor den lægger op til seks æg.

    Da havleguanen er koldblodet, kan dens muskler blive lammede af at svømme nede i havet i for lang tid. Derfor er det afgørende for dens overlevelse at nå op på land, hvor den genvinder varmen på de solvarme klipper. Når det bliver nat, og den varmende sol går ned, samles de i grupper med op til 50 individer, hvor de holder hinanden varme. De solvarme klipper kan også være en trussel, da klipperne kan blive op til 60°C, og kan dræbe leguanen, hvis den ligger der for længe.[kilde mangler].

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    Meerechse ( германски )

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    Die Meerechse (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) ist eine endemisch auf den Galápagos-Inseln vorkommende Leguanart. Sie lebt auf allen Inseln, meist an Felsküsten, aber auch in Mangrovenbeständen. Unter den heute lebenden Echsen ist die Meerechse die einzige Art, die ihre Nahrung im Meer sucht.

    Die genetische Diversität der Galápagos-Meerechsen im gesamten Galápagos-Archipel wurde nach der Entdeckung von fünf bisher nicht bekannten Unterarten 2017 neu klassifiziert und in elf verschiedene Unterarten unterteilt. Unter den entdeckten Arten ist auch die Amblyrhynchus cristatus godzilla, die dem Kino-Monster Godzilla ähnlich sieht.[1]

    Aussehen

    Die Grundfarbe der Meerechsen ist schwarz. Der Grund für die dunklen Töne liegt darin, dass sich die Tiere nach ihren Tauchgängen im Meer schnell wieder erwärmen müssen, um erneut im Meer Nahrung suchen zu können. Sie fressen fast ausschließlich marine Algen und Tange. Das mit der Nahrung aufgenommene überschüssige Salz scheiden sie durch Chloridzellen in Drüsen an den Nasenlöchern aus. Jungtiere haben einen hellen farbigen Streifen auf dem Rücken, und einige ausgewachsene Tiere sind grau. Die Färbung der Männchen ändert sich mit den Jahreszeiten. Zur Fortpflanzungszeit sind sie auf den südlichen Inseln am farbigsten und werden rot und grün. Auf Santa Cruz sind sie schwarz und ziegelrot und auf Fernandina ziegelrot und stumpf grün.

    Die verschiedenen Populationen unterscheiden sich auch durch ihre Größe und ihre Färbung. Auf Fernandina und auf Isabela leben die größten Leguane, die kleinsten bewohnen die Insel Genovesa. Ausgewachsene Männchen werden bis zu 1,3 Meter lang, während die Weibchen mit 60 Zentimetern nur halb so lang werden. Auf San Cristóbal kommen zwei Populationen vor, die sich nicht mehr miteinander vermehren und sich damit wie zwei unterschiedliche Arten verhalten, aber weiterhin mit Meerechsen von anderen Inseln hybridisieren.[2]

    Lebensweise

    Als wechselwarme Tiere können die Meerechsen nur eine begrenzte Zeit auf Futtersuche im kalten Meer verbringen. Sie tauchen bis zu einer halben Stunde im flachen Wasser bis zu einer Tiefe von 15 Metern und weiden Algen ab. Danach müssen sie sich wieder in der Sonne aufwärmen. Während der Fortpflanzungszeit im Dezember und Januar werden die Männchen sehr territorial. Sie bilden Reviere, in denen sie möglichst viele Weibchen versammeln und gegen andere Männchen verteidigen.

    Die Meerechsen und der im Landesinnern der Galapagosinseln lebende Drusenkopf sollen von einem gemeinsamen Vorfahren abstammen, der auf Baumstämmen von Südamerika zu den Inseln verdriftet wurde. Beide Linien trennten sich vor etwa 4,5 Millionen Jahren[2].

    Gefährdung

    Junge Meerechsen werden von verwilderten Hauskatzen und Hunden gefressen. Hunde können auch adulte Tiere erbeuten, die gerade nach einem Tauchgang in ihren Reflexen eingeschränkt sind. Das Klimaphänomen El Niño verursacht periodische Abnahmen der Population. Die Gesamtzahl der Tiere ist unbekannt, soll aber, nach IUCN, 20.000 bis über 40.000[3], und nach Schätzungen der Charles-Darwin-Forschungsstation Hunderttausende von Exemplaren umfassen.

    Meerechsen sind durch Gesetze Ecuadors vollständig geschützt und sind im Washingtoner Artenschutz-Übereinkommen im Anhang II verzeichnet.

    Einzelnachweise

    1. Godzilla-Meerechse auf den Galápagos-Inseln entdeckt. Technische Universität Braunschweig, 10. Mai 2017, abgerufen am 10. Mai 2017.
    2. a b Amy MacLeod, Ariel Rodríguez, Miguel Vences, Pablo Orozco-terWengel, Carolina García, Fritz Trillmich, Gabriele Gentile, Adalgisa Caccone, Galo Quezada, Sebastian Steinfartz: Hybridization masks speciation in the evolutionary history of the Galápagos marine iguana. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Juni 2015, DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0425
    3. Amblyrhynchus cristatus in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN 2006. Eingestellt von: Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004. Abgerufen am 16. September 2006.
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    Meerechse: Brief Summary ( германски )

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    Die Meerechse (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) ist eine endemisch auf den Galápagos-Inseln vorkommende Leguanart. Sie lebt auf allen Inseln, meist an Felsküsten, aber auch in Mangrovenbeständen. Unter den heute lebenden Echsen ist die Meerechse die einzige Art, die ihre Nahrung im Meer sucht.

    Die genetische Diversität der Galápagos-Meerechsen im gesamten Galápagos-Archipel wurde nach der Entdeckung von fünf bisher nicht bekannten Unterarten 2017 neu klassifiziert und in elf verschiedene Unterarten unterteilt. Unter den entdeckten Arten ist auch die Amblyrhynchus cristatus godzilla, die dem Kino-Monster Godzilla ähnlich sieht.

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    See-Leeguoan ( Stq )

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    See-Leeguoan See-Leeguoane
    See-Leeguoane (Amblyrhunchus cristatus) Systematik Oardenge: Skubben-Kjoopdierte (Squamata) sunner Stappe: Toxicofera sunner Stappe: Leeguoan-Oardige (Iguania) Familie: Leeguoane (Iguanidae) Sleek: Amblyrhynchus Oard: See-Leeguoan (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) Beskrieuwen fon BELL, 1825

    Die See-Leeguoan (Amblyrhynchus cristatus; düütsk: Meerechse) is endemisk ap do Galápagos-Ailounde, wier hie ap aal do Ailounde, maasttieds loangs do Fäls-Kusten, man uk wäil in do Mangroven-Woolde tou fienden is. Hie is die eensige Leeguoan, die sien Neerenge in'e See soacht. Jo duukje bit tou een hoolwe Uure loang bit tou 15 Meetere joop in't Woater, wier jo Algen ouweedje. Ätters mouten jo in'e Sunne lääse, uum sik aptouwoormjen. See-Leeguoane sunt näämelk wikselwoorme Dierte.

    Uum gauer woorm tou wäiden, hääbe jo uk uur ju maaste Tied fon't Jier hiere swotte bit griese Faawe. Bloot in ju Poorengstied wäide do monnelke Dierte (aal ätter dät Ailound, wier jo häärkuume) rood of gräin. Montjene wäide bit tou 1,30 m loang, dät Wiefken bloot 60 cm.

    Ju genetiske Fuulfoold fon do See-Leeguoane ap dän heelen Galápagos-Archipel wuude ätter ju Apfiendenge fon fieuw hoast nit bekoande Unneroarde in't Jier 2017 näi klassifisierd un in alwen ferskeedene Unneroarde unnerdeeld.

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    See-Leeguoan: Brief Summary ( Stq )

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    Die See-Leeguoan (Amblyrhynchus cristatus; düütsk: Meerechse) is endemisk ap do Galápagos-Ailounde, wier hie ap aal do Ailounde, maasttieds loangs do Fäls-Kusten, man uk wäil in do Mangroven-Woolde tou fienden is. Hie is die eensige Leeguoan, die sien Neerenge in'e See soacht. Jo duukje bit tou een hoolwe Uure loang bit tou 15 Meetere joop in't Woater, wier jo Algen ouweedje. Ätters mouten jo in'e Sunne lääse, uum sik aptouwoormjen. See-Leeguoane sunt näämelk wikselwoorme Dierte.

    Uum gauer woorm tou wäiden, hääbe jo uk uur ju maaste Tied fon't Jier hiere swotte bit griese Faawe. Bloot in ju Poorengstied wäide do monnelke Dierte (aal ätter dät Ailound, wier jo häärkuume) rood of gräin. Montjene wäide bit tou 1,30 m loang, dät Wiefken bloot 60 cm.

    Ju genetiske Fuulfoold fon do See-Leeguoane ap dän heelen Galápagos-Archipel wuude ätter ju Apfiendenge fon fieuw hoast nit bekoande Unneroarde in't Jier 2017 näi klassifisierd un in alwen ferskeedene Unneroarde unnerdeeld.

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    Θαλάσσιο ιγκουάνα ( грчки, современ (1453-) )

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    Το Θαλάσσιο ιγκουάνα (Amblyrhynchus cristatus- Αμβλύρρυγχος ο λοφιοφόρος) είναι ιγκουάνα που βρίσκεται μόνο στα Νησιά Γκαλαπάγκος και το οποίο έχει την ικανότητα, μοναδική μεταξύ των σύγχρονων σαυρών, να ζει και να τρέφεται στη θάλασσα, όντας έτσι θαλάσσιο ερπετό. Μπορεί να βουτάει πάνω από 10 μέτρα μέσα στο νερό. Έχει εξαπλωθεί σε όλα τα νησιά του αρχιπελάγους, ενώ κάποιες φορές καλείται το Θαλάσσιο ιγκουάνα των Γκαλαπάγκος). Ζει κυρίως στις βραχώδεις ακτές των νησιών, αλλά μπορεί να εντοπιστεί και σε βαλτώδεις ή θαμνώδεις παραλίες.

    Υποείδη

    Καταχωρούνται με αλφαβητική σειρά.[3]

    • A. c. albemarlensis Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Νήσος Ισαμπέλα
    • A. c. cristatus Bell, 1825 – Νήσος Φερναντίντα
    • A. c. hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Νήσος Σάντα Κρους
    • A. c. mertensi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Νήσοι Σαν Κριστομπάλ και Σαντιάγο
    • A. c. nanus Garman, 1892 – Νήσος Χενοβέσα
    • A. c. sielmanni Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Νήσος Πίντα
    • A. c. venustissimus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 – Νήσος Εσπανιόλα

    Ανατομία

    Όταν ο Κάρολος Δαρβίνος επισκέφτηκε τα νησιά αηδιασμένος από την εμφάνιση των ζώων, έγραψε:

    Στις μαύρες ηφαιστειακές πέτρες στην παραλία συχνάζουν τεράστιες (2-3 πόδια), αηδιαστικές και άχαρες σαύρες. Είναι τόσο μαύρες όσο οι πορώδεις πέτρες πάνω στις οποίες σέρνονται και ψάχνουν την λεία τους από τη θάλασσα. Τις ονομάζω "διαβολάκια της σκοτεινιάς". Έγιναν στα σίγουρα όπως η γη στην οποία κατοικούν.[4]

    Στην πραγματικότητα οι Amblyrhynchus cristatus δεν είναι πάντα μαύρες. Οι νεαρές σαύρες είναι πιο ανοιχτόχρωμες στην ράχη και κάποιοι τύποι ενηλίκων σαυρών είναι γκρίζες. Οι αιτία των σκοτεινών τόνων είναι ότι το είδος πρέπει να απορροφά ταχύτατα θερμότητα για να μειώσουν την περίοδο λήθαργου, αφού βγουν στην επιφάνεια από το νερό. Τρέφονται σχεδόν αποκλειστικά με θαλάσσιες άλγες για να αποβάλουν το υπερβολικό αλάτι από τις ρινικές τους κοιλότητες, καθώς ζεσταίνονται από τον ήλιο και το στρώμα από αλάτι μπορεί να κάνει τα πρόσωπα τους άσπρα. Στα ενήλικα αρσενικά, ο χρωματισμός μεταβάλλεται με την εποχή. Την εποχή της γονιμοποίησης τα ενήλικα αρσενικά των νοτιότερων νησιών είναι τα πιο χρωματιστά, αφού αποκτούν κοκκινωπά και σκούρα πράσινα χρώματα, ενώ στην Σάντα Κρουζ είναι κεραμιδί και μαύρο και στην Φερναντίνα είναι κεραμιδί και μουντό πράσινο.

    Μία άλλη διαφορά μεταξύ των ιγκουάνα είναι το μέγεθος, που είναι διαφορετικό ανάλογα με το νησί στο οποίο κατοικεί το κάθε ένα ιγκουάνα. Τα ιγκουάνα που ζουν στα νησιά Φερναντίνα και Ισαβέλα είναι τα μεγαλύτερα που μπορούν να βρεθούν στα Γκαλαπάγκος. Από την άλλη, τα μικρότερα ιγκουάνα βρίσκονται στο νησί Τζενοβέζα.

    Τα ενήλικα αρσενικά είναι περίπου 1,3 μέτρα (τα θηλυκά 0.6 μέτρα) και ζυγίζουν 1,5 κιλά.

    Στην ξηρά, τα θαλάσσια ιγκουάνα είναι μάλλον αδέξια ζώα, αλλά στο νερό είναι εξαίσιοι κολυμβητές που χρησιμοποιούν την πανίσχυρη ουρά τους για να προωθούν τους εαυτούς τους.

    Συμπεριφορική οικολογία

    Ως εξώθερμα ζώα, τα θαλάσσια ιγκουάνα μπορούν να μείνουν στην κρύα θάλασσα για περιορισμένο χρόνο, όπου καταδύονται για άλγη. Παρόλα αυτά, κολυμπώντας μόνο στα ρηχά νερά γύρω από τα νησιά, μπορούν να επιβιώσουν από μία κατάδυση μισής ώρας και βάθους περισσότερο από 15 m[5]. Μετά από αυτές τις καταδύσεις, επιστρέφουν στην περιοχή τους για να ξαναζεσταθούν από τον ήλιο. Όταν είναι κρύο, το ιγκουάνα είναι ανίκανο να κινηθεί αποτελεσματικά καθιστώντας το τρωτό σε αρπακτικά, γι' αυτό είναι πολύ επιθετικά πριν ζεσταθούν (αφού είναι ανίκανα να τρέξουν, προσπαθούν να δαγκώσουν τους εχθρούς τους). Κατά την εποχή της αναπαραγωγής, τα αρσενικά γίνονται πολύ τοπικιστικά. Βρίσκουν μεγάλες ομάδες από θηλυκά για να ζευγαρώσουν, και τα φυλάσσουν από άλλα αρσενικά ιγκουάνα. Παρόλα αυτά, το είδος τις υπόλοιπες περιόδους είναι επιθετικό μόνο όταν κάνει κρύο.

    Τα θαλάσσια ιγκουάνα βρέθηκαν να αλλάζουν το μέγεθος τους για να προσαρμοστούν σε συνθήκες έλλειψης τροφής. Κατά την διάρκεια του Ελ Νίνιο (περίοδος της ατμόσφαιρας και του ωκεανού στην περιοχή του Ειρηνικού) όταν η άλγη με την οποία τρέφονται τα ιγκουάνα μειώνεται για δύο χρόνια, κάποια βρέθηκαν να μειώνουν το μέγεθος τους κατά 20%. Όταν οι τροφικές συνθήκες επιστρέψουν στο κανονικό, τα ιγκουάνα επιστρέφουν στο προηγούμενο μέγεθος τους. Θεωρείται ότι τα κόκκαλα των ιγκουάνα μικραίνουν καθώς συρρικνώνονται οι συνδετικοί τους δεσμοί.[6]

    Πηγές

    • Rothman, Robert, Marine Iguana Galapagos Pages. Rochester Institute of Technology.

    Παραπομπές

    1. Nelson et al. (2004). Amblyrhynchus cristatus. 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. www.iucnredlist.org. Ανακτήθηκε 11 May 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this species is vulnerable
    2. «Ιγκουανίδες». Υγεία online. Ανακτήθηκε στις 10 Οκτωβρίου 2012.
    3. Amblyrhynchus cristatus, Reptile Database
    4. Κάρολος Δαρβίνος (2001). Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 494. ISBN 0521003172
    5. GalapagosPages
    6. M, Wikelski; Thom, C. (Jan 6 2000). «Marine iguanas shrink to survive El Niño». Nature 403 (6765): 37–8. doi:10.1038/47396. PMID 10638740.
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    Θαλάσσιο ιγκουάνα: Brief Summary ( грчки, современ (1453-) )

    добавил wikipedia emerging languages

    Το Θαλάσσιο ιγκουάνα (Amblyrhynchus cristatus- Αμβλύρρυγχος ο λοφιοφόρος) είναι ιγκουάνα που βρίσκεται μόνο στα Νησιά Γκαλαπάγκος και το οποίο έχει την ικανότητα, μοναδική μεταξύ των σύγχρονων σαυρών, να ζει και να τρέφεται στη θάλασσα, όντας έτσι θαλάσσιο ερπετό. Μπορεί να βουτάει πάνω από 10 μέτρα μέσα στο νερό. Έχει εξαπλωθεί σε όλα τα νησιά του αρχιπελάγους, ενώ κάποιες φορές καλείται το Θαλάσσιο ιγκουάνα των Γκαλαπάγκος). Ζει κυρίως στις βραχώδεις ακτές των νησιών, αλλά μπορεί να εντοπιστεί και σε βαλτώδεις ή θαμνώδεις παραλίες.

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    கடற்பேரோந்தி ( тамилски )

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    கடற்பேரோந்தி (marine iguana) என்பது பேரோந்தி வகையைச் சேர்ந்த கடல்வாழ் உயிரினம் ஆகும். இது எக்குவடோர் நாட்டில் உள்ள கலாபகசுத் தீவுகளில் மட்டுமே காணப்படுகிறது. பல்லியோந்திகள் வரிசையில் கடற்பேரோந்திகள் மட்டுமே நீந்தும் திறன் பெற்றுள்ளன. இதில் மொத்தம் 7 அல்லது 8 துணையினங்கள் உள்ளன.

    மேற்கோள்கள்

    1. Nelson, K.; Snell, H.; Wikelski, M. (2004). "Amblyrhynchus cristatus". செம்பட்டியல் 2004: e.T1086A3222951. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T1086A3222951.en.
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    கடற்பேரோந்தி: Brief Summary ( тамилски )

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    கடற்பேரோந்தி (marine iguana) என்பது பேரோந்தி வகையைச் சேர்ந்த கடல்வாழ் உயிரினம் ஆகும். இது எக்குவடோர் நாட்டில் உள்ள கலாபகசுத் தீவுகளில் மட்டுமே காணப்படுகிறது. பல்லியோந்திகள் வரிசையில் கடற்பேரோந்திகள் மட்டுமே நீந்தும் திறன் பெற்றுள்ளன. இதில் மொத்தம் 7 அல்லது 8 துணையினங்கள் உள்ளன.

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    Marine iguana ( англиски )

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    The marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), also known as the sea iguana, saltwater iguana, or Galápagos marine iguana, is a species of iguana found only on the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador). Unique among modern lizards, it is a marine reptile that has the ability to forage in the sea for algae, which makes up almost all of its diet.[3] Marine iguanas are the only extant lizard that spends time in a marine environment.[4] Large males are able to dive to find this food source, while females and smaller males feed during low tide in the intertidal zone.[5] They mainly live in colonies on rocky shores where they bask after visiting the relatively cold water or intertidal zone, but can also be seen in marshes, mangrove swamps and beaches.[6] Large males defend territories for a short period, but smaller males have other breeding strategies. After mating, the female digs a nest hole in the soil where she lays her eggs, leaving them to hatch on their own a few months later.[7]

    Marine iguanas vary in appearance between the different islands and several subspecies are recognized.[8] Although relatively large numbers remain and it is locally abundant,[9] this protected species is considered threatened, primarily from El Niño cycles, introduced predators and chance events like oil spills.[1]

    Taxonomy and evolution

    Species description and etymology

    The marine iguana was first described in 1825 as Amblyrhynchus cristatus by Thomas Bell. He recognized several of its distinctive features, but believed that the specimen he had received was from Mexico,[10] a locality now known to be erroneous.[11]

    Its generic name, Amblyrhynchus, is a combination of two Greek words, Ambly- from Amblus (ἀμβλυ) meaning "blunt" and rhynchus (ρυγχος) meaning "snout".[12] Its specific name is the Latin word cristatus meaning "crested," and refers to the low crest of spines along the animal's back.

    Amblyrhynchus is a monotypic genus, having only one species, Amblyrhynchus cristatus.[11]

    Evolution

    A hybrid iguana, the result of interbreeding between a marine iguana and a Galápagos land iguana

    Researchers theorize that land iguanas (genus Conolophus) and marine iguanas evolved from a common ancestor since arriving on the islands from Central or South America, presumably by rafting.[13][14] The land and marine iguanas of the Galápagos form a clade, the nearest relatives of which are the Ctenosaura iguanas of Mexico and Central America.[8] Based on a study that relied on mtDNA, the marine iguana was estimated to have diverged from land iguanas some 8–10 million years ago, which is older than any of the extant Galápagos islands.[15][16][17] It has therefore traditionally been thought that the ancestral species inhabited parts of the volcanic archipelago that are now submerged. However, a more recent study that included both mtDNA and nDNA indicates that the two split about 4.5 million years ago, which is near the age of the oldest extant Galápagos islands (Española and San Cristóbal).[17]

    The marine iguana and Galápagos land iguana remain mutually fertile in spite of being separated by millions of years and assigned to distinct genera. They have been known to hybridize where their ranges overlap, resulting in the so-called hybrid iguana.[18] This is very rare and has only been documented a few times on South Plaza, a tiny island where the usually separated breeding territories and seasons of the two species overlap. The hybrids have intermediate features, stay on land and are infertile.[19]

    The different marine iguana populations fall into three main clades: western islands, northeastern islands and southeastern islands.[7] These can be further divided, each subclade generally matching marine iguanas from one or two primary island, except on San Cristóbal where there are two subclades (a northeastern and a southwestern). However, even the oldest divergence between marine iguana populations is quite recent; no more than 230,000 years and likely less than 50,000 years. On occasion one makes it to another island than its home island, resulting in hybridization between different marine iguana populations.[17] There is one confirmed record of a marine iguana outside the Galápagos Islands; in 2014 an individual appeared on Isla de la Plata near the Ecuadorian mainland.[20]

    Subspecies

    Seven or eight subspecies of the marine iguana, listed alphabetically, have traditionally been recognized:[18]

    In 2017, the first comprehensive taxonomic review of the species in more than 50 years came to another result based on morphological and genetic evidence, including recognizing five new subspecies (three of these are small-island populations that were not previously assigned to any subspecies):[8][11]

    • A. c. cristatus Bell, 1825 (albermarlensis and ater are junior synonyms) – Isabela Island and Fernandina Island
    • A. c. godzilla Miralles et al., 2017 – northeastern part of San Cristóbal Island
    • A. c. hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Santa Cruz Island and smaller adjacent islands, such as Baltra Island
    • A. c. hayampi Miralles et al., 2017Marchena Island
    • A. c. jeffreysi Miralles et al., 2017Wolf Island, Darwin Island and Roca Redonda
    • A. c. mertensi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – southwestern part of San Cristóbal Island
    • A. c. nanus Garman, 1892 – Genovesa Island
    • A. c. sielmanni Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Pinta Island
    • A. c. trillmichi Miralles et al., 2017Santa Fé Island
    • A. c. venustissimus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 – Española Island (including adjacent tiny Gardener Island) and Floreana Island
    • A. c. wikelskii Miralles et al., 2017 – Santiago Island and smaller adjacent islands, such as Rábida Island

    Appearance

    Marine iguanas from Española Island are the most colourful and have sometimes been called "Christmas iguanas"[9]
    Hind and front limbs. The robust front limb bones (right) provide ballast when diving[21]

    Early visitors to the Galápagos Islands considered the marine iguanas ugly and disgusting. In 1798, captain James Colnett of the British Royal Navy wrote:

    The [i]guanas are small, and of a sooty black, which, if possible, heightens their native ugliness. Indeed, so disgusting is their appearance, that no one on board could be prevailed on, to take them as food.[22]

    On his visit to the islands in 1835, despite making extensive observations on the creatures, Charles Darwin was revolted by the animals' appearance, writing:

    The black Lava rocks on the beach are frequented by large (2–3 ft [0.6–0.9 m]), most disgusting, clumsy Lizards. They are as black as the porous rocks over which they crawl & seek their prey from the Sea. Somebody calls them 'imps of darkness'. They assuredly well-become the land they inhabit.[23][note 1]

    Marine iguanas have a thickset body and relatively short, robust limbs. Adults have a row of spines extending from the nape, along the back to the tail.[26] Males have longer spines,[26][27] and larger bony plates on the top of their head than females.[28] There are some differences in the spines depending on the island and they are most elaborate on Fernandina (subspecies cristatus).[7] The scales on the top of the head of the marine iguana are quite conical and pointed. Although less extreme, the same can be seen in the Galápagos land iguanas (genus Conolophus), while these scales at most are slightly domed in other iguanas. Overall the skeleton of the marine iguana shows many similarities with the chuckwallas (genus Sauromalus), but this is an example of homoplasy, as the two are not closely related.[12]

    Marine iguanas are not always black; the young have a lighter coloured dorsal stripe, and some adult specimens are grey. Dark tones allow the lizards to rapidly absorb heat to minimize the period of lethargy after emerging from the water. The marine iguana lacks agility on land but is a graceful swimmer. Its laterally flattened tail provides propulsion and the row of spines along the back provide stability, while its long, sharp claws allow it to hold onto rocks in strong currents.[5] Adult males vary in colour with the season, becoming brighter when breeding.[18] There are also major differences in the colour of the adult males depending on the subspecies. Males of the relatively small southern islands of Española, Floreana and Santa Fé (subspecies venustissimus and trillmichi) are the most colourful, with bright pinkish-red and turquoise markings. In comparison, those of the relatively small northern islands of Genovesa, Marchena, Pinta, Wolf and Darwin (jeffreysi, hayampi, sielmanni and nanus) are almost all blackish without contrasting markings.[8][18] Other subspecies tend to resemble duller versions of venustissimus and trillmichi, or are blackish with markings in pale yellowish, ochre, greenish or grey (sooty to near white).[8][18] It is suspected that the exact algal diet of each population plays a role in their colour.[26][29] Females show much less variation between the islands and are typically dark with less contrasting colours than the males.[8] In most places, females do not change colour conspicuously between the breeding and non-breeding season, but at least on Española (subspecies venustissimus) they do assume relatively bright male-like colours when nesting, which is possibly related to their need of defending the nest from other females on an island with few suitable sites.[30]

    Size

    Marine iguanas from Santa Cruz Island (subspecies hassi) are among the largest

    Marine iguanas typically range from 12 to 56 cm (4.7–22.0 in) in snout-to-vent length and have a tail length from 17 to 84 cm (6.7–33.1 in).[8][31] There are major geographical differences, as iguanas from large islands tend to grow relatively large as adults, while those from small islands are smaller in size.[20] In one study, the average snout-to-vent length on Wolf and Darwin Islands (subspecies jeffreysi) was about 19 cm (7.5 in), and those on Genovesa Island (subspecies nanus) were only slightly larger. In comparison, Santa Cruz marine iguanas (hassi) had an average snout-to-vent length of about 35 cm (14 in), and those of Isabela and Fernandina (cristatus) were only slightly smaller. Other subspecies were of intermediate size, in between the small Wolf, Darwin and Genovesa iguanas and the large Santa Cruz, Isabela and Fernandina iguanas.[8] In another study, the largest were from western San Cristóbal Island (mertensi), followed by those from Isabela (cristatus, in part), Floreana (venustissimus, in part), eastern San Cristóbal (godzilla), Fernandina (cristatus, in part) and Santa Cruz (hassi). The smallest by far were from Genovesa (nanus), but this study did not include any marine iguanas from Wolf and Darwin Islands. The remaining island populations were of intermediate size.[31]

    The maximum weight of adult males ranges from 12 kg (26 lb) on southern Isabela to 1 kg (2.2 lb) on Genovesa. This difference in body size of marine iguanas between islands is due to the amount of food available, which depends on sea temperature and algae growth.[5]

    Marine iguanas are sexually dimorphic with adult males on average being significantly longer and weighing about twice as much as adult females. Additionally, males have broader heads and larger tubercles than females.[32] However, the largest females are only about 20–40% shorter than the largest males.[31] There is a correlation between longevity and body size, particularly for adult males. Large body size in males is selected sexually, but can be detrimental during El Niño events when resources are scarce. This results in large males suffering higher mortality than females and smaller adult males. The mortality rates of marine iguanas are explained through the size difference between the sexes.[21]

    Behavior

    Reproduction and life cycle

    A male will threaten another male by bobbing his head and opening the mouth, displaying the reddish pink interior
    During territorial fights males headbutt, each attempting to push away the opponent
    A marine iguana nest hole (center of image)
    Juveniles on Isabela Island

    Female marine iguanas reach sexual maturity at the age of 3–5 years, while males reach sexual maturity at the age of 6–8 years. Sexual maturity is marked by the first steep and abrupt decline in bone growth cycle thickness.[21] Marine iguanas can reach an age of up to 60 years,[9] but average is 12 years or less.[33]

    Reproduction in the marine iguana begins during the last part of the cold and dry season,[21] with breeding from December to March and nesting from January to April.[14] The exact timing varies with location, depending on algal growth and the nutrient-rich Cromwell Current. It occurs earliest on islands like Fernandina, Isabela, Santa Fé and Genovesa, and latest on islands like Española.[7][30] An adult marine iguana, whether male or female, will typically breed every other year, but if there is plenty of food a female may breed each year.[7]

    Marine iguanas live in coastal colonies that typically range from 20 to 500 animals,[34] but sometimes more than 1,000.[35] Their bodies often touch each other, but there are no social interactions like grooming, as commonly seen in social mammals and birds.[28] Females are always highly gregarious and males are gregarious outside the breeding season.[36] However, large males defend territories for up to three months during the breeding season,[37] and in this period they sometimes fight other males.[29] A territory can be up to almost 40 m2 (430 sq ft),[38] but is usually less than half that size,[39] and can be as small as 1 m2 (11 sq ft).[34] A territory is often delimited by geographic features, like boulders or crevices.[39] The territories tend to occur in clusters with several located adjacent to each other, forming a lek, but they can occur singly. Medium-sized males roam areas near the territories of large males or walk along beaches looking for females, while small "sneaky" males may enter the territories of large males.[38] To threaten another male, a male will bob his head, walk on stiff legs, raise the spiny crest along the back and open the mouth to reveal the reddish interior. In most cases the suitor will turn away, but if he responds with the same behavior a fight ensues. During fights they typically do not bite each other, instead thrusting their heads together in an attempt to push the other away. The bony plates on the top of their heads are especially suited for interlocking.[28] Fights between males may last for hours,[29] and are often interrupted by periodic breaks.[28] Once a winner has been established through the headbutting, the loser assumes a submissive position and retreats.[28] In general fights between males are harmless and highly ritualized,[6][28] but on occasion they will bite and injure each other.[27]

    Males are primarily selected by females on the basis of their body size. Females display a stronger preference for mating with bigger males.[31] It is precisely because of body size that reproductive performance increases and "is mediated by higher survival of larger hatchlings from larger females and increased mating success of larger males."[40] Other factors involved in the female's choice of partner are the display frequency by a male (especially head-bobbing)[38][41] and the quality of a male's territory.[27][39] Females prefer male territories that include or are near their own resting places, which they choose based on proximity to the sea, access to shade, low midday temperature and the possibility of sunbathing in the afternoon.[42] Males with territories that are near the center of the lek tend to have a greater mating success than males with peripheral territories, but the size of a territory does not affect mating success.[39] Large territorial males that frequently display also emit higher levels of certain acidic compounds (including 11-Eicosenoic acid) from their femoral pores, which may function as pheromones that enhance their chance of attracting females.[43] Females can move freely between different territories,[44] but receive less harassment from opportunistic non-territorial males when inside another male's territory.[38][43] Medium-sized males attempt to mate by force and small males by stealth and force,[7] but they have a low mating success rate compared to the large males that maintain a territory.[38][43] During courtship display, a territorial male nods at the female, may open his mouth, and performs a slow sideways walk towards her.[38][45] If she accepts, the male will mount her while holding her by the neck.[46] A mating lasts no more than 20 minutes,[27] typically 3 to 4 minutes,[47] but it is comparatively rapid in the small "sneaky" males, which easily are overlooked because their size, general morphology and colours are similar to those of a female.[38][43] This rapid mating is necessary because large males will chase them out of their territory as soon as they are discovered.[38] During each breeding season, a male will mate with many females if given the chance, but the female only mates once.[27] Once a female has mated, she rejects other suitors by nodding her head at them.[45]

    Roughly one month after copulation, the female lays between one and six eggs,[48] typically two or three.[49] The leathery white eggs measure about 9 cm × 4.5 cm (3.5 in × 1.8 in) and weigh 80–120 g (2.8–4.2 oz).[30] This is large for an iguana,[30] and altogether the eggs may weigh up to one-quarter the weight of the female.[47] The nest sites can be as much as 2 km (1.2 mi) inland,[1] but typically are much closer to the coast.[50] They are occasionally as little as 20 m (66 ft) inland,[51] although they have to be above the high tide water mark.[30] The nest is 30–80 cm (12–31 in) deep and dug in sand or volcanic ash by the female.[48] On islands where there are few suitable sites and digging is difficult due to a relatively hard soil and many rocks, the female guards the nest for several days after the eggs have been buried,[30] ensuring that they are not dug up by other nesting females.[46] As in males defending their territory from other males, females defending their nest site from other females begin with a threat display. If this fails to scare the opponent away, the fights between females involve much biting and are less ritualized than the territorial fights between males.[28] Where there are more suitable sites and the soil is loose, females are less likely to fight for a location and do not guard their nest after the eggs have been buried.[30] The eggs hatch after about three to four months.[46] The hatchlings are 9.5–13 cm (3.7–5.1 in) in snout-to-vent length,[30] and weigh 40–70 g (1.4–2.5 oz).[49] As soon as they emerge from the nest they run for cover,[47] and begin their trip to locations that provides optimum conditions for feeding, temperature regulation and shelter.[49] Some hatchlings have been recorded moving as far as 3 km (1.9 mi) in two days.[49]

    Feeding

    Females and small males forage in the intertidal zone on algae exposed during low tide (left), and large males forage for algae underwater at sea (right). These individuals both are on rocks covered in green algae
    While feeding underwater, marine iguanas are sometimes cleaned by fish, like this Cortez rainbow wrasse. This iguana is on a rock covered in green and red algae, with the usually avoided brown algae behind it

    The marine iguana forages almost exclusively on red and green algae in the inter- and subtidal zones.[5][52] At least 10 genera of algae are regularly consumed, including the red algae Centroceras, Gelidium, Grateloupia, Hypnea, Polysiphonia and Pterocladiella. In some populations the green algae Ulva dominates the diet.[5][52] The algal diet varies depending on algal abundance, individual preferences, foraging behaviour, season and exact island of feeding.[5] Some species with chemical deterrents, such as Bifurcaria, Laurencia and Ochtodes, are actively avoided, but otherwise algal food choice mainly depends on energy content and digestibility.[52] On Santa Cruz Island, 4–5 red algal species are the food of choice. During neap low tides, however, they usually avoided green algae Ulva lobata is eaten more often since the preferred red algae is not easily available.[52] Brown algae have occasionally also been recorded in their diet,[52] but marine iguanas are unable to easily digest these and will starve if it is the only type present.[53][54] A 1 kg (2.2 lb) marine iguana typically eats about 8.6 g (0.30 oz) dry weight or 37.4 g (1.32 oz) fresh weight of algae per day.[55] At Punta Espinoza on northeastern Fernandina Island it has been estimated that the almost 1,900 marine iguanas eat about 27–29 tonnes (fresh weight) of algae per year,[55] a rate of consumption that is counterbalanced by the very high growth rate of the algae.[46] They may feed on crustaceans, insects,[9] and sea lion feces and afterbirth on rare occasions.[56] The population on North Seymour Island will supplement their diet with land plants, primarily Batis maritima, or other coastal succulents like Sesuvium portulacastrum.[7][56] These North Seymour iguanas have a higher survival rate during periods where their normal algal food is reduced. However, the hindgut of marine iguanas is specially adapted to algae feeding, likely restricting the possibility of efficiently switching to other plant types.[56] The algae are digested with the help of endosymbiotic bacteria in their gut.[26]

    In the first months after hatching, the juveniles mainly feed on feces from larger marine iguanas, gaining the bacteria needed for digesting algae.[5] It has been suggested that young iguanas up to about two years old are unable to swim,[49] but studies have shown that even newly hatched marine iguanas are good swimmers; they just strongly try to avoid entering the water.[57] At about 1–2 years old the young may voluntarily swim in shallow water and tide pools, but they do not dive.[57]

    Marine iguanas can dive as deep as 30 m (98 ft),[7] and can spend up to one hour underwater.[18] When diving to 7 m (23 ft) or deeper, they regularly remain submerged from 15 to more than 30 minutes.[58] Most dives are much shorter in duration and shallower than 5 m (16 ft).[29] Individuals foraging near-shore, often less than 1 m (3.3 ft) deep, typically only spend about 3 minutes underwater.[5][58] Only 5% of marine iguanas dive for algae offshore and these individuals are the large males.[5] The minimum size of these divers vary with island and subspecies, ranging from 0.6 kg (1.3 lb) on Genovesa Island (A. c. nanus) to 3 kg (6.6 lb) on Fernandina Island (A. c. cristatus).[5] They are slow swimmers, averaging just 0.45 metres per second (1.5 ft/s). The highest recorded speed is only about twice that figure and this can typically only be sustained in bursts that last less than a minute.[57][59][60] Most females and smaller males feed on exposed algae in the intertidal zone during low tide,[5] retreating once the water returns and starts washing over them.[46] They often scurry back-and-forth repeatedly, running to a patch of algae to take a few bites and then return fast to higher ground to avoid incoming waves.[61] The separation in feeding behavior is advantageous because the large offshore feeding males experience less competition for food from smaller males and females.[5] A few individuals of intermediate size may use both feeding strategies.[5] In general, each marine iguana has a specific feeding site it returns to day after day.[61] Most feed daily, but large offshore feeding males often only every second or third day. During bad weather with high waves marine iguanas do not feed, sometimes for more than a week.[34] Large males often do not feed for several weeks when maintaining a breeding territory, resulting in them losing up to about one-quarter of their weight. It takes many months for them to return to their original weight.[27][34] In captivity, individuals have remained strong and active even after fasting for as much as 100 days.[62]

    Foraging behavior changes in accordance to the seasons and foraging efficiency increases with temperature.[52] These environmental changes and the ensuing occasional food unavailability have caused marine iguanas to evolve by acquiring efficient methods of foraging in order to maximize their energy intake and body size.[5] During an El Niño cycle in which food diminished for two years, some were found to decrease their length by as much as 20%. When food supply returned to normal, iguana size followed suit. It is speculated that the bones of the iguana actually shorten as shrinkage of connective tissue could only account for a 10% change in length.[63]

    Marine iguanas have several adaptions that aid their feeding. Their flattened tail is the primary means of propulsion in the water.[26][59] When on the surface, they may use their legs for maintaining balance. Although their partially webbed feet often are mentioned, this webbing is very marginal and no greater in extent than in the green iguana, a species that also shares the flattened tail.[12][59] Marine iguanas have powerful limbs with long, sharp claws for climbing, holding onto rocks and pulling themselves forward when at the sea bottom (adding to the propulsion provided by the tail).[3][52][57] They are buoyant and float to the ocean surface if they are not actively swimming or holding on to rocks underwater.[58] However, they have unusually compact (osteosclerose) limb bones compared to the land iguana, especially those from the front limbs, providing ballast to help with diving.[21]

    Other adaptions in marine iguanas are blunt heads ("flat noses") and sharp teeth allowing them to easier graze algae off rocks.[3][52] Together with a few Ctenosaurus species, it is the only iguana that never has more than three tips (tricuspid) on each tooth. Uniquely, the side-tips on the marine iguana's teeth are quite large, only somewhat smaller than the central tip. It also appears to replace its teeth at a higher rate than other iguanas.[12] As a sea reptile, much salt is ingested. The salt is filtered from their blood and then excreted by specialised cranial exocrine glands at the nostrils, expelled from the body in a process much like sneezing.[6][9] The marine iguana's cranium has an unusually large nasal cavity compared to other iguanas, which is necessary to accommodate the large salt glands.[12] The head may appear white from encrusted salt.[46][64]

    Mutualism and commensalism with other animals

    Lava lizards often scurry over marine iguanas when hunting flies; the iguanas generally ignore these visits

    Marine iguanas have mutualistic and commensal relationships with several other animals. Lava lizards may scurry over marine iguanas when hunting flies, and Darwin's finches, mockingbirds and Sally lightfoot crabs sometimes feed on mites and ticks that they pick off their skin.[46][58] Marine iguanas typically ignore these visits.[46] When underwater, they are often cleaned by fish, like Pacific sergeant majors that pick off moulting skin.[58] Although there are no apparent benefits to either species, marine iguanas commonly live close together with the much larger Galápagos sea lions. The two species generally ignore each other and an iguana may even crawl over the body of a sea lion.[62]

    Thermoregulation

    Marine iguanas basking on Fernandina Island

    Marine iguanas are unique as they are marine reptiles that forage on inter- and subtidal algae almost exclusively. They forage in the relatively cold waters around the Galápagos Islands, which typically are between 11 and 23 °C (52–73 °F) at the sea surface.[5] As their preferred body temperature is from 35 to 39 °C (95–102 °F) and the temperature declines throughout a foraging trip to the sea,[5] sometimes by as much as 10 °C (18 °F),[29] the marine iguana has several behavioral adaptations for thermoregulation.[21] At cold temperatures their muscles are less efficient, but their relatively high temperature preference is also related to the optimal temperature for digesting the algal food in their gut.[26][47]

    As an ectothermic animal, the marine iguana can spend only a limited time in cold water diving for algae. Afterwards it basks in the sun to warm up. Until it can do so it is unable to move effectively, making it vulnerable to predation. However, this is counteracted by their highly aggressive nature consisting of biting and expansive bluffs when in this disadvantageous state. Their dark shade aids in heat reabsorption.[50] In colder periods with cloudy weather and much wind, juveniles will stay in the lee of rocks, still gaining the heat from the sun. Adults may move inland to low-lying sites with less wind because of bushes and lava ridges but still exposed to direct sun.[57] When in the water and their temperature is falling, their blood circulation is reduced because of a low heart rate of about 30 beats per minute, allowing them to better conserve their warmth. When on land and heating up, the higher heart rate of about 100 beats per minute aids in spreading the heat throughout the body.[44][47][65] To conserve heat during the night, they often sleep closely together in groups that may number up to 50 individuals, while others sleep alone below plants or in crevices.[46]

    In general, the time of each foraging trip is directly related to the water temperature; the colder the water the shorter the foraging trip.[5] Additionally, marine iguanas that forage in or near the intertidal zone prefer to do so during low tides, allowing them to remain on land (on rocks exposed by the tide) or return to land faster.[5] Individuals that forage further from the shore by diving are large males, which mainly feed during the hot midday (although it may occur from late morning to early evening), are less affected by the cool water because of their body size and are more efficient swimmers.[5][29][46]

    Under the tropical sun, overheating can also be a problem. To avoid this, they pant, and adopt a posture where they face the sun and lift their body up, thereby exposing as little as possible of their body to direct sun and allowing cooling air to pass underneath.[29][46]

    Conservation

    Status and threats

    The marine iguana has a relatively small range and is currently considered vulnerable by the IUCN.[1] Most subpopulations have the same IUCN rating, but those of San Cristóbal, Santiago and Genovesa Islands are considered endangered.[66][67]

    On some shorelines they can be very numerous, with densities as high as 8,000 per kilometer (almost 13,000 per mile),[7] and their biomass compared to the area they occupy may surpass that of any known reptile.[35] However, their distribution is patchy,[7] and colonies are generally found within 100 m (330 ft) of the ocean, naturally limiting their range.[68] The total population for the entire archipelago is estimated to be 200,000–300,000 individuals,[9] although this number is labelled with considerable uncertainty.[7] Most subpopulations have not been surveyed in detail because their lifestyle and habitat make it difficult to survey with a high level of accuracy.[47] By far the largest subpopulation—likely including around 25 of all marine iguanas—lives on Fernandina Island, but estimates vary greatly from 15,000 to 120,000 individuals. In contrast, the maximum size of the subpopulations on the islands of San Cristóbal, Darwin and Pinzon is estimated to be 400, 800 and 900, respectively.[7] It is estimated that Marchena Island has 4,000–10,000 marine iguanas, Rabida Island has 1,000–2,000 and Santa Fé Island has 15,000–30,000.[1] Although individuals may on occasion be transferred between islands by ocean currents, marine iguanas are unable to swim between all but the nearest islands in the archipelago because of their slow speed and limited stamina in the relatively cold water.[59]

    The periodic El Niño events reduce the cold water needed for algae to grow and this can drastically reduce the marine iguana population, on some islands with as much as 90%.[69] Population recoveries after El Niños are fast; even when reduced by 30–50%, the population is generally able to recover within four years.[7] However, recoveries can be partially impeded by the invasive brown algae Giffordia mitchelliae. When their food algae (red and green algae) disappears during El Niños, the areas may be taken over by this brown algae, causing starvation among the marine iguanas.[3][7][37] With global warming, it is expected that El Niño events will be stronger and occur more frequently.[69]

    Introduced predators, to which they have little or no protection, include animals such as pigs, dogs, cats and rats. Dogs may take adult marine iguanas, while the others may feed on their young or eggs.[6] This inhibits reproduction and the long-term survival of the species.[70] Introduced predators represent a major problem on the islands of Santa Cruz, Santiago, Isabela, Floreana and San Cristóbal where very few marine iguana hatchlings survive.[71] Marine iguanas are ecologically naïve and have not developed efficient anti-predator strategies against the introduced species. For example, the first dogs were introduced to the Galápagos Islands more than 100 years ago, but marine iguanas have not developed an anti-predator strategy against them.[68] In general, native predators represent a less serious threat to the marine iguana. Natural land predators include the Galápagos hawk, short-eared owl, lava gull, herons and Galápagos racer snakes that may take small marine iguanas.[9][14][46][72] When swimming, marine iguanas are occasionally attacked and eaten by sharks, although the two often behave indifferently to each other, even when close together.[58] Of the native predators, the Galápagos hawk is likely the most important,[46] and it may also take weakened adults (not just young),[7] but this hawk is quite rare with a total population numbering only a few hundred individuals.[73] Marine iguanas have anti-predator strategies that reduce the impact of the Galápagos hawk,[3][74] including an increased vigilance when hearing the alarm call of the Galápagos mockingbird, another species that is sometimes preyed upon by the hawk.[75]

    Marine iguanas can easily be approached by humans as they are very tame and generally make little or no attempt to escape.[35][74] Individuals that have been caught before are only slightly more wary when again encountering humans.[74] Even when repeatedly caught and deliberately mishandled each time, they do not attempt to bite or lash with their tail in self-defense (although the sharp claws can cause painful scratches when the iguana attempts to gain a grip) and only move a few feet once released, allowing themselves to be caught again with ease.[62] Pathogens introduced to the archipelago by humans pose a serious threat to this species. The marine iguana has evolved over time in an isolated environment and lacks immunity to many pathogens. As a result, the iguanas are at higher risk of contracting infections, contributing to their threatened status.[76]

    Occasional oil spills in the region also present a threat. For example, the Santa Fé population was reduced by almost 23 as a result of the MV Jessica oil spill in 2001,[7][66] and even low-level oiling may kill marine iguanas. It is suspected that the primary cause of death during these events is starvation due to the loss of their sensitive gut bacteria, which they rely on to digest algae.[7]

    Protection

    Sign at Tortuga Bay warning people to not disturb the marine iguanas and keep a distance of at least 2 m (6.6 ft)

    The marine iguana is completely protected under the laws of Ecuador, and is listed under CITES Appendix II.[1] Almost all its land range is in the Galápagos National Park (only the 3% human-inhabited sections in the archipelago are excluded[77]) and all its sea range is in the Galápagos Marine Reserve.[1] Certain coastal roads have lower speed limits to reduce the risk posed by cars, especially to the young.[49] There have been attempts of removing introduced predators from some places, but this has not been without problems. Feral dogs mostly feed on large marine iguanas, but also limit the feral cat population. When feral dogs are removed feral cats can thrive and they feed on small marine iguanas.[78] In 2012, the last black rats were eradicated from Pinzón Island.[79]

    Studies and research have been done on marine iguanas that can help and promote conservation efforts to preserve the endemic species. Monitoring levels of marine algae, both dimensionally and hormonally, is an effective way to predict the fitness of the marine iguana species. Exposure to tourism affects marine iguanas, and corticosterone levels can predict their survival during El Niño events.[80] Corticosterone levels in species measure the stress that they face in their populations. Marine iguanas show higher stress-induced corticosterone concentrations during famine (El Niño) than feast conditions (La Niña). The levels differ between the islands, and show that survival varies throughout them during an El Niño event. The variable response of corticosterone is one indicator of the general public health of the populations of marine iguanas across the Galápagos Islands, which is a useful factor in the conservation of the species.[81]

    Another indicator of fitness is the levels of glucocorticoid. Glucocorticoid release is considered beneficial in helping animals survive stressful conditions, while low glucocorticoid levels are an indicator of poor body condition. Species undergoing a large measure of stress, resulting in elevated glucocorticoid levels can cause complications such as reproduction failure. Human activity has been considered a cause of elevated levels of glucocorticoid in species. Results of a study show that marine iguanas in areas central to tourism are not chronically stressed, but do show lower stress response compared to groups undisturbed by tourism. Tourism, thus, does affect the physiology of marine iguanas. Information of glucocorticoid levels are good monitors in predicting long term consequences of human impact.[82]

    Although marine iguanas have been kept in captivity, the specialised diet represents a challenge. They have lived for more than a decade in captivity, but have never bred under such conditions.[7] The development of a captive breeding program (as already exists for the Galápagos land iguana[9]) possibly is a necessity if all the island subspecies are to survive.[7]

    Gallery

    See also

    Explanatory notes

    1. ^ The phrase 'imps of darkness' for the marine iguana typically has been attributed to Charles Darwin,[8] but it was first used a decade earlier by Maria Graham when editing Robert Dampier's journal for the book Voyage of H. M. S. Blonde to the Sandwich islands, in the years 1824-1825.[24][25]

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    75. ^ Hance, J. (29 October 2007). "Iguanas listen to birds to avoid predators". Mongabay. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
    76. ^ French, Susannah; DeNardo, Dale; Greives, Timothy; Strand, Christine; Demas, Gregory (Nov 2010). "Human disturbance alters endocrine and immune responses in the Galapagos marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus)". Hormones and Behavior. 58 (5): 792–799. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.08.001. PMC 2982938. PMID 20708010. Retrieved October 23, 2014.
    77. ^ "Galapagos National Park". beautifulworld.com. 2016-10-12. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
    78. ^ Barnett, B.D. (1986). "Eradication and control of feral and free-ranging dogs in the Galapagos Islands". Proceedings of the Twelfth Vertebrate Pest Conference. 1986 (8): 357–368.
    79. ^ Nicholls, H. (16 January 2015). "When the rats are away, Galapagos tortoises can play". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
    80. ^ Stevenson, R. D.; Jr Woods, William A. (2006). "Condition Indices For Conservation: New Uses For Evolving Tools". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 46 (6): 1169–1190. doi:10.1093/icb/icl052. PMID 21672816.
    81. ^ Romero, Michael L. Wikelski Martin (2001). "Corticosterone Levels Predict Survival Probabilities of Galapagos Marine Iguanas during El Nino events". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (13): 7366–70. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.7366R. doi:10.1073/pnas.131091498. PMC 34674. PMID 11416210.
    82. ^ Romero, Michael L. Wikelski; Martin (2002). "Exposure to Tourism Reduces Stress-induced Corticosterone Levels in Galapagos Marine Iguanas". Biological Conservation. 108 (3): 371–374. doi:10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00128-3.
    83. ^ Iguana chased by killer snakes | Planet Earth II: Islands - BBC, retrieved 2021-04-01

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    Marine iguana: Brief Summary ( англиски )

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    The marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), also known as the sea iguana, saltwater iguana, or Galápagos marine iguana, is a species of iguana found only on the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador). Unique among modern lizards, it is a marine reptile that has the ability to forage in the sea for algae, which makes up almost all of its diet. Marine iguanas are the only extant lizard that spends time in a marine environment. Large males are able to dive to find this food source, while females and smaller males feed during low tide in the intertidal zone. They mainly live in colonies on rocky shores where they bask after visiting the relatively cold water or intertidal zone, but can also be seen in marshes, mangrove swamps and beaches. Large males defend territories for a short period, but smaller males have other breeding strategies. After mating, the female digs a nest hole in the soil where she lays her eggs, leaving them to hatch on their own a few months later.

    Marine iguanas vary in appearance between the different islands and several subspecies are recognized. Although relatively large numbers remain and it is locally abundant, this protected species is considered threatened, primarily from El Niño cycles, introduced predators and chance events like oil spills.

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    Marigvano ( есперанто )

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    La Marigvano (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) estas igvano loĝanta nur sur Galapagoj kiu havas kapablon, unika inter modernaj lacertoj, loĝi kaj manĝi en la maro, kio faras ĝin marreptilio. La Marigvano povas plonĝi ĉirkaŭ 10 m en akvon. Ĝi etendiĝis al ĉiuj insuloj en la arkipelago, kaj estas foje nomata Galapaga marigvano. Ĝi loĝas precipe sur la rokaj galapagaj marbordoj, sed povas esti vidata ankaŭ ĉe marĉoj kaj strandoj el mangrovoj.

    Subspecioj

    Listataj laŭ alfabeta ordo.[1]

    • A. c. albemarlensis Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Isabela Insulo
    • A. c. cristatus Bell, 1825 – Fernandina Insulo
    • A. c. hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Santa Cruz Insulo
    • A. c. mertensi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – San Cristóbal kaj Santiago Insuloj
    • A. c. nanus Garman, 1892 – Genovesa Insulo
    • A. c. sielmanni Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Pinta Insulo
    • A. c. venustissimus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 – Española Insulo

    Bildaro

    Notoj

    1. Amblyrhynchus cristatus, Reptile Database

    Bibliografio

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    Marigvano: Brief Summary ( есперанто )

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    La Marigvano (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) estas igvano loĝanta nur sur Galapagoj kiu havas kapablon, unika inter modernaj lacertoj, loĝi kaj manĝi en la maro, kio faras ĝin marreptilio. La Marigvano povas plonĝi ĉirkaŭ 10 m en akvon. Ĝi etendiĝis al ĉiuj insuloj en la arkipelago, kaj estas foje nomata Galapaga marigvano. Ĝi loĝas precipe sur la rokaj galapagaj marbordoj, sed povas esti vidata ankaŭ ĉe marĉoj kaj strandoj el mangrovoj.

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus ( шпански; кастиљски )

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    La iguana marina (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), es una especie de reptil escamoso de la familia Iguanidae.[2]​ Es la única especie de su género,[2]​ el cual se encuentra emparentado con el género de las iguanas terrestres y más estrechamente con el género Conolophus (iguana terrestre de Galápagos).

    Es un especie endémica de las islas Galápagos,[1]​ habita las costas rocosas de este archipiélago ecuatoriano, si bien es posible verlas en manglares y playas. Es el único lagarto moderno que depende del medio ambiente marino; alimentándose casi exclusivamente de algas marinas.[3]​ Para alimentarse es capaz de nadar en el mar, pero esta actividad solo es realizada por los machos adultos, puesto que son de mayor tamaño; las hembras y las crías se alimentan cuando baja la marea y las algas quedan al descubierto. Como resultado de su alimentación, deben librarse del exceso de sal que ingieren, excretando sal concentrada en forma de cristales desde una glándula salífera nasal.[3]

    Evolución

    Se calcula que las iguanas de América del Sur (terrestres) llegaron a las Galápagos mediante un proceso de dispersión transoceánica hace millones de años antes de evolucionar hasta convertirse en la especie actual.[4]

    Características

    Los machos adultos alcanzan aproximadamente 2,3 m de largo, mientras que las hembras 0,6 m. Los machos llegan a pesar 15 kg.

    Cuando no están alimentándose, pasan mucho tiempo tomando el sol en las rocas de la costa, para elevar su temperatura corporal.[3]​ Además, su coloración negra les facilita la rápida absorción del calor después de salir de las frías aguas.[3]

    Cuando nadan, estos animales ralentizan su ritmo cardíaco para no perder calor, incluso pueden parar su corazón sin riesgo alguno.[cita requerida]

    Depredadores

    En estado natural, las iguanas marinas no tienen muchos depredadores naturales debido a su tamaño, puesto que en su hábitat no hay muchos depredadores con el tamaño suficiente para amenazarlas. Pero las hembras son de menor tamaño que los machos por su dimorfismo sexual, y se vuelven vulnerables sobre todo cuando dejan la costa para desovar y pueden ser presas del gavilán de Galápagos (Buteo galapagoensis) y serpientes corredoras de Galápagos (Pseudalsophis biserialis). También las iguanas jóvenes recién nacidas sufren este mismo problema; pero una iguana macho adulta puede despreocuparse de estas amenazas por su tamaño que lo protege.

    Subespecies

    Se reconocen las siguientes subespecies:[2]

    Véase también

    Referencias

    1. a b Nelson, K., Snell, H. y Wikelski, M. (2004). «Amblyrhynchus cristatus». Lista Roja de especies amenazadas de la UICN 2011.1 (en inglés). ISSN 2307-8235. Consultado el 19 de agosto de 2011.
    2. a b c Bisby F., Roskov Y., Culham A., Orrell T., Nicolson D., Paglinawan L., Bailly N., Appeltans W., Kirk P., Bourgoin T., Baillargeon G., Ouvrard D., eds (2012). Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 30th April 2012, ed. «Amblyrhynchus cristatus». Archivado desde el original el 10 de julio de 2018. Consultado el 17 de mayo de 2012.
    3. a b c d Bauer, A. M. (1998). «Lizards». En Harold G. Cogger, David Kirshner, ed. Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians (en inglés) (2ª edición). Londres, Reino Unido: Academic Press. pp. 240. ISBN 0-12-178560-2.
    4. «Marine Iguana - National Geographic».
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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus: Brief Summary ( шпански; кастиљски )

    добавил wikipedia ES

    La iguana marina (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), es una especie de reptil escamoso de la familia Iguanidae.​ Es la única especie de su género,​ el cual se encuentra emparentado con el género de las iguanas terrestres y más estrechamente con el género Conolophus (iguana terrestre de Galápagos).

    Es un especie endémica de las islas Galápagos,​ habita las costas rocosas de este archipiélago ecuatoriano, si bien es posible verlas en manglares y playas. Es el único lagarto moderno que depende del medio ambiente marino; alimentándose casi exclusivamente de algas marinas.​ Para alimentarse es capaz de nadar en el mar, pero esta actividad solo es realizada por los machos adultos, puesto que son de mayor tamaño; las hembras y las crías se alimentan cuando baja la marea y las algas quedan al descubierto. Como resultado de su alimentación, deben librarse del exceso de sal que ingieren, excretando sal concentrada en forma de cristales desde una glándula salífera nasal.​

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus ( баскиски )

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus Amblyrhynchus generoko animalia da. Narrastien barruko Iguanidae familian sailkatuta dago.

    Erreferentziak

    1. (Ingelesez)IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org. 2012ko urriaren 20an eskuratua.
    2. The Species 2000 and ITIS Catalogue of Life

    Ikus, gainera

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus: Brief Summary ( баскиски )

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus Amblyrhynchus generoko animalia da. Narrastien barruko Iguanidae familian sailkatuta dago.

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    Merileguaani ( фински )

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    Merileguaani (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) on Galápagossaarilla elävä endeeminen liskolaji. Se elää muiden liskojen tapaan maalla, mutta on sopeutunut ainoana liskona hankkimaan ravintonsa merestä. Merileguaani muodostaa leguaanien heimossa oman sukunsa. Ravinnokseen merileguaanit syövät pääsääntöisesti laskuveden seurauksena rannalle jäänyttä levää, ja vain kookkaimmat yksilöt saattavat sukeltaa vedestä ruokaa. Merileguaania uhkaavat ympäristökatastrofit ja saarille tuodut pedot.

    Koko ja ulkonäkö

    Merileguaani on isoimpia leguaaneja, mutta selvästi pienempi kuin esimerkiksi iguaani.[2] Täysikasvuinen koiras on keskimäärin 1,3 metrin pituinen ja 1,5 kilon painoinen.[3] Koiraat voivat kuitenkin kasvaa jopa 175 sentin pituisiksi ja painaa yli 12 kiloa.[4] Naaraiden keskipaino on puoli kiloa ja pituus 60 senttiä.[5] Naaras on selvästi koirasta pienempi ja hoikempi, eikä sen heltta ole yhtä suuri.

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    Merileguaanin pää
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    Merileguaani (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) Galápagossaarilla

    Merileguaanit ovat väriltään tavallisesti harmaita tai mustia.[6] Naaras on aina tummahko, mutta koiras saa soidinmenojen yhteydessä punaisia ja pullonvihreitä läiskiä[2]. Nuoret merileguaanit ovat aikuisia tummempia, mutta toisaalta kirjavampia. Niiden tummassa päässä ja kyljissä on vaaleanharmaita täpliä. Aikuiset taas voivat olla täysin mustia tai tummat täplät muodostavat pitkittäisiä rivejä niiden tasaisen harmaaseen selkään. Harmaita täpliä on myös jaloissa, ja vatsapuoli on kellanruskea. Eri populaatioiden värityksessä on havaittu eroja.[7][6]

    Hännän pituus on 135-senttisellä yksilöllä noin 80 senttiä. Häntä on sivuilta litteä, ja sitä peittävät suomut, joissa on keskiharjanne. Korkeiden suomujen muodostama harjanne ulottuu niskasta hännän kärkeen. Häntä toimii peräsimenä leguaanin uidessa. Pää on lyhyt mutta leveä ja etuosasta kapeneva.[4]

    Otsassa ja päälaella on isoja, kartiomaisia sarveissuomuja, jotka ovat usein teräväkärkisiä. Sierainaukkoja reunustavat pienet suomut. Huulten ympärillä suomut ovat suuria ja neliömäisiä, ja niitä on alahuulessa ylähuulta enemmän. Pään alaosan suomut ovat pieniä ja kuperia. Soikeahkot korva-aukot näkyvät selvästi matalana ulkonemana silmien takana.[4]

    Merileguaanin ruumis on varsin tukevarakenteinen. Lyhyet ja lihaksikkaat jalat päättyvät viiteen pitkään, kynnelliseen varpaaseen. Kolmas ja neljäs varvas ovat muita pidempiä.[4] Terävät, kolmikärkiset hampaat soveltuvat hyvin levän raaputtamiseen kivistä.[8] Yläleuan molemmissa puoliskoissa on 22–25 ja alaleuassa 20–24 hammasta. Hampaat kiinnittyvät leukaluun keskiharjan kuoppiin.[7]

    Taksonomia ja evoluutio

    Merileguaani on ainoa Amblyrhynchus-suvun edustaja. Suvun nimi on kahden kreikan sanan yhdistelmä: amblys ’tylppä’ ja rhynchus ’kuono’. Sen lajinimi cristatus on latinaa ja tarkoittaa ”harjaa”. Nimen antoi brittiläinen eläintieteilijä Thomas Bell vuonna 1825.[9]

    Merileguaanin uskotaan kuuluvan Galápagossaarten vanhimpiin kotoperäisiin lajeihin. Se saapui alueelle jo luultavasti ennen kuin nykyisiä saaria oli edes olemassa. Galápagossaaret eivät ole koskaan olleet yhteydessä mantereeseen. Merileguaanin uskotaan tulleen saarille useita miljoonia vuosia sitten Etelä-Amerikan mannermaalta kelluvien kasvilauttojen mukana. Sen omaksuma osittainen merielämä on auttanut sitä asuttamaan uusia saaria vanhojen kadotessa.[10] Toisen teorian mukaan merileguaani on kehittynyt nyt jo sukupuuttoon kuolleesta merielämään sopeutuneesta liskoryhmästä.[9]

    Merileguaanikoiraat lisääntyvät toisinaan saarilla tavattavien naaraspuolisten laavaleguaanien kanssa, vaikka lajit kuuluvat eri sukuun.[11] Geenitutkimusten mukaan niiden kehityslinjojen uskotaan eronneen toisistaan arviolta 10 miljoonaa vuotta sitten.[10] Vaikka lajit lienevät lähisukulaisia, on epäselvää, onko niillä yhteinen saarille saapunut kantamuoto vai saapuivatko ne kummatkin erikseen.[12]

    Alalajit

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    Españolan saaren värikkäitä A. c. venustissimus-alalajin merileguaaneja.

    Merileguaanista on tunnistettu 7 alalajia, jotka eroavat toisistaan kooltaan ja väritykseltään. Kutakin alalajia elää vain yhdellä tai parilla saarella. Pienikokoisimmat elävät Genovesan saarella, suurimpiin kuuluvat löytyvät Fernandinan ja Isabelan saarilta. Españolan erityisen värikkäät leguaanit eroavat muista eniten.[13] Ne ovat mustan, oranssin ja punaisen kirjavia, ja niiden eturaajat ja harja ovat vihreähköjä.[14] Saaren urosmerileguaanien väritys on vihreintä lisääntymisaikaan.[15] Listassa on alalajien nimeäjä ja levinneisyysalue. Listasta voi puuttua pieniä saaria:[7][16]

    Levinneisyys ja elinympäristö

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    Satelliittikuva Galápagossaarista. Merileguaaneja tavataan muun muassa Isabelalla, Fernandinalla, Santa Cruzissa, Caamaño Isletissa, San Cristobalissa, Santiagolla, Genovesalla, Wolfilla, Darwinilla, Pintalla, Españolassa eli Hoodissa, Gardnerilla, Santa Féssä, Pinzónilla, Floreanalla eli Santa Marialla, Rábidalla ja Marchenalla.[7]

    Merileguaania tavataan luonnonvaraisena vain Ecuadoriin kuuluvilla Galápagossaarilla Etelä-Amerikassa. Siellä se on levinnyt lähes kaikille saarille vajaan 5 000 km²:n alueelle, mutta lajin varsinainen asuinalue on suuruudeltaan noin kymmenesosa tästä.[1] [7]

    Merileguaanit elävät pääasiassa rantakivikoissa ja laavakallioilla. Ne tarvitsevat myös hietikoita munimista varten ja levää kasvavia rantavesiä[17]. Niitä voi myös tavata mangrovemetsistä ja rantakosteikoilta.[9] Saaret sijaitsevat päiväntasaajalla ja ilmasto on lämmin, mutta meri on silti kylmä ja ravinteikas. Yhdessä runsaan auringonvalon kanssa olosuhteet saavat levät kasvamaan nopeasti.[18] Tämän mahdollistaa Eteläiseltä jäämereltä tuleva kylmä Humboldtinvirta[19]. Meriveden lämpötilassa on kuitenkin alueittaista vaihtelua. Idässä sijaitsevan Genovesan saaren lähivedet saavat paljon lämmintä vettä, joka ei suosi merileviä. Alueen merileguaanit ovatkin siksi pienimpiä. Suurimpien asuttamalla Isabelan länsirannikolla vedet ovat kylmiä ja tuottoisia.[18]

    Elintavat

    Merileguaani on päiväeläin ja viettää suurimman osan ajastaan rannan tuntumassa lämmitellen auringossa. Yöksi merileguaanit hakeutuvat kallionkoloihin suuriksi rypäiksi. Ne ovatkin varsin sosiaalisia ja voivat elää satojen yksilöiden ryhmissä. Merileguaanit joutuvat siksi jakamaan samat kallionkolot usein monen lajitoverin kanssa. Ne myös hyötyvät lajitovereistaan painautumalla toisiaan vasten iltapäivällä sään alkaessa viiletä ja vähentävät näin lämmön haihtumista.

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    Merileguaani uimassa Fernandinan saarella. Kuvassa myös Grapsus grapsus lajin rapuja.

    Merileguaaniryhmä ei keräänny sattumanvaraisesti, vaan yöpyvillä liskoilla on tietty järjestys. Jokaisen eläimen pää osoittaa kohti ryhmän keskustaa ja häntä siitä ulospäin. Aikuiset koiraat pysyttelevät yöpyvän ryhmän uloimmaisina, naaraat ja nuoret ovat ryhmän keski- ja yläosassa. Eri osissa yöpyvien ruumiinlämmöt poikkeavat paljon toisistaan. Silti leguaaniryhmän uloimmatkin yksilöt säästävät huomattavasti enemmän lämpöä kuin yksin yöpyvät yksilöt. Yhteen kerääntyminen auttaa myös ruuansulatusta, ja kasviravinnon sulaminen nopeutuu. Lämmön säästäminen suojaa myös pedoilta, joille kankea merileguaani on helppo saalis.[20]

    Yöpymisryhmät alkavat hajota 3–4 tuntia auringonnousun jälkeen. Lämmön säästöstä huolimatta Merileguaanit joutuvat yön jälkeen lämmittelemään useita tunteja saadakseen ruumiintoimintonsa täyteen vireystilaan. Ne menevät mielipaikalleen aurinkoa paistattelemaan.[20] Sen tummanvärisestä nahasta on hyötyä aurinkoisella säällä, sillä tummat värit absorboivat valoa tehokkaasti. Viileällä säällä merileguaani säästää energiaa liikkumalla tavallista verkkaisemmin, jolloin se on myös altis saalistajien hyökkäyksille ja käytökseltään tavallista aggressiivisempi.[6] Merileguaanit yrittävät pitää ruumiinlämpönsä 35–37 celsiusasteessa.[7] Vuorovesi säätelee merileguaanien rytmiä voimakkaasti. Ne viettävät nousuveden rantakallioilla vesirajassa, ja laskuveden aikaan suurimmat merileguaanit lähtevät mereen syömään levää. Pienemmät jäävät ranta-alueelle ja lähtevät uimaan vain harvoin, koska niiden ruumiinlämpötila laskisi liian nopeasti.[6][21] Ne ruokailevat kuitenkin myös tyrskyvyöhykkeellä. Niiden vahvat raajat ja kynnet pitävät ne kiinni laavakallioissa, eivätkä aallot eivät pyyhkäise niitä mukaansa.[18] Merileguaanit ovat hyviä uimareita ja etenevät vedessä nopeasti lihaksikkaan häntänsä avulla. Heti sukelluksen alettua niiden pulssi putoaa 80–90 lyönnistä noin 40:een minuutissa ja samalla uloimmat verisuonet supistuvat voimakkaasti. Tällöin elimistön sisäosat saavat enemmän lämpöä ja lämmönhukka ympäröivään meriveteen pienentyy.[21] Merileguaanien ruumiinlämpö voi pudota sukelluksen aikana 10 celsiusasteeseen.[8] Sukellukset kestävät yleensä 15–20 minuuttia, mutta eläin voi olla veden alla tunninkin, ellei kylmä vesi kangista sitä. Eläimet voivat sukeltaa jopa 25 metrin syvyyteen, mutta pysyvät tavallisesti 2–5 metrin syvyydessä.[6]

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    Merileguaaneja lämmittelemässä.

    Merileguaaneilla on selkärankaisille epätavallinen kyky säädellä ruumiinkokoaan. Ne kutistuvat El Niño -vuosina, jolloin meriveden lämpeneminen vähentää merilevien määrää. Niiden tiedetään kutistuneen jopa 7 senttiä ja menettäneen 20 % normaalipainostaan. Pienemmästä koosta on hyötyä, koska energiaa kuluu vähemmän. Suuret yksilöt kutistuvat suhteessa eniten ja naaraat enemmän kuin koiraat. Ravintotilanteen parantuessa leguaanit kasvavat takaisin normaalikokoonsa.[22]

    Ravinto

    Merileguaanien pääasiallista ravintoa ovat merilevät, joita on tarjolla rannalla ja veden alla. Naaraat ja nuoret usein vain odottavat, että ravinnoksi sopivaa levää ajautuu rantaan. Ne elävätkin pääasiassa rannan lähellä kasvavalla ja vuoroveden rantaan jättämällä levällä.[21] [6] Suuret koiraat sen sijaan uskaltautuvat joskus melko kauaskin kotisaareltaan ruokaa etsiessään. Merileguaanit ovat mieltyneet erityisesti Ulva-suvun viherlevään, jonka isoja, vaaleanvihreitä ja hieman punertavia lehtiä ne repivät hampaillaan. Mahasta on myös löydetty äyriäisten osia, mutta ne ovat mahdollisesti tulleet levien mukana.[7] Joskus merileguaanit tonkivat myös tunkioilla erilaisia ihmisten jättämiä jätteitä.[2]

    Merileguaanien suolisto on sopeutunut kasviravinnon sulattamiseen, koska paksusuolen etuosassa on pitkittäispoimuja, jotka lisäävät suolen imeytymispintaa.[7] Merestä saamansa ylimääräisen suolan merileguaani poistaa virtsan mukana ja erittämällä runsassuolaista nestettä kuonossa olevista rauhasista.[2]

     src=
    Aikuinen merileguaaniuros

    Lisääntyminen

    Merileguaanikoiraat ovat lisääntymisaikaan hyvin reviiritietoisia ja puolustavat reviiriään muilta koirailta. Tällöin ne viettävät aikansa paljolti yksikseen, mutta kerääntyvät kuitenkin usein yöksi yhteen ryhmään. Välejään selvittelevät koiraat nousevat korkeille kiville näkyvään paikkaan, josta ne esittelevät kylkikuvioitaan ja heiluttelevat selkäharjaansa. Ne myös röyhistävät rintaansa, pullistavat kurkkuaan, pitävät päätään alhaalla, ojentavat raajansa mahdollisimman suoriksi näyttääkseen suuremmilta ja lipovat pitkällä kielellään. Uhitteluun kuuluu myös pään rytmillinen heiluttelu puolelta toiselle. Tätä toistetaan kolmeen eri otteeseen ennen varsinaista yhteenottoa, jolloin tärkeimpänä aseena käytetään häntää.[20] Tätä jatkuu noin kolme kuukautta joulu-helmikuussa. Soidinaikaan myös koiraiden väritys kirkastuu.[17][2] Naaraat saavat alkuun liikkua reviiriltä toiselle, mutta koiras kokoaa pian itselleen haaremin,[23] jossa parittelu tapahtuu ilman muiden koiraiden häirintää. Koiraan kosinta on yksinkertainen. Se kävelee naaraan taakse ja tarttuu sitä niskasta ja jaloista.[23] Kun koiras on saanut hedelmöitettyä yhden tai useamman naaraan, sen into alkaa hiipua ja se palaa normaaliin elämään.[20]

    Naaraan munamäärä riippuu sen ravintona käyttämien levien määrästä. Muninta on vilkkainta silloin, kun vuoroveden vaihtelu on pienimmillään ja levää on runsaasti saatavilla.[20] Munat voivat painaa jopa neljänneksen naaraan koko painosta. Noin kuuden viikon päästä parittelusta naaraat jättävät yhdyskunnan ja lähtevät etsimään munimispaikkaa, jolloin voi syntyä kilpailua pesäpaikoista. Sopiva paikka löytyy yleensä 2–3 päivässä, ja kaivamiseen voi kulua puoli päivää.[12] Munat lasketaan hiekkaan tai vulkaaniseen tuhkaan kaivettuun kammioon sisämaahan vähintään 300 metrin päähän rannasta.[17] Leguaanien kaivamat kammiot ovat noin 60 senttiä syviä. Ne käyttävät kaivamisessa kaikkia raajojaan. Toisinaan jotkin naaraat jäävät käytävään loukkuun ja kuolevat, kun tunnelin katto romahtaa tai toinen naaras tukkii sen.[23] Merileguaani munii kerralla 1–6 munaa.[17] Ne peitetään huolellisesti. Munat kehittyvät parhaiten 30 °C:n lämmössä. Ne painavat noin 80–120 grammaa ja ovat 8–10 senttiä pitkiä ja 4–5 senttiä leveitä. Munat ovat muiden leguaanien munia suurempia. Naaras jää vartioimaan munia vielä useiksi päiviksi läheisille kiville tai kallioille, mutta palaa välillä pesälle tiivistämään pesän kattoa lisäämällä siihen kasviainesta. Naaraat ja poikaset ovat pesintäalueella alttiina petojen hyökkäyksille, erityisesti galapagosinhiirihaukalle.[24] Poikaset kuoriutuvat 95 päivän kuluessa.[17] Poikaset kuoriutuvat keskimäärin 110 päivän kuluttua. Ne painavat tällöin noin 70 grammaa, ja pituutta niillä on 10–13 senttiä.[24] Poikaset tarkistavat ensin ympäristönsä ja juoksevat sitten lähimpään suojapaikkaan. Naaraat saavuttavat sukukypsyyden 3–5-vuotiaina, koiraat noin 6–8 vuoden iässä.[12]

    Merileguaanin suhde muihin lajeihin

     src=
    Galapagosinhiirihaukka

    Aikuisella merileguaanilla ei näytä olevan juuri muita vihollisia kuin hait, mutta merileguaanit pysyttelevät yleensä lähellä rantaa, jonne hait eivät uskalla tulla.[23] Mikäli merileguaani havaitsee hain, se jää leijumaan täysin liikkumattomana vedessä ja pysäyttää sydämensä, jotta hait eivät sitä kuulisi. Merileguaani voi pysäyttää sydämensä jopa 45 minuutiksi, mutta yleensä hai luopuu saaliin etsinnästä muutamassa minuutissa.[25] Naaraita ja poikasia voi uhata myös galapagosinhiirihaukka, etenkin pesintäalueilla, joissa naaraat ovat suojattomia. Haukat osaavat myös odottaa poikasten kuoriutumista. Havaitessaan haukan naaraat ja nuoret valpastuvat ja pakenevat nopeasti kallioiden ja kivien suojaan. Aikuiset koiraat eivät haukoista juuri piittaa. Nuoria merileguaaneja voi myös joutua Dromicus-suvun käärmeiden saaliiksi. Merileguaanin mahdollisia luonnollisia vihollisia ovat myös galapagosinkyyryhaikara, kyyryhaikara, amerikanharmaahaikara, fregattilinnut, suopöllö ja lokit, jotka voivat uhata etenkin poikasia.[12][24][23]

    Merileguaania vaivaavat verta imevät Amblyomma, Ornithodoros ja Vatacarus-sukujen punkit. Amblyomma-punkit voivat pysyä merileguaaneissa jopa viikkoja, mutta Ornithodoros-suvun punkit vain tunteja. Merileguaanit saavat toisinaan apua darwininsirkuilta loisten torjunnassa.[26] Myös Grapsus grapsus -taskuravut poistavat kuollutta ihoa leguaanien levätessä.[18] Puhdistuspalveluja tarjoavat lisäksi huulikalat, joita kutsuakseen merileguaanit ojentavat jalkansa.[27] Merileguaanit tunnistavat matkijoiden korkean varoitusäänen, jonka ne päästävät huomatessaan molemmille vaarallisen galapagosinhiirihaukan. Tällöin eläin nostaa päätään tarkkaillakseen ympäristöään.[28]

    Uhat ja suojelu

    Merileguaani on vaarantunut laji. Koko kannan suuruutta ei tiedetä eikä sitä, onko lukumäärä laskussa.[1] Merileguaanien ravintolevät ovat kärsineet niitä syrjäyttävästä vierasperäisestä Giffordia mitchelliae -levästä, meriveden lämpötilaa nostavista El Niño -sääilmiöistä ja öljyvahingoista, jotka ovat aiheuttaneet ravinnonpuutetta ja jopa joukkokuolemia. Esimerkiksi tammikuussa 2001 tapahtunut öljyturma surmasi 60 prosenttia Santa Fen merileguaaneista. Tutkijat uskovat öljyn tappavan ruoansulatuksessa auttavia bakteereja, mikä tekee ravintoaineiden sulamisesta mahdotonta.[3] El Niño on luonnollinen ilmiö, ja merileguaanit voivat lisääntyä tehokkaammin El Niñon jälkeen, kun kannan tiheys on alhainen.[3] Ilmaston lämpenemisen seurauksena El Niñon uskotaan kuitenkin yleistyvän.[29] Merileguaanit eivät myöskään osaa pelätä saarille tuotuja koiria, kissoja, rottia tai sikoja, jotka hävittävät leguaanien poikasia ja munia.[3][12] Aiemmin niitä myös rahdattiin ohi kulkevien laivojen miehistön ruoaksi.[24]

    Merileguaani on nykyään rauhoitettu Ecuadorissa.[5] Galápagossaaret ovat pääosin suojeltuja kansallispuistona, ja vuodesta 1971 kaikki saarten luonnon muuttaminen on ollut lailla kiellettyä. Tulokaspetojen määrää on pyritty rajoittamaan, ja merileguaaneja tutkitaan hyvin intensiivisesti. Niiden määrää on pystytty lisäämään myös vankeudessa, mutta se ei ole helppoa, koska laji on sosiaalinen ja ravinnoksi kelpaavat levät ovat kalliita.[24]

    Lähteet

    • Koivisto, I., Terhivuo, J., Pakarinen, R. & Paalosmaa, H.: Maailman uhanalaiset eläimet – Osa 5: Matelijat, sammakkoeläimet, linnut, s. 48–52. Weilin + Göös, 1993. ISBN 951-35-4690-X.
    • Lars Thomas: Tieteen Kuvalehti – Galápagosin kummajainen. Bonnier, 1998, nro 6, s. 36–40.
    • Lahti, S., Heikkilä, M. & Viitanen, J. (toim.): Zoo Suuri eläinkirja Osa 5: Kalat, sammakkoeläimet, matelijat, s. 403. WSOY, 1980. ISBN 951-0-08250-3.
    • (toim.) Kangasniemi, Kaija: Kodin suuri eläinkirja, s. 356–357. Weilin+Göös, 1980. ISBN 951-35-1708-x.
    • Paul D. Stewart: Galápagos – The Islands that changes the World. BBC, 2006. ISBN 0-563-49356-9.

    Viitteet

    1. a b c Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M.: Amblyrhynchus cristatus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.1. 2004. International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Iucnredlist.org. Viitattu 26.6.2014. (englanniksi)
    2. a b c d e Zoo s. 403
    3. a b c d ARKive: Galapagos marine iguana – Amblyrhynchus cristatus – Information – ARKive 2008. Wildscreen. Viitattu 2.6.2009.
    4. a b c d Maailman uhanalaiset eläimet s. 48
    5. a b United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre: UNEP-WCMC – Galapagos Marine Iguana 2008. UNEP-WCMC. Viitattu 6.2.2009.
    6. a b c d e f Marine Iguana Encyclopedia of Life. Viitattu 7.12.2008. (englanniksi)
    7. a b c d e f g h Maailman uhanalaiset eläimet s. 49
    8. a b Robert Rothman: Galapagos Marine Iguana 2002. Robert Rothman & R.I.T. Viitattu 1.2.2009.
    9. a b c ZipcodeZoo: Amblyrhynchus (Genus) 25. 1. 2009. ZipcodeZoo.com. Viitattu 31.1.2009.
    10. a b Stewart s. 112
    11. Galapagos Online: Marine and Land Iguanas of the Galapagos 2008. Galapagos Online. Viitattu 31.1.2009.
    12. a b c d e Elisa Gill: Biogeography of Marine Iguana 1999. San Francisco State University Department of Geography. Viitattu 19.1.2009.
    13. MarineBio: Marine Iguana at MarineBio.org 12.9.2007. MarineBio.org. Viitattu 22.2.2008.
    14. Kodin suuri eläinkirja s. 356
    15. Espanola Island Galapagos Travel guide to visiting the Galapagos Island of Española Galapagos Online Tours. Viitattu 27.6. 2009.
    16. The Reptile Database: The Reptile Database – Amblyrhynchus cristatus 2008. J. Craig Venter Institute. Viitattu 31.1.2009.
    17. a b c d e Kristi Roy: ADW Amblyrhynchus cristatus Information 2000. University of Michagan. Viitattu 22.2.2008.
    18. a b c d Stewart s. 114
    19. Thomas s. 36
    20. a b c d e Maailman uhanalaiset eläimet s. 50
    21. a b c Thomas s. 38
    22. El Niño kutistaa Galápagosin liskoja. Tieteen Kuvalehti, 2000, nro 6.
    23. a b c d e Kodin suuri eläinkirja s. 357
    24. a b c d e Maailman uhanalaiset eläimet s. 52
    25. (toim.) Riikka Tiusanen: Leguaani pysäyttää hädässä sydämensä. Tieteen kuvalehti, 2000, nro 9, s. 17.
    26. Martin Wikelski: Influences of parasites and thermoregulation on grouping tendencies in marine iguanas 1998. International Society for Behavioral Ecology. Viitattu 9.2.2009.
    27. Stewart s. 115
    28. Merileguaanit rekisteröivät lintujen varoitushuudon. Tieteen kuvalehti, 2008, nro 8, s. 17.
    29. Ari Kokkonen: Ilmaston lämpeneminen – 7. Vaikutukset El Nino 2007. Ari Kokkonen. Viitattu 2.6.2009.
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    Merileguaani: Brief Summary ( фински )

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    Merileguaani (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) on Galápagossaarilla elävä endeeminen liskolaji. Se elää muiden liskojen tapaan maalla, mutta on sopeutunut ainoana liskona hankkimaan ravintonsa merestä. Merileguaani muodostaa leguaanien heimossa oman sukunsa. Ravinnokseen merileguaanit syövät pääsääntöisesti laskuveden seurauksena rannalle jäänyttä levää, ja vain kookkaimmat yksilöt saattavat sukeltaa vedestä ruokaa. Merileguaania uhkaavat ympäristökatastrofit ja saarille tuodut pedot.

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    Iguane marin des Galapagos ( француски )

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus, l'Iguane marin des Galapagos, unique représentant du genre Amblyrhynchus, est une espèce de sauriens de la famille des Iguanidae[1].

    Répartition

    Cette espèce est endémique des îles Galápagos[1].

    Description

    Lors de sa visite aux îles, Charles Darwin trouva fort déplaisante l'apparence de ces animaux, écrivant : « Les pierres de lave noire de la plage sont très fréquentées par de grands (2-3 pieds) et dégoûtants lézards maladroits. Ils sont aussi noirs que les roches poreuses sur lesquelles ils rampent [...]. Je les appelle les « lutins des ténèbres[2] ».

    En fait, Amblyrhynchus cristatus est polychrome et n'est pas toujours noir : il peut présenter des coloris bruns, ocres, bleurs-verts, roses ou rouges. Les jeunes ont une bande dorsale de couleur plus claire et quelques spécimens adultes sont de couleur grise. Chez les mâles adultes, la coloration varie avec la saison : à la saison de reproduction, les mâles des îles du sud (Île Española, île Floreana,..) sont les plus colorés et arborent des couleurs rouge et bleu-vert, sur l'île Santa Cruz, ils sont rouge brique et noirs de jais, et sur l'île Fernandina, rouge brique ou verdâtres.

    La raison pour laquelle les tons sombres dominent, est que l'espèce doit absorber rapidement la chaleur afin de minimiser la période de léthargie due au froid, après avoir émergé de l'eau. Les couleurs sombres absorbent plus d'énergie solaire et favorisent ainsi le réchauffement de l'animal qui partage sa vie entre l'océan Pacifique, froid autour des îles en raison du courant de Humboldt, et les roches de lave du rivage où, étant ectotherme, il doit se réchauffer au soleil. Les Iguanes marins ont souvent la tête blanchie par les dépôts de sel expulsé par leurs glandes nasales.

    Une autre différence entre les sous-populations d'iguanes marins est leur taille, puisque celle-ci diffère en fonction de l'île. Les iguanes vivant sur les îles Fernandina et Isabela sont les plus grands. Les plus petits se trouvent sur l'île Genovesa. Les mâles adultes mesurent jusqu'à 1,70 mètre, et les femelles 1 mètre. Les mâles peuvent peser jusqu'à 15 kg.

    Sur terre, l'iguane marin est un animal plutôt maladroit, mais dans l'eau, c'est un nageur gracieux. Cela est dû à des adaptations à la vie marine qu'il ne partage pas avec les autres espèces d'iguanes. Sa queue aplatie latéralement et ses piquants dorsaux lui permettent de nager plus vite, tandis que ses longues griffes acérées lui permettent de s'accrocher aux roches et autres matériaux qui l'entourent, luttant ainsi contre les courants violents et la force des vagues.

    Deux auteurs ont rapporté des cas d'hybridation, sur l'île Plaza Sud, entre Amblyrhynchus cristatus et Conolophus subcristatus, un iguane purement terrestre apparenté à l'iguane marin[3].

    Écologie et comportement

     src=
    Une troupe d'iguanes marins.

    En nageant seulement dans les eaux peu profondes autour des îles, les iguanes marins sont capables de survivre à des plongées allant jusqu'à une demi-heure à des profondeurs de plus de 15 m[4]. Darwin écrit d'ailleurs qu'un membre de l'équipage avait immergé un iguane pendant une heure puis, en le tirant avec une corde, l'avait trouvé toujours en vie.

    Les plongées types ne durent cependant qu'une dizaine de minutes à des profondeurs de un à cinq mètres.

    Après ces plongées, les animaux reviennent sur leur territoire de bord de mer pour se reposer et se réchauffer au soleil. Quand le froid l'engourdit, l'iguane n'est pas en mesure de se déplacer efficacement, ce qui le rend vulnérable à la prédation. Si on cherche alors à le saisir, il peut devenir agressif, compensant son manque de mobilité par des morsures. L'espèce est également vulnérable au moment de l'éclosion des juvéniles, guettés par des prédateurs aviens comme la buse des Galapagos, ou ophidiens comme le serpent des Galapagos.

    Au cours de la saison de reproduction, les mâles deviennent territoriaux tandis que les femelles s'assemblent en grands groupes que les mâles courtisent, empêchant d'autres iguanes mâles de s'approcher. Pour manifester leur force, les mâles secouent vigoureusement la tête de haut en bas. Si cette intimidation ne suffit pas, des bagarres éclatent. Le vainqueur est celui qui reste maître du terrain et peut alors s'accoupler.

    La taille des iguanes marins dépend des ressources alimentaires. Pendant les épisodes El Niño, les ressources en algues peuvent diminuer sensiblement, le taux de croissance des iguanes aussi, et la taille de ces générations sera de 20 % moindre que celle des générations précédentes. Lorsque les conditions alimentaires reviennent à la normale, les générations suivantes retrouvent la taille antérieure. Les iguanes de taille et d'appétit standard confrontés au phénomène El Niño supportent la sous-alimentation en perdant de la masse et du volume : on pense que leurs os raccourcissent par un retrait du tissu conjonctif via une hormone de stress particulière[5]. La réduction de taille serait également due à l'avantage qu'ont les petits iguanes, comparativement aux plus gros, pour se réchauffer plus vite au soleil, leur permettant de retourner plus rapidement dans l'eau pour s'y nourrir[6]. Toutefois, si la disette se prolonge, la mortalité des iguanes les plus gros et les plus âgés parsème le littoral de cadavres desséchés, que recyclent les crabes rouges des Galapagos, plus omnivores que ceux de l'Atlantique qui sont végétariens. Leur disparition permet au tapis algaire de se reconstituer plus vite.

    Alimentation

    L'iguane marin a un régime alimentaire strictement herbivore tout au long de sa vie : il se nourrit d'algues, notamment de la famille des Ulvales, prélevées sur le littoral rocheux des îles, soit sur l'estran, soit en pleine eau. Sur l'estran, il se contente de prélever les algues exondées à basse mer. Mais il peut également nager autour des îles et plonger pour s'alimenter sur les champs d'algues immergés[7].

    Liste des sous-espèces

    Comme souvent dans les archipels, des sous-espèces propres à une île ou à un groupe d'îles sont nées du croisement entre les sous-populations isolées sur ces îles, en raison de leur faible nombre ou absence.

    A. c. albemarlensis est reconnue en 2017 comme étant synonyme d'A. c. cristatus[8].

    Notes et références

    1. a et b (en) Référence Reptarium Reptile Database : Amblyrhynchus cristatus
    2. Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary, par Charles Darwin, Cambridge University Press, édition de 2001, (ISBN 0521003172)
    3. (de) Lücker & Feiler, Beobachtungen einer Paarung zwischen Meerechsen-Männchen (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) und Landleguan-Weibchen (Conolophus subcristatus) auf Plaza-Sur/Galapagos-Inseln sowie Beobachtungen an einem adulten Gattungshybriden (Amblyrhynchus x Conolophus) [« Observations d'un accouplement entre un iguane marin mâle et un iguane terrestre femelle sur l'île Plaza Sud/ Galápagos ainsi que d'un adulte hybride »], Elaphe, 2002, vol. 10, n. 4, p. 49-54.
    4. ~ rhrsbi ou GalapagosPages ou GalapagosPages MarineIguana.html
    5. Wikelski & Thom, 2000 : Marine iguanas shrink to survive El Niño Nature, vol. 403, p. 37-38 (nature doi:10.1038/47396.
    6. Wikelski, 2005 : Evolution of body size in Galapagos marine iguanas. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, vol. 272, n. 1576, p. 1985-1993.
    7. (en) Trillmich & Trillmich, 1986 : Foraging strategies of the marine iguana, Amblyrhynchus cristatus. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, vol. 18, p. 259-266.
    8. a b c d e et f Miralles, Macleod, Rodríguez, Ibáñez, Jiménez-Uzcategui, Quezada, Vences & Steinfartz (2017): Shedding light on the Imps of Darkness: an integrative taxonomic revision of the Galápagos marine iguanas (genus Amblyrhynchus). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2017 (XX) 1–33. [1]

    Publications originales

    • Bell, 1825 : On a new genus of Iguanidae. Zoological Journal, London, vol. 2, p. 204-207 (texte intégral).
    • Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 : Eine neue Rasse der Meerechse, Amblyrhynchus cristatus venustissimus, nebst einigen Bemerkungen über Amblyrhynchus cristatus cristatus. Senckenbergiana biologica, vol. 37, p. 87-100.
    • Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962: Neue Unterarten der Meerechse Amblyrhynchus cristatus, nebst weiteren Angaben zur Biologie der Art. Senckenbergiana biologica, vol. 43, no 3, p. 177-199.
    • Garman, 1892 : The reptiles of the Galapagos Islands. Bulletin of the Essex Institute, vol. 24, p. 73-87 (texte intégral).

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    Iguane marin des Galapagos: Brief Summary ( француски )

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus, l'Iguane marin des Galapagos, unique représentant du genre Amblyrhynchus, est une espèce de sauriens de la famille des Iguanidae.

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    Ioguána mara oileáin Galápagos ( ирски )

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    Speiceas ioguána is ea an t-ioguána mara oileáin Galápagos (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), ar fáil ar na hOileáin Galápagos (Eacuadór) amháin. Tá ar a chumas, uathúil i measc laghairteanna na nua-aimseartha, dul ar thóir foráiste san fharraige, agus is chuige sin go díreach aithnítear é mar reiptíl mhara.[1] Beagnach go heisiach, itheann an ioguána seo algaí agus tumann na hioguánaí fireanna móra isteach san fharraige chun teacht ar an fhoinse bia seo, fad a bheathaíonn na baineannaigh agus ainmhithe níos lú taoide, nuair a bhíonn an taoide thráite, ar an chrios idirthaoideach.[2] Go príomha, cónaíonn siad i gcoilíneachtaí ar bhruacha creagach, áit gur féidir leo iad féin a choinneáil te, tar éis cuairte a tabhairt ar an uisce nó an chrios idirthaoideach a bhíonn measartha fuar, ach is féidir iad a feiceáil freisin i riasca, mangróibh agus tránna.[3]

    Athraíonn dealramh na n-ioguánaí mara idir na hoileáin éagsúla agus aithnítear roinnt fospeiceas .[4] Cé go bhfuil uimhreacha réasúnta móra daoibh beo go fóill agus go bhfuil siad coitianta go háitiúil,[5] meastar an speiceas chosanta seo 'faoi bhagairt'. [[

    Fospeicis

    Tá seacht nó a hocht fospeocis de hioguánaí mara, atá liostaithe in ord aibítre, aitheanta go traidisiúnta :

    • A. c. albemarlensis Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Oileán Isabela
    • A. c. uisce Liath, 1831 (ní i gcónaí a aithnítear) – Oileán Pinzón
    • A. c. cristatus Bell, 1825 – Oileán Fernandina
    • A. c. hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Oileán Santa Cruz
    • A. c. mertensi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Oileáin San Cristóbal agus Santiago
    • A. c. nanus Garman, 1892 – Oileán Genovesa
    • A. c. sielmanni Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Oileán Pinta
    • A. c. venustissimus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 – Oileán Española agus Oileán Gardener (atá beag bídeach).

    Féach freisin

    • Planet Earth II - seó TEILIFÍSE

    Tagairtí

    1. Tá ort na shonrú' 'teideal = agus' 'url = nuair a úsáideann {{ lua idirlín}}.".
    2. "Lizard Ecology: The Evolutionary Consequences of Foraging Mode" (2007): 491-507. New York: Cambridge University Press. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link) "Lizard Ecology: The Evolutionary Consequences of Foraging Mode" (2007): 491-507. New York: Cambridge University Press.
    3. Tá ort na shonrú' 'teideal = agus' 'url = nuair a úsáideann {{ lua idirlín}}.".
    4. Tá ort na shonrú' 'teideal = agus' 'url = nuair a úsáideann {{ lua idirlín}}." 1–33 (2017). doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx007.Missing or empty |url= (help)CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)Tá ort na shonrú' 'teideal = agus' 'url = nuair a úsáideann {{ lua idirlín}}." 1–33 (2017). doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx007.
    5. "Iguanas and Lizards".


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    Ioguána mara oileáin Galápagos: Brief Summary ( ирски )

    добавил wikipedia GA

    Speiceas ioguána is ea an t-ioguána mara oileáin Galápagos (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), ar fáil ar na hOileáin Galápagos (Eacuadór) amháin. Tá ar a chumas, uathúil i measc laghairteanna na nua-aimseartha, dul ar thóir foráiste san fharraige, agus is chuige sin go díreach aithnítear é mar reiptíl mhara. Beagnach go heisiach, itheann an ioguána seo algaí agus tumann na hioguánaí fireanna móra isteach san fharraige chun teacht ar an fhoinse bia seo, fad a bheathaíonn na baineannaigh agus ainmhithe níos lú taoide, nuair a bhíonn an taoide thráite, ar an chrios idirthaoideach. Go príomha, cónaíonn siad i gcoilíneachtaí ar bhruacha creagach, áit gur féidir leo iad féin a choinneáil te, tar éis cuairte a tabhairt ar an uisce nó an chrios idirthaoideach a bhíonn measartha fuar, ach is féidir iad a feiceáil freisin i riasca, mangróibh agus tránna.

    Athraíonn dealramh na n-ioguánaí mara idir na hoileáin éagsúla agus aithnítear roinnt fospeiceas . Cé go bhfuil uimhreacha réasúnta móra daoibh beo go fóill agus go bhfuil siad coitianta go háitiúil, meastar an speiceas chosanta seo 'faoi bhagairt'. [[

    Fospeicis

    Tá seacht nó a hocht fospeocis de hioguánaí mara, atá liostaithe in ord aibítre, aitheanta go traidisiúnta :

    A. c. albemarlensis Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Oileán Isabela A. c. uisce Liath, 1831 (ní i gcónaí a aithnítear) – Oileán Pinzón A. c. cristatus Bell, 1825 – Oileán Fernandina A. c. hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Oileán Santa Cruz A. c. mertensi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Oileáin San Cristóbal agus Santiago A. c. nanus Garman, 1892 – Oileán Genovesa A. c. sielmanni Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Oileán Pinta A. c. venustissimus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 – Oileán Española agus Oileán Gardener (atá beag bídeach).
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    Iguana mariña ( галициски )

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    A iguana mariña (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) é unha especie de réptil escamoso da familia Iguanidae.[2] É a única especie do seu xénero.

    Especie endémica das illas Galápagos, habita as costas rochosas deste arquipélago ecuatoriano, aínda que é posible velas en mangleiros e praias. É o único lagarto moderno que depende do medio ambiente mariño, alimentándose case en exclusiva de algas mariñas.[3] Para alimentarse é quen de nadar no mar, pero esta actividade só é realizada polos machos adultos posto que son de maior tamaño; as femias e as crías aliméntanse cando baixa a marea e as algas quedan ó descuberto. Como resultado da súa alimentación, deben librarse do exceso de sal que inxeren, excretando sal concentrado en forma de cristais dende unha glándula do sal.

    Subespecies

    Recoñécense as seguintes subespecies:[2]

    Notas

    1. Nelson, K., Snell, H. e Wikelski, M. (2004). "{{{taxon}}}". Lista Vermella de especies ameazadas. (en inglés). Unión Internacional para a Conservación da Natureza. Consultado o 19 de agosto de 2011.
    2. 2,0 2,1 Bisby F., Roskov Y., Culham A., Orrell T., Nicolson D., Paglinawan L., Bailly N., Appeltans W., Kirk P., Bourgoin T., Baillargeon G., Ouvrard D., eds. Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 30th April 2012, ed. "Amblyrhynchus cristatus".
    3. Bauer, A. M. "Lizards". En Harold G. Cogger, David Kirshner. Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians (en inglés) (2ª ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-178560-2.

    Véxase tamén

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    Iguana mariña: Brief Summary ( галициски )

    добавил wikipedia gl Galician

    A iguana mariña (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) é unha especie de réptil escamoso da familia Iguanidae. É a única especie do seu xénero.

    Especie endémica das illas Galápagos, habita as costas rochosas deste arquipélago ecuatoriano, aínda que é posible velas en mangleiros e praias. É o único lagarto moderno que depende do medio ambiente mariño, alimentándose case en exclusiva de algas mariñas. Para alimentarse é quen de nadar no mar, pero esta actividade só é realizada polos machos adultos posto que son de maior tamaño; as femias e as crías aliméntanse cando baixa a marea e as algas quedan ó descuberto. Como resultado da súa alimentación, deben librarse do exceso de sal que inxeren, excretando sal concentrado en forma de cristais dende unha glándula do sal.

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus ( италијански )

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    L'iguana marina (Amblyrhynchus cristatus Bell, 1825) è un sauro della famiglia Iguanidae, endemico delle isole Galapagos, a circa 960 km ad ovest dell'Ecuador. È l'unica specie nota del genere Amblyrhynchus.[2]

    È unica per il suo modo di vivere, essendo la sola vera lucertola marina. I racconti dei più antichi visitatori delle Galapagos testimoniano sul suo repellente aspetto. Un racconto la descrive come caratterizzata dall'apparenza più orripilante che si possa immaginare, e lo stesso autore, un capitano della Marina Reale inglese, riferisce che, «in ragione di questa sua disgustosa apparenza, nessuno a bordo riuscì a servirsene come cibo». Le iguane marine crescono fino a 1,2 m di lunghezza. Esse hanno un muso ottuso, corpo pesante, zampe dall'aspetto goffo, con dita lunghe ed una cresta che corre dal collo alla coda. La coda, lateralmente appiattita, è usata per nuotare. La maggior parte delle iguane marine è di color nero o grigio assai scuro, ma nell'Isola di Hood, nella parte meridionale dell'arcipelago delle Galapagos, il loro corpo è variegato di nero, arancio e rosso, e le zampe anteriori e la cresta sono verdi.

    Biologia

    Comportamento

    Al di fuori della stagione riproduttiva, quando non sono impegnate a nutrirsi in mare, le iguane marine si raccolgono in gruppi serrati, talvolta addirittura l'una sopra l'altra. Giacciono sulle distese di lava, che sono una caratteristica predominante, ma non piacevole, delle Galapagos. Durante le ore più calde del giorno, cercano rifugio sotto i massi, nei crepacci o all'ombra delle rizoforee. All'inizio della stagione riproduttiva, i maschi delimitano dei piccoli territori, così piccoli che un'iguana può trovarsi sulla sommità di un masso, mentre un'altra giace ai piedi del masso. Occasionalmente, si accendono dei combattimenti, ma le dispute sono in genere risolte con esibizioni. Un'iguana maschio minaccia un intruso sollevandosi sulle robuste zampe e dondolando la sua testa tenendo la bocca aperta, per mostrare una mucosa rossa. Se ciò non induce l'intruso a desistere, il possessore del territorio si fa avanti ed ha luogo un combattimento. I due si oppongono spingendosi con le loro teste ossute, finché uno dei due non cede e si ritira.

    Mentre le iguane marine si godono il sole, grossi granchi rossi passano e ripassano sopra di esse, soffermandosi di tanto in tanto pizzicandone e tirandone la pelle. Le iguane non se la prendono per questo, e con buona ragione, poiché i granchi non fanno altro che asportare le zecche dalla loro pelle. I fringuelli di Darwin si prodigano pure nello stesso servizio.

    Alimentazione

    Quando la marea scende, le iguane marine si portano in acqua e mangiano le alghe rimaste allo scoperto sulla spiaggia e sulla scogliera. Si avvinghiano alle rocce con i loro unghioni affilati, in modo da non esser trascinate via dalla risacca. Mangiano poi sulle rocce strappando i filamenti di alghe, tenendoli saldamente ai lati della bocca e agitandosi per tirarli via. Ogni tanto, si fermano per inghiottire e riposarsi. Alcune iguane marine nuotano al largo oltre la risacca e si tuffano per cibarsi sul fondo marino. Vi sono segnalazioni di iguane che si sono cibate a profondità di 10,5 m, ma di solito si soffermano a circa 4,5 m. Ciascun tuffo si prolunga per circa 10 minuti, ma esse sono in grado di rimanere immerse molto più a lungo. Quando Darwin, con la nave Beagle, visitò le Galapagos, notò che un marinaio tentava di affogare un'iguana immergendola con un grosso peso. Ma, tirata di nuovo alla superficie un'ora dopo, ci si rese conto che era ancora viva[3].

    Le iguane marine, di norma, non mangiano che alghe marine. Eccezioni insolite sono le iguane marine dimoranti nella casa di Carl Angermeyer. Egli le aveva addestrate ad accorrere ad un suo fischio e a lasciarsi nutrire con carne di capra cruda, riso e farina d'avena. Certe volte mangiano anche le alghe che ci sono nel fondo del mare.

    Riproduzione

    Quando i maschi hanno determinato i loro territori, le femmine li raggiungono. Esse sono libere di trasferirsi da un territorio all'altro, ma i maschi raccolgono velocemente un harem attorno a loro e l'accoppiamento ha luogo senza l'interferenza di altri maschi.

    Quando i maschi abbandonano i loro territori, le femmine si radunano sulle spiagge su cui nidificano. Vi è competizione per i luoghi di nidificazione e talvolta si accendono dei combattimenti. Ciascuna femmina scava, con tutti e quattro i piedi, una galleria di 60 cm nella sabbia. Talvolta rimane intrappolata ed uccisa quando il tetto crolla o quando una vicina scava pure a troppo breve distanza.

    Vengono deposte solo due o tre uova, bianche, dalle dimensioni di 8 x 4,5 circa. Successivamente, l'iguana femmina riempie e camuffa la galleria. Quando le uova schiudono, dopo circa 110 giorni, emergono delle iguane lunghe circa 23 cm.

    Oltre all'uomo, i nemici principali delle iguane marine adulte sono i pescecani; ma le iguane, di solito, si tengono in prossimità della riva, dove i pescecani generalmente non si spingono. Le giovani iguane sono catturate da: aironi, serpenti delle Galapagos, gabbiani e falchi delle Galapagos e persino da gatti.

    Termoregolazione

    Durante la sua permanenza nelle Galapagos, Darwin si rese conto che le iguane marine non si lasciavano spingere in mare. Infatti, preferivano lasciarsi catturare piuttosto che inoltrarsi nel mare. E, se gettate in acqua, esse raggiungevano precipitosamente la riva abbarbicandosi dovunque fosse loro possibile. Siffatto comportamento è perlomeno sorprendente per un animale acquatico, giacché la maggior parte degli animali che abitualmente nuotano, come le foche e le tartarughe, se minacciati, cercano salvezza in mare. Darwin avanzò l'ipotesi che l'iguana marina si comportava in così strano modo perché, a terra, non aveva nemici naturali, mentre in mare si sentiva facile preda dei pescecani. Se così fosse, significherebbe che le iguane marine dovrebbero essere piuttosto affamate per spingersi in acqua in cerca di nutrimento. Un'altra spiegazione è stata avanzata di recente[4]. Mentre sono esposte al sole, le iguane marine regolano la loro temperatura corporea entro limiti variabili da 35 a 36 °C. La temperatura delle acque del mare, attorno alle Galapagos, fa registrare, per chi ne sta fuori, una differenza di meno di 10 °C[5][6]. Si comprende quindi che le iguane marine siano riluttanti a rifugiarsi in mare, dove risentirebbero di un siffatto abbassamento improvviso di temperatura.

    Galleria d'immagini

    Note

    1. ^ (EN) Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004, Amblyrhynchus cristatus, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020.
    2. ^ Amblyrhynchus cristatus, su The Reptile Database. URL consultato il 29 maggio 2014.
    3. ^ GalapagosPages Archiviato il 5 febbraio 2008 in Internet Archive. says typical dives last only a few minutes at depths of less than five metres, but Darwin reported a member of the crew submerging an iguana for an hour, and pulling it out with a rope, still alive. IUCN says that adult males can be found in marine waters, down to depths of twenty metres.
    4. ^ Wikelski M, Thom, C., Marine iguanas shrink to survive El Niño, in Nature, vol. 403, n. 6765, Jan 6 2000, pp. 37–8, DOI:10.1038/47396, PMID 10638740.
    5. ^ Rassman K, Tautz D, Trillmich F, Gliddon C (1997), The micro - evolution of the Galápagos marine iguana Amblyrhynchus cristatus assessed by nuclear and mitochondrial genetic analysis.: Molecular Ecology 6:437–452
    6. ^ Marine Iguana: marinebio.org. Retrieved 16 August 2006.

    Bibliografia

    • Rothman, Robert, Marine Iguana Galapagos Pages. Rochester Institute of Technology. Retrieved 16 August 2006.

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    Amblyrhynchus cristatus: Brief Summary ( италијански )

    добавил wikipedia IT

    L'iguana marina (Amblyrhynchus cristatus Bell, 1825) è un sauro della famiglia Iguanidae, endemico delle isole Galapagos, a circa 960 km ad ovest dell'Ecuador. È l'unica specie nota del genere Amblyrhynchus.

    È unica per il suo modo di vivere, essendo la sola vera lucertola marina. I racconti dei più antichi visitatori delle Galapagos testimoniano sul suo repellente aspetto. Un racconto la descrive come caratterizzata dall'apparenza più orripilante che si possa immaginare, e lo stesso autore, un capitano della Marina Reale inglese, riferisce che, «in ragione di questa sua disgustosa apparenza, nessuno a bordo riuscì a servirsene come cibo». Le iguane marine crescono fino a 1,2 m di lunghezza. Esse hanno un muso ottuso, corpo pesante, zampe dall'aspetto goffo, con dita lunghe ed una cresta che corre dal collo alla coda. La coda, lateralmente appiattita, è usata per nuotare. La maggior parte delle iguane marine è di color nero o grigio assai scuro, ma nell'Isola di Hood, nella parte meridionale dell'arcipelago delle Galapagos, il loro corpo è variegato di nero, arancio e rosso, e le zampe anteriori e la cresta sono verdi.

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    Jūrinė iguana ( литвански )

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    Binomas Amblyrhynchus cristatus

    Jūrinė iguana (lot. Amblyrhynchus cristatus) – iguanų šeimos driežas, randamas tik Galapagų salose. Tarp driežų išsiskiria unikalia savybe – ilgą laiką išbūti jūroje.

    Jūrinės iguanos minta vandens augalais, nukąsdamos juos nuo akmenų. Jaunikliai laikose netoli nuo kranto. Suaugėliai nuo kranto nuplaukia banguodami visu kūnu. Patinai nuo kranto nuplaukia toliau nei patelės. Plaukimo metu, taupant deguonį, kraujas patenka tik į gyvybiškai svarbius organus.

    Driežai krante šildosi stipriais nagais įsikabinę į akmenis. Juoda spalva padeda lengviau įkaisti saulėje. Perteklinė druska patekusi su maistu pašalinama per specialias liaukas esančias nosyje.

    Poravimosi metu ant patinėlių atsiranda raudona dėmė. Varžovai kovoja baksnodamiesi galvomis.

    Jūrinė iguana sutinkama visose salyno salose, dažniausiai ant uolėtų krantų, druskingose pelkėse ir mangrovėse.

    Šaltiniai


    Vikiteka

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    Jūrinė iguana: Brief Summary ( литвански )

    добавил wikipedia LT

    Jūrinė iguana (lot. Amblyrhynchus cristatus) – iguanų šeimos driežas, randamas tik Galapagų salose. Tarp driežų išsiskiria unikalia savybe – ilgą laiką išbūti jūroje.

    Jūrinės iguanos minta vandens augalais, nukąsdamos juos nuo akmenų. Jaunikliai laikose netoli nuo kranto. Suaugėliai nuo kranto nuplaukia banguodami visu kūnu. Patinai nuo kranto nuplaukia toliau nei patelės. Plaukimo metu, taupant deguonį, kraujas patenka tik į gyvybiškai svarbius organus.

    Driežai krante šildosi stipriais nagais įsikabinę į akmenis. Juoda spalva padeda lengviau įkaisti saulėje. Perteklinė druska patekusi su maistu pašalinama per specialias liaukas esančias nosyje.

    Poravimosi metu ant patinėlių atsiranda raudona dėmė. Varžovai kovoja baksnodamiesi galvomis.

    Jūrinė iguana sutinkama visose salyno salose, dažniausiai ant uolėtų krantų, druskingose pelkėse ir mangrovėse.

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    Haviguan ( норвешки )

    добавил wikipedia NO

    Haviguan (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) er en iguan som finnes bare på Galápagosøyene. Den skiller seg fra alle andre nålevende øgler ved at den svømmer og lever av alger.


     src=
    Haviguaner på øyen Fernandina på Galápagos

    Habitat

    Haviguanen finnes på alle Galápagosøyene, som tilhører Ecuador. Der holder de til på klipper langs kysten. Noen steder er det opptil 3000 haviguaner per kilometer kystlinje, men de fleste steder er det langt færre av dem enn det. Haviguanen har ikke særlig mange naturlige fiender, og galapagoshauken utgjør den største trusselen for voksne haviguaner. Eggene kan også bli tatt, av andre fugler og av slanger.

    Atferd

    Haviguanen tilbringer dagene på de solfylte klippene langs kysten for å samle varme. Når solen står opp inntar den en positur som gjør at mest mulig av kroppen får sollys. Når den når sin idealtemperatur på 35.5°C endrer den kroppspositur for å unngå overheting. Den kan da løfte overkroppen vendt mot solen, slik at luft kan sirkulere inn under kroppen og kjøle den ned, samtidig som det reduserer soleksponeringen på deler av kroppen. Reptiler kan ikke svette, men hvis haviguanen når 40° vil den begynne å pese for å kvitte seg med varme.[1]

    Ernæring

    De fleste haviguaner spiser én gang i løpet av dagen, men noen av de største individene spiser bare hver andre eller tredje dag. De største hannene venter vanligvis til midt på dagen når solen er på sitt varmeste, slik at de har rukket å bli varme i solen før de svømmer ut for å dykke etter alger. Resten av kolonien spiser alger i vannkanten når det er fjære sjø. Der spiser de til de blir truffet av bølgene igjen. Den store forskjellen skyldes sannsynligvis at de mindre individene ikke er like gode svømmere, og ikke klarer å holde like godt på varmen.[2]

    Reproduksjon

    De fleste haviguaner er kolonidyr det meste av året. Bare et fåtall hanner holder seg utenfor koloniene. Utenfor parringssesongen er det lite aggresjon mellom individene, men ved starten av parringssesongen blir hannene territoriale og mer aggressive.

    Hannen kurtiserer hunnen ved å sirkle rundt henne og nikke med hodet.

    Referanser

    1. ^ Galapagos – A Natural History (Michael H. Jackson, 1993)
    2. ^ Galapagos – A Natural History (Michael H. Jackson, 1993)

    Eksterne lenker

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    Haviguan: Brief Summary ( норвешки )

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    Haviguan (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) er en iguan som finnes bare på Galápagosøyene. Den skiller seg fra alle andre nålevende øgler ved at den svømmer og lever av alger.


     src= Haviguaner på øyen Fernandina på Galápagos
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    Legwan morski ( полски )

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    Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons

    Legwan morski (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) – gatunek gada z rodziny legwanów. Jest jedyną żyjącą jaszczurką żywiącą się w morzu.

    Opis
    Od głowy do ogona przez środek grzbietu biegnie ciągły, ząbkowany, skórny grzebień o rogowych kolcach. Całe ciało jest ciemne, szaroczarne, z jasnopopielatymi lub ceglastoczerwonymi plamami układającymi się w poprzeczne pręgi.
    Krótki, stępiony nos jest przystosowany do jedzenia alg rosnących na podwodnych skałach. Spłaszczony ogon znakomicie ułatwia pływanie. Nogi zakończone są ostrymi pazurami. Nadmiar soli z wody morskiej usuwany jest z krwi gada przez specjalne gruczoły połączone z nozdrzami tak, że co jakiś czas wydmuchują obłoki pary z nozdrzy, przez co kojarzyć się mogą z legendarnymi smokami ziejącymi ogniem.
    Rozmiary
    Długość ciała około 130 cm, z czego na ogon przypada około 80 cm.
    Masa ciała do 12 kg
    Biotop
    Nadmorskie skały wulkaniczne nad podmorskimi łąkami alg.
    Pokarm
    Morskie wodorosty zwłaszcza morszczyny, choć zdarza im się zjeść skorupiaka lub owada.
    Zachowanie
    Na lądzie ospałe, towarzysko spędzają czas na wygrzewaniu się w słońcu. w skupiskach do 4500 osobników przez milę, tak gęsto, że trudno jest znaleźć między nimi wolny kawałek lądu, by postawić stopę. Co jakiś czas skaczą ze skał do wody, gdzie doskonale pływają i nurkują do dna, aby zrywać pyskiem i od razu połykać rosnące tam rośliny. Gdy się najedzą wypływają na brzeg, aby znowu wygrzewać się w słońcu po kąpieli w chłodnawej wodzie. Te łagodne zwierzęta są bezbronne wobec rekinów i innych dużych ryb.
    Rozmnażanie
    W porze godowej samce bronią swoich terytoriów na lądzie, gdzie kopulują z samicami. Samice składają jaja do wykopanych jam. Wylęgłe młode są czarne i z czasem, w miarę dojrzewania, nabierają kolory dorosłych osobników.
    Występowanie
    Gatunek endemiczny zasiedlający tylko wyspy Galapagos.

    Przypisy

    1. Aurélien Miralles, Amy Macleod, Ariel Rodríguez, Alejandro Ibáñez, Gustavo Jiménez-Uzcategui, Galo Quezada, Miguel Vences i Sebastian Steinfartz. Shedding light on the Imps of Darkness: an integrative taxonomic revision of the Galápagos marine iguanas (genus Amblyrhynchus). „Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society”. 181 (3), s. 678–710, 2017. DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx007 (ang.).
    2. Amblyrhynchus cristatus. Czerwona księga gatunków zagrożonych (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species) (ang.).

    Bibliografia

    1. Hanna Dobrowolska: Gady. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydaw. Naukowe, 1981. ISBN 83-01-00957-8.
    2. Włodzimierz Juszczyk: Gady i płazy. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna, 1986. ISBN 83-214-0464-2.
    3. Zwierzęta : encyklopedia ilustrowana. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2005, s. 372,373. ISBN 83-01-14344-4.
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    Legwan morski: Brief Summary ( полски )

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    Legwan morski (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) – gatunek gada z rodziny legwanów. Jest jedyną żyjącą jaszczurką żywiącą się w morzu.

    Opis Od głowy do ogona przez środek grzbietu biegnie ciągły, ząbkowany, skórny grzebień o rogowych kolcach. Całe ciało jest ciemne, szaroczarne, z jasnopopielatymi lub ceglastoczerwonymi plamami układającymi się w poprzeczne pręgi.
    Krótki, stępiony nos jest przystosowany do jedzenia alg rosnących na podwodnych skałach. Spłaszczony ogon znakomicie ułatwia pływanie. Nogi zakończone są ostrymi pazurami. Nadmiar soli z wody morskiej usuwany jest z krwi gada przez specjalne gruczoły połączone z nozdrzami tak, że co jakiś czas wydmuchują obłoki pary z nozdrzy, przez co kojarzyć się mogą z legendarnymi smokami ziejącymi ogniem. Rozmiary Długość ciała około 130 cm, z czego na ogon przypada około 80 cm.
    Masa ciała do 12 kg
    Biotop Nadmorskie skały wulkaniczne nad podmorskimi łąkami alg. Pokarm Morskie wodorosty zwłaszcza morszczyny, choć zdarza im się zjeść skorupiaka lub owada. Zachowanie Na lądzie ospałe, towarzysko spędzają czas na wygrzewaniu się w słońcu. w skupiskach do 4500 osobników przez milę, tak gęsto, że trudno jest znaleźć między nimi wolny kawałek lądu, by postawić stopę. Co jakiś czas skaczą ze skał do wody, gdzie doskonale pływają i nurkują do dna, aby zrywać pyskiem i od razu połykać rosnące tam rośliny. Gdy się najedzą wypływają na brzeg, aby znowu wygrzewać się w słońcu po kąpieli w chłodnawej wodzie. Te łagodne zwierzęta są bezbronne wobec rekinów i innych dużych ryb. Rozmnażanie W porze godowej samce bronią swoich terytoriów na lądzie, gdzie kopulują z samicami. Samice składają jaja do wykopanych jam. Wylęgłe młode są czarne i z czasem, w miarę dojrzewania, nabierają kolory dorosłych osobników. Występowanie Gatunek endemiczny zasiedlający tylko wyspy Galapagos.
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    Iguana-marinha ( португалски )

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    A iguana-marinha (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) é o único lagarto do mundo com hábitos marinhos e é uma das muitas extraordinárias espécies que se podem encontrar no arquipélago das Galápagos.[1] Vive em zonas rochosas da beira-mar e alimenta-se de algas que apanha quer na zona de rebentação quer mergulhando junto à costa. Pode passar até uma hora debaixo de água.[2]

    Galápagos, forma um arquipélago na costa da América do Sul. Este arquipélago são ilhas vulcânicas, e nunca foram ligadas a uma massa de terra, por isso acredita-se que as iguanas atravessaram sobre a água, da América do Sul para essa ilhas há cerca de 10 a 15 milhões de anos.

     src=
    Uma iguana-marinha adulta.

    Um fenômeno curioso são as chamadas iguanas híbridas, nascidas do cruzamento de uma iguana-marinha macho com uma iguana-terrestre fêmea. As iguanas híbridas podem viver tanto na terra quanto no mar. Esta espécie foi um dos animais estudados por Darwin[3][4] durante sua estada em Galápagos.

    Esta espécie geralmente vive em colônias onde os recifes são rasos e ocorrem com uma extensa zona entre marés e uma costa rochosa.[2] Eles são encontrados em trechos a cerca de dois a cinco metros acima do nível do mar, mas também podem subir a alturas de 80 metros. Eles também precisam ter acesso a áreas arenosas onde enterrarão seus ovos. Embora as Ilhas Galápagos ficam perto da linha do equador, a água é extremamente fria, por razão das correntes oceânicas.[5]

    Breve histórico

    O navio topográgrico em que Darwin viajou em presença do capitão Robert FitzRoy se chamava HMS Beagle. Todas as viagens feitas por Darwin passaram por muitos locais da América do Sul, as Ilhas Galápagos, Taiti e Austrália e as Ilhas Cocos.

    Chegaram às Ilhas Galápagos em 15 de setembro de 1835. Na Ilha de San Cristóbal Darwin encontrou lava vulcânica negra rochosa queimando sob o sol quente, e crateras vulcânicas que o faziam lembrar das casas de fundições de ferro da industrial Staffordshire. Ele notou um tipo de arbusto fino espalhado pela ilha sendo composto de 10 espécies, e encontrou poucos insetos. A impressionante tartaruga gigante, para seu gosto pessoal, parecia antediluviana, embora ele tenha pensado naquela época que elas haviam sido trazidos para a ilha por piratas, como fonte de alimento.

    Na colônia da Ilha de Santa Maria foi-lhe dito que as tartarugas apresentavam pequenas diferenças de ilha para ilha, mas aparentemente isso não foi óbvio nas ilhas que Darwin visitou tanto é que ele nem se preocupou em coletar suas cascas. As iguanas-marinhas eram tremendamente feias, e devido a um erro na colocação das etiquetas no museu ele achou que essas criaturas eram uma espécies unicamente sul-americana. Os pássaros, notavelmente não tinham medo da presença humana, e eram tipos diferentes, únicos, e que lembravam as espécies da América do Sul. Ele notou que os pássaros canoros eram diferentes de ilha em ilha e tomou cuidado etiquetando espécimes, mas não se preocupou em anotar onde outras espécies, como os tentilhões haviam sido encontradas. Felizmente, outros realizaram um processo mais metódico enquanto etiquetavam suas coleções. Eles saíram da ilha em 20 de outubro.

    Os estudos

    Como estudo, Darwin levou usou as características encontradas nas ilhas que ele passou no seu Capítulo XII do livro A Origem das espécies.[3] Em seus relatos ele traz uma discussão sobre biogeografia.[6] Após uma breve discussão sobre as espécies de água doce, ela fala sobre as ilhas oceânicas e suas peculiaridades, como por exemplo em continentes os papéis feitos pelos mamíferos eram em algumas ilhas feitos por outros animais, como pássaros sem a habilidade de voar, e outros répteis. Um trecho desses capítulos mostra o que Darwin pensava:

    Anatomia

     src=
    Iguana-marinha em Isla Lobos, Galápagos.

    Em sua visita às ilhas, Charles Darwin estava revoltado com a aparência dos animais, e escreveu:

    O que Darwin afirmou de início não era verdade, pois os Amblyrhynchus cristatus nem sempre são pretos; os jovens têm uma tarja de cor mais clara dorsal, e alguns exemplares adultos são cinza. A razão para o tom sombrio é que a espécie deve absorver rapidamente o calor para minimizar o período de letargia depois de sair da água. Alimentam-se quase exclusivamente de algas marinhas, expulsando o excesso de sal das glândulas nasais,[8] enquanto aproveitam o sol, e o revestimento de sal pode fazer os seus rostos aparecerem branco logo após a saída destes do mar. Nos machos adultos, coloração varia com a estação. Machos adultos férteis em algumas temporadas na parte do sul são as mais coloridos e vão adquirindo um tom avermelhado e azul-petróleo somado de cores verdes, enquanto que em Santa Cruz são de cor vermelha e preta, e em Fernandina são vermelhos sem brilho e um leve esverdeado.

    Outra diferença entre as iguanas é o tamanho, que é diferente em cada ilha que a iguana habita. As iguanas que vivem nas ilhas de Fernandina e Isabela (nomeado para os governantes famosos da Espanha) são os maiores que os encontrados em qualquer lugar de Galápagos. No outro extremo, as menores iguanas são encontrados na ilha Genovesa.[5]

    Os machos adultos são de aproximadamente 1,3 m de comprimento, 0,6 m as fêmeas, os machos pesam até 1,5 kg.[2]

    Morfologicamente, estas iguanas têm como detalhes importantes no corpo o fato de serem escamadas e terem cristas nas costas. A cabeça deste animal tem as maiores cristas, que vão diminuindo à medida que se desce das costas até a cauda. Essas cristas são feitas de um material cartilaginoso, porém pouco flexível. Nenhum estudo foi feito para saber exatamente a função destas cristas, mas podem ter relação com o nado, ou pode ser também um equivoco, uma vez que iguanas como a iguana-azul também possui essas cristas, mas não são aquáticas.[9]

    A pele destes animais têm pigmentos escuros que ajudam a proteger contra os efeitos dos raios ultravioleta. Também é útil no aquecimento do corpo. O focinho da iguana é curto e sem corte e isso permite que a mandíbula fique em estreito contato com o substrato quando essas iguanas estão alimentando de algas. Os dentes tricúspides são achatados lateralmente e ficam dispostos nas laterais da mandíbula sem sair dos lábios.[2]

    Locomoção

     src=
    O pé de uma iguana-marinha, não tem muita relação com o nado deste animal, mas sim para a vida terrestre.

    Em terra, a iguana-marinha é um animal bastante desajeitado, e passa a maioria do tempo parado, evitando gastos de energia ao máximo. O sol, é a principal meta dessas iguanas enquanto é tarde.[10] Seus corpos para ficarem esquentados e manter a temperatura devem evitar gastos energéticos.[9]

    O pé desta iguana, diferentemente dos animais nadadores que tem pele entre os dedos para funcionar como uma espécie de "remo", facilitando o nado, é ausente nestes animais. A locomoção na terra que é feita por essas patas, não são nada eficientes para o nado. O membro utilizado no mar para nadar por esses animais é a cauda. Seus movimentos estrindentes e coordenados, faz delas, ótimas nadadoras,[9] nem parecendo aqueles animais desajeitados vistos na terra.

    A pata, portanto admite outro uso: o de força para agarrar.[10] Quando essas iguanas estão em terra, elas necessitam de patas com grandes unhas e muito fortes para manter-se pregadas às crateras vulcânicas, e além disto, no mar essas patas auxiliam quando esses animais necessitam de um impulso, e também (principalmente) quando elas vão sair da água, e necessitam agarrar-se nas rochas lamentas e porosas.

    Ecologia

    Como um animal ectotérmico, a iguana marinha pode passar apenas um tempo limitado no mar frio, onde se mergulha para alcançar as algas. No entanto, só nadando nas águas rasas ao redor da ilha são capazes de sobreviver em mergulhos de até meia hora de duração e em profundidades de mais de 15 m .[11] Após estes mergulhos, eles retornam ao seu território para aquecer ao sol. Quando fria, a iguana é incapaz de se mover de forma eficaz, tornando-os vulneráveis à predação, e nesses momentos que estão mais frias que tornam-se mais agressivas, atacam os que passam por perto delas, como modo de defesa já que elas não se movimentam bem antes de estarem aquecidas novamente. Durante a época de reprodução, os machos tornam-se altamente territoriais. Os machos montam grandes grupos de fêmeas para acasalar, e preservam elas contra outros iguanas machos.[12]

     src=
    Iguana-marinha com crosta de sal nas costas.

    Iguanas-marinhas alteram seu tamanho para se adaptar às diferentes condições alimentares.[1][12] Durante condições de El Niño,[13] quando as algas que as iguanas se alimentam é diminuída por um período de dois anos, algumas das iguanas foram encontradas com seu tamanho diminuido de até 20%. Quando as condições de alimentação voltaram ao normal, as iguanas retornam a sua forma normal anterior. Especula-se que os ossos das iguanas encurtaram e ocorreu uma contração do tecido conjuntivo delas, indicando essa redução do tamanho relativo.[13]

    Elas são ativas durante o dia e passar as primeiras horas após amanhecer, debaixo do sol em preparação para a atividade. A grande maioria dos indivíduos em cada colônia alimentam quase exclusivamente de algas marinhas nas zonas intertidais durante a maré baixa. Somente os maiores indivíduos, que corresponde a 5% do total mergulham na água para a alimentação, principalmente durante as horas do meio-dia. As águas são extremamente frias,[1][12] e faz a iguana perder calor rapidamente quando está caçando debaixo da água.[11] Isto obriga elas a voltar para as rochas e aquecer ao sol novamente. Na verdade, o tamanho da iguana e a forma que ela mantém ou perde calor determina o seu método de alimentação. Indivíduos pequenos, que perdem calor rapidamente, somente se alimentam em rochas na maré baixa, raspando as algas da superfície e, raramente, mergulham no mar. Os indivíduos maiores, no entanto, não perdem tanto calor e isto faz eles serem ativos debaixo da água por mais tempo.[11] Eles caçam algas na água rasa cerca de dois a cinco metros de profundidade, mas podem mergulhar até 25 metros onde há uma abundância de algas, e sem a concorrência de outras iguanas. Enquanto se alimentam debaixo da água, eles também consomem uma grande quantidade de sal que, em excesso, podem ser tóxico.[8] Eles, portanto, excretam grandes quantias de cristais de sal por uma glândula nasal através de espirros.[13] A atividade diminui entre meio-dia e à noite, e antes do pôr-do-sol as iguana se retiram para debaixo de fendas ou pedras, onde ficarão em repouso até o início do outro dia.[12]

     src=
    Iguana-marinha no seu nado pela parte da manhã.

    Esta espécie reproduz a cada ano durante um período de três meses, durante a qual os machos defendem territórios de acasalamento. Esses indivíduos, normalmente, reproduzem a cada dois anos. Cuidadosos para não desperdiçar energia, eles dependem de movimentos, ou reações que não gaste muita energia, preferindo até usar somente a mordida como defesa quando algum invasor está em seus territórios. O mês de acasalamento são de janeiro até abril, dependendo da ilha.[12][13] As fêmeas colocam entre um e seis ovos até 300 metros para o interior da ilha, na areia ou nos buracos vulcânicos têm profundidade de 30 a 80 cm. Fêmeas geralmente vigiam a toca por vários dias, em seguida, deixa os ovos ao fim da incubação, que leva aproximadamente 95 dias. Quando o filhote nascem, eles já tem características e movimentos parecidos com o de adultos, e não tem proteção paterna.[1][12]

    Alimentação

    Iguanas-marinhas são herbívoros. Alimentam-se quase exclusivamente de algas marinhas. Nove espécies de algas foram identificadas como fontes de alimento, das seguintes espécies:[12]

    • Tylotus ecuadorianus
    • Bryopsis indica triseriata
    • Plocamium pacificum
    • Priontis abbreviata
    • Glossophore galapagensis
    • Villum Loposiponia
    • Ptersosiphonia paucicorticata
    • Blossevillea galapagensis
    • Gelidium

    Ocasionalmente esses animais também comem gafanhotos, crustáceos ou mesmo placenta de leões-marinhos. Eles são adaptados fisiologicamente a viver nas zonas costeiras das ilhas Galápagos. Iguanas machos preferem se alimentam de algas submersas ou a maior distância da costa, enquanto que as fêmeas geralmente caçam na costa, sem longas distâncias. Iguans jovens mergulham para caçar somente quando a maré é baixa. A maioria das iguanas alimentam somente uma vez por dia.[1]

    Reprodução

    As fêmeas atingem a maturidade sexual quando têm de 3 a 5 anos de idade. Os machos, quando eles têm cerca de 6 a 8 anos. A época de reprodução começa em dezembro e se estende até março. Durante a época de acasalamento o iguana macho fica com cores muito vibrantes. Em alguns animais essa seria uma forma de atrair as fêmeas, porém os estudos não podem comprovar a correlação entre o grau de cores nos machos e sucesso reprodutivo. Fêmeas têm apenas um companheiro por temporada.[14]

    Um macho aborda uma fêmea com a cabeça abaixada. A medida que ele aproxima da fêmea ele começa a subir e descer a cabeça rapidamente.[14] Enquanto ele continua a se aproximar, ele moverá em círculos até mover-se lateralmente em contato com ela, movendo a cabeça ao longo de sua cauda. Então ele coloca sua perna da frente sobre a fêmea, e sobe nas suas costas. A partir dessa posição, ele vai vai morder a pele do pescoço ou do ombro para se sustentar em cima da fêmea. É comum que a fêmea se afastar, em qualquer fase do namoro. Depois de obter uma retenção suficiente sobre a fêmea, o macho vai torcer o rabo, para por as cloacas em contato uma com a outra.[1] A cópula dura cerca de três a quatro minutos.

    Cerca de quatro semanas após o acasalamento fêmeas vão deixar a colônia e transitar entre 20 metros a 3 quilômetros para áreas arenosas.[10] Fêmeas competem pelos locais onde vão colocar seus ovos,[15] e a escolha do local normalmente leva entre 2 a 3 dias. Ela logo cava um buraco no qual deposita seus ovos. O processo de cavar na areia pode demorar cerca de metade de um dia. A iguana-marinha pode depositar entre um e seis ovos. Os ovos podem pesar até um quarto do peso da fêmea. A fêmea então guarda o ninho até dezesseis dias. A incubação dos ovos demora entre 89 a 120 dias.[15]

    Quando os filhotes saem dos ovos, podem pesar cerca de 50 a 60 gramas. Após a incubação os filhotes tendem a olhar ao redor e então imediatamente começam a correr até achar um local seguro.[1]

    Taxonomia

    Amblyrhynchus é um gênero que se divide em várias subespécies, dentre elas, cada uma pertence a uma ilha diferente, ou até mesmo algumas tem relações com territórios ocupados pelas iguanas-marinhas de Galápagos. Nenhuma subespécie desse gênero ocupa um território que fuja do arquipélago de Galápagos, todas elas estão situadas em ilhas menores ou maiores mais todas em localidades próximas uma das outras. As subespécies são:

    A seguir há uma divisão mais detalhada das iguanas-marinhas, mostrando desde a superclasse até a família que ela é classificada:

    Etimologia

    Seu nome genérico, Amblyrhynchus,[13] é uma combinação de duas palavras gregas, Ambly-de Amblus (ἀμβλυ), que significa "corte" e rhynchus (ρυγχος), que significa "focinho". Seu nome específico é a cristatus palavra em latim que significa "crista", e refere-se a crista baixa de espinhos ao longo da parte traseira do animal.

    História evolutiva

    Os pesquisadores teorizam[16] que a iguana terrestre e iguanas marinhas evoluíram de um ancestral comum, desde que chegou nas ilhas da América do Sul, presumivelmente por troncos.[6] Pensa-se que a espécie ancestral habitava parte do arquipélago vulcânico que agora está submersa[17]

    Há pensamentos sustentados de que a iguana-marinha podem ter evoluído de uma família extinta de répteis.[16][17]

    Esta espécie endêmica provocou uma grande dose de conversa acadêmica sobre sua origem. Há iguanas terrestres espalhadas por todo o mundo e até mesmo nas ilhas Galápagos. No entanto, a iguana-marinha é a única que se alimenta exclusivamente por meio aquático. Como não há comida disponível nas ilhas, isso fez com que zoólogos ponderassem as origens dessa adaptação.

    Entre outros biólogos existem algumas divergencias de opinião quanto ao desenvolvimento das iguanas nativas. A iguana terrestre (Conolophus Subcristatus e Conolophus pallidus ) e a iguana-marinha (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), são teorizados ter divergido entre quinze e vinte milhões de anos atrás.[16] Esta divergência das espécies é anterior à idade das Ilhas Galápagos, na verdade estas ilhas foram criadas por explosões vulcânicas, cerca de 5 milhões de anos atrás, e nunca tiveram contato com o continente sul-americano.[17]

    Os estudos imunológicos mostram alta similaridade de diferenciação genética em ambos os gêneros. Há duas teorias sugeridas para essa evolução: a divergência de dois ancestrais comuns com a irradiação subsequente,[16] ou dois ancestrais separados terem colonizado a ilha de forma aleatória.[17] Não há uma abundância de informações paleontológicas sobre estas espécies, mas as duas teorias continuam a ser testadas. Estas duas iguanas são amplamente consideradas como irmãs.

    Subespécies

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus albemarlensis

    Esta subespécie ocorre em Crossman e nas ilhotas Tortuga (Ilha Isabela), e a população é concentrada em quatro áreas principais. A extensão total de ocorrência de iguanas desta subespécie é inferior a 5.000 km ² e a área de ocupação é estimada em menos de 500 km². As principais ameaças para a população são a predação por espécies introduzidas (cães, gatos, ratos e porcos) e perda de habitat. Os efeitos do El Niño[13] também causar declínios populacionais periódicos.

    A população total de A. c. albemarlensis é estimada entre 20,500-40,000 animais. A distribuição da subespécie parece não existir no oeste e norte da Isabela (Los Cañones, Bahia Urbina, Muñeco e Punta Albermarle), provavelmente por causa de predadores introduzidos, já em outras áreas, essas iguanas são endêmicas.[17]

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus hassi

    A. c. Hassi é encontrado na Ilha de Santa Cruz. Extensão de ocorrência da população é estimada em menos de 100 km ² e área de ocupação em menos de 10 km ². Em janeiro de 2000, houve a contaminação extensiva do habitat desta subespécie por um óleo diesel,[18][19] derrame de combustível. Os efeitos a longo prazo deste derrame são desconhecidos. Há em curso também a predação por espécies introduzidas.

    A estimativa da longevidade dessas iguanas é de cinco anos para as fêmeas e 12 anos para os machos. A população total é estimada entre 6,000-10,000 indivíduos e atualmente é estável.

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus mertensi

    A. c. mertensi é encontrada em San Cristobal e as ilhas de Santiago. Extensão de ocorrência da população é estimada em menos de 100 km ² e área de ocupação em menos de 10 km ². A ilha de San Cristobal foi o local de um naufrágio, em janeiro de 2001,[18] que derramou óleo diesel[19] ao longo da costa sudoeste da ilha.

    Embora A. c. mertensi é encontrado em duas diferentes ilhas, a população é baixa em Santiago e desconhecida (mas provavelmente baixa), em San Cristobal. O derramamento de óleo 2001[18] é suscetível de ter causado elevados (cerca de 60%) indíces de mortalidade para a população de San Cristóbal, com base na localização do vazamento e seus efeitos nas outras ilhas vizinhas (Ilha de Santa Fé). Animais introduzidos no local como cães e gatos associados à população humana representam uma ameaça permanente para iguanas-marinhas em San Cristobal.

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus nanus

    A. c. nanus é encontrado na Ilha de Genovesa. Extensão de ocorrência da população é estimada em menos de 100 km ² e área de ocupação em menos de 10 km ². A população atual é estimada em cerca de 1.500 animais e está em declínio. Os dados do censo e observações informais mostraram que a população diminuiu em mais de 80% nos últimos 10 anos devido aos efeitos do El Niño.[13]

    É uma das subespécies mais ameaçadas das iguanas, e corre sério risco de extinção.

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus sielmanni

    A. c. sielmanni é encontrado na ilha Pinta. Extensão de ocorrência da população é estimada em menos de 100 km ² e área de ocupação em menos de 10 km ². A população atual é estimada em cerca de 2,500-6,000 indivíduos. A principal ameaça à população são os resultados dos efeitos do El Niño.[13]

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus venustissimus

    A. c. venustissimus é encontrado na ilha de Española. Extensão de ocorrência da população é estimada em menos de 100 km ² e área de ocupação em menos de 10 km ². Há duas subpopulações, com um total estimado 10,000-21,000 animais. A principal ameaça à população são de resultados dos efeitos do El Niño.[13]

    Conservação

    O Iguana-marinha está classificada como Vulnerável (VU) na Lista Vermelha da IUCN e listada no apêndice II da CITES. Subespécies como Amblyrhynchus cristatus mertensi e A. c. nanus são classificadas como Criticamente Ameaçadas (CR) e A. c. albemarlensis, A. c. cristatus, A. c. hassi, A. c. sielmanni e A. c. venustissimus assim como a iguana-marinha de Galápagos são classificadas como Vulnerável (VU) na Lista Vermelha da IUCN.

     src=
    Iguana abrindo a boca (parecido com bocejo)

    Esta espécie está totalmente protegido sob as leis do Equador, e está listado em Apêndice II da CITES. Efeitos do El Niño causa quedas periódicas da população, com alta mortalidade, e a iguana-marinha está ameaçada pela predação por espécies exóticas. O tamanho da população total é desconhecido, mas é, segundo a IUCN, pelo menos 50.000,[20] e as estimativas a partir da Estação de Pesquisa Charles Darwin[21] estão na ordem das centenas de milhares.

    As iguanas-marinhas não evoluíram para combater os predadores mais recentes. Os cães e gatos tornam-se os principais vilões das iguanas recém nascidas. Quando estas estão sozinhas, cães e gatos de regiões que tem humanos por perto acabam comendo estes animais ou matando-os, revelando uma séria causa do índice de declíve da população.[20]

    As ilhas Galápagos têm sido estudadas e protegidas. Mais recentemente, em março de 1998, uma área de 133,000 km ², foi designada como a Reserva Marinha de Galápagos,[22] tornando-se uma das áreas protegidas maiores do mundo. Programas de investigação detalhada de conservação foram desenvolvidos para estudar a ecologia das ilhas e os efeitos das pessoas sobre a vida selvagem.

    Controlando animais selvagens introduzidos nas ilhas é a medida mais importante e urgente, e o Parque Nacional de Galápagos e a Estação de Pesquisa Charles Darwin[21] estão enfrentando esse problema. Esforços a longo prazo são essenciais para permitir que esta espécie única se recupere.

    Ameaças

    Iguanas-marinhas de Galápagos desenvolveram comportamentos antipredadores para os nativos da ilha, como o falcão-das-galápagos (Buteo galapagoensis), a garça-da-lava (Butorides sandevalli), Socozinho (Butorides striatus), Ardeas (Ardea herodias), Fragata-comum (Fregata minor e Fregata mgnificens), e Coruja-do-nabal (Asio flammeus).

    Os investigadores acreditam que nenhum dos predadores nativos confiaram em grande parte em fazer da iguana-marinha parte de sua fonte de alimento, pois existe hipóteses de que a carne de iguanas-marinhas adultas podem ser demasiadamente salgada.

    Mas estão ameaçados pela introdução de gatos, cães e ratos. Estes animais selvagens comem iguanas e seus ovos e dizimando populações jovens em muitas colônias, pelo falto de as iguanas-marinhas serem muito dóceis e não costumam deixar uma área quando molestadas.

    Esta espécie também é sensível às flutuações ambientais causadas pelo fenômeno El Niño. Este fenômeno natural é causado por uma falha dos ventos alísios, resultando em um aumento na temperatura do mar de cerca de 4,3 graus Celsius, juntamente com um aumento do nível do mar e precipitação. Em média, o El Niño ocorre a cada 12,3 anos, embora o evento de 1982-1983 foi o mais grave para cerca de 100 anos. As flutuações ambientais e na sequência da invasão de uma alga (Giffordia mitchelliae) excluídas da alimentação normal da iguana-marinha, causando a morte de 50 por cento da população.

    Os derrames de petróleo e poluição marinha também são graves ameaças, eles destroem reservas alimentares e as praias de nidificação.[19] Um derrame de petróleo de um navio petroleiro equatoriano em janeiro de 2001 derramou milhões de litros de óleo e combustível para as águas das Ilhas Galápagos. No ano seguinte, cerca de 15.000 iguanas na Ilha de Santa Fé morreram sozinhas, mais de 60 por cento da população da ilha inteira.[20] Os cientistas acreditam que o petróleo pode ter matado as bactérias que as iguanas[18] precisam para ajudar a digerir as algas, tornando impossível para elas absorverem os nutrientes. Felizmente, iguanas podem aumentar sua taxa de reprodução, quando as densidades populacionais são baixas (como após eventos de El Nino), e, portanto, pode potencialmente se recuperar de desastres, em certa medida.

    Referências

    1. a b c d e f g Martin Wikelski (1998). «Marines-iguanas» (em inglês). Arquivado do original em 20 de outubro de 2012
    2. a b c d Halliday, T. and Adler, K. (2002). The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians. Oxford: Oxford University Press !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
    3. a b c Coyne, Jerry A. (2009). Why Evolution is True. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-199-23084-6. In The Origin, Darwin provided an alternative hypothesis for the development , diversification, and design of life. Much of that book presents evidence that not only supports evolution but at the same time refutes creationism. In Darwin's day, the evidence for his theories was compelling but not completely decisive.
    4. a b Darwin, Charles (2001), Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary, ISBN 0521003172, London: Cambridge University Press
    5. a b Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1984). I. Galapagos. Oxford: Pergamon Press
    6. a b Darwin, Charles (2001). Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary (em inglês). London: Cambridge University Press. 494 páginas
    7. a b Glass, Bentley (1959). Forerunners of Darwin. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. iv. ISBN 0801802229. Darwin's solution is a magnificent synthesis of evidence...a synthesis…compelling in honesty and comprehensiveness
    8. a b Hazard, Lisa C. (2004). Sodium and Potassium Secretion by Iguana Salt Glands. Iguanas: Biology and Conservation. [S.l.]: University of California Press. pp. 84–85. ISBN 9780520238541
    9. a b c Byatt, A., Fothergill, A. and Holmes, M. (2001). The Blue Planet. London: BBC Worldwide Limited !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
    10. a b c Pough, F. (1989). Vertebrate Life. New York: Macmillan Publishing
    11. a b c «Darwin e as iguanas». Consultado em 12 de outubro de 2009. Arquivado do GalapagosPages original Verifique valor |url= (ajuda) em 5 de fevereiro de 2008. says typical dives last only a few minutes at depths of less than five metres, but Darwin reported a member of the crew submerging an iguana for an hour, and pulling it out with a rope, still alive. IUCN says that adult males can be found in marine waters, down to depths of twenty metres
    12. a b c d e f g Burghardt, Gordon M. and Rand, A. Stanley (1982). Iguanas of the World Their Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. [S.l.: s.n.] !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
    13. a b c d e f g h i M, Wikelski; Thom, C. (2000). «Marine iguanas shrink to survive El Niño». Nature. 403 (6765): 37–8. PMID 10638740. doi:10.1038/47396 A referência emprega parâmetros obsoletos |coautor= (ajuda)
    14. a b Boersma, P. (1983). Patterns of Evolution in Galapagos Organisms. San Francisco: Pacific Division
    15. a b Rauch, N. (1988). Competition of Marine Iguana Females for Egg-Laying Sites. Vol. 107. [S.l.]: Behavior. pp. pgs. 91 – 104
    16. a b c d Rassman K, Tautz D, Trillmich F, Gliddon C (1997). The micro - evolution of the Galápagos marine iguana Amblyrhynchus cristatus assessed by nuclear and mitochondrial genetic analysis. [S.l.]: Molecular Ecology. pp. 437–452 !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
    17. a b c d e Marine Iguana «Marine-iguana» Verifique valor |url= (ajuda). Consultado em 16 de agosto de 2006
    18. a b c d Hecht, J. (2002). «Óleo nas ilhas do arquipélago de Galápagos». Galapagos oil spill devastated marine iguanas.
    19. a b c Widelski, M. & Trillmich, F. (1994). Foraging Strategies of the Galapagos Marine Iguana: Adapting Behavioral Rules to Ontogenetic Size Change. Vol 128. [S.l.]: Behavior. pp. pgs. 225 – 279 !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
    20. a b c Laurie, Andrew (1981). Estación Científica Charles Darwin, Progress report No. 1. Population Dynamics and Social Organization of Marine Iguanas on Galapagos. [S.l.: s.n.]
    21. a b «Charles Darwin Foundation». 2008. Arquivado do original em 3 de fevereiro de 2009. Fundação de Darwin para preservação ambiental
    22. «Galapagos Conservation Trust». 2003

    Referências bibliográficas

    • Os Santurários Selvagens - Atlas do Extradordinário. Ed. 22, Fascículo 7. Pág. 3
    • Rothman, Robert, Marine Iguana Galapagos Pages. Rochester Institute of Technology. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
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    Iguana-marinha: Brief Summary ( португалски )

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    A iguana-marinha (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) é o único lagarto do mundo com hábitos marinhos e é uma das muitas extraordinárias espécies que se podem encontrar no arquipélago das Galápagos. Vive em zonas rochosas da beira-mar e alimenta-se de algas que apanha quer na zona de rebentação quer mergulhando junto à costa. Pode passar até uma hora debaixo de água.

    Galápagos, forma um arquipélago na costa da América do Sul. Este arquipélago são ilhas vulcânicas, e nunca foram ligadas a uma massa de terra, por isso acredita-se que as iguanas atravessaram sobre a água, da América do Sul para essa ilhas há cerca de 10 a 15 milhões de anos.

     src= Uma iguana-marinha adulta.

    Um fenômeno curioso são as chamadas iguanas híbridas, nascidas do cruzamento de uma iguana-marinha macho com uma iguana-terrestre fêmea. As iguanas híbridas podem viver tanto na terra quanto no mar. Esta espécie foi um dos animais estudados por Darwin durante sua estada em Galápagos.

    Esta espécie geralmente vive em colônias onde os recifes são rasos e ocorrem com uma extensa zona entre marés e uma costa rochosa. Eles são encontrados em trechos a cerca de dois a cinco metros acima do nível do mar, mas também podem subir a alturas de 80 metros. Eles também precisam ter acesso a áreas arenosas onde enterrarão seus ovos. Embora as Ilhas Galápagos ficam perto da linha do equador, a água é extremamente fria, por razão das correntes oceânicas.

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    Iguană marină ( романски; молдавски )

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    Iguana marină de Galapagos

    Iguana marină (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) este o iguană ce poate fi întâlnită în Insulele Galapagos. Măsoară până la 1,7 m în lungime, se hrănește cu alge, pe care le caută scufundându-se în apă; își folosește coada pentru a vâsli. Iguana marină este capabilă să se scufunde până la o adâncime de 9 metri și să rămână sub apă mai mult de jumătate de oră.

    Iguană marină

    Referințe

    1. ^ Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. (2004). Amblyrhynchus cristatus. Lista roșie a speciilor periclitate IUCN. Versiunea 2012.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Accesat în 26 septembrie 2012.Mentenanță CS1: Nume multiple: lista autorilor (link)

    Bibliografie

    • Rothman, Robert, Marine Iguana Galapagos Pages. Rochester Institute of Technology. Retrieved 19 April 2009.

    Legături externe

    Commons
    Wikimedia Commons conține materiale multimedia legate de Iguană marină
    Wikispecies
    Wikispecies conține informații legate de Iguană marină
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    Iguană marină: Brief Summary ( романски; молдавски )

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    Iguana marină de Galapagos

    Iguana marină (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) este o iguană ce poate fi întâlnită în Insulele Galapagos. Măsoară până la 1,7 m în lungime, se hrănește cu alge, pe care le caută scufundându-se în apă; își folosește coada pentru a vâsli. Iguana marină este capabilă să se scufunde până la o adâncime de 9 metri și să rămână sub apă mai mult de jumătate de oră.

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    Amblyrhynchus ( словачки )

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    Amblyrhynchus, po slovensky leguán, je rod z čeľade leguánovité. Jeho jediným druhom je leguán morský (lat. Amblyrhynchus cristatus). Je to jediný jašter, ktorý si v dospelosti hľadá potravu výhradne v mori.

    Opis

    Dospelý leguán morský dosahuje dĺžku 50 až 100 cm, veľké jedince až 150 cm. Samičky vážia okolo 0,5 kg a samčeky 1,5 kg, niekedy aj viac. Vo veľkosti a hmotnosti medzi jedincami z jednotlivých ostrovov sú veľké rozdiely. Napríklad na ostrove Fernandina majú samce vyše 11 kg, kým na ostrove Genovesa sotva 1 kg. Sfarbenie siaha od tmavosivej po čiernu alebo červenú. Leguán morský má oblú hlavu; charakteristický ostnatý hrebeň, ktorý býva u samcov väčší, tiahnúci sa od hlavy cez krk a chrbát; silné pazúry umožňujúce lozenie po skalách; chvost koordinujúci pohyb vo vode a oblé, ale silné čeľuste. Prebytočnú soľ, ktorú príjmu leguány morské z potravy vylučujú žľazami nachádzajúcimi sa pri nose, preto často vyzerajú vybielene. Telo majú špeciálne adaptované na chlad a slanosť vody.

    Rozšírenie

    Leguán morský je endemit, ktorý sa vyskytuje iba na Galapágoch. Galapágske ostrovy ležia na teplom rovníku, ale obmýva ich studený Humboldtov prúd smerujúci pozdĺž západného pobrežia Južnej Ameriky na sever.

    Poddruhy

    Poznáme 7 recentných poddruhov leguána morského:

    Správanie

    Leguány morské, ako aj všetky ostatné plazy, si nedokážu zvyšovať vlastnú telesnú teplotu, preto majú špecifické stravovacie návyky. Pri ponáraní sa im pulz zníži na polovicu, čo pomáha leguánom šetriť energiu, čím si udržiavajú vyššiu telesnú teplotu oproti prostrediu. Veľké jedince, na rozdiel od malých kŕmiacich sa mimo vody, sa ponárajú do hĺbky až 12 metrov a pod hladinou vydržia viac ako hodinu. Väčšinou však spásajú potravu ponorené v plytkej vode, čo netrvá dlhšie ako 10 minút. Leguány si musia neustále udržiavať telesnú teplotu, preto sa schádzajú vo veľkej skupine, kde je aj niekoľko tisíc jedincov. Cez deň sa vyhrievajú pod slnečnými lúčmi na skalách a v noci sa zomknú nahusto vedľa seba. Jedince z tohto druhu sa pohybujú medzi skalami, aby sa uchránili pred útokmi čajok a iných vtákov. Okrem dravých vtákov majú veľa nepriateľov, napríklad žraloky, ale aj introdukované zvieratá – psy a potkany.

    Potrava

    Potrava tohto druhu je obmedzená na riasy a chaluhy. Veľké jedince sa za riasami ponára do studených morských vôd okolo Galapág. Malé leguány nevchádzajú do mora, lebo by ich telesná teplota priveľmi poklesla, namiesto toho žerú riasy na skalách, ktoré zaplavuje príliv vodou. Na galapágskych ostrovoch rastú odlišné riasy, čo je možná príčina farebnej odlišnosti tohto druhu.

    Rozmnožovanie

    V období rozmnožovania prebiehajú agresívne zápasy samcov o možnosť páriť sa so samičkami, počas ktorých sa udierajú hlavami. Na ostrovoch je málo vhodných lokalít na hniezdenie, preto hniezdi tisíc samíc spolu. Jedna samica nakladie do dier v piesku 1 až 6 vajec. Mláďatá sa liahnu po inkubačnej dobe, ktorá trvá 2 až 3 mesiace. Spočiatku sa kŕmia v odlivovej zóne pobrežia.

    Galéria

    Iné projekty

    Zdroje

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    Amblyrhynchus: Brief Summary ( словачки )

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    Amblyrhynchus, po slovensky leguán, je rod z čeľade leguánovité. Jeho jediným druhom je leguán morský (lat. Amblyrhynchus cristatus). Je to jediný jašter, ktorý si v dospelosti hľadá potravu výhradne v mori.

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    Cự đà biển ( виетнамски )

    добавил wikipedia VI

    Kỳ nhông biển có tên thường gọi là Cự đà biển hay Cự đà biển Galapagos (danh pháp hai phần: Amblyrhynchus cristatus) là một loài thằn lằn trong họ Iguanidae. Loài này được Bell mô tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1825.[2] Chúng là loài bò sát biển chỉ tìm thấy ở quần đảo Galápagos, ngoài khơi bờ biển Ecuador. Đây là loài bò sát thuộc thằn lằn duy nhất sống và tìm kiếm thức ăn ở biển. Môi trường sinh sống của chúng là khu vực bãi đá bờ biển và đôi khi là khu vực đầm lầy và rừng ngập mặn ven biển trên hầu hết tất cả các đảo thuộc Galapagos.

    Phân loại và tiến hóa

    Từ nguyên

    Tên chi của nó Amblyrhynchus, là sự kết hợp của hai từ trong tiếng Hy Lạp, là Ambly bắt nguồn từ Amblus (ἀμβλυ) có nghĩa là "cùn" và rhynchus (ρυγχος) có nghĩa là "mõm". Còn tên Latin, từ cristatus có nghĩa là "mào", để đề cập đến những chiếc gai dọc theo lưng của chúng.

    Amblyrhynchus là một chi đơn loài, với một loài duy nhất Amblyrhynchus cristatus.

    Tiến hóa

    Các nhà nghiên cứu đưa ra giả thuyết rằng cự đà đất (kỳ nhông) và cự đà biển đã tiến hóa từ một tổ tiên chung kể từ khi đến các hòn đảo từ Nam Mỹ, có thể là do chúng trôi trên những bè ra đảo.[3][4] Nhưng giả thuyết hợp lý nhất có lẽ là việc chúng sinh sống gần những núi lửa trên quần đảo này, quá trình kiến tạo địa chất khiến nước biển dâng cao, các núi lửa trở thành các hòn đảo, vì thế chúng đã phải thích nghi với cuộc sống khắc nghiệt nơi đây bằng cách tiến hóa.

    Phân loài

    Các phân loài của cự đà biển Galapagos[5] dựa theo hình dáng, màu sắc của chúng được phân thành 7 phân loài cự đà biển bao gồm:

    Năm 2017, một bản xem xét lại về mặt phân loại toàn diện đầu tiên của loài trong vòng hơn 50 năm mang tới một kết quả khác dựa trên các bằng chứng hình thái họcdi truyền học, bao gồm cả việc công nhận năm phân loài mới (ba trong số này là các quần thể trên đảo nhỏ trước đây không được chia vào bất cứ phân loài nào):[6]

    • A. c. cristatus Bell, 1825 (albermarlensisater là danh pháp đồng nghĩa cấp dưới) – Đảo Isabela và Fernandina
    • A. c. godzilla Miralles et al., 2017 – phần phía đông bắc của Đảo San Cristóbal
    • A. c. hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Đảo Santa Cruz và các đảo phụ cận nhỏ hơn ví dụ như Baltra
    • A. c. hayampi Miralles et al., 2017Đảo Marchena
    • A. c. jeffreysi Miralles et al., 2017Wolf, Darwin và quần đảo Roca Redonda
    • A. c. mertensi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – phần phía tây nam của Đảo San Cristóbal
    • A. c. nanus Garman, 1892 – Đảo Genovesa
    • A. c. sielmanni Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 – Đảo Pinta
    • A. c. trillmichi Miralles et al., 2017Đảo Santa Fé
    • A. c. venustissimus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 – Đảo Española (bao gồm ca Đảo Gardener nhỏ phụ cận) và Floreana
    • A. c. wikelskii Miralles et al., 2017 – Đảo Santiago và các đảo gần đó nhỏ hơn như là Rábida

    Mô tả

     src=
    Một con cự đà biển đang bơi
     src=
    Cự đà biển di chuyển trên bãi biển của Vịnh Tortuga đảo Santa Cruz.

    Charles Darwin trong chuyến viếng thăm quần đảo đã từng miêu tả loài cự đà biển như những "Con quỷ bóng tối" trên các bãi biển[7].

    Trên thực tế, loài cự đà biển không phải là luôn có màu đen. Những con non có màu nhạt và sọc trên lưng còn một số con trưởng thành có màu xám, thay đổi màu sắc theo mùa. Với những màu tối sẽ giúp cự đà biển nhanh chóng hấp thụ nhiệt để giảm thiểu thời gian hôn mê sau khi ngoi lên khỏi mặt nước mỗi lần kiếm ăn.

    Trong mùa sinh sản, con đực (trên các hòn đảo phía Nam: Española, Floreana và các đảo nhỏ lân cận) có sự đa dạng màu sắc nhất với đỏ, xanh lá, trong khi tại đảo Santa Cruz là sắc đỏ gạch và đen, còn đảo Fernandina là màu đỏ gạch và xanh lục xỉn.

    Một sự khác biệt giữa các loài cự đà biển là về kích thước tùy thuộc vào nơi sinh sống của chúng. Cự đà sống trên các hòn đảo Fernandina và Isabela là lớn nhất hơn bất cứ nơi nào khác trong Galápagos. Còn cự đà nhỏ nhất được tìm thấy trên đảo Genovesa.

    Con đực trưởng thành có chiều dài 1,7 m, nặng 1,5 kg, trong khi con cái chỉ dài từ 0,6–1 m. Cự đà biển nói chung là ít nhanh nhẹn trên mặt đất, nhưng là "vận động viên" bơi lội giỏi nhờ chiều dài cùng với vây lưng và đuôi. Trong khi đó, các móng vuốt của chúng rất dài và sắc nhọn, cho phép nó bám chặt vào đá trước những con sóng mạnh của vùng biển Thái Bình Dương.

    Thức ăn chính của nó bao gồm rong biển và tảo bám trên các mỏm đá và dưới những vùng biển nông. Cự đà biển có mõm phẳng và hàm răng sắc nhọn cho phép nó ăn được những mảng tảo bám chặt vào đá. Tuyến mũi của chúng có khả năng lọc bớt lượng muối trong máu và đảo thải thông qua mũi, vì thế nên mặt của chúng có thể thấy nhiều những tinh thể trắng.

    Hành vi

    Do là loài bò sát kiểm soát thân nhiệt kém, nên cự đà biển chỉ có khả năng lặn dưới nước trong một khoảng thời gian nhất định thường kéo dài đến tối đa 30 phút.[8] Sau đó nó sẽ ngoi lên và sưởi ấm cơ thể nhờ ánh nắng mặt trời, lúc này khiến nó nguy hiểm hơn bao giờ hết đến từ các loài động vật ăn thịt. Mỗi khi kiếm ăn ở khu vực có sóng lớn, cự đà biển thường ăn trong khi sóng biển chưa vào bờ và di chuyển nhanh lên trên và bám chặt vào các mỏm đá để tránh sự va đập có thể khiến nó bị văng ra biển.

    Trong mùa sinh sản, cự đà biển di chuyển vào những vùng đất cát mềm hơn, ít sóng hơn. Chúng làm những cái tổ bằng cách đào bới sâu xuống dưới đất.

    Những nghiên cứu cho thấy, khi những thiên tai như bão nhiệt đới xảy ra nhiều khiến lượng thức ăn của chúng giảm trong vòng 2 năm thì chiều dài của cơ thể cự đà biển cũng giảm đi khoảng 20%. Người ta cho rằng nguyên nhân có thể là do sự có rút của các mô liên kết[9] và do một loại hoocmôn được chúng tiết ra làm giảm kích thước của xương.[10]

    Chính điều này khiến tỉ lệ cự đà biển chết nhiều hơn bởi sẽ làm giảm thời gian lặn kiếm ăn dưới nước và giảm khả năng làm ấm cơ thể của chúng.[11]

    Bảo tồn

    Đây là loài dễ bị tổn thương của IUCN, được liệt kê trong Phụ lục II của Công ước CITES, được bảo vệ theo luật pháp của Ecuador. Hiện nay, chúng còn khoảng ít nhất 50.000 cá thể sinh sống trên các đảo của Galapagos. Chúng bị đe dọa bởi hiện tượng El Nino khiến lượng thức ăn bị giảm sút, cùng với đó là các động vật ăn thịt bao gồm chó, mèo, chim ưng...

    Hình ảnh

    Tham khảo

    1. ^ Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. (2004). Amblyrhynchus cristatus. Sách Đỏ IUCN các loài bị đe dọa. Phiên bản 2012.1. Liên minh Bảo tồn Thiên nhiên Quốc tế. Truy cập ngày 26 tháng 9 năm 2012.
    2. ^ Amblyrhynchus cristatus. The Reptile Database. Truy cập ngày 31 tháng 5 năm 2013.
    3. ^ Rassman K, Tautz D, Trillmich F, Gliddon C (1997), The micro - evolution of the Galápagos marine iguana Amblyrhynchus cristatus assessed by nuclear and mitochondrial genetic analysis.: Molecular Ecology 6:437–452
    4. ^ Marine Iguana: marinebio.org. Truy cập ngày 16 tháng 8 năm 2006.
    5. ^ Amblyrhynchus cristatus, Reptile Database
    6. ^ Miralles; Macleod; Rodríguez; Ibáñez; Jiménez-Uzcategui; Quezada; Vences & Steinfartz (2017). “Shedding Light On the Imps of Darkness: An Integrative Taxonomic Revision of the Galápagos Marine Iguanas (Genus Amblyrhynchus)”. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society XX. tr. 1–33. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx007. |url= trống hay bị thiếu (trợ giúp)
    7. ^ Darwin, Charles (2001). Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. London: Cambridge University Press. tr. 494. ISBN 0-521-00317-2.
    8. ^ GalapagosPages says typical dives last only a few phút at depths of less than five metres, but Darwin reported a member of the crew submerging an iguana for an hour, and pulling it out with a rope, still alive. IUCN says that adult males can be found in marine waters, down to depths of twenty metres.
    9. ^ M, Wikelski; Thom, C. (6 tháng 1 năm 2000). “Marine iguanas shrink to survive El Niño”. Nature 403 (6765): 37–8. PMID 10638740. doi:10.1038/47396. Chú thích sử dụng tham số |month= bị phản đối (trợ giúp)
    10. ^ Wikelski, M. (2005). Evolution of body size in Galápagos marine iguanas. Proceedings: Biological Sciences, 272(1576), 1985-1993
    11. ^ Wikelski, M. (2005). Evolution of body size in Galapagos marine iguanas. Proceedings: Biological Sciences, 272(1576), 1985-1993

    Liên kết ngoài

     src= Wikimedia Commons có thư viện hình ảnh và phương tiện truyền tải về Cự đà biển  src= Wikispecies có thông tin sinh học về Cự đà biển
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    Cự đà biển: Brief Summary ( виетнамски )

    добавил wikipedia VI

    Kỳ nhông biển có tên thường gọi là Cự đà biển hay Cự đà biển Galapagos (danh pháp hai phần: Amblyrhynchus cristatus) là một loài thằn lằn trong họ Iguanidae. Loài này được Bell mô tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1825. Chúng là loài bò sát biển chỉ tìm thấy ở quần đảo Galápagos, ngoài khơi bờ biển Ecuador. Đây là loài bò sát thuộc thằn lằn duy nhất sống và tìm kiếm thức ăn ở biển. Môi trường sinh sống của chúng là khu vực bãi đá bờ biển và đôi khi là khu vực đầm lầy và rừng ngập mặn ven biển trên hầu hết tất cả các đảo thuộc Galapagos.

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    海鬣蜥 ( кинески )

    добавил wikipedia 中文维基百科
    二名法 Amblyrhynchus cristatus
    (Bell, 1825)

    海鬣蜥學名Amblyrhynchus cristatus),又名加拉帕戈斯海鬣蜥鈍鼻蜥,是僅出沒在科隆群島鬣蜥科物種,獨有在海中生活及覓食的能力。牠們分佈在群島的所有島嶼上。牠們主要棲息在岩石海邊,但也會出沒在沼澤紅樹林

    亞種

    自2017以來所查出以下的亞種。
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus cristatus
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus godzilla
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus hassi
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus hayampi
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus jeffreysi
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus mertensi
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus nanus
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus sielmanni
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus trillmichi
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus venustissimus
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus wikelskii

    特徵

    達爾文在到達科隆群島時,指海鬣蜥是一種黑色的蜥蜴,長約2-3呎,外表討好及懶洋洋。牠們經常躺在石灘上,在海中覓食。[2]

     src=
    頭上有一層鹽覆蓋的海鬣蜥。

    事實上,海鬣蜥並非一定是黑色的。幼蜥的背鰭較為淡色,一些成年標本呈灰色。牠們陰沉的顏色是為吸收熱能,減低消耗能量,避免進入海中才疲憊。牠們差不多只吃海中的藻類,在取暖時會從鼻噴出多餘的,故其頭部有時會被一層鹽所覆蓋,看似呈白色。雄性在不同季節的顏色也有所不同。在南方島嶼正值繁殖期的雄性較為鮮艷,會呈紅色及綠色;在聖克魯斯島的則會呈磚紅色及黑色;而在費爾南迪納島的呈磚紅色及暗綠色。

    不同島嶼上的海鬣蜥在大小上也有不同。在費爾南迪納島及伊莎貝拉島上的是體型最大的,而在捷諾維沙島(Genovesa)上的則是最細小的。成年雄性約長1.3米及重達1.5公斤,雌性則長0.6米。

    在陸地上,海鬣蜥較為笨拙,但牠們在水中卻很靈活,以強壯的尾巴來游泳。[3]

     src=
    費爾南迪納島上呈磚紅色的海鬣蜥。

    行為及生態

    海鬣蜥是冷血動物,只能出入海中一段有限的時間。但若是在島嶼附近的淺水區,牠們可以在水中逗留達1.5小時及水深至15米。[4]牠們隨後會回到自己的地盤哂太陽取暖。若身體冰冷,牠們不能有效的運動,容易成為獵食的對象,所以在取暖間牠們特別具有攻擊性。在繁殖期,雄性會變得高度地盤性。雄性會聚集大批雌性,與之交配及防範其他雄性。

    海鬣蜥會因應食物供應情況而改變大小。在厄爾尼諾現象出現期間,藻類數量大減,海鬣蜥的長度減少了達20%。當食物供應回復正常,海鬣蜥會還原其長度。估計牠們的骨頭可以縮短達10%。[5]

    演化歷史

    學者認為陸鬣蜥及海鬣蜥是的共同祖先由南美洲來到科隆群島後開始演化出牠們。[6][7]一般相信這個祖先曾棲息在已沉沒的火山島上。

    另一派的學說指海鬣蜥是源自一類已滅絕的海中爬行動物

    分類

    海鬣蜥的名是由兩個古希臘文組成,意為「鈍鼻」。種小名則是拉丁文的「冠」的意思,指其背上的棘冠。海鬣蜥是鬚蜥蜴屬的唯一物種

    保育狀況

    海鬣蜥受到厄瓜多爾法律的全面保護,且列在《瀕危野生動植物種國際貿易公約》附錄二中。厄爾尼諾現象造成定期的數量減少,而牠們亦受到入侵物種的掠食。根據世界自然保護聯盟,估計其數量有至少5萬隻,而達爾文研究站(Charles Darwin Research Station)則指有數十萬隻。

    參考

    1. ^ (英文) Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. (2004). Amblyrhynchus cristatus. 2009 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2009. 撷取於2009-06-15.
    2. ^ Darwin, Charles. Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. London: Cambridge University Press. 2001: 494. ISBN 0521003172.
    3. ^ Piper, Ross. Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals. Greenwood Press. 2007.
    4. ^ Robert Rothman. Marine Iguana. [2009-06-15].
    5. ^ M, Wikelski; Thom, C. Marine iguanas shrink to survive El Niño. Nature. Jan 6, 2000, 403 (6765): 37–8. PMID 10638740. doi:10.1038/47396. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助)
    6. ^ Rassman K, Tautz D, Trillmich F, Gliddon C. The micro - evolution of the Galápagos marine iguana Amblyrhynchus cristatus assessed by nuclear and mitochondrial genetic analysis. Molecular Ecology. 1997, 6: 437–452.
    7. ^ Marine Iguana: marinebio.org. Retrieved 16 August 2006.

    參考文獻

    • Rothman, Robert, Marine Iguana Galapagos Pages. Rochester Institute of Technology. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
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    海鬣蜥: Brief Summary ( кинески )

    добавил wikipedia 中文维基百科

    海鬣蜥(學名:Amblyrhynchus cristatus),又名加拉帕戈斯海鬣蜥或鈍鼻蜥,是僅出沒在科隆群島鬣蜥科物種,獨有在海中生活及覓食的能力。牠們分佈在群島的所有島嶼上。牠們主要棲息在岩石海邊,但也會出沒在沼澤紅樹林

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    ウミイグアナ ( јапонски )

    добавил wikipedia 日本語
    ウミイグアナ フェルナンディウミイグアナ
    フェルナンディウミイグアナ
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus cristatus
    保全状況評価[1][2] VULNERABLE
    (IUCN Red List Ver.3.1 (2001))
    Status iucn3.1 VU.svgワシントン条約附属書II 分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 脊索動物門 Chordata 亜門 : 脊椎動物亜門 Vertebrata : 爬虫綱 Reptilia : 有鱗目 Squamata 亜目 : トカゲ亜目 Sauria 下目 : イグアナ下目 Iguania : イグアナ科 Iguanidae 亜科 : イグアナ亜科 Iguaninae : ウミイグアナ属
    Amblyrhynchus Bell, 1825[3] : ウミイグアナ A. cristatus 学名 Amblyrhynchus cristatus Bell, 1825[2][3] 和名 ウミイグアナ[4][5][6][7] 英名 Galápagos marine iguana

    ウミイグアナAmblyrhynchus cristatus)は、有鱗目イグアナ科ウミイグアナ属に分類されるトカゲ。本種のみでウミイグアナ属を構成する。

    分布[編集]

    エクアドルガラパゴス諸島[4][5][6][7]固有種

    形態[編集]

    全長120 - 150センチメートル[4]。頭胴長35 - 55センチメートル[6]。頭部や頸部は太くて短い[6]。頭部背面は瘤状に隆起する[5]。頸部背面には12 - 20枚の刺状鱗(クレスト)が鬣状に並び、胴体背面から尾の先端にかけても頸部ほど大型ではないもののクレストが並ぶ[6]。尾は側扁し[4][5]、頭胴長の1.5倍に達する[6]。これにより海中で大きな推進力を得ることができる[5][6]。体色は緑がかった灰褐色で、気温が高いと明色・気温が低いと暗色になる傾向がある[6]。暗い体色は体温を上げるのに役立ったり、周囲の岩礁に似た保護色になると考えられている[7]

    眼と鼻孔の間に体内に溜まった塩分を排出する腺を持つ[4]。四肢や指趾は頑丈で、指趾には長く鋭い爪が生える[6]。これにより海底の岩に爪を引っ掛けることで体を固定し、速い海流内でも採食を行うことができる[6]

    分類[編集]

    イグアナ科内ではリクイグアナ属に近縁と考えられている[7]

    7亜種に分かれる[2][3][6]。以下の分類・分布はIUCN(2004)およびThe Reptile Database(2016)に、和名は千石(2009)に従う[2][3][7]

    Amblyrhynchus cristatus cristatus Bell, 1825 フェルナンディウミイグアナ
    フェルナンディナ島
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus albemarlensis Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962
    イサベラ島
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962
    サンタクルス島
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus mertensi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 サンチャゴウミイグアナ
    サン・クリストバル島、サンチャゴ島
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus nanus Garman, 1892
    ヘノベサ島
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus sielmanni Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962
    ピンタ島
    Amblyrhynchus cristatus venustissimus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 エスパニョラウミイグアナ
    エスパニョラ島
    [5]、青緑色の斑紋が入る[7]

    生態[編集]

    岩礁海岸に生息する[5]。ガラパゴス諸島周辺の海域は寒流で海水温が低いため、海から上がると日光浴をして体温を上げる[6][5][7]。体温が上がりすぎると岩影や木陰に避難する[4]。四肢を胴体にくっつけて、尾をくねらせて泳ぐ[4]。危険を感じると鼻孔に溜まった塩分を吹きつけて威嚇する[4]

    主に海藻を食べる[4][5]カニやアシカの糞、多肉植物を食べることもある[7]。トカゲ類では本種のみ海中に潜水しながら採食を行う[6]。海中の岩に付着した海藻を潜水しながら食べる[6]。幼体やメスは浅瀬や干潮時の潮間帯で採食を行うことが多い[7]。捕食者としてガラパゴスノスリ[7]、幼体ではイワカモメが挙げられる[8]

    繁殖形態は卵生。1 - 2月にオス同士で縄張りをめぐって頭部を押し付けあい儀式的に争う[6]。1-4月に砂地に穴を掘って、1回に1 - 6個の卵を産む[6]

    人間との関係[編集]

    大航海時代には食用とされたこともあった[6]

    食用の乱獲により生息数は激減した[6]。ガラパゴス諸島は国立公園に指定されて生息数が増加したため、絶滅の危険性は低いと考えられている[6]。一方で分布が限定的で、人為的に移入された動物、エルニーニョや石油流出(2001年に発生)による大量死が懸念されている[2]-。

    A. c. cristatusA. c. albemarlensisA. c. hassiA. c. sielmanniA. c. venustissimus
    VULNERABLE (IUCN Red List Ver. 3.1 (2001))[2]
    Status iucn3.1 VU.svg
    A. c. mertensiA. c. nanus
    ENDANGERED (IUCN Red List Ver. 3.1 (2001))[2]
    Status iucn3.1 EN.svg

    画像[編集]

    •  src=

      頭部

    •  src=

      四肢

    •  src=

      亜種サンチャゴウミイグアナ
      A. c. mertensi

    •  src=

      亜種エスパニョラウミイグアナ
      A. c. venustissimus

    •  src=

      ウミイグアナ サンタ・クルス島 (ガラパゴス)(Amblyrhynchus cristatus)

    出典[編集]

    [ヘルプ]
    1. ^ Appendices I, II and III<http://www.cites.org/>(accessed June 26, 2016)
    2. ^ a b c d e f g Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T1086A3222951. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T1086A3222951.en. Downloaded on 26 June 2016.
      Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. albemarlensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T44173A10867894. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44173A10867894.en. Downloaded on 26 June 2016.
      Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. cristatus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T44174A10868010. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44174A10868010.en. Downloaded on 26 June 2016.
      Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. hassi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T44175A10856112. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44175A10856112.en. Downloaded on 26 June 2016.
      Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. mertensi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T44176A10856296. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44176A10856296.en. Downloaded on 26 June 2016.
      Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. nanus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T44177A10856460. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44177A10856460.en. Downloaded on 26 June 2016.
      Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. sielmanni. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T44178A10856626. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44178A10856626.en. Downloaded on 26 June 2016.
      Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus ssp. venustissimus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T44179A10856773. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44179A10856773.en. Downloaded on 26 June 2016.
    3. ^ a b c d Amblyrhynchus cristatus. Uetz, P. & Jiri Hosek (eds.), The Reptile Database, http://www.reptile-database.org, accessed April 17, 2016
    4. ^ a b c d e f g h i 松井孝爾 「ウミイグアナ」『原色ワイド図鑑3 動物』今泉吉典、松井孝爾監修、学習研究社1984年、141、185頁。
    5. ^ a b c d e f g h i 松本通範 「ウミイグアナ」『爬虫類・両生類800種図鑑 第3版』千石正一監修 長坂拓也編、ピーシーズ、2002年、30頁。
    6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s 太田英利 「ウミイグアナ」『動物世界遺産 レッド・データ・アニマルズ3 中央・南アメリカ』小原秀雄・浦本昌紀・太田英利・松井正文編著、講談社2001年、260-261頁。
    7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j 千石正一 「HERPS IN THE WILD ガラパゴスのウミイグアナ」『フィッシュマガジン』第514号、緑書房、2009年、126-127、154-155頁。
    8. ^ 高木武 「ガラパゴスノスリ」「イワカモメ」『動物世界遺産 レッド・データ・アニマルズ3 中央・南アメリカ』小原秀雄・浦本昌紀・太田英利・松井正文編著、講談社、2001年、184、193頁。

    関連項目[編集]

     src= ウィキメディア・コモンズには、ウミイグアナに関連するメディアがあります。  src= ウィキスピーシーズにウミイグアナに関する情報があります。
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    wikipedia 日本語

    ウミイグアナ: Brief Summary ( јапонски )

    добавил wikipedia 日本語

    ウミイグアナ(Amblyrhynchus cristatus)は、有鱗目イグアナ科ウミイグアナ属に分類されるトカゲ。本種のみでウミイグアナ属を構成する。

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    바다이구아나 ( корејски )

    добавил wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

    바다이구아나(학명: Amblyrhynchus cristatus)는 갈라파고스 제도에서 발견되는 이구아나로 도마뱀 중 유일하게 바다에서 위장하고, 생존할 수 있는 능력을 가진 바다 파충류이다. 10m 높이에서 물속으로 뛰어들 수 있으며, 갈라파고스 군도 전역에 퍼져 있어, 종종 갈라파고스바다이구아나로도 부른다. 주로 바위가 많은 해변에 서식하며, 늪이나 망그로브 해변에 흩어져 있기도 하다. 이구아나과, 바다이구아나속으로 분류되는 이구아나이다. 바다이구아나속의 유일종이다.

    천적

    틀:빈문서

    분포

    에콰도르 갈라파고스의 고유종이다.

    형태

    길이 120 – 150 cm. 머리나 목 부분이 굵고 짧다. 머리 뒤쪽은 혹 모양으로 돌출되어 있다. 목 뒷부분에는 12-20개의 가시 모양의 볏이 즐비하고, 몸 뒤쪽에서 꼬리 끝에 걸쳐 무늬가 가득하다. 꼬리는 몸길이의 1.5 배에 달한다. 이것은 바다에서 큰 추진력을 얻을 수 있다. 체색은 녹색, 회색, 갈색으로 기온이 높으면 밝은 색으로, 기온이 낮으면 어두운 색이 된다. 어두운 체색은 체온을 올리기 위한 역할을 하고, 주변의 암초와 비슷한 보호색이 된다.

    콧구멍은 체내에 쌓인 염분을 배출하는 선을 가지고 있다. 사지와 손가락 마디는 견고하고, 또한 손가락은 길고, 날카로운 발톱이 자란다. 이것은 해저 바위에 손톱을 구부려 몸을 고정하고 빠른 해류에서도 음식을 얻을 수 있게 한다.

    분류

    이구아나과 내에서 육지 이구아나 속에 가깝다고 생각되고 있다. 이 종은 육지 이구아나 속은 다른 시기에 갈라파고스 제도에 침입한 이구아나류에서 각각 진화했다고 믿어진다. 7 ~ 9가지 변종으로 나뉜다.

    • Amblyrhynchus cristatus albemarlensis (Eibl - Eibesfeldt, 1962)
    • Amblyrhynchus cristatus cristatus (Bell, 1825) 페르난디 바다 이구아나
    • Amblyrhynchus cristatus hassi (Eibl - Eibesfeldt, 1962)
    • Amblyrhynchus cristatus mertensi (Eibl - Eibesfeldt, 1962) 산챠고 바다 이구아나
    • Amblyrhynchus cristatus nanus Garman, 1892
    • Amblyrhynchus cristatus sielmanni (Eibl - Eibesfeldt, 1962)
    • Amblyrhynchus cristatus venustissimus (Eibl - Eibesfeldt, 1962) 에스파뇨라 바다 이구아나

    생태

    암초 해안에 서식하며, 무리를 지어 생활한다. 갈라파고스 군도 주변 해역은 한류로 바닷물이 수온이 낮기 때문에 바다에서 나와 일광욕을 하면서 체온을 올린다. 체온이 너무 오르면, 바위 그늘이나 나무 그늘에 피난한다. 사지를 몸통에 붙이고, 꼬리를 흔들어 수영한다. 위험을 느낄 때 콧구멍에서 염분을 몰아치는 위협 행동을 취한다. 어린 새끼는 용암 갈매기나 갈라파고스 매에 포식되는 경우도 있다.

    식성은 초식을 하며 주로 해초를 먹는다. 게와 강치의 배설물, 다육 식물을 먹기도 한다. 바다의 바위에 묻은 해초는 잠수하면서 먹는다.

    1-2 월 수컷끼리 세력권을 놓고 머리를 누르며, 번식 경쟁을 위해 싸운다. 사육 형태는 난생이다. 1-4 월 모래에 구멍을 파고, 1 회에 1-6 개의 알을 낳는다.

    인간과의 관계

    대항해 시대는 식용으로 한 적도 있었다. 식용과 남획으로 개체수는 격감했지만, 현재 갈라파고스 제도는 국립공원으로 지정되어 있기 때문에 멸종의 위험은 낮다고 생각된다. 그러나 엘니뇨로 인해 주식으로 먹고 있던 해조류가 감소하고 굶주린 개체도 출현하고 있다.

    사진

    관련항목

    외부 링크

    • Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M. 2004. Amblyrhynchus cristatus. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.1.
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    Habitat ( англиски )

    добавил World Register of Marine Species
    coastal

    Навод

    van der Land, J. (ed). (2008). UNESCO-IOC Register of Marine Organisms (URMO).

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