Ecology
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
P. piscicida is an estuarine species with a wide temperature and salinity tolerance. A cryptic heterotrophic species, it is a prey generalist that feeds on bacteria, algae, microfauna, finfish and shellfish, and may well represent a significant estuarine microbial predator. Feeding mode is governed by the presence or absence of fish and fish material. Life cycle stage is governed by the presence of live or dead fish (Burkholder 1995; Burkholder & Glasgow 1997). In the absence of fish, biflagellated stages feed myzocytotically on bacteria, algae and microfauna; i.e. prey is suctioned into a food vacuole via a feeding tube or peduncle (Fig. 2), and then digested (Burkholder & Glasgow 1995; Glasgow et al. 1998). Similar to other heterotrophic dinoflagellate species, a large food vacuole allows P. piscicida to phagocytize large prey items (Gaines & Elbrächter 1987; Schnepf & Elbrächter 1992; Burkholder et al. 1998). Pfiesteria piscicida is a strong ichthyotoxic dinoflagellate species: in the presence of live fish, P. piscicida's behavior is stimulated by a chemosensory cue, an unknown substance in fish secreta/excreta. Benthic stages (Fig. 5) then rapidly emerge as flagellated forms that swarm, immobilize, and kill the prey. Some prey experience ulcerative fish disease (open skin lesions) before dying. P. piscicida is lethal to fish at relatively low concentrations (> 250-300 cells/ml). At lower levels (~100-250 cells/ml) ulcerative fish disease results. Similar ulcers have been reported from shellfish as well. After a kill benthic stages form which inconspicuously descend back to the sediments (Burkholder & Glasgow 1995; 1997; Burkholder et al. 1995; 1998; Noga et al. 1996; Steidinger et al. 1996). P. piscicida and possibly other Pfiesteria-like species are suspected to be responsible for a number of major fish and shellfish kills in the North Carolina Albemarle-Pamlico estuary, and in the Maryland Chesapeake Bay (Burkholder et al. 1995; Burkholder & Glasgow 1997). The ever changing morphology of this species may give answers to a number of mysterious fish kills along the southeast coast of the United States (Steidinger et al. 1996). This species was initially linked to serious health problems in humans who had come in direct contact with it (narcosis, respiratory distress, epidermal lesions, and short-term memory loss); however, a study sponsored by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has revealed no such relationship (Swinker et al. 2001). Other CDC-funded studies are currently addressing possible associated human health problems with Pfiesteria and Pfiesteria-like species in several states, including Maryland and North Carolina (P. Tester, pers. comm.).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Etymology
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
The genus 'Pfiesteria' is named in honor of Dr. Lois A. Pfiester, a pioneer in describing and unravelling the sexual life cycles of freshwater dinoflagellates. The species name 'piscicida' is taken from the Latin words 'pisces' for fish, and 'cida' for killer (Steidinger et al. 1996).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Habitat and Locality
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Pfiesteria piscicida was first identified from the Pamlico Sound in North Carolina. Since its emergence; however, P. piscicida and Pfiesteria-like species have been reported from other eutrophic, temperate to subtropical estuarine systems in the eastern United States: from Delaware inland bays to Mobile Bay, Alabama (Burkholder et al. 1993; Burkholder et al. 1995; Lewitus et al. 1995). This natural range is expected to expand, considering the warming trend in global climate, and the increased human impact on coastal areas resulting in decreased water quality (Smayda 1992; Adler et al. 1993; Epstein et al. 1993; Hallegraeff 1993; Burkholder & Glasgow 1997).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Morphology and Structure
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
P. piscicida exhibits a number of different life cycle stages. This species uses both heterotrophic and mixotrophic nutritional modes depending on the life stage. Flagellated stages are mixotrophic: they use a peduncle (Figs. 1, 2) to capture and ingest prey (myzocytosis), and kleptochloroplasts (chloroplasts retained from ingested algal prey) to photosynthesize when prey supply is low. Large food vacuoles are often found in the epitheca, the mesokaryotic nucleus is located in the hypotheca (Schnepf et al. 1989; Elbrächter 1991; Fields & Rhodes 1991; Stoecker 1991; Steidinger et al. 1996; Lewitus et al. 1999).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Nomenclatural Types
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Holotype: Pfiesteria piscicida Steidinger, Burkholder, Glasgow, Hobbs, Garrett, Truby, Noga and Smith, 1996: 160, fig. 2
Type Locality: North Atlantic Ocean: Pamlico River Estuary, North Carolina, USA
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Reproduction
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Biflagellated zoospores reproduce asexually via temporary cysts. Sexual reproduction has also been documented for this species: biflagellated zoospores produce anisogamous gametes (Fig. 3), which fuse to produce triflagellated planozygotes (two longitudinal flagella and one transverse) (Fig. 4). Sexual and asexual reproduction can occur on either a fish or algal diet (Tester, P., pers. comm.).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Species Comparisons
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
P. piscicida is a distinct free-living estuarine dinoflagellate (Fensome et al. 1993, Burkholder & Glasgow 1995; 1997).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Species Overview
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Pfiesteria piscicida is a putatively toxic dinoflagellate species with flagellated and cyst stages. This species, dubbed the 'ambush predator', was first observed in the Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, USA, in 1991 after a massive fish kill. Pfiesteria piscicida has been associated with fish kills, and then feeds on the dead prey (Burkholder et al. 1992; 1995; Steidinger et al. 1996).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Synonyms
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Pfiesteria piscimorte Burkholder et al., 1993
Pfiesteria piscimortuis Burkholder et al., 1995
"phantom dinoflagellate" Burkholder et al., 1992
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Taxonomic Description
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Pfiesteria piscicida is a polymorphic and multiphasic dinoflagellate species with a number of unicellular stages throughout its life cycle: bi- and triflagellated zoospores, and nonmotile cyst stages. Within the different life stage forms there is a wide range in size and morphology (Steidinger et al. 1996).
The flagellated stages are small, oblong thecate cells that resemble gymnodinioid cells, although they are actually small cryptic peridinioid cells (Figs. 1-4). The biflagellated stages, zoospores, have two size groups: 5-8 µm (gametes) and 10-18 µm (Fig. 3). The larger triflagellated stage, 25-60 µm, is a planozygote with the features of a vegetative cell along with one transverse and two longitudinal flagella (Fig. 4). Cyst stages, with highly resistant cell walls, range in size from 25-33 µm (Fig. 5). The flagellated forms are typically planktonic and ephemeral, whereas the cyst stages are benthic (Steidinger et al. 1996).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Thecal Plate Description
(
anglais
)
fourni par NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
The biflagellated stages of P. piscicida have thin thecal plates with a plate formula unique to the Dinophyceae: Po, cp, x, 4', 1a, 5'', 6c, 4s, 5''', 2'''' (Figs. 6-9). Raised sutures designate plate tabulation (Figs. 1, 4). Thecal nodules border plate sutures (Fig. 6). Theca is smooth with scattered pores; trichocysts are present. The epitheca is equal to or exceeds the hypotheca in height (Fig. 1). The apical pore complex (APC) houses a broadly ovate apical pore plate (Po) and closing plate (cp) (Figs. 6-8). The elongate canal plate (x plate) is at a slight angle to the APC (Figs. 7, 8). The first apical plate (1') is rhomboid in shape (Fig. 6). The broad and shallow cingulum is without lists, and descends almost 1 time its width. The sulcus is excavated, without lists, descends to the right, and slightly invades the epitheca via the anterior sulcal plate (s.a.) (Figs. 1, 9) (Steidinger et al. 1996).
- citation bibliographique
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Pfiesteria piscicida
(
allemand
)
fourni par wikipedia DE
Pfiesteria piscicida ist ein einzelliger Plankton-Organismus aus der Gruppe der Dinoflagellaten, der für viele schädliche Algenblüten in den 1980er und 1990er Jahren vor den Küsten von North Carolina und Maryland verantwortlich war. Der Artname piscicida setzt sich zusammen aus pisces (lat. „Fische“) und caedere (lat. „töten“) und bedeutet fischtötend.
Lebenszyklus
![src=]()
Der komplexe Lebenszyklus von
Pfiesteria piscicida nach Burkholder: Rot= giftige Stadien, gelb= eventuell giftige Stadien, blau= inaktive Stadien
Frühe Forschungen ergaben einen sehr komplexen Lebenszyklus von Pfiesteria piscicida mit bis zu 24 verschiedenen Stadien aus Zysten, mehrere amöboide Formen und giftige Zoosporen. Die Übergänge zwischen den Stadien hängen von den Umweltbedingungen ab, beispielsweise der Verfügbarkeit von Futter.[1] Dieser komplizierte Lebenszyklus ist inzwischen umstritten, denn weitere Forschungen ergaben einen einfachen haplontischen Lebenszyklus ohne giftige Amöbenstadien.[2] Die an den betroffenen Fischen beobachteten Amöben könnten eine weitere, unbeteiligte Art sein.[3][4]
Giftigkeit
Es wurde anfangs vermutet, dass Pfiesteria Fische durch ein ins Wasser abgegebenes Gift tötet, um so die Beute zu lähmen. Diese Hypothese wurde in Frage gestellt, weil in einigen Experimenten kein Gift isoliert und keine Giftwirkung beobachtet werden konnte. Letztlich scheint die Giftigkeit vom beobachteten Stamm und der verwendeten Analysemethode abzuhängen.[5] PCR-Analysen deuten an, dass der Organismus keine Gene zur Synthese von Polyketiden besitzt, den typischen Giften von toxischen Dinoflagellaten.[6] Inzwischen konnte das Gift isoliert und als Metallkomplex charakterisiert werden, der kurzlebige, freie Radikale freisetzt. Ebenso konnte aufgeklärt werden, wie sich ungiftige in giftige Stadien umwandeln.[7]
Auf Mikroplastik erreichte Pfiesteria piscicida eine etwa fünfzig Mal so hohe Dichte wie im umgebenden Wasser und etwa zwei bis drei Mal so hohe Dichte wie auf vergleichbarem im Wasser schwimmenden Treibholz.[8]
Auswirkungen auf den Menschen
Die Auswirkungen des Giftes von P. piscicida auf Menschen wurde bisher erst wenig erforscht. Auf einer Konferenz im amerikanischen Centers for Disease Control (CDC) im September 1997 in Atlanta haben die Teilnehmer übereinstimmend die klinischen Symptome einer Vergiftung mit Pfiesteria-Giften charakterisiert. Zu den Symptomen zählen:
- Gedächtnisverlust
- Verwirrung
- brennender Schmerz bei direktem Hautkontakt mit dem Wasser
- weitere Symptome wie Kopfschmerz, Hautausschlag, Sehstörungen, Atemstörungen, Muskelkrämpfe, Durchfall, Erbrechen und weitere.[9]
Pfiesteriagift wurde verantwortlich gemacht für Gesundheitsschäden bei Personen, die engen Kontakt hatten mit Wasser, in dem P. piscicida anwesend war. Eine Untersuchung des Maryland Department of Health and Hygiene beschrieb 146 Fälle von Erkrankungen im Zusammenhang mit P. piscicida, wobei die meisten Betroffenen Fischer waren oder ähnlichen Berufen nachgingen. Experimente an Ratten zeigten eine Verlangsamung des Lernens, aber keine Beeinträchtigung des Gedächtnisses.[10]
Entdeckungsgeschichte
Pfiesteria piscicida wurde zuerst um 1988 in den Fischkulturen an der NCSU entdeckt und eindeutig identifiziert. Sie wurde in Aquarien entdeckt, in denen Experimente an Fischen durchgeführt wurden. Die Fische dort kamen aus vielen Regionen der Welt, erkrankten aber alle an derselben, bis dahin unbekannten Krankheit. JoAnn M. Burkholder, ihr Mitarbeiter Howard B. Glasgow, sowie Cecil Hobbs und andere Mitglieder des NCSU-Wasserbotaniklabors wurden angerufen, um mehr über diese Tätigkeit des kleinen Dinoflagellaten und dessen Lebenszyklus zu erfahren. Die Forscher arbeiteten mit Fischpathologen Edward J. Noga und Stephen A. Smith, um die Auswirkungen des Mikroorganismus auf die Fischgesundheit zu verstehen. Dr. Karen Steidinger und Kollegen am Florida Marine Research Institute (heute Fish and Wildlife Research Institute) halfen diesen Forschern, den Dinoflagellaten taxonomisch einzuordnen. Sie kamen zu dem Schluss, dass Pfiesteria piscicida eine Art einer eigenen neuen Familie darstellte, für die sie auch eine neue Ordnung (Dinamoebales) postulierten.
Einzelnachweise
-
↑ Burkholder JM & Glasgow HB (1997): Trophic controls on stage transformations of a toxic ambush-predator dinoflagellate. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. Vol.44, Iss.3, S. 200-2005. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1997.tb05700.x
-
↑ Litaker RW, Vandersea MW, Kibler SR, Madden VJ, Noga EJ, Tester PA (2002). Life cycle of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae). Journal of Phycology, Vol.38, Iss. 3, S. 442-463. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.01242.x
-
↑ Peglar MT, Nerad TA, Anderson OR, Gillevet PM (2004). Identification of amoebae implicated in the life cycle of Pfiesteria and Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol., Vol.51, Iss.5, S. 542-552. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2004.tb00290.x
-
↑ https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/study-casts-doubt-on-cell
-
↑ Burkholder JM, Gordon AS, Moeller PD et al. (2005). Demonstration of toxicity to fish and to mammalian cells by Pfiesteria species: comparison of assay methods and strains. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., Vol. 102, Iss.9, S.3471-3476. doi:10.1073/pnas.0500168102
-
↑ Berry JP, Reece KS, Rein KS et al. (2002). Are Pfiesteria species toxicogenic? Evidence against production of ichthyotoxins by Pfiesteria shumwayae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., Vol.99, Iss.17, S.10970-10975. doi:10.1073/pnas.172221699
-
↑ Moeller PD, Beauchesne KR, Huncik KM, Davis WC, Christopher SJ, Riggs-Gelasco P, Gelasco AK (2007). Metal complexes and free radical toxins produced by Pfiesteria piscicida. Environ. Sci. Technol., Vol.41, Iss.4, S.1166-1172. doi:10.1021/es0617993
-
↑ Marie Therese Kettner, Sonja Oberbeckmann, Matthias Labrenz, Hans-Peter Grossart: The Eukaryotic Life on Microplastics in Brackish Ecosystems. In: Frontiers in Microbiology. 10, 2019, doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.00538.
-
↑ Symptoms of Pfiesteria piscicida infection. rightdiagnosis.com, 17. April 2015
-
↑ Archivierte Kopie (Memento des Originals vom 21. Dezember 2006 im Internet Archive)
![src=]( "i")
Info: Der Archivlink wurde automatisch eingesetzt und noch nicht geprüft. Bitte prüfe Original- und Archivlink gemäß Anleitung und entferne dann diesen Hinweis.@1@2Vorlage:Webachiv/IABot/www.ncseonline.org Report on Pfiesteria and Related Harmful Blooms: Natural Resource and Human Health Concerns, Congressional Research Service
- licence
- cc-by-sa-3.0
- droit d’auteur
- Autoren und Herausgeber von Wikipedia
Pfiesteria piscicida: Brief Summary
(
allemand
)
fourni par wikipedia DE
Pfiesteria piscicida ist ein einzelliger Plankton-Organismus aus der Gruppe der Dinoflagellaten, der für viele schädliche Algenblüten in den 1980er und 1990er Jahren vor den Küsten von North Carolina und Maryland verantwortlich war. Der Artname piscicida setzt sich zusammen aus pisces (lat. „Fische“) und caedere (lat. „töten“) und bedeutet fischtötend.
- licence
- cc-by-sa-3.0
- droit d’auteur
- Autoren und Herausgeber von Wikipedia
Pfiesteria piscicida
(
anglais
)
fourni par wikipedia EN
Pfiesteria piscicida is a dinoflagellate species of the genus Pfiesteria that some researchers claim is responsible for many harmful algal blooms in the 1980s and 1990s on the coast of North Carolina and Maryland. North Carolinian media in the 1990s referred to the organism as the cell from hell. It is known to populate estuaries.[1] Piscicida means "fish-killer".
Life cycles
The complex life cycle of
Pfiesteria piscidica. Red = toxic stages, yellow = possibly toxic stages, blue = passive stages
Early research suggested a very complex life cycle of Pfiesteria piscicida with up to 24 different stages, spanning from cyst to several amoeboid forms with toxic zoospores. Transformations from one stage to another depend on environmental conditions such as the availability of food.[2] However these results have become controversial as additional research has found only a simple haplontic life cycle with no toxic amoeboid stages[3] and amoebae present on attacked fish may represent an unrelated species of protist.[4][5]
Toxicity
Pfiesteria presumably kills fish via releasing a toxin into the water to paralyze its prey. This hypothesis has been questioned as no toxin could be isolated and no toxicity was observed in some experiments. However, toxicity appears to depend on the strains and assays used.[6] Polymerase chain reaction-analyses suggested that the organism lacks the DNA for polyketide synthesis, the type of toxins associated with most toxic dinoflagellates.[7] Researchers from the NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the Medical University of South Carolina, and the College of Charleston (S.C.) have formally isolated and characterized the toxin in the estuarine dinoflagellete Pfiesteria piscicida as a metal complex and free radical toxin and also have identified how the organism transforms from a non-toxic to toxic state.[8][9][10][11]
Human illness
Very little research on the human health effects of Pfiesteria toxins has been conducted. At a multi-state workshop at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, U.S., at the end of September 1997, attendees agreed on clinical symptoms that characterize a new illness associated with Pfiesteria exposure. These clinical features include:
- memory loss
- confusion
- acute skin burning (on direct contact with water); or
- three or more of an additional set of conditions (headaches, skin rash, eye irritation, upper respiratory irritation, muscle cramps, and gastrointestinal complaints (i.e., nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and/or abdominal cramps).
With these criteria and environmental qualifiers (e.g., 22% of a 50-fish sample, all of the same species, have lesions caused by a toxin), it is likely that Pfiesteria-related surveillance data can better track potential illnesses.
Pfiesteria toxins have been blamed for illness in those who have come in close contact with waters where this organism is abundant. Since June 1997, the Maryland Department of Health and Hygiene has been collecting data from Maryland physicians through a statewide surveillance system on illnesses suspected of being caused by Pfiesteria toxin. As of late October 1997, illness was reported by 146 persons who had been exposed to diseased fish or to waters that were the site of suspected Pfiesteria activity. Many of these persons are watermen and commercial fishermen.
The strongest evidence of Pfiesteria-associated human illness so far comes from case studies of two research scientists who were both overcome in their North Carolina laboratory in 1993. They still complain of adverse effects on their cognitive abilities, particularly after exercising. Duke University Medical Center researchers conducted experiments on rats, which showed that the toxin appeared to slow learning but did not affect memory.[12]
Treatment with Colestyramine shortly after exposure has been shown to alleviate symptoms.[13]
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: a report by the Congressional Research Service (CRS), part of the Library of Congress
References
-
^ Lertzman, Renée Aron (1999). The wet, the wild and the weird : imagining Pfiesteria. Retrieved 2021-02-14.
-
^ Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB (1997). "Trophic controls on stage transformations of a toxic ambush-predator dinoflagellate". J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 44 (3): 200–5. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1997.tb05700.x. PMID 9183706. S2CID 13467281.
-
^ Litaker RW, Vandersea MW, Kibler SR, Madden VJ, Noga EJ, Tester PA (2002). "Life cycle of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae)". Journal of Phycology. 38 (3): 442–463. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.t01-1-01242.x.
-
^ "Study casts doubt on Cell from Hell's role in fish kills". Retrieved 2008-01-06.
-
^ Peglar MT, Nerad TA, Anderson OR, Gillevet PM (2004). "Identification of amoebae implicated in the life cycle of Pfiesteria and Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates". J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 51 (5): 542–52. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2004.tb00290.x. PMID 15537089. S2CID 43191086.
-
^ Burkholder JM, Gordon AS, Moeller PD, et al. (2005). "Demonstration of toxicity to fish and to mammalian cells by Pfiesteria species: comparison of assay methods and strains". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (9): 3471–6. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.3471B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0500168102. PMC 552923. PMID 15728353.
-
^ Berry JP, Reece KS, Rein KS, et al. (2002). "Are Pfiesteria species toxicogenic? Evidence against production of ichthyotoxins by Pfiesteria shumwayae". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99 (17): 10970–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.172221699. PMC 123194. PMID 12163648.
-
^ Moeller PD, Beauchesne KR, Huncik KM, Davis WC, Christopher SJ, Riggs-Gelasco P, Gelasco AK (2007). "Metal complexes and free radical toxins produced by Pfiesteria piscicida". Environmental Science & Technology. 41 (4): 1166–72. Bibcode:2007EnST...41.1166M. doi:10.1021/es0617993. PMID 17598275.
-
^ Engelhaupt, Erika; Pelley, Janet; Lubick, Naomi; Patel-Predd, Prachi; Cooney, Catherine M. (15 February 2007). "New Pfiesteria toxin identified | Scientists protest U.S. EPA library closures | News Briefs: Plastics component linked to breast cancer ' Megawatt mileage ' Bugs are everywhere-even on dust in city air ' Livestock and greenhouse gases ' State of the Arctic | New managing editor rejoins ES&T | Pesticides waft into pristine rainforests | Overlooked impacts of bioproducts | Mercury control costs drop". Environmental Science & Technology. 41 (4): 1060–1066. Bibcode:2007EnST...41.1060E. doi:10.1021/es072467g.
-
^ "Fish study backs N.C. scientist". Archived from the original on 2008-06-08. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
-
^ "Pfiesteria toxin breakthrough subject of teleconference briefing". Retrieved 2008-01-06.
-
^ Report on Pfiesteria and Related Harmful Blooms: Natural Resource and Human Health Concerns Archived 2006-12-21 at the Wayback Machine Congressional Research Service
-
^ Shoemaker, R C; Hudnell, H K (May 2001). "Possible estuary-associated syndrome: symptoms, vision, and treatment". Environmental Health Perspectives. 109 (5): 539–545. doi:10.1289/ehp.01109539. PMC 1240316. PMID 11401768.
- licence
- cc-by-sa-3.0
- droit d’auteur
- Wikipedia authors and editors
Pfiesteria piscicida: Brief Summary
(
anglais
)
fourni par wikipedia EN
Pfiesteria piscicida is a dinoflagellate species of the genus Pfiesteria that some researchers claim is responsible for many harmful algal blooms in the 1980s and 1990s on the coast of North Carolina and Maryland. North Carolinian media in the 1990s referred to the organism as the cell from hell. It is known to populate estuaries. Piscicida means "fish-killer".
- licence
- cc-by-sa-3.0
- droit d’auteur
- Wikipedia authors and editors
Pfiesteria piscicida
(
turc
)
fourni par wikipedia TR
- licence
- cc-by-sa-3.0
- droit d’auteur
- Wikipedia yazarları ve editörleri
Protistler ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini geliştirerek Vikipedi'ye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz. 
