Belladone

Though Atropa belladonna is sometimes found as an understory herb, it often occurs in open communities dominated by other plants. Species often associated with the plant include Sambucus nigra, Urtica dioica, Arctium lappa, Mercurialis perennis, Bryonia dioica, Rubus caesius, Glechoma hederacea, Verbascum thapsus, Scrphularia nodosa, Ligustrum vulgare, and Pteridium aquilinum, among others (Butcher 1947).

The plant is protogynous and produces and conceals nectar at the base of its ovaries.Bees, particularly honeybees and bumblebees, are the principal pollinators of A. belladonna (Butcher 1947).Birds, such as pheasants, as well as some insects, including the fleabeetle and Potato beetle, and mammals, including sheep, rabbits, and hares, have also been observed eating parts of the plant (Butcher 1947).

Some viruses have been reported to attack belladonna.Belladonna mottle virus, which belongs to the turnip mosaic virus group, is spread by nematodes living in sandy soil (Rita & Animesh 2011). Slugs and garden snails have often been gathered off of Atropa belladonna plants.Larvae of the Chrysomelid beetle Epitrix atropae have been found on the roots of belladonna.The adults of this species have also been found feeding on the leaves.Caterpillars have occasionally been reported as living off of the plant as well.A. belladonna can also be harmed by Phytophthora erythroseptica, which has been found (in Scotland and Holland) to cause a root and crown disease. A large number of fungi (though mostly unidentified) have been observed in belladonna plants in America.One such fungus is the endophytic and pathogenic Diaporthe chailleti (Butcher 1947). Cercospora atropae, a type of leaf spot, is another parasitic fungus of A. belladonna (Butcher 1947).

Seed dispersal in A. belladonna is often accomplished through birds.Birds, especially pheasants, are known to eat many of the berries.Since the seeds are able to cling to both each other and the ovary walls, they can be carried great distances from their parent plant.The seeds are frequently found in bird droppings near bushes, under trees, or near other kinds of convenient perching areas.Humans also disperse the seeds as soil containing belladonna seeds or plants neighboring A. belladonna plants with seeds attached are transported to new locations. The seeds can also be dispersed by gravity when the fruits drop from the plant, usually around January.One additional dispersal method is through water, as the seeds are able to float in water for about 1.5 days (Butcher 1947).

This plant species is commonly found in disturbed woodland areas.It is also often found growing on rocky hillsides, steep cliffs, and other regions in which the soil content consists of abundant amounts of calcium carbonate.Belladonna is nitrophilous, meaning that it thrives in soils rich in nitrogen.It is frequently found growing in open or uncultivated areas, and is only very rarely found in grass communities (Cross 2012).It also occurs in areas of former cultivation (among ruins) in parts of Europe and as a weedy species in areas where the soil has been disturbed.It seems to grow most abundantly in areas shaded by trees, on limestone or chalk, or on wooded hills.Belladonna plants that are exposed to too much sun often become very stunted in growth (Rita & Animesh 2011).The plants require a moist atmosphere, well-drained soil, and a source of shade (though not excessive shade, since this has also been found to reduce the vigor of the plant) (Butcher 1947).

Atropa belladonna provides many benefits to humans.The main chemical components of the plant include scopolamine (hyoscine) and atropine.In large quantities, these can be harmful (and even lethal) to humans.However, in small, controlled amounts, these compounds can have very beneficial applications.The chemicals from Atropa belladonna can be used to treat extreme inflammation, preventing sepsis, and have strong effects on the nervous system.They are also used in many homeopathic treatments of infections (Cross 2012).

L-atropine was isolated from A. belladonna in the 1830’s, and this discovery allowed scientists to study and understand the effects of neurotransmitters, especially acetylcholine, on humans and other mammals (Lee 2007). Atropine is an anticholinergic, meaning that it blocks the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine on the nervous system (Cross 2012).For this reason, it can be administered as an antidote for poisoning by organophosphates or nerve gases because it outcompetes (antagonizes) these chemicals for access to the neuroreceptors. It was used during the 1970’s to reverse the effects of exposure to the cholinergic agonist, physostigmine, in military personnel (Greenblatt & Shader 1973).Related to its effects on the central nervous system, atropine can help in stopping muscle spasms and allowing the return of normal heart rate after exposure to toxins such as nerve gas (Cross 2012). Atropine can also be used to lower blood pressure and lessen the effects of hypertension (Abraham et al. 1981).

Studies with mice have shown that atropine has immunoprotective and gastroprotective effects when behavior alterations occur due to increased levels of stress (Cromwell 1943).Studies using rabbits have shown that atropine can also be used to dilate the pupils.In humans, this practice is more risky, as reversal of the process could take up to 10 days, and excessive use could lead to blindness (Salazar et al. 1976). Nonetheless, the compound has been used in optometry in order to dilate pupils during cataract surgeries and also (though ill-advisedly) to dilate the pupils in order to increase cosmetic appeal. Currently, atropine sulfate drops are a popularly prescribed treatment for amblyopia (an eye condition commonly known as “lazy eye”) (Cross 2012).

Hyoscine has been found to be much safer to use than atropine.It has anesthetic effects and has been used to calm mental patients.It has more recently been discovered to be potentially useful in treating major depressive or anxiety disorders in humans and in regulating mood and behavior.Clinical trials with humans are now underway (Drevets & Furey 2010). Hyoscine is also used in anti-vertigo drugs and other drugs that aid in the prevention of motion sickness (Pyykkö et al. 1985).

Atropa belladonna (Deadly Nightshade) is a herbaceous perennial plant native to Europe, SW Asia and NW Africa, which has long been known for its toxic properties. It has been used as a poison and a recreational drug. Adding to its negative aura is the fact that it is thought that this plant has been used in practices of witchcraft, divination, and sorcery. The name Atropa comes from the goddess Atropos, who is one of the three Fates of Greek and Roman mythology. She and the other Fates spun the thread of human destiny, which Atopos could cut off whenever she felt so inclined (Hunziker 2001, Campbell 2007, Cross 2012).

Though the plant has a sinister reputation, it has many positive properties. Atropa belladonna has been found to have many pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications. A member of the family Solanaceae, it is closely related to plants such as tomato and potatoes, as well as other toxic plants, such as Datura, Hyoscyamus, and Nicotiana (Campbell 2007). The plant itself is a herbaceous perennial, often 1-1.5 m (occasionally up to 2 m) in height, when full-grown.It has a purplish stem that is densely covered in short, fine hairs.It has broad, dark green ovate leaves (6-20 cm long) which are formed in uneven pairs, one leaf in each pair being much larger than the other.Its roots are thick, white in colour, fleshy, and about 15 cm or more in length. The bell-shaped flowers are 2 cm long, purple with a pale base, and grow solitary in the axils of the leaves. It usually flowers between June and September. The fruit are shiny, black berries that are full of sweet, dark, ink-like juice. The berries are often consumed by animals as a way of seed dispersal despite their toxicity to humans (Rita & Animesh 2011).

Other names sometimes used include belladonna, devil’s berries, or beautiful death (Cross 2012, Rita & Animesh 2011). It has earned a reputation for itself as a sort of “temptress” because of the beautiful appearance, yet toxic nature, of its flowers and berries.In fact, its species name belladonna means beautiful lady in Italian (Campbell 2007).

Atropa belladonna is native to south central Europe, northwestern Africa, and southwestern Asia. The distribution limits are between 32° and 55° N latitude, from sea level in the north of its range (e.g. England) to 1700 m or more in the Mediterranean region. It primarily occurs in areas with well-drained, calcareous soil and shaded woodland habitats, but can also occur on dry, sunny scrubland sites (Blamey & Grey-Wilson 1989; Rita & Animesh 2011; Stace & Meijden undated).

It has been introduced and naturalised in a few other areas, and is occasionally found as a weedy species north to southern Scandinavia (Naturhistoriska riksmuseet 1997), and in some areas of Canada and the United States (Scott 1991).

Atropa belladonna is a large herbaceous perennial that grows to 1-1.5 m tall, rarely 2 m tall, with an erect posture.It has a stem that ranges from purplish to green in colour and is covered in short, fine hairs. Its roots are thick, white in colour, fleshy, and 15 cm or more in length.It has broad leaves, oval in shape, 6-20 cm long, which are alternate or in uneven opposite pairs (one leaf much larger than the other).The often asymmetrical leaves have a smooth texture and are green in colour. The plants typically start branching at about 20-30 cm from the ground. The flowers are bell-shaped and purple with conspicuous yellow anthers. They are 2-3 cm long and grow in solitude, drooping from the axils of the leaves. The flowers usually appear between June and September, after which they produce dark, shiny black or purple berries containing sweet, dark, ink-like juices. The berries are 1.5-2 cm in diameter and are 2-celled (Blamey & Grey-Wilson 1989; Stace & Meijden undated).

The highly toxic alkaloids atropine, hyoscyamine and bellodonnine are present throughout the plant (Cross 2012, Rita & Aminesh 2011, Butcher 1947). The toxins are most prevalent in the roots of the plant, followed by the leaves and flowers, and then the berries, which contain the least amount of toxic alkaloids (Rita & Aminesh 2011).

Deadly Nightshade is native to Europe but made its way to the Americas and grows abundantly along field edges and near woodlands in the Midwest and parts of the Southeast (James, 53). Deadly nightshade plants often inhabit prairie land areas of medium elevation (~1,000’ above sea level). Along with being found in Europe, and Britain it can be found throughout much of North America.

Atropa belladonna, also known as Deadly Nightshade, are leafy, annual dicots, with purple flowers, dark green foliage and deep purple berries (Stewart, 32). Fully ripped berries are usually dark purple/ black and often can be edible when cooked, however if they are not cooked or not ripe they can have any negative side effects. Some of these effects include rapid heartbeat,confusion, hallucination and seizures (Stewart, 32). The stems and leaves are smooth to roughly hairy (Turner and Szczawinski, 183). These leaves of these plants are alternate, simple, and oval to triangular or lance-shaped. The star-shaped flowers are small, purple, with spreading or reflexed petals and yellow stamens grouped tightly around the stigmata the center. The berries hang in small clusters, green when unripe, and black/ dark purple and shiny when ripe (Turner and Szczawinski, 184). Rubbing up against this plant can often cause agitation to occur on skin (Stewart, 32).

Atropa belladonna is an annual plant that is herbaceous and thrives in humid temperate climates to highly arid climates, they prefer mostly semi-arid climates. According to Stewart, Deadly Nightshades prefer prefer damp soil (Stewart, 31). The seeds can get spread by certain animals, such as rabbits and birds, that are able to eat from this plant (James, 53). These animals have a function in their stomachs allowing them to eat the fruit that the Atropa belladonna bears, creating a mutual benefit for the both of them. They prefer partial sun but grow to their full potential in full sun. It grows as a weed but has been known to be planted in flower gardens because of the attractive purple flowers that bloom in July until September (Hardin and Arena, 111). They are heat loving plants which naturally means they grow most often in Summer. Their berries contain hundreds of seeds that look similar to tomato seeds. The species is widespread because of its rapid berry maturation (Stewart, 31).

Atropa belladonna has been used for many medicinal purposes. It is commonly used as an antidote to poisoning from nerve gas and pesticide exposure. It is also sometimes put into pain killers so as not to make them as addictive to its negative effects. The green unripe berries are highly toxic, and sometimes fatal. This is caused by a chemical called atropine. Many people have accidently overdosed on this plant but if cooked correctly and eaten when ripe, it can have positive effects, such as being a basic source of nutrition (Stewart, 31). Italian women even found that they could make extracts to put in their eyes, this caused their pupils to dilate which they thought to be attractive (Stewart, 31). It is also widely used in landscaping because of its size and flowers. (Stewart, 31).

Atropa belladonna is an annual plant that is herbaceous and thrives in humid temperate climates to highly arid climates, they prefer mostly semi-arid climates. According to Stewart, Deadly Nightshades prefer prefer damp soil (Stewart, 31). The seeds can get spread by certain animals, such as rabbits and birds, that are able to eat from this plant (James, 53). These animals have a function in their stomachs allowing them to eat the fruit that the Atropa belladonna bears, creating a mutual benefit for the both of them. They prefer partial sun but grow to their full potential in full sun. It grows as a weed but has been known to be planted in flower gardens because of the attractive purple flowers that bloom in July until September (Hardin and Arena,111). They are heat loving plants which naturally means they grow most often in Summer. Their berries contain hundreds of seeds that look similar to tomato seeds. The species is widespread because of its rapid berry maturation (Stewart, 31).