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Kapuzineraffen ( allemand )

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Der Schwarze Kapuziner (Cebus nigritus) ist ein Vertreter der gehaubten Gruppe

Die Kapuzineraffen (Cebinae) sind eine Primatengruppe aus der Gruppe der Neuweltaffen. Es sind waldbewohnende, allesfressende Tiere, die in Gruppen leben. Die Unterfamilie wird in über 20 Arten unterteilt.

Merkmale

Kapuzineraffen sind mittelgroße Primaten. Sie erreichen eine Kopfrumpflänge von 31 bis 56 Zentimeter, der Schwanz wird 30 bis 56 Zentimeter lang. Die Weibchen sind mit etwa 2 bis 3 Kilogramm deutlich leichter als die Männchen, die 3 bis 4 Kilogramm wiegen. Der Rumpf ist schlank, die Vorder- und Hintergliedmaßen sind annähernd gleich lang. Die Finger sind kurz und der Daumen ist opponierbar, wodurch diese Primaten manuell sehr geschickt sind. Der Schwanz ist greiffähig, aber kein voll ausgebildeter Greifschwanz mit unbehaartem Hautfeld, wie er bei den Klammerschwanzaffen vorkommt.

Die Färbung des Fells ist variabel, meist ist der Rumpf in Braun- oder Schwarztönen gehalten. Häufig sind die Arme, die Beine und der Schwanz dunkler, manchmal hebt sich auch die Färbung des Schulterbereichs oder der Brust vom übrigen Körper ab. Bei der gehaubten Artengruppe bilden die Haare auf der Oberseite des Kopfes einen auffälligen Schopf, bei den anderen nicht, häufig ist aber auch hier die Kopfoberseite kontrastierend gefärbt. Ihren Namen verdanken sie dieser Färbung, die den Kutten des Ordens der Kapuziner ähneln soll.

Verbreitung und Lebensraum

Kapuzineraffen leben auf dem amerikanischen Kontinent, ihr Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von Mittelamerika (Honduras) über das Amazonasbecken bis in das südöstliche Brasilien und das nördliche Argentinien. Ihr Lebensraum sind Wälder, wobei sie flexibler als andere Neuweltaffen sind und mit vielen Waldtypen zurechtkommen. So sind sie in Regenwäldern ebenso wie in trockenen Laubwäldern, in Mangroven- und Gebirgswäldern zu finden.

Ökologie und Lebensweise

Wie die meisten Neuweltaffen sind Kapuzineraffen tagaktive Baumbewohner. Im Geäst bewegen sie sich meist auf allen vieren fort, bei der Nahrungsaufnahme hängen sie manchmal nur an ihrem Schwanz. Gelegentlich kommen sie auch auf den Boden. Nachts schlafen sie auf hohen Bäumen, die sie vor Räubern schützen sollen.

Tagsüber verbringen wilde Kapuzineraffen etwa 42 % der Zeit mit Fortbewegung, 40 % mit Nahrungserwerb und -verzehr und 6 % mit sozialen Interaktionen[1]. Ruhephasen finden hauptsächlich während der Mittagszeit statt und machen etwa 14 bis 21 % der Tagesaktivität aus. Das Aktivitätsmuster der Tiere kann sich im Jahresverlauf leicht ändern, so sind beispielsweise die Ruhephasen während der Trockenzeit ausgedehnter als in der Regenzeit.

Kapuzineraffen sind territoriale Tiere, das Kerngebiet des Reviers wird mit Urin markiert und gegen Eindringlinge verteidigt, an den Außenzonen überlappen sich Gebiete jedoch häufig. Das Territorium einer Kapuzineraffen-Gruppe kann 80 bis über 300 Hektar groß sein, wobei die Tiere innerhalb dieses Gebiets pro Tag Strecken zwischen 1,0 und 3,5 Kilometern zurücklegen.

Ungewöhnlich für Neuweltaffen ist die Tatsache, dass verschiedene Kapuzineraffen-Arten in bestimmten Regionen sympatrisch nebeneinander leben, z. B. lebt Sapajus apella in manchen Regionen mit Cebus olivaceus und Cebus albifrons zusammen.[2]

Zu den natürlichen Feinden zählen große Greifvögel, Katzen und Schlangen.

Nahrung

Die Nahrung der Kapuzineraffen ist vielfältig. Den Hauptbestandteil machen Früchte aus, in der Trockenzeit spielen Samen eine wichtige Rolle. Neben anderen Pflanzenbestandteilen wie Knospen fressen sie auch Insekten, Spinnen und andere Kleintiere, manchmal auch Vogeleier und kleine Wirbeltiere. Bei ihnen ist auch Werkzeuggebrauch bekannt: Sie verwenden Steine, um Wurzeln auszugraben oder um Nüsse zu knacken.[3] Das Nutzen von Steinen zum Aufknacken harter Nüsse kann auf mehrere Faktoren zurückgeführt werden. Einerseits besteht so die Möglichkeit, in den trockeneren Landschaften oder den trockeneren Jahreszeiten an wichtige Nährstoffe zu gelangen, andererseits erfordert das Aufschlagen der Früchte nur einen geringen Energieaufwand und könnte so als opportunistische Methode der Nahrungsbeschaffung angesehen werden. Darüber hinaus spielt eventuell die Gewinnung spezifischer Nährstoffe eine ausschlaggebende Rolle.[4]

Soziale Organisation

Kapuzineraffen leben in Gruppen aus etwa 8 bis 30 Tieren, die mittlere Gruppengröße beträgt ca. 18 Tiere. Eine Gruppe setzt sich aus mehreren adulten Männchen und Weibchen und dem gemeinsamen Nachwuchs zusammen. Sie ist matrilinear organisiert, das heißt, die Weibchen bleiben in der Regel in ihrer Geburtsgruppe, während Männchen beim Erreichen der Geschlechtsreife die Gruppe verlassen und Anschluss an eine andere Gruppe suchen.

Beide Geschlechter etablieren eine Rangordnung, die unter anderem im Zugang zu Nahrungsressourcen und bei der Fortpflanzung zum Tragen kommt. Das dominante Männchen ist das Zentrum der Gruppenaufmerksamkeit und führt die Gruppe an, legt also die Richtung bei der Nahrungssuche fest und bestimmt auch, ob die Gruppe wandert oder sich ausruht. Dem dominanten Weibchen sind alle anderen Männchen und Weibchen untergeordnet.

Die gegenseitige Fellpflege sowie eine Vielzahl von Lauten dienen der Kommunikation und der Stärkung des Gruppenzusammenhalts.

Fortpflanzung

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Weißstirnkapuziner (Cebus albifrons)

Alle zwei Jahre bringt das Weibchen nach 150- bis 180-tägiger Tragzeit ein Jungtier zur Welt. Dieses klammert sich zunächst an den Bauch der Mutter, später an ihren Rücken. Kapuzineraffenväter beteiligen sich selten an der Aufzucht der Jungen, dafür manchmal andere weibliche Gruppenmitglieder. Nach einigen Monaten bis über einem Jahr werden sie entwöhnt, mit vier bis fünf Jahren tritt die Geschlechtsreife ein. In Gefangenschaft gehaltene Exemplare können über 50 Jahre alt werden, in freier Natur dürfte die Lebenserwartung 15 bis 25 Jahre betragen.

Kapuzineraffen und Menschen

Kapuzineraffen zählen zu den intelligentesten Neuweltaffen und werden oft in Labors gehalten. Vielfach werden sie auch als Heimtiere gehalten, auch in Zoos und Tiershows findet man sie des Öfteren. Sie waren häufig Begleiter von Drehorgelspielern und treten bis heute in diversen Darbietungen auf. Eine artgerechte Haltung ist dabei in den seltensten Fällen gewährleistet. In den USA gibt es Projekte, bei denen Kapuzineraffen als Hilfen für körperlich behinderte Menschen ausgebildet werden.[5]

In der freien Wildbahn gehören Kapuzineraffen aufgrund ihrer Anpassungsfähigkeit und ihrem weiten Verbreitungsgebiet meist nicht zu den gefährdeten Arten. Manchmal werden sie bejagt, entweder wegen ihres Fleisches oder weil sie Plantagen plündern und als Plage gesehen werden. In manchen Regionen sind sie durch die Zerstörung ihres Lebensraumes selten geworden. Besonders die Arten im dichtbesiedelten Nordosten und Osten Brasiliens sind von der Zerstörung des Lebensraumes betroffen und darum gefährdet.

Systematik

Die Kapuzineraffen bilden zusammen mit den Totenkopfaffen die Familie der Kapuzinerartigen (Cebidae). Manchmal werden auch noch die Krallenaffen in diese Gruppe gerechnet.[6]

Anhand der Kopfbehaarung, der Körperproportionen und der Schädelmorphologie lassen sich die Kapuzineraffen in zwei Gattungen einteilen, die gehaubten (mit Haarschopf) und die ungehaubten.[7][8] Insgesamt werden zwei Gattungen und über zwanzig Arten unterschieden:[9]

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Vier Arten der Gehaubten Kapuziner, im Uhrzeigersinn von links oben:
Sapajus flavius, S. xanthosternos, S. libidinosus und S. nigritus

Literatur

  • Thomas Geissmann: Vergleichende Primatologie. Springer-Verlag, Berlin u. a. 2003, ISBN 3-540-43645-6.
  • Ronald M. Nowak: Walker's Mammals of the World. 6th edition. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore MD 1999, ISBN 0-8018-5789-9.
  • Don E. Wilson, DeeAnn M. Reeder (Hrsg.): Mammal Species of the World. A taxonomic and geographic Reference. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore MD 2005, ISBN 0-8018-8221-4.

Einzelnachweise

  1. Michael Schröpel: Neuweltprimaten. Band 2: Kapuzineraffen bis Spinnenaffen. Books on Demand GmbH, Norderstedt (2010), ISBN 978-3-8391-5720-6
  2. Jessica W. Lynch Alfaro, Jean P. Boubli, Link E. Olson, Anthony Di Fiore, Bryan Wilson, Gustavo A. Gutiérrez‐Espeleta, Kenneth L. Chiou, Meredith Schulte, Sarah Neitzel, Vanessa Ross, Doreen Schwochow, Mai T. T. Nguyen, Izeni Farias, Charles H. Janson und Michael E. Alfaro: Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys. Journal of Biogeography 39 (2), 2012, S. 272–288, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02609.x
  3. A. C. de A. Moura,P. C. Lee: Capuchin Stone Tool Use in Caatinga Dry Forest. Science 306 (5703), 2004, S. 1909, doi:10.1126/science.1102558
  4. Ricardo Almeida Emidio und Reanata Conçalves Ferreira: Energetic Payoff of Tool Use for Capuchin Monkeys in the Caatinga: Variation by Season and Habitat Type. American Journal of Primatology 74, 2012, S. 332–343
  5. Homepage von Monkeyhelpers
  6. etwa bei Wilson und Reeder 2005
  7. J. W. Lynch Alfaro, J. S. Silva und A. B. Rylands: How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus. American Journal of Primatology 74 (4), 2012, S. 273–286, doi:10.1002/ajp.22007
  8. Horacio Schneider, Iracilda Sampaio: The systematics and evolution of New World primates – A review. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 82 B, 2015, S. 348–357, doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.10.017
  9. Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands und Don E. Wilson: Handbook of the Mammals of the World: Primates: 3. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, 2013, S. 398–413, ISBN 978-8496553897
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Kapuzineraffen: Brief Summary ( allemand )

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 src= Der Schwarze Kapuziner (Cebus nigritus) ist ein Vertreter der gehaubten Gruppe

Die Kapuzineraffen (Cebinae) sind eine Primatengruppe aus der Gruppe der Neuweltaffen. Es sind waldbewohnende, allesfressende Tiere, die in Gruppen leben. Die Unterfamilie wird in über 20 Arten unterteilt.

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Capuchin monkey ( anglais )

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The capuchin monkeys (/ˈkæpjʊ(t)ʃɪn/) are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are readily identified as the "organ grinder" monkey, and have been used in many movies and television shows. The range of capuchin monkeys includes some tropical forests in Central America and South America as far south as northern Argentina. In Central America, where they are called white-faced monkeys ("carablanca"), they usually occupy the wet lowland forests on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama and deciduous dry forest on the Pacific coast.

Etymology

The word "capuchin" derives from a group of friars named the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, an offshoot from the Franciscans, who wear brown robes with large hoods. When Portuguese explorers reached the Americas in the 15th century, they found small monkeys whose coloring resembled these friars, especially when in their robes with hoods down, and named them capuchins.[1] When the scientists described a specimen (thought to be a golden-bellied capuchin) they noted that: "his muzzle of a tanned color,... with the lighter color around his eyes that melts into the white at the front, his cheeks..., give him the looks that involuntarily reminds us of the appearance that historically in our country represents ignorance, laziness, and sensuality."[2] The scientific name of the genus, Cebus comes from the Greek word kêbos,[3] meaning a long-tailed monkey.

Classification

The species-level taxonomy of this subfamily remains highly controversial, and alternative treatments than the one listed below have been suggested.[4][5][6][7]

In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al. proposed that the robust capuchins (formerly the C. apella group) be placed in a separate genus, Sapajus, from the gracile capuchins (formerly the C. capucinus group) which retain the genus Cebus.[8][9] Other primatologists, such as Paul Garber, have begun using this classification.[10]

According to genetic studies led by Lynch Alfaro in 2011, the gracile and robust capuchins diverged approximately 6.2 million years ago. Lynch Alfaro suspects that the divergence was triggered by the creation of the Amazon River, which separated the monkeys in the Amazon north of the Amazon River, who then evolved into the gracile capuchins. Those in the Atlantic Forest south of the river evolved into the robust capuchins. Gracile capuchins have longer limbs relative to their body size than robust capuchins, and have rounder skulls, whereas robust capuchins have jaws better adapted for opening hard nuts. Robust capuchins have crests and the males have beards.[8][9]

Tufted capuchin (Sapajus apella)

* Rediscovered species.[13]

The oldest known crown platyrrhine and member of Cebidae, Panamacebus transitus, is estimated to have lived 21 million years ago. It is the earliest known fossil evidence of a mammal travelling between South and North America.[14]

Physical characteristics

Capuchins are black, brown, buff or whitish, but their exact color and pattern depends on the species involved. Capuchin monkeys are usually dark brown with a cream/off-white coloring around their necks. They reach a length of 30 to 56 cm (12 to 22 in), with tails that are just as long as the body. On average, they weigh from 1.4 to 4 kg (3 to 9 pounds) and live up to 25 years old in their natural habitats, and up to 35 in captivity.

Habitat and distribution

Capuchins prefer environments that give them access to shelter and easy food, such as low-lying forests, mountain forests, and rain forests. They are particularly abundant in Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Honduras, Paraguay, and Peru. They use these areas for shelter at night and food access during the day. The canopy of the trees allows for protection from threats above, and the capuchin monkeys' innate ability to climb trees with ease allows them to escape and hide from predators on the jungle floor. This environment is mutually beneficial for the capuchins and for the ecosystem in which they inhabit. This is because they spread their seed leftovers and fecal matter across the forest floor which helps new plants to grow, therefore adding to the already abundant foliage that shelters the capuchin.

Behavior

A capuchin monkey (left) enjoying a massage from another capuchin monkey.

Like most New World monkeys, capuchins are diurnal and arboreal. Capuchins are polygamous, and the females mate throughout the year, but only go through a gestation period once every 2 years between December and April. Females bear young every two years following a 160- to 180-day gestation. The young cling to their mother's chest until they are larger, then they move to her back. Adult male capuchin rarely take part in caring for the young. Juveniles become fully mature within four years for females and eight years for males. In captivity, individuals have reached an age of 50 years, although natural life expectancy is only 15 to 25 years. Capuchins live in groups of 6-40 members, consisting of related females, their offspring, and several males.

White-fronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons)

Diet

The capuchin monkey feeds on a vast range of food types, and is more varied than other monkeys in the family Cebidae. They are omnivores, and consume a variety of plant parts such as leaves, flower and fruit, seeds, pith, woody tissue, sugarcane, bulb, and exudates, as well as arthropods, molluscs, a variety of vertebrates, and even primates.[15] Recent findings of old stone tools in Capuchin habitats have suggested that recently the Capuchins have switched from small nuts, such as cashews, to larger and harder nuts. Capuchins have also been observed to be particularly good at catching frogs.[15] They are characterized as innovative and extreme foragers because of their ability to acquire sustenance from a wide collection of unlikely food, which may assure their survival in habitats with extreme food limitation.[16] Capuchins living near water will also eat crabs and shellfish by cracking their shells with stones.[17]

Social structure

Capuchin monkeys often live in large groups of 10 to 35 individuals within the forest, although they can easily adapt to places colonized by humans. The Capuchins have discrete hierarchies that are distinguished by age and sex.[18] Usually, a single male will dominate the group, and he will have primary rights to mate with the females of the group. However, the white-headed capuchin groups are led by both an alpha male and an alpha female.[19] Each group will cover a large territory, since members must search for the best areas to feed. These primates are territorial animals, distinctly marking a central area of their territory with urine and defending it against intruders, though outer areas may overlap. The stabilization of group dynamics is served through mutual grooming, and communication occurs between the monkeys through various calls.[20] Their vocal communications have various meanings such as creating contact with one another, warning about a predator, and forming new groups. The social experience of the capuchins directly influences the development of attention in society. They create new social behaviors within multiple groups that signify different types of interactions. These include; tests of friendship, displays against enemies, infant and sexual intimacy.[21] This creates social rituals that are designed to test the strength of social bonds and a reliance on social learning.[22]

Mating

Capuchin females often direct most of their proceptive and mating behavior towards the alpha male. However, when the female reaches the end of her proceptive period, she may sometimes mate with up to six different subordinate males in one day.[23] Strictly targeting the alpha male does not happen every time, as some females have been observed to mate with three to four different males.[24] When an alpha female and a lower-ranking female want to mate with an alpha male, the more dominant female will get rights to the male over the lower-ranking one.

Intelligence

Crested capuchin (Sapajus robustus)

The capuchin is considered to be the most intelligent New World monkey[25] and is often used in laboratories. The tufted monkey is especially noted for its long-term tool usage,[26] one of the few examples of primate tool use other than by apes and humans. Upon seeing macaws eating palm nuts, cracking them open with their beaks, this monkey will select a few of the ripest fruits, nip off the tip of the fruit and drink down the juice, then seemingly discard the rest of the fruit with the nut inside. When these discarded fruits have hardened and become slightly brittle, the capuchin will gather them up again and take them to a large flat boulder where they have previously gathered a few river stones from up to a mile away. They will then use these stones, some of them weighing as much as the monkeys, to crack open the fruit to get to the nut inside. Young capuchins will watch this process to learn from the older, more experienced adults but it takes them 8 years to master this.[27] The learning behavior of capuchins has been demonstrated to be directly linked to a reward rather than curiosity.[28]

In 2005, experiments were conducted on the ability of capuchins to use money.[29] After several months of training, the monkeys began exhibiting behaviors considered to reflect an understanding of the concept of a medium of exchange that were previously believed to be restricted to humans (such as responding rationally to price shocks).[29] They showed the same propensity to avoid perceived losses demonstrated by human subjects and investors.

During the mosquito season, they crush millipedes and rub the result on their backs. This acts as a natural insect repellent.[30]

Self-awareness

When presented with a reflection, capuchin monkeys react in a way that indicates an intermediate state between seeing the mirror as another individual and recognizing the image as self.

Most animals react to seeing their reflections as if encountering another individual they do not recognize. An experiment with capuchins shows that they react to a reflection as a strange phenomenon, but not as if seeing a strange capuchin.

In the experiment, capuchins were presented with three different scenarios:

  1. Seeing an unfamiliar, same-sex monkey on the other side of a clear barrier
  2. Seeing a familiar, same-sex monkey on the other side of a clear barrier
  3. A mirror showing a reflection of the monkey

In scenario 1, females appeared anxious and avoided eye-contact, while males made threatening gestures. In scenario 2, there was little reaction by either males or females.

When presented with a reflection, females gazed into their own eyes and made friendly gestures, such as lip-smacking and swaying. Males made more eye contact than with strangers or familiar monkeys but reacted with signs of confusion or distress, such as squealing, curling up on the floor, or trying to escape from the test room.[31]

Theory of mind

The question of whether capuchin monkeys have a theory of mind—whether they can understand what another creature may know or think—has been neither proven nor disproven conclusively. If confronted with a knower-guesser scenario, where one trainer can be observed to know the location of food and another trainer merely guesses the location of food, capuchin monkeys can learn to rely on the knower.[32] This has, however, been repudiated as conclusive evidence for a theory of mind as the monkeys may have learned to discriminate knower and guess by other means.[33] Until recently it was believed that non-human great apes did not possess a theory of mind either, although recent research indicates this may not be correct.[34] Human children commonly develop a theory of mind around the ages 3 and 4.

Threats

Capuchin monkeys are clever and easy to train. As a result, they are used to help people who are quadriplegics in many developed countries. They have also become popular pets and attractions for street entertainment, and are hunted for meat by local people.[7] Since they have a high reproductive rate and can easily adapt to their living environment, loss of the forest does not negatively impact the capuchin monkey populations as much as other species, although habitat fragmentation is still a threat.[35] Natural predators include jaguars, cougars, jaguarundis, coyotes, tayras, snakes, crocodiles and birds of prey. The main predator of the tufted capuchin is the harpy eagle, which has been seen bringing several capuchin back to its nest.[1]

Relationship with humans

19th-century organ grinder and his capuchin monkey

Easily recognized as the "organ grinder" or "greyhound jockey" monkeys, capuchins are sometimes kept as exotic pets. Sometimes they plunder fields and crops and are seen as troublesome by nearby human populations.[1] In some regions, they have become rare due to the destruction of their habitat.[1]

They are also used as service animals, sometimes being called "nature's butlers".[36] One organization has been training capuchin monkeys to assist quadriplegics as monkey helpers in a manner similar to mobility assistance dogs. After being socialized in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with a quadriplegic. Around the house, the monkeys help out by doing tasks including fetching objects, turning lights on and off, and opening drink bottles.[36]

In 2010, the U.S. federal government revised its definition of service animal under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Non-human primates are no longer recognized as service animals under the ADA.[37] The American Veterinary Medical Association does not support the use of nonhuman primates as assistance animals because of animal welfare concerns, the potential for serious injury to people, and risks that primates may transfer dangerous diseases to humans.[38]

Capuchin monkeys are the most common featured monkeys in film and television, with notable examples including: Night at the Museum (and its sequels), Outbreak, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (and its sequels), Zookeeper, George of the Jungle, and The Hangover Part II. Ross Geller (David Schwimmer) on the NBC sitcom Friends had a capuchin monkey named Marcel. Crystal the Monkey is a famous monkey actress.

References

  1. ^ a b c d Fragaszy, Dorothy M.; Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Fedigan, Linda M. (21 June 2004). The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-66768-5.
  2. ^ Saint-Hilaire, E. G.; Cuvier, F. G. (1924). Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères. Paris, impr. de C. de Lasteyrie. OCLC 166026273.
  3. ^ Rossiter, William (1879). An illustrated dictionary of scientific terms. London & Glasgow: William Collins, Sons, and Company. ISBN 978-0-548-93307-7.
  4. ^ Amaral, P. J. S; Finotelo, L. F. M.; De Oliveira, E. H. C; Pissinatti, A.; Nagamachi, C. Y.; Pieczarka, J. C. (2008). "Phylogenetic studies of the genus Cebus (Cebidae-Primates) using chromosome painting and G-banding". BMC Evol. Biol. 8: 169. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-169. PMC 2435554. PMID 18534011.
  5. ^ Rylands, A. B.; Kierulff, M. C. M.; Mittermeier, R. A. (2005). "Notes on the taxonomy and distributions of the tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus, Cebidae) of South America" (PDF). Lundiana. 6 (supp): 97–110.
  6. ^ a b Silva Jr., J. de S. (2001). Especiação nos macacos-prego e caiararas, gênero Cebus Erxleben, 1777 (Primates, Cebidae). PhD thesis, Rio de Janeiro, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.
  7. ^ a b IUCN (2008). 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed 23 November 2008
  8. ^ a b Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; et al. (2011). "Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys" (PDF). Journal of Biogeography. 39 (2): 272–288. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02609.x. S2CID 13791283. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-26.
  9. ^ a b c Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Silva, j.; Rylands, A.B. (2012). "How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 1–14. doi:10.1002/ajp.22007. PMID 22328205. S2CID 18840598.
  10. ^ Garber, P.A.; Gomes, D.F. & Bicca-Marquez, J.C. (2011). "Experimental Field Study of Problem-Solving Using Tools in Free-Ranging Capuchins (Sapajus nigritus, formerly Cebus nigritus)" (PDF). American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 344–58. doi:10.1002/ajp.20957. PMID 21538454. S2CID 39363765. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-12-18.
  11. ^ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 136–138. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
  12. ^ Mittermeier, Russell A.; Rylands, Anthony B.; Wilson, Don E., eds. (2012). Handbook of the Mammals of the World: Volume 3, Primates. Lynx. pp. 412–413. ISBN 978-8496553897.
  13. ^ de Oliveira, M. M.; Langguth, A. (2006). "Rediscovery of Marcgrave's capuchin monkey and designation of a neotype for Simia flavia Schreber, 1774 (Primates, Cebidae)" (PDF). Boletim do Museu Nacional (Rio de Janeiro), Zoologia. Nova Série (523): 1–16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-05. See also: Mendes Pontes, A. R.; Malta, A. & Asfora, P. H. (2006). "A new species of capuchin monkey, genus Cebus Erxleben (Cebidae, Primates): found at the very brink of extinction in the Pernambuco Endemism Centre" (PDF). Zootaxa (1200): 1–12.
  14. ^ Bloch, Jonathan I.; Woodruff, Emily D.; Wood, Aaron R.; Rincon, Aldo F.; Harrington, Arianna R.; Morgan, Gary S.; Foster, David A.; Montes, Camilo; Jaramillo, Carlos A.; Jud, Nathan A.; Jones, Douglas S.; MacFadden, Bruce J. (2016). "First North American fossil monkey and early Miocene tropical biotic interchange". Nature. 533 (7602): 243–246. Bibcode:2016Natur.533..243B. doi:10.1038/nature17415. PMID 27096364. S2CID 4445687.
  15. ^ a b Izawa, K (1979). "Foods and feeding behaviour of wild black-capped capuchin (Cebus apella)". Primates. 20: 57–76. doi:10.1007/bf02373828. S2CID 30424050.
  16. ^ Fragaszy, Dorothy M.; Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Fedigan, Linda M. (21 June 2004). "Behavioral ecology: how do capuchins make a living?". The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 36–. ISBN 978-0-521-66768-5.
  17. ^ Port-Carvalhoa, M.; Ferraria, S. F.; Magalhãesc, C. (2004). "Predation of Crabs by Tufted Capuchins (Cebus apella) in Eastern Amazonia". Folia Primatol. 75 (3): 154–156. doi:10.1159/000078305. PMID 15240980. S2CID 1647323.
  18. ^ "Primate Factsheets: Tufted capuchin (Cebus apella) Behavior". pin.primate.wisc.edu. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
  19. ^ Ferrari SF, Iwanaga S, Ravetta AL, Freitas FC, Sousa BAR, Souza LL, Costa CG, Coutinho PEG (2003). "Dynamics of primate communities along the Santarém-Cuiabá highway in southern central Brazilian Amazonia". In Marsh LK (ed.). Primates in fragments. New York: Kluwer. pp. 123–144. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-3770-7_9. ISBN 978-1-4757-3770-7.
  20. ^ Van Belle, Sarie; Estrada, Alejandro; Garber, Paul A. (2012). "Collective group movement and leadership in wild black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 67: 31–41. doi:10.1007/s00265-012-1421-5. S2CID 14844073.
  21. ^ "How new behaviors appear and spread among capuchin monkeys". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
  22. ^ Fragaszy, Dorothy M.; Eshchar, Yonat; Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Resende, Briseida; Laity, Kellie; Izar, Patrícia (2017-07-25). "Synchronized practice helps bearded capuchin monkeys learn to extend attention while learning a tradition". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (30): 7798–7805. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114.7798F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1621071114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5544277. PMID 28739944.
  23. ^ Janson, C. H. (1984). "Female choice and mating system of the brown capuchin monkey Cebus apella (Primates: Cebidae)". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 65 (3): 177–200. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1984.tb00098.x.
  24. ^ Lynch, J. W. (1998). "Mating behavior in wild tufted capuchins (Cebus apella nigritus) in Brazil's Atlantic forest". Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 105 (Suppl. 26): 153. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1998)26+<148::AID-AJPA13>3.0.CO;2-U.
  25. ^ "Black-faced Capuchin". Amazonian Rainforest. Monkey Jungle. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
  26. ^ "Saving the monkeys". SPIE Professional. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
  27. ^ Boinski, S.; Quatrone, R. P. & Swartz, H. (2008). "Substrate and Tool Use by Brown Capuchins in Suriname: Ecological Contexts and Cognitive Bases". American Anthropologist. 102 (4): 741–761. doi:10.1525/aa.2000.102.4.741.
  28. ^ Edwards, Brian J.; Rottman, Benjamin M.; Shankar, Maya; Betzler, Riana; Chituc, Vladimir; Rodriguez, Ricardo; Silva, Liara; Wibecan, Leah; Widness, Jane (2014-02-19). "Do Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella) Diagnose Causal Relations in the Absence of a Direct Reward?". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e88595. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988595E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088595. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3929502. PMID 24586347.
  29. ^ a b Chen, M. Keith; Lakshminarayanan, Venkat; Santos, Laurie R. (2006). "How Basic Are Behavioral Biases? Evidence from Capuchin Monkey Trading Behavior" (PDF). Journal of Political Economy. 114 (3): 517–537. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.594.4936. doi:10.1086/503550. S2CID 18753437.
  30. ^ Valderrama, X.; et al. (2000). "Seasonal Anointment with Millipedes in a Wild Primate: A Chemical Defense Against Insects?". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 26 (12): 2781–2790. doi:10.1023/A:1026489826714. S2CID 25147071.
  31. ^ de Waal, F. B.; Dindo, M.; Freeman, C. A. & Hall, M. J. (2005). "The monkey in the mirror: Hardly a stranger". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (32): 11140–7. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10211140D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0503935102. PMC 1183568. PMID 16055557.
  32. ^ Kuroshima, Hika; Fujita, Kazuo; Fuyuki, Akira; Masuda, Tsuyuka (March 2002). "Understanding of the relationship between seeing and knowing by tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)". Animal Cognition. 5 (1): 41–48. doi:10.1007/s10071-001-0123-6. ISSN 1435-9448. PMID 11957401. S2CID 10783449.
  33. ^ Heyes, C. M. (1998). "Theory Of Mind In Nonhuman Primates" (PDF). Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 21 (1): 101–14. doi:10.1017/S0140525X98000703. PMID 10097012. S2CID 6469633.
  34. ^ Jabr, Ferris (8 June 2010). "Clever critters: Bonobos that share, brainy bugs and social dogs". Scientific American.
  35. ^ Sanz, V; Márquez, L (1994). "Conservación del mono capuchino de Margarita (Cebus apella margaritae) en la Isla de Margarita, Venezuela". Neotrop Primates. 2 (2): 5–8.
  36. ^ a b Lineberry, Cate. "Animals in Service". AARP. Archived from the original on 2008-09-16. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
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Capuchin monkey: Brief Summary ( anglais )

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The capuchin monkeys (/ˈkæpjʊ(t)ʃɪn/) are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are readily identified as the "organ grinder" monkey, and have been used in many movies and television shows. The range of capuchin monkeys includes some tropical forests in Central America and South America as far south as northern Argentina. In Central America, where they are called white-faced monkeys ("carablanca"), they usually occupy the wet lowland forests on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama and deciduous dry forest on the Pacific coast.

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Cebinae ( espagnol ; castillan )

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Los monos capuchinos (Cebinae) son una subfamilia de primates platirrinos de la familia de los cébidos, en la que se agrupan los monos capuchinos gráciles (género Cebus) y los robustos (género Sapajus).[1][2]​ Se distribuyen en Centroamérica y Sudamérica.

Clasificación

Es una de las dos subfamilias de la familia Cebidae junto con Saimiriinae (monos ardilla), e incluía sólo el género Cebus, siendo Sapajus un subgénero de él, hasta que en el 2011 una prueba genética reveló que Cebus y Sapajus estaban suficientemente distanciados genéticamente como para constituir géneros diferentes.[2]

Referencias

  1. Rylands AB and Mittermeier RA (2009). «The Diversity of the New World Primates (Platyrrhini)». En Garber PA, Estrada A, Bicca-Marques JC, Heymann EW, Strier KB, ed. South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78705-3_2.
  2. a b Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Silva, J.S. & Rylands, A.B. (2012). «How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus». American Journal of Primatology: 1-14. doi:10.1002/ajp.222007.
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Cebinae: Brief Summary ( espagnol ; castillan )

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Los monos capuchinos (Cebinae) son una subfamilia de primates platirrinos de la familia de los cébidos, en la que se agrupan los monos capuchinos gráciles (género Cebus) y los robustos (género Sapajus).​​ Se distribuyen en Centroamérica y Sudamérica.

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Cebinae

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Capucins, Sajous, Sapajous, Saïs

La sous-famille des Cebinae comprend les espèces de singes du Nouveau Monde appelées capucins ou sajous ou sapajous. Phylogénétiquement, ils seraient proches des saïmiris de la sous-famille des Saimiriinae. Ensemble, ils forment la famille des Cebidae, qui comprenait historiquement d'autres sous-familles, mais qui est désormais réduite à ces deux groupes.

Les Cebinae sont composés de deux genres, Cebus et Sapajus.

Dénominations et étymologie

Ils méritent bien leur nom latin de Cebus, le « singe », en effet ils représentent l’archétype du singe vif (terrestre et arboricole), adaptable (omnivore) et intelligent (opportunisme, grandes capacités cognitives).

Description

Sapajous et capucins pèsent environ 3 kg pour 40 à 50 cm de long. Les mâles légèrement plus lourds (30 %) que les femelles, sont peu ou pas plus grands et portent aussi des canines plus développées (16 à 22 %). En cas d’énervement, les sapajous et capucins peuvent ériger leur pénis ou leur clitoris, à l’instar des saïmiris, et ces organes sont extérieurement ressemblants (os génital). Ils possèdent une queue semi-préhensile similaires à celle des atélidés, avec cette différence que son extrémité ne présente pas une face intérieure nue. Cet appendice faisant office de cinquième membre a évolué parallèlement chez les Cebus et les atélidés (atèles, lagotriches et muriquis). C'est un exemple de convergence évolutive.

Dotés d’un néocortex proche de celui du chimpanzé, sapajous et capucins pétillent de curiosité et d’intelligence. En marge des expériences biomédicales, ils ont fait l’objet de nombreuses études en captivité (manipulation d’objets, utilisation d’outils, résolution de problèmes, réponse à l’image dans le miroir, etc.) qui ont mis en évidence leurs étonnantes facultés.

Écologie et comportement

Organisation sociale et reproduction

Les sapajous et capucins vivent en groupes multimâles-multifemelles de 3 à 40 individus avec un ratio de femelles d’autant plus élevé que la troupe est nombreuse. Les relations de dominance se révèlent moins « caricaturales » que chez les singes de l’Ancien Monde. Les femelles forment des coalitions entre elles, souvent chez le capucin à front blanc et le capucin à face blanche, plus rarement chez le sapajou des Guyanes. Les coalitions entre mâles s’avèrent moins fréquentes et le dominant y joue un rôle déterminant. Les relations intermâles diffèrent selon les espèces. Ainsi, les interactions sont-elles presque toujours dyadiques (entre deux sujets) et agressives chez le sapajou des Guyanes, polyadiques (coalitions entre plusieurs sujets) et agressives chez le capucin à face blanche, franchement polyadiques et relativement tolérantes (sauf pendant la reproduction) chez le capucin à front blanc. Il existe d’importantes variations de tendance entre populations d’une même espèce et même entre groupes d’une même population. Cela appelle une réflexion : les généralisations comportementales, et même les généralités tout court, s’appliquent avec un « succès » modéré aux primates, êtres évolués dont l’histoire personnelle et la trajectoire psychologique ne peuvent se résumer dans des statistiques.

C’est la femelle qui fait des avances au mâle. Cette cour assidue peut se prolonger trois heures durant, sans interruption. On voit que la femelle, loin d’être passive, se montre particulièrement entreprenante, c’est pourquoi l’on parle aujourd’hui, pour un certain nombre de primates comme les capucins et l’orang-outan, non plus de réceptivité (terme classique) pour les femelles en chaleur mais de proceptivité (terme inventé par Franck Beach) afin de mettre en évidence leur attitude active et sélective.

Esprit de coopération

Lors d’une expérience réalisée en captivité sur des sapajous, Frans B. M. de Waal et Michelle L. Berger, deux chercheurs de l’université d’Emory à Atlanta (Géorgie), sont parvenus à démontrer que ces primates ne rechignent pas à coopérer même s’ils savent qu’ils ne seront pas tous récompensés. En retour, la coordination mutuelle de leurs efforts débouche sur un partage spontané des ressources plus fréquent que lorsque le primate agit seul.

Dans cette expérience, un couple de sapajous est installé dans une boîte et les individus séparés par une cloison maillée. Devant chacun d’eux un bol transparent est disposé sur un plateau, un seul bol contenant des quartiers de pommes. Le plateau est suffisamment lourd pour ne pouvoir être ramené que grâce à la force conjointe de la paire. Après avoir uni leurs efforts pour tirer vers eux le plateau, l’unique primate récompensé partage volontiers ses bouts de pomme à travers la cloison alors qu’il aurait la possibilité physique de ne pas le faire. Lorsqu’un seul sapajou est mis à contribution pour ramener le plateau, il se montre moins enclin à partager. Ainsi, l’aide stimule-t-elle le partage et le partage stimule-t-il l’aide.

Utilisation d'outils

Dans la nature, les sapajous manient des outils (enclume, ramille, branche). Dorothy Fragaszy, dans le Nordeste brésilien, a observé des sapajous éclatant des noix sur des enclumes naturelles (pierres affleurantes) à l’aide de pierres (sélectionnées et préférées) pesant la moitié de leur poids et soulevées par-dessus tête. Ailleurs, un vieux mâle trop édenté pour casser des noix du Brésil, utilisa un gros os. Sue Boinski a observé un capucin à face blanche achever un serpent venimeux à l’aide d’une grosse branche, le reptile ayant été frappé une cinquantaine de fois ! Au sein d’une troupe de 21 capucins à face blanche du Panama (variété imitator) évoluant dans le parc national de Santa Rosa au Costa Rica, Suzanne Chevalier-Skolnikoff a observé que leur taux de recours à un outil est comparable à celui des grands singes, chimpanzé excepté. Ils utilisent des branches ou des bâtons pour se frapper mutuellement, atteindre d’autres espèces comme les pécaris, les coatis et les intrus (l’observatrice elle-même !) ou s’en servent comme sonde alimentaire. En captivité, le capucin apprend à se servir habilement d’un marteau, emploie un bâton pour récupérer des aliments hors de sa cage, monte sur une caisse et crée des empilements pour s’emparer d’un objet haut placé. Toujours en captivité, une femelle prénommée Alice a été surprise en train de nettoyer sa blessure à l’aide d’un petit morceau de bois : elle plongeait son outil dans une fiole remplie de sirop mise à sa disposition lors d’une expérience précédente et appliquait le liquide sur la plaie. Une autre fois, alors que son petit avait été blessé à la tête, Alice avait brisé un morceau de bois puis mâchonné son extrémité avant de gratter l’écorchure et de nettoyer la plaie.

Antonio Christian de A. Moura a observé en 2006 dans le PN de la Serra da Capivara une population sauvage de sapajous à barbe (C. (S.) libidinosus) frappant des pierres contre des substrats afin d’effrayer les prédateurs, un comportement unique à six groupes et transmis culturellement.

Dans la forêt tropicale du Venezuela, des singes capucins s'enduisent le corps des sécrétions d'une espèce de mille-patte, l'Orthoporus dorsovittatus, qui a la particularité d'être un anti-moustique puissant[1].

Répartition géographique et habitat

Sapajous et capucins sont omniprésents en Amérique centrale et du Sud sur environ 12 millions de km², depuis le Belize jusqu’au nord de l’Argentine et de la Bolivie, occupant l’ensemble des régions tropicales et subtropicales à leur disposition, du niveau de la mer à plus de 2 500 mètres d’altitude, aussi bien dans les forêts pluvieuses ou sèches, dans les marécages ou les mangroves. Seuls l’Uruguay et le Chili ont résisté aux envahisseurs. Avec les hurleurs, ils ont la distribution la plus étendue sur ce continent. Mais si les hurleurs se sont largement répandus grâce à un régime plus ou moins folivore, la réussite des sapajous et capucins tient à leur éclectisme alimentaire. Toutefois, grâce à sa mâchoire plus grande et plus épaisse et ses canines plus larges, seul le sapajou a accès aux fruits à péricarpe coriace, comme ceux de certains palmiers, que sont incapables d’éclater les capucins. Ce « plus » morphologique confère au sapajou la capacité d’explorer des régions inhospitalières et constitue l’un des points clés de son succès radiatif. Alors que les capucins sont restreints à la forêt amazonienne (et à une petite partie de l’Amérique centrale), les sapajous ont conquis tout le continent sud-américain jusqu’à 30°S.

Classification et taxinomie

Le genre Cebus a longtemps été l'unique représentant de la sous-famille des Cebinae, bien que certains auteurs aient proposé d'y inclure les saïmiris sous forme d'une tribu[2].

La taxinomie des différentes espèces est source de nombreux débats parmi les spécialistes, notamment en raison de la grande variabilité individuelle du pelage qui présente une « infinité » de nuances de marrons. La plupart des auteurs s'accordent pour différencier deux groupes d'espèce, les capucins « à touffes » et les capucins « sans touffes », d'après la division effectuée par le zoologue Daniel Giraud Elliot en 1913[3]. Les premiers se distinguent des seconds par la présence d’une crête sommitale chez les mâles et de deux touffes latérales sur le haut de la tête, plus ou moins imposantes et qui prennent parfois l’apparence d’une houppe centrale. Comme certaines espèces du groupe des capucins « à touffes » en sont en réalité dépourvus (par exemple Cebus xanthosternos), on préfère parfois parler de « capucins robustes » (groupe « à touffes » ) et de « capucins graciles » (groupe « sans touffes » )[4]. En 2001, le primatologue brésilien José de Sousa e Silva Jr. a révisé la classification des capucins à partir de l’étude de plus de trois mille spécimens morts ou vivants et a proposé de regrouper les capucins « à touffes » dans leur propre sous-genre : Cebus (Sapajus) - Kerr, 1792[5]. Cette division a été ensuite enterinée en 2011-2012 par le placement des capucins « à touffes » dans leur propre genre, Sapajus[6],[7].

La division en espèces et en sous-espèces est par contre loin d'être consensuelle. Silva Jr. reconnaît ainsi sept espèces de « capucins robustes »[5], alors que le primatologue Colin Groves n'en distingue que quatre [8]. Ce dernier se base sur les variations de couleur du pelage et la forme de la houppe chez les mâles. De plus, le Sapajou fauve (Cebus flavius), qui avait été décrit au XVIIIe siècle, a été redécouvert en 2006 dans le Nord-Est du Brésil, au bord de l'extinction[9],[10].

Liste des espèces et sous-espèces

Aide aux handicapés

L’homme a eu l'idée de détourner à son profit les qualités intellectuelles du capucin. Il est employé dans le cadre de l'aide simienne pour venir en aide aux handicapés tétraplégiques privés de l’usage de leurs mains. Du fait de sa motivation naturelle et de son habileté exceptionnelle dans la manipulation d’objets, de son attention et de sa tendresse assorties d’une longévité remarquable (jusqu’à 48 ans en captivité), le capucin constitue un assistant précieux. Il lui suffit de répondre à une soixantaine d’ordres (ouvrir le réfrigérateur, manipuler la télécommande, tourner les pages d’un livre, etc.), ce qu’il apprend sans peine. Même s’il existe un risque de dérive, ce type d’utilisation ne menace pas le destin des spécimens sauvages mais pour des raisons financières ou comportementales, les expériences de ce type sont progressivement abandonnées[17].

Annexes

Références taxinomiques

Notes et références

  1. https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/20001213.OBS0178/l-anti-moustique-naturel-des-singes-capucins.html
  2. (en) M. Goodman, C. A. Porter, J. Czelusniak, S. L. Page, H. Schneider, J. Shoshani, G. Gunnel et C. P. Groves, « Toward a phylogenetic classification of Primates based on DNA evidence complemented by fossil evidence », Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, no 9,‎ 1998, p. 585-598.
  3. (en) Daniel Giraud Elliot, Review of the Primates. Monograph series Vol II., New York, American Museum of Natural History, 1913.
  4. (en) J. W. Lynch Alfaro et al., « Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys », Journal of Biogeography,‎ 2011 (DOI , lire en ligne)
  5. a et b (pt) J. de S. Silva Jr., Especiação nos macacos-prego e caiararas, gênero Cebus Erxleben, 1777 (Primates, Cebidae). PhD thesis, Rio de Janeiro, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 2001
  6. (en) Jessica W. Lynch Alfaro et al., « Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys », Journal of Biogeography, vol. 39, no 2,‎ 2011, p. 272–288 (DOI )
  7. (en) Jessica W. Lynch Alfaro, José de Sousa e Silva Jr. et Anthony B. Rylands, « How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus », American Journal of Primatology, vol. 74, no 4,‎ 2012, p. 1–14 (PMID , DOI )
  8. (en) Colin P. Groves, Primate taxonomy, Washington DC, Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001.
  9. (en) M. M. de Oliveira et A. Langguth, « Rediscovery of Marcgrave’s capuchin monkey and designation of a neotype for Simia flavia Schreber, 1774 (Primates, Cebidae) », Boletim do Museu Nacional: Nova Série: Zoologia, vol. 523,‎ 2006, p. 1–16 (lire en ligne [PDF])
  10. (en) A. R. Mendes Pontes, A. Malta et P. H. Asfora, « A new species of capuchin monkey, genus Cebus Erxleben (Cebidae, Primates): found at the very brink of extinction in the Pernambuco Endemism Centre », Zootaxa, vol. 1200,‎ 2006, p. 1–12 (lire en ligne [PDF])
  11. (en) Colin P. Groves, « Order Primates », dans Wilson, D.E. & Reeder, D.M., Mammal Species of the World : Third Edition, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005, p. 111–184.
  12. (en) Anthony B. Rylands et Russel A. Mittermeier, « The Diversity of the New World Primates (Platyrrhini): An Annotated Taxonomy », dans Garber, P. A., Estrada, A., Bicca-Marques, J. C., Heymann, E. W. & Strier, K. B., South American Primates : Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, Springer, 2009 (ISBN 978-0-387-78704-6, lire en ligne)
  13. a et b Meyer C., ed. sc., 2009, Dictionnaire des Sciences Animales. consulter en ligne. Montpellier, France, Cirad.
  14. a et b Georges Cuvier, Le Règne animal distribué d'après son organisation, pour servir de base à l'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction à l'anatomie comparée, Paris, Fortin, Masson et cie, 1836 (lire en ligne).
  15. a et b René Primevère Lesson, Manuel de mammalogie ou Histoire naturelle des mammifères, Paris, Nicolas Roret, 1827, 441 p. (lire en ligne)
  16. a b c d e f g et h (en) Murray Wrobel, Elsevier's Dictionary of Mammals : in Latin, English, German, French and Italian, Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2007, 857 p. (ISBN 978-0-444-51877-4, lire en ligne).
  17. Bernard Belin, Le loup & le chien & l'homme, Editions L'Harmattan, 2003. Chapitre XIII Le singe capucin pour personne tétraplégique, pages 2011-212. Lire en ligne
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Cebinae: Brief Summary

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Capucins, Sajous, Sapajous, Saïs

La sous-famille des Cebinae comprend les espèces de singes du Nouveau Monde appelées capucins ou sajous ou sapajous. Phylogénétiquement, ils seraient proches des saïmiris de la sous-famille des Saimiriinae. Ensemble, ils forment la famille des Cebidae, qui comprenait historiquement d'autres sous-familles, mais qui est désormais réduite à ces deux groupes.

Les Cebinae sont composés de deux genres, Cebus et Sapajus.

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Cebinae ( italien )

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Cebinae Bonaparte, 1831 è una delle tre sottofamiglie attualmente ascritte alla famiglia dei Cebidi, insieme a Callitrichinae e Saimirinae.

Appartengono a questo gruppo tutti i primati del Nuovo Mondo che vengono comunemente indicati con il nome di scimmie cappuccine.

Etimologia

Il nome comune fa riferimento ad una somiglianza tra il pelo di queste scimmie e l'abito indossato dai frati cappuccini.

Tassonomia

La sottofamiglia comprende i generi Cebus e Sapajus:[1]

Note

  1. ^ (EN) Jessica W. Lynch Alfaro, José De Sousa E Silva e Anthony B. Rylands, How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus, in American Journal of Primatology, vol. 74, n. 4, 1º aprile 2012, pp. 273–286, DOI:10.1002/ajp.22007. URL consultato l'11 febbraio 2018.

Bibliografia

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Cebinae: Brief Summary ( italien )

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Cebinae Bonaparte, 1831 è una delle tre sottofamiglie attualmente ascritte alla famiglia dei Cebidi, insieme a Callitrichinae e Saimirinae.

Appartengono a questo gruppo tutti i primati del Nuovo Mondo che vengono comunemente indicati con il nome di scimmie cappuccine.

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Cebinae ( portugais )

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Os cebíneos, macacos-pregos, caiararas ou cairaras são platirrinos da subfamília Cebinae. Antes de 2011, a subfamília continha apenas um gênero, Cebus. Entretanto, em 2011 foi proposto a divisão dos cebíneos entre os caiararas (macacos-pregos "gráceis") no gênero Cebus e os macacos-pregos "robustos" no gênero Sapajus. A distribuição dos cebíneos incluem a América Central e América do Sul até o norte da Argentina.

Taxonomia e evolução

A taxonomia das espécies da subfamília é altamente controversa, e outras classificação além da listada abaixo são sugeridas.[2][3][4][5]

Em 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al propuseram que o antigamente chamado Grupo C. apella seja considerado uma gênero separado, Sapajus, e o antigamente chamado Grupo C. capucinus retenha o gênero Cebus.[6][7] Outros primatologistas, como Paul Garber, começaram a usar tal classificação.[8]

De acordo com estudos genéticos feitos por Lynch Alfaro in 2011, os gêneros Sapajus e Cebus divergiram há aproximadamente 6.2 milhões de anos. Lynch Alfaro suspeita que essa divergência se deu por uma separação entre populações pelo rio Amazonas, separando-as em populações ao norte e ao sul desse rio: populações ao norte deram original ao gênero Cebus, e as populações ao sul, na Mata Atlântica, ao gênero Sapajus. O gênero Cebus possui longos membros em relação ao corpo, se comparados com Sapajus. Sapajus possui crista sagital e os machos possuem barba.[6][7]

Notas

  1. Espécie redescoberta recentemente.[10]

Referências

  1. Rylands AB; Mittermeier RA (2009). «The Diversity of the New World Primates (Platyrrhini): An Annotated Taxonomy». In: Garber PA; Estrada A; Bicca-Marques JC; Heymann EW; Strier KB. South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation 3ª ed. Nova Iorque: Springer. pp. 23–54. ISBN 978-0-387-78704-6
  2. Amaral, P. J. S, Finotelo, L. F. M., De Oliveira, E. H. C, Pissinatti, A., Nagamachi, C. Y., & Pieczarka, J. C. (2008).Phylogenetic studies of the genus Cebus (Cebidae-Primates) using chromosome painting and G-banding. BMC Evol Biol. 2008; 8: 169.
  3. Rylands, A. B., Kierulff, M. C. M., & Mittermeier, R. A. (2005). «Notes on the taxonomy and distributions of the tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus, Cebidae) of South America» (PDF). Lundiana. 6 (Supp): 97-110
  4. Silva Jr., J. de S. (2001). Especiação nos macacos-prego e caiararas, gênero Cebus Erxleben, 1777 (Primates, Cebidae). PhD thesis, Rio de Janeiro, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.
  5. IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Acessado em 06 de março de 2013
  6. a b Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; et al. (2011). «Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys» (PDF). Journal of Biogeography. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02609.x
  7. a b c Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Silva, j. & Rylands, A.B. (2012). «How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus». American Journal of Primatology: 1–14. doi:10.1002/ajp.222007
  8. Garber, P.A., Gomes, D.F. & Bicca-Marquez, J.C. (2011). «Experimental Field Study of Problem-Solving Using Tools in Free-Ranging Capuchins (Sapajus nigritus, formerly Cebus nigritus (PDF). American Journal of Primatology. 73: 1–15. PMID 21538454
  9. Groves, C.P. (2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. (eds.), ed. Mammal Species of the World 3 ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 136–138. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494
  10. de Oliveira, M. M. & Langguth, A. (2006). «Rediscovery of Marcgrave's capuchin monkey and designation of a neotype for Simia flavia Schreber, 1774 (Primates, Cebidae)» (PDF). Boletim do Museu Nacional: Nova Série: Zoologia (523): 1–16 See also: Mendes Pontes, A. R., Malta, A. & Asfora, P. H. (2006). «A new species of capuchin monkey, genus Cebus Erxleben (Cebidae, Primates): found at the very brink of extinction in the Pernambuco Endemism Centre» (PDF). Zootaxa (1200): 1–12
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Cebinae: Brief Summary ( portugais )

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 src= Cebus albifrons  src= Sapajus apella

Os cebíneos, macacos-pregos, caiararas ou cairaras são platirrinos da subfamília Cebinae. Antes de 2011, a subfamília continha apenas um gênero, Cebus. Entretanto, em 2011 foi proposto a divisão dos cebíneos entre os caiararas (macacos-pregos "gráceis") no gênero Cebus e os macacos-pregos "robustos" no gênero Sapajus. A distribuição dos cebíneos incluem a América Central e América do Sul até o norte da Argentina.

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꼬리감는원숭이 ( coréen )

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꼬리감는원숭이(영어: capuchin monkey /ˈkæpjʊɪn/ , /ˈkæpjʊʃɪn/)는 꼬리감는원숭이아과에 속한 신세계원숭이의 총칭이다. 흔히 "오르간 악사" 원숭이로 여겨지며, 다양한 영화와 텔레비전 쇼에 등장해왔다. 꼬리감는원숭이의 분포는 중앙아메리카남아메리카에 걸쳐있으며 남쪽으로 아르헨티나까지 아우른다. 중앙아메리카에서는 보통 코스타리카의 카리브 해안의 습한 저지대 삼림과 태평양 해안의 건조한 삼림에 서식한다.

어원

꼬리감는 원숭이의 국제적인 명칭은 '카푸친원숭이'인데, 카푸친capuchin이라는 단어는 큰 후드가 달린 갈색 로브를 입은 프란체스코회의 분파 카푸친 작은형제회에서 유래했다. 탐험가들이 15세기에 아메리카 대륙에 도달했을 때 색상이 카푸친 작은형제회의 수도사들이 후드를 벗었을 때의 모습을 닮은 작은 원숭이들을 발견했고, 그리하여 카푸친이라는 이름이 붙여졌다.[1] 과학자들이 (아마도 황금배카푸친으로 추측되는) 표본을 묘사할 때, 그들은 다음과 같이 적었다: "그 황갈색 주둥이,... 앞부분에서 하얀색으로 녹아드는 눈 주변부의 좀 더 밝은 색상과, 뺨..., 을 보자니 우리나라에서 역사적으로 둔감함, 게으름, 관능성을 표방하는 생김새를 부지불식간에 상기시키게 된다."[2] 이 속의 이름인, 그리스 단어 kêbos[3]에서 유래한 Cebus는 꼬리가 긴 원숭이를 의미한다.

분류

이 과의 종 단위의 분류는 분류학적으로 상당한 논란을 일으켜왔으며, 원래 아래에 있는 목록과는 다른 방식이 사용되어왔다.[4][5][6][7]

2011년에, 제시카 린치 알파로 외는 이전에 C. 아펠라 군에 속했던 건장한카푸친을 이전에 C. 카푸치누스 군에 속했던, 세부스속의 가냘픈카푸친에서 분리하여 별개의 속 사파주스속에 배치하자고 제안했다.[8][9] 폴 가버와 같은 다른 영장류학자들은 이러한 분류를 사용하기 시작하였다.[10]

2011년에 린치 알파로가 주도한 유전적 연구에 따르면, 가냘픈카푸친과 건장한카푸친은 620만년 전쯤에 분리되었다고 한다. 린치 알파로는 아마존 강의 탄생이 가냘픈카푸친으로 진화한 아마존 북쪽에 서식하던 원숭이를 건장한카푸친으로 진화한 아마존강 남쪽의 대서양 삼림에 서식하던 원숭이와 떨어뜨려 유전적인 분리를 촉발시켰을 것이라고 말했다. 가냘픈카푸친은 건장한카푸친과 비교했을 때, 몸의 크기에 비해 상대적으로 팔다리가 길다. 가냘픈카푸친은 두개골이 좀 더 둥글며, 건장한카푸친은 단단한 견과류를 깨부수는 데 적합하도록 적응한 턱을 가지고 있다. 건장한카푸친은 볏이 있으며 수컷은 턱수염이 있다.[8][9]

 src=
검은머리카푸친 (Sapajus apella)

* 재발견된 종들.[12]

신체적 특징

꼬리감는원숭이들은 검은색, 갈색, 담황색, 상아색을 띄지만, 정확한 색깔과 무늬는 어떤 종에 속해있는지에 달려있다. 30에서 56센티미터 (12에서 22인치) 까지 자라며, 꼬리의 길이는 몸 전체의 길이와 비슷하다.

행동

꼬리감는원숭이는 대부분의 신세계원숭이처럼 주행성이며 교목이동성이다 낮 동안의 낮잠을 제외하면, 이 원숭이들은 온종일 먹이를 찾는 데 시간을 보낸다. 밤에는 나뭇가지 사이의 틈에서 잠을 청한다. 이 원숭이들은 서식지에 까탈스럽지 않아 다양한 영역에서 발견된다.

 src=
흰이마카푸친 (Cebus albifrons)

식성

꼬리감는원숭이는 다양한 종류의 먹이를 섭취하며, 이는 꼬리감는원숭이과에 속한 어떠한 다른 원숭이들보다도 다양하다. 이 원숭이들은 잡식동물이며, 양서류, 연체동물, 다양한 척추동물, 심지어 영장류만큼이나 이파리, 꽃과 과일, 씨앗, 중과피, 목질 조직, 사탕수수, 구근과 삼출물 등의 다양한 식물의 부위를 섭취한다.[13] 특히 개구리를 잘 잡는 모습이 관찰되기도 했다.[13] 꼬리감는원숭이들은 음식같지가 않은 수많은 것들에서 먹을 부분을 찾아내는 능력으로 인해 혁신적이고 극단적인 섭식자로 특징지어지는데, 이는 서식지에서 음식이 극단적으로 제한된 상황에서도 살아남을 수 있도록 한다.[14] 물가에 사는 원숭이들은 게와 패각류의 껍데기를 돌에 내리쳐 부수어 먹는다.[15]

사회 구조와 서식지

꼬리감는원숭이는 브라질과 여타의 라틴아메리카, 중앙아메리카의 넓은 영역에서 서식한다. 일반적으로 숲속에서 10마리에서 35마리 정도의 규모의 무리를 이루고 살아가지만, 사람이 개척한 땅에서도 손쉽게 적응할 수 있다. 대개 하나의 수컷이 무리를 지배하며, 이러한 수컷들은 같은 집단의 암컷들과 우선적으로 짝짓기할 권리를 가진다. 하지만 흰머리카푸친무리는 알파 수컷과 알파 암컷이 함께 무리를 이끈다.[16] 각각의 무리는 넓은 영역을 갖는데, 구성원들이 먹이를 구하기 위한 최고의 장소를 탐색해야 하기 때문이다. 이 영장류들은 영역동물이며, 영토의 중앙영역을 오줌으로 뚜렷하게 표시하고 침입자에 맞서 영토를 지키지만 영역의 가장자리는 겹칠 수 있다. 집단역학적 안정화는 단체로 털을 가다듬는 행위와, 다양한 목소리를 통해 이루어지는 원숭이들 사이의 의사소통을 통해 이루어진다.[17] 꼬리감는원숭이들은 3미터까지 뛸 수 있으며, 이러한 모습은 보통 다른 나무로 이동할 때 관찰된다. 무리는 낮에 대부분의 시간을 초목의 식생 사이에서 숨어있는 채로 보내며, 나뭇가지 위에서 잠을 청하고 마실 물을 찾기 위해 땅으로 내려온다.

짝짓기

암컷은 흔히 대부분의 proceptive 와 짝찟기 행동을 우두머리 수컷에게 보인다. 하지만 proceptive 기간이 끝나면 하루에 여섯 마리의 하위 서열의 수컷과 관계를 가지기도 한다.[18] 어떤 암컷들은 서너마리의 다른 수컷들과 짝짓기를 하기 때문에, 언제나 우두머리 수컷만을 목표로 하지는 않는다.[19] 우두머리 암컷 알파 암컷과 낮은 서열의 암컷이 우두머리 수컷과의 짝짓기를 원할 땐, 더 서열이 높은 암컷이 낮은 암컷을 밀어내고 짝짓기를 할 권리를 갖는다.

일생

암컷은 이년마다 새끼를 출산하며 160일에서 180일 동안 임신한다. 어린 새끼는 좀 더 클 때까지 어미의 가슴에 매달리며, 이후에는 등 뒤로 위치를 옮긴다. 성체 수컷 원숭이들은 새끼를 거의 돌보지 않는다. 암컷은 네 살에, 수컷은 여덟 살에 짝짓기를 할 요건을 완전히 갖추게 된다. 사육개체는 50살까지 살수 있으며, 야생개체의 예상수명은 15년에서 25년 정도이다.

가해지는 위협

꼬리감는원숭이들은 영리하고 훈련하기 쉬워, 많은 선진국에서 사지가 마비된 사람들을 돕는 데 사용되고 있다. 애완동물로서, 길거리 공연의 유흥거리로서도 인기가 높아지고 있으며, 서식지의 주민들은 고기를 얻기 위해 꼬리감는원숭이들을 사냥한다. 새끼를 잘 치며 환경적응력이 높기 때문에, 삼림의 손실은 다른 종만큼 꼬리감는원숭이의 개체수에 부정적인 영향을 미치지 않지만, 서식지 단편화는 여전히 위협적이다.[20] 재규어, 쿠가, 재규어런디, 코요테, 타이라, 뱀, 크로코다일, 맹금류가 긴꼬리원숭이의 천적이다. 갈색꼬리감기원숭이의 주 포식자는 부채머리수리이며, 몇몇 원숭이들을 둥지로 가져가는 것이 목격되었다.[1]

지능

 src=
볏카푸친 (Sapajus robustus)

꼬리감는원숭이들은 신세계원숭이들 중에서 제일 영리하다고 알려져 있으며[21] 연구실에서 흔히 이용된다. 갈색꼬리감기원숭이는 특히 장기적인 도구의 사용으로 주목받았으며,[22] 이는 유인원을 제외한 원숭이의 원시적인 도구의 사용에 대한 드문 예시 중 하나다. 이 꼬리감는원숭이들은 부리로 기름야자를 깨부숴 먹는 금강앵무를 따라하여, 제일 잘 익은 과실 중 몇몇을 골라 끝부분을 분질러서 과즙을 들이킨 다음에 남은 과일을 안의 견과류와 함께 버린다. 이 떨어진 과일들이 경화되고 다소 부서지기 쉽게 되면, 긴꼬리원숭이원숭이들은 과일들을 다시 주워 이전에 몇 마일 떨어진 곳까지에서 크고 납작한 강가의 돌을 모아두었던 곳으로 가져간다. 원숭이들은 무거운 것은 원숭이의 무게와 맞먹는 돌들을 과일을 부수는 데 사용하여 안의 견과류를 얻는다. 어린 원숭이들은 나이 들고 경륜 있는 다 자란 원숭이들에게서 방법을 배우기 위해 이러한 과정을 관찰하지만, 이를 숙달하는 데 8년이 걸린다.[23] 긴꼬리원숭이들의 학습 행동은 호기심보다는 보상에 직접적으로 연결되어있다는 것이 입증되어왔다.[24] 꼬리감는원숭이들은 돌멩이를 내리쳐 날카롭게 만드는 방식으로 도구를 만들어내며, 기원전 1,000 여 년에 석기시대에 진입했다고 알려졌다.[25]

2005년에 꼬리감는원숭이의 화폐 사용 능력에 대한 실험이 진행되었다.[26] 몇 개월 간의 훈련 후에, 원숭이들은 가격 충격에 대해 이성적으로 반응하는 것과 같은, 이전에는 사람들에게만 존재한다고 믿고 있었던 중간교환재의 개념에 대한 이해를 토대로 한 듯한 행동을 보이기 시작했다.[26] 원숭이들은 인간 피실험자와 투자자들에게서 관찰된 것과 동일한 손실을 회피하는 경향을 보여주었다.

꼬리감는원숭이들은 모기가 창궐하는 기간에 노래기를 으깨서 등에 발라 천연 방충제로 사용한다.[27]

자아 인식

거울과 맞닥뜨릴 때, 꼬리감는원숭이는 거울에 비친 원숭이의 형상을 다른 개체로서 이해하는 것과 자기자신으로 인지하는 것 사이의 중간상태와도 같은 방식으로 반응한다.

대부분의 동물들은 거울에 비친 모습을 그들이 알지 못하는 다른 개체와 마주친 것처럼 반응한다. 꼬리감는원숭이를 대상으로 한 실험은 이 원숭이들이 거울에 비친 모습을 낮선 현상으로 반응하지만, 낮선 원숭이를 본 것처럼 행동하지는 않는다는 것을 보여준다.

꼬리감는원숭이들은 실험에서 세 가지의 서로 다른 시나리오들을 접했다:

  1. 투명한 장벽 너머에서 낯선 동성의 원숭이를 목격
  2. 투명한 장벽 너머에서 낯익은 동성의 원숭이를 목격
  3. 원숭이를 비추는 거울

시나리오 1에서는 암컷은 겁을 집어먹고 눈을 마주치는 것을 피했지만, 수컷은 위협 동작을 취했다. 시나리오 2에서는 암수를 가리지 않고 큰 반응이 없었다.

거울을 통해 바라보는 경우, 암컷은 거울에 비춘 다른 원숭이를 바라보면서 입술을 맞부딪치거나 몸을 흔드는 등의 (lip-smacking and swaying) 친근한 몸동작을 취했다. 수컷은 이전보다 눈을 자주 마주쳤지만, 끽끽대거나 바닥 위에서 몸을 말거나 실험실에서 탈출하려고 시도하는 따위의 혼란, 괴로움을 나타내는 행동을 보였다.[28]

마음 이론

꼬리감는원숭이가 마음이론을 가지고 있는지—이 원숭이들이 다른 생명체가 지각하거나 생각할 수 있다는 것을 이해할 수 있는지—에 대한 의문은 깔끔하게 증명되지도 반증되지도 않았다. 한 훈련사가 음식의 위치를 알고 있다는 것을 관찰할 수 있으며 다른 훈련사는 단지 음식의 위치를 추측할 뿐인 인지자-추측자 시나리오를 마주하면, 꼬리감는원숭이들은 인지자에 의존하는 것을 배울 수 있다.[29] 하지만 이는 원숭이들이 다른 수단으로 인지자와 추측자를 구별하는 것을 배울 수 있기 때문에, 마음이론에 대한 결정적인 증거로 채택되지는 못했다.[30] 최근까지 인간이 아닌 유인원 또한 마음이론을 가지고 있지 않다고 여겨졌지만, 최근의 연구는 그렇지 않을 수 있다는 것을 보여준다.[31] 사람의 아이들은 일반적으로 서너살에 마음이론이 발달된다.

사람과의 관계

 src=
19세기의 오르간 악사와 그의 꼬리감는원숭이

흔히 "오르간 악사"나 "그레이하운드 기수" 원숭이로 알려진 꼬리감는원숭이는 때때로 이국적인 애완동물로 취급받았다. 때로는 경작지와 곡식을 강탈했으며 근처의 거주민들에게 골칫거리가 되었다.[1] 어떤 지역에서는 서식지의 파괴로 인하여 보기 힘들게 되었다.[1]

원숭이들은 보조동물로서 사용되기도 했으며, 때로 "자연의 집사"라고 불렸다.[32] 한 단체는 꼬리감는원숭이를 이동보조견을 훈련시키듯이 사지마비 환자를 보조하기 위한 도우미 원숭이로서 훈련시켜왔다. 인간의 집에서 사회화된 후, 원숭이들은 사지마비환자와 함께하기 전에 광범위한 훈련을 받는다. 원숭이들은 집안에서 물건을 가져오고, 불을 키고 끄고, 물병의 뚜껑을 여는 등의 일을 돕는다.[32]

미 연방정부는 2010년에 미국장애인법(ADA)의 보조동물의 정의를 개정하였다. 사람을 제외한 영장류는 더 이상 ADA에서 보조동물로 간주되지 않는다.[33] 미국수의학협회는 동물복지에 대한 우려, 사람한테 큰 부상을 입힐 가능성, 영장류가 사람한테 위험한 전염병을 옮길 위험성 때문에 사람을 제외한 영장류를 보조동물로서 지원하지 않는다.[34]

각주

  1. Fragaszy, Dorothy M.; Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Fedigan, Linda M. (2004년 6월 21일). 《The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. Cambridge University Press. 5쪽. ISBN 978-0-521-66768-5.
  2. Saint-Hilaire, E. G.; Cuvier, F. G. (1924). 《Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères》. Paris, impr. de C. de Lasteyrie. OCLC 166026273.
  3. Rossiter, William (1879). 《An illustrated dictionary of scientific terms》. London & Glasgow: William Collins, Sons, and Company. ISBN 0-548-93307-3.
  4. Amaral, P. J. S; Finotelo, L. F. M.; De Oliveira, E. H. C; Pissinatti, A.; Nagamachi, C. Y.; Pieczarka, J. C. (2008). “Phylogenetic studies of the genus Cebus (Cebidae-Primates) using chromosome painting and G-banding.”. 《BMC Evol. Biol.》 8: 169. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-169. PMC 2435554. PMID 18534011.
  5. Rylands, A. B.; Kierulff, M. C. M.; Mittermeier, R. A. (2005). “Notes on the taxonomy and distributions of the tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus, Cebidae) of South America” (PDF). 《Lundiana》 6 (supp.): 97–110.
  6. Silva Jr., J. de S. (2001). Especiação nos macacos-prego e caiararas, gênero Cebus Erxleben, 1777 (Primates, Cebidae). PhD thesis, Rio de Janeiro, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.
  7. IUCN (2008). 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed 23 November 2008
  8. Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; 외. (2011). “Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys” (PDF). 《Journal of Biogeography》 39 (2): 272–288. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02609.x. 2015년 2월 26일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서.
  9. Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Silva, j.; Rylands, A.B. (2012). “How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus”. 《American Journal of Primatology》 74: 1–14. doi:10.1002/ajp.22007. PMID 22328205.
  10. Garber, P.A.; Gomes, D.F. & Bicca-Marquez, J.C. (2011). “Experimental Field Study of Problem-Solving Using Tools in Free-Ranging Capuchins (Sapajus nigritus, formerly Cebus nigritus)” (PDF). 《American Journal of Primatology》 74 (4): 344–58. doi:10.1002/ajp.20957. PMID 21538454. 2012년 12월 18일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서.
  11. Groves, C.P. (2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., 편집. 《Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference》 (영어) 3판. 존스 홉킨스 대학교 출판사. 136–138쪽. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
  12. de Oliveira, M. M.; Langguth, A. (2006). “Rediscovery of Marcgrave’s capuchin monkey and designation of a neotype for Simia flavia Schreber, 1774 (Primates, Cebidae)” (PDF). 《Boletim do Museu Nacional: Nova Série: Zoologia》 (523): 1–16. 2009년 2월 5일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. See also: Mendes Pontes, A. R.; Malta, A. & Asfora, P. H. (2006). “A new species of capuchin monkey, genus Cebus Erxleben (Cebidae, Primates): found at the very brink of extinction in the Pernambuco Endemism Centre” (PDF). 《Zootaxa》 (1200): 1–12.
  13. Izawa, K (1979). “Foods and feeding behaviour of wild black-capped capuchin (Cebus apella)”. 《Primates》 20: 57–76. doi:10.1007/bf02373828.
  14. Fragaszy, Dorothy M.; Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Fedigan, Linda M. (2004년 6월 21일). 〈Behavioral ecology: how do capuchins make a living?〉. 《The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. Cambridge University Press. 36–쪽. ISBN 978-0-521-66768-5.
  15. Port-Carvalhoa, M.; Ferraria, S. F.; Magalhãesc, C. (2004). “Predation of Crabs by Tufted Capuchins (Cebus apella) in Eastern Amazonia”. 《Folia Primatol》 75 (3): 154–156. doi:10.1159/000078305. PMID 15240980.
  16. Ferrari SF, Iwanaga S, Ravetta AL, Freitas FC, Sousa BAR, Souza LL, Costa CG, Coutinho PEG (2003). 〈Dynamics of primate communities along the Santarém-Cuiabá highway in southern central Brazilian Amazonia〉. Marsh LK. 《Primates in fragments》. New York: Kluwer. 123–144쪽. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-3770-7_9. ISBN 978-1-4757-3770-7.
  17. Van Belle, Sarie; Estrada, Alejandro; Garber, Paul A. (2012). “Collective group movement and leadership in wild black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra)”. 《Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology》 67: 31. doi:10.1007/s00265-012-1421-5.
  18. Janson, C. H. (1984). “Female choice and mating system of the brown capuchin monkey Cebus apella (Primates: Cebidae)”. 《Z. Tierpsychol.》 65 (3): 177–200. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1984.tb00098.x.
  19. Lynch, J. W. (1998). “Mating behavior in wild tufted capuchins (Cebus apella nigritus) in Brazil's Atlantic forest”. 《Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.》 105 (Suppl. 26): 153. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1998)26+<148::AID-AJPA13>3.0.CO;2-U.
  20. Sanz, V; Márquez, L (1994). “Conservación del mono capuchino de Margarita (Cebus apella margaritae) en la Isla de Margarita, Venezuela”. 《Neotrop Primates》 2 (2): 5–8.
  21. “Black-faced Capuchin”. 《Amazonian Rainforest》. Monkey Jungle. 2008년 10월 13일에 확인함.
  22. “Saving the monkeys”. SPIE Professional. 2016년 1월 1일에 확인함.
  23. Boinski, S.; Quatrone, R. P. & Swartz, H. (2008). “Substrate and Tool Use by Brown Capuchins in Suriname: Ecological Contexts and Cognitive Bases”. 《American Anthropologist》 102 (4): 741–761. doi:10.1525/aa.2000.102.4.741.
  24. Edwards, Brian J.; Rottman, Benjamin M.; Shankar, Maya; Betzler, Riana; Chituc, Vladimir; Rodriguez, Ricardo; Silva, Liara; Wibecan, Leah; Widness, Jane (2014년 2월 19일). “Do Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella) Diagnose Causal Relations in the Absence of a Direct Reward?”. 《PLOS ONE》 9 (2): e88595. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988595E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088595. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3929502. PMID 24586347.
  25. “약 3천 년 전부터 ‘석기시대’에 진입한 원숭이가 있다?”. 2019년 6월 26일. 2020년 8월 18일에 확인함.
  26. Chen, M. Keith; Lakshminarayanan, Venkat; Santos, Laurie R. (2006). “How Basic Are Behavioral Biases? Evidence from Capuchin Monkey Trading Behavior” (PDF). 《Journal of Political Economy》 114 (3). doi:10.1086/503550.
  27. Valderrama, X.; 외. (2000). “Seasonal Anointment with Millipedes in a Wild Primate: A Chemical Defense Against Insects?”. 《Journal of Chemical Ecology》 26 (12): 2781–2790. doi:10.1023/A:1026489826714.
  28. de Waal, F. B.; Dindo, M.; Freeman, C. A. & Hall, M. J. (2005). “The monkey in the mirror: Hardly a stranger”. 《Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences102 (32): 11140–7. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10211140D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0503935102. PMC 1183568. PMID 16055557.
  29. Kuroshima, Hika; Fujita, Kazuo; Fuyuki, Akira; Masuda, Tsuyuka (March 2002). “Understanding of the relationship between seeing and knowing by tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)”. 《Animal Cognition》 5 (1): 41–48. doi:10.1007/s10071-001-0123-6. ISSN 1435-9448. PMID 11957401.
  30. Heyes, C. M. (1998). “Theory Of Mind In Nonhuman Primates”. 《Behavioral and Brain Sciences》 21 (1): 101–14. doi:10.1017/S0140525X98000703. PMID 10097012.
  31. Jabr, Ferris (2010년 6월 8일). “Clever critters: Bonobos that share, brainy bugs and social dogs”. Scientific American.
  32. Lineberry, Cate. “Animals in Service”. AARP. 2008년 9월 16일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2008년 10월 13일에 확인함.
  33. “Highlights of the Final Rule to Amend the Department of Justice's Regulation Implementing Title II of the ADA”. United States Department of Justice-Civil Rights Division. 2018년 7월 21일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2013년 10월 2일에 확인함.
  34. “AVMA Animal Welfare Division Director's Testimony on the Captive Primate Safety Act”. American Veterinary Medicine Association. 2018년 7월 21일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2013년 10월 2일에 확인함.
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꼬리감는원숭이: Brief Summary ( coréen )

fourni par wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

꼬리감는원숭이(영어: capuchin monkey /ˈkæpjʊtʃɪn/ , /ˈkæpjʊʃɪn/)는 꼬리감는원숭이아과에 속한 신세계원숭이의 총칭이다. 흔히 "오르간 악사" 원숭이로 여겨지며, 다양한 영화와 텔레비전 쇼에 등장해왔다. 꼬리감는원숭이의 분포는 중앙아메리카남아메리카에 걸쳐있으며 남쪽으로 아르헨티나까지 아우른다. 중앙아메리카에서는 보통 코스타리카의 카리브 해안의 습한 저지대 삼림과 태평양 해안의 건조한 삼림에 서식한다.

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