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Aliger gigas (Linnaeus 1758)

Große Fechterschnecke ( saksa )

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Männchen von Strombus gigas (= Aliger gigas), mit krallenartigem Operculum. Der Penis ragt links aus dem Haus hervor. Chenu, 1844
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Fühler der Fechterschnecke mit Auge
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Im Sand liegende Fechterschnecke
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Eine Pleuroploca gigantea frisst eine Große Fechterschnecke, Dry-Tortugas-Nationalpark, Florida, Juni 2010.
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Tausende Gehäuse von Aliger gigas, weggeworfen, nachdem ihr Fleisch gegessen wurde
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Gehäuse der großen Fechterschnecke (Aliger gigas) von allen Seiten
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Gehäuse von Aliger gigas

Die Große Fechterschnecke oder Riesen-Flügelschnecke (Aliger gigas[1] oder Lobatus gigas[2] oder Eustrombus gigas,[3] früher Strombus gigas)[4] ist eine karibische Meeresschneckenart und der größte Vertreter der Fechterschnecken. Sie ist die zweitgrößte Art der Flügelschnecken und eine der größten Schneckenarten überhaupt.

Merkmale

Die Schale der ausgewachsenen Schnecke misst 15 bis 31 cm und hat einen ausladenden Mündungsrand („Flügel“). Das Haus ist kreiselförmig mit einem sehr bauchigen Körperumgang, quer gefurcht und runzelig. Die Umgänge des Gewindes und der Körperumgang sind zur Spitze des Gehäuses hin mit kegelförmigen, abstehenden Zapfen besetzt. Die Färbung variiert erheblich. Die Grundfarbe ist weiß, im Bereich der Mündung rosenrot.[5][6]

Die Anatomie der Großen Fechterschnecke ist erst durch Colin Little 1965 und Luiz R. L. Simone 2005 genauer beschrieben worden.

Die Schnecke hat eine stark verlängerbare Proboscis, an deren Basis die beiden Fühler sitzen. An der Spitze eines jeden Fühlers sitzt ein Linsenauge mit einer schwarzen Pupille und einer gelben Iris, und unterhalb dessen zweigt je ein kleinerer kurzer sensorischer Fühler ab. Die Fühler samt Linsenaugen werden bei Verlust regeneriert.

Das Tier hat einen großen und kräftigen Fuß. Am Grunde seine Vorderendes befindet sich eine Grube mit der Schleim absondernden Drüse. Am Hinterende auf etwa einem Drittel des Fußes befindet sich das hornige, krallenförmige, durch eine Zentralrippe verstärkte Operculum, mit Hilfe dessen sich die Schnecke durch Kontraktionen des Fußes ruckweise und ohne Schleimspur recht schnell fortbewegen kann. Beim Kriechen berührt nur das vordere Drittel des Fußes den Untergrund, denn dahinter hat der Fuß einen runden Querschnitt.

Der fleischfarbene Mantel ist vorn dunkel gefärbt und hinten heller, ins Graue übergehend. Der Mantelsaum ist ebenso wie der Sipho in der Regel orangefarben oder gelb. Der Fuß ist am Rand braun gefleckt und geht zum Eingeweidesack hin ins Weiße über. Der Kopf und die Fühler haben eine besonders dunkle Fleckenzeichnung.

Lebenszyklus

Die Weibchen dieser Art sind in der Regel größer als die Männchen, wobei beide Geschlechter jeweils etwa die Hälfte der Individuen ausmachen. Die Schnecken erreichen die Geschlechtsreife im Alter von etwa 3 bis 4 Jahren bei einer Gehäuselänge von etwa 18 cm und einer Körpermasse von etwa 2,5 kg, wenn der Flügel an der Gehäusemündung bereits voll ausgebildet ist. Sie werden im flacheren Wasser bis zu 7 Jahre und im tieferen Wasser etwa 20 bis 30 Jahre, nach manchen Schätzungen bis zu 40 Jahre alt.[7][8][9] Meist begatten mehrere Männchen ein Weibchen, wobei ein langer Penis zum Einsatz kommt. Das Schneckenweibchen legt zwischen März und Oktober etwa 8 bis 9 Gallertschnüre ab, die bis zu 23 m lang sein können und jeweils etwa 180.000 bis 460.000, bisweilen bis zu 750.000 Eier enthalten, die verschiedene Väter haben. Nach etwa 5 Tagen entschlüpfen den Eiern Veliger-Larven, die sodann etwa 16 bis 40 Tage pelagisch von Phytoplankton leben. Die Metamorphose findet bei einer Gehäuselänge von etwa 1,2 mm statt.[10][11] Die Jungschnecken verbringen ihr erstes Lebensjahr meist vergraben im Sand.[12] Wie andere Fechterschnecken macht Aliger gigas auch nach der eigentlichen Metamorphose im Laufe ihres Lebens noch einen erheblichen Gestaltwandel durch und bildet erst als erwachsene Schnecke den „Flügel“ aus. So beschrieb Carl von Linné in seinem Systema Naturae verschiedene Altersstadien der Großen Fechterschnecke als unterschiedliche Arten.[4] Bereits in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts war man sich der Synonymie von Strombus lucifer L. mit Strombus gigas L. bewusst.[5]

Vorkommen, Verbreitung und Lebensweise

Die Große Fechterschnecke ist im westlichen Atlantik von Florida bis Nord-Brasilien und in der gesamten Karibik heimisch, also auch an den Küsten von Mexiko, den USA, den Bahamas und Bermuda.

Die Schnecke lebt in Seegraswiesen (Thalassia spp., insbesondere Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium spp., Cymodocea spp.) und auf Sand in Tiefen von etwa 0,3 m bis 18 m. Jungtiere leben in Seegraswiesen an seichteren Gewässern als die Adulten und verlassen im Alter von etwa 2 Jahren in Massenwanderungen während der Wintermonate diese Jugendquartiere.[13]

Die Große Fechterschnecke kann sich gemessen an anderen Schnecken rasch fortbewegen. Hierzu versenkt sie das krallenförmige Operculum im Substrat und wirft durch eine ruckartige Bewegung des Fußes das Haus nach vorn. Auf diese Weise vermag die Schnecke, ohne auf der Fußsohle kriechen zu müssen, auch senkrechte Betonwände zu erklimmen. Da sie dabei keine Schleimspur hinterlässt, ist sie auch vor Feinden besser geschützt.[14][15]

Die Große Fechterschnecke ernährt sich von Detritus und Algen, die auf dem Seegras wachsen, aber auch vom Seegras selbst. Bevorzugtes Futter sind unter anderen die Rotalgen der Art Batophora oerstedii sowie der Gattungen Gracilaria und Hypnea.

Der Mantel der Schnecke wird manchmal kommensalisch von Kardinalbarschen (Astrapogon stellatus) bewohnt.

Feinde

Trotz der beachtlichen Größe, welche die Große Fechterschnecke erreichen kann, und ihrer raschen Fluchtreaktionen, bei denen sie keine Schleimspur hinterlässt und so als Adulttier zahlreichen Feinden entweicht, hat sie insbesondere als Jungtier viele Feinde. Zu ihren Fressfeinden gehören verschiedene räuberische Schnecken, insbesondere die zu den Fasciolariidae gehörenden Arten Pleuroploca gigantea und Fasciolaria tulipa, daneben auch die Stachelschnecke Phyllonotus pomum. An leeren Gehäusen von Jungtieren sind Bohrlöcher von Mondschnecken und Stachelschnecken gefunden worden. Weitere Feinde sind einige Zehnfußkrebse wie die Blaukrabbe (Callinectes sapidus), die Schamkrabbe (Calappa gallus), die Karibik-Languste (Panulirus argus) und insbesondere der Riesen-Einsiedlerkrebs (Petrochirus diogenes). Krebse brechen oft Stücke der Schale vom Mündungsrand, um an die Beute zu gelangen, doch vermögen Fechterschnecken diese Schäden nach erfolgreicher Flucht zu reparieren. Solche reparierten Gehäuse werden insbesondere ab einer Gehäuselänge von 7,5 cm gefunden. Seesterne kommen als Räuber junger Fechterschnecken in Frage, jedoch griffen in Versuchen Exemplare der in der Region häufigsten Art Genetzter Kissenstern (Oreaster reticulatus) in keinem Fall junge oder alte Fechterschnecken an und lösten nicht einmal bei direktem Kontakt Fluchtreaktionen aus. Unter den Fischen sind Stachelmakrelen (Trachinotus falcatus) und Gepunktete Igelfische (Diodon hystrix) beim Fressen Großer Fechterschnecken beobachtet worden, außerdem tut dies die Unechte Karettschildkröte (Caretta caretta). Der wichtigste Feind ist der Mensch.[16][17]

Verwendung und Gefährdung

Das Fleisch der Schnecke, in der Dominikanischen Republik „Lambi“ genannt, wird im rohen und gegarten Zustand gegessen. Die Gehäuse werden an Touristen verkauft. Die Kariben und die Indigenen in Florida (Tequesta) stellten aus dem Rand der Gehäuse Messer, Äxte und Meißel her. Auf Grund von Überfischung ist die Art stark gefährdet und steht unter Artenschutz. Sie ist in Anhang II des Washingtoner Artenschutz-Übereinkommens sowie in Anhang B der Bundesartenschutzverordnung gelistet.[18] Bei der Ein- oder Ausreise in die Europäische Union unterliegen die als Souvenir beliebten Gehäuse der Fechterschnecke Beschränkungen, so dürfen im persönlichen Reisegepäck höchstens drei Stück dokumentenfrei mitgeführt werden (Stand 2013).[19]

Perlenzucht

Untersuchungen zur Perlenzucht haben gezeigt, dass auch die Große Fechterschnecke dazu gebracht werden kann, Perlen zu bilden.[20]

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

  1. World Register of Marine Species, Aliger gigas (Linnaeus, 1758)
  2. World Register of Marine Species, Lobatus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758)
  3. World Register of Marine Species, Eustrombus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758)
  4. a b Carolus Linnaeus: Systema Naturae. 10. ed. , Lars Salvius: Stockholm 1758, S. 745. 434. Strombus Lucifer. 434. S. testae labro antice rotundato integro, ventre dupliciter striato, spira carinata: tuberculis superioribus minutis. Habitat ad Americam australem. Differt a sequenti testa minus crassa, et imprimis spinis spirae minimis, nec magnis crassis pollicaribus ut in illa. Strombus Gigas. 435. S. testa labro rotundato maximo, coronata ventre spiraque spinis conicis patentibus. Habitat in America. Testae color internus vividissimus.
  5. a b C. Brüggemann: Die Naturgeschichte in getreuen Abbildungen und mit ausführlicher Beschreibung derselben. Verlag von Eduard Eisenach, Leipzig 1838. Die Weichthiere. S. 77. Die Riesen-Flügelschnecke. Strombus Gigas L.; Strombus Lucifer L. ist ein junges Exemplar.
  6. Julia Ellen Rogers: The Shell Book. Doubleday, Page & Company, New York 1908, archive.org, S. 117 ff: The Queen Conch. Strombus gigas, Linn.
  7. Megan Davis (2005): Species Profile Queen Conch, Strombus gigas (Memento des Originals vom 24. März 2012 im Internet Archive)  src= Info: Der Archivlink wurde automatisch eingesetzt und noch nicht geprüft. Bitte prüfe Original- und Archivlink gemäß Anleitung und entferne dann diesen Hinweis.@1@2Vorlage:Webachiv/IABot/www.ca.uky.edu (PDF; 1,8 MB). Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, SRAC Publication No. 7203
  8. Melany P. Puglisi: Strombus gigas (Queen Conch). Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce, 2008.
  9. Queen Conch (Strombus gigas). NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Species.
  10. R. Robertson: Observations on the spawn and veligers of conchs (Strombus) in the Bahamas. In: J. Molluscan Stud. 33 (4): 1959, 164–171, doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.mollus.a064817.
  11. Kevin McCarthy: A review of queen conch (Strombus gigas) life-history. (PDF; 114 kB). Sustainable Fisheries Division NOAA. SEDAR 14-DW-4, 2007.
  12. P. Medley: Monitoring and managing queen conch fisheries: A manual@1@2Vorlage:Toter Link/ftp.fao.org (Seite nicht mehr abrufbar, Suche in Webarchiven)  src= Info: Der Link wurde automatisch als defekt markiert. Bitte prüfe den Link gemäß Anleitung und entferne dann diesen Hinweis. . FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, S. 514. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome 2008, ISBN 978-92-5-106031-5.
  13. A. W. Stoner: Winter mass migration of juvenile queen conch Strombus gigas and their influence on the benthic environment. (PDF; 1,3 MB). Marine Ecology Progress Series 56, 1988, S. 99–104.
  14. George Howard Parker: The leaping of the stromb (Strombus gigas Linn.). In: Journal of Experimental Zoology. 36 (2), 1922, S. 205–209, doi:10.1002/jez.1400360204.
  15. K. O. Hesse: Gliding and climbing behaviour of the queen conch, Strombus gigas. In: Caribbean Journal of Science. 16, 1980, S. 105–108.
  16. E. S. Iversen, E. E. Jory, S. P. Bannerot: Predation on queen conchs, Strombus gigas, in the Bahamas. In: Bulletin of Marine Science. 39(1), 1986, S. 61–75. online (PDF; 963 kB).
  17. E. E. Jory: An incident of predation on queen conch, Strombus gigas L. (Mollusca, Strombidae), by Atlantic permit, Trachinotus falcatus L. (Pisces, Carangidae). In: Journal of Fish Biology. (The Fisheries Society of the British Isles) 28 (2), 2006, S. 129–131, doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1986.tb05149.x.
  18. Taxon Information. Bundesamt für Naturschutz, abgerufen am 12. Oktober 2009.
  19. Artenschutz, inwiefern bin ich hiervon als Reisender betroffen? Bundesministerium der Finanzen, abgerufen am 3. Juli 2013.
  20. Bericht aus dem Bereich Wissenschaft. Spiegel Online, abgerufen am 4. November 2009.
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Große Fechterschnecke: Brief Summary ( saksa )

tarjonnut wikipedia DE
 src= Männchen von Strombus gigas (= Aliger gigas), mit krallenartigem Operculum. Der Penis ragt links aus dem Haus hervor. Chenu, 1844  src= Fühler der Fechterschnecke mit Auge  src= Im Sand liegende Fechterschnecke  src= Eine Pleuroploca gigantea frisst eine Große Fechterschnecke, Dry-Tortugas-Nationalpark, Florida, Juni 2010.  src= Tausende Gehäuse von Aliger gigas, weggeworfen, nachdem ihr Fleisch gegessen wurde  src= Gehäuse der großen Fechterschnecke (Aliger gigas) von allen Seiten  src= Gehäuse von Aliger gigas

Die Große Fechterschnecke oder Riesen-Flügelschnecke (Aliger gigas oder Lobatus gigas oder Eustrombus gigas, früher Strombus gigas) ist eine karibische Meeresschneckenart und der größte Vertreter der Fechterschnecken. Sie ist die zweitgrößte Art der Flügelschnecken und eine der größten Schneckenarten überhaupt.

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Aliger gigas ( englanti )

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Aliger gigas, originally known as Strombus gigas or more recently as Lobatus gigas, commonly known as the queen conch, is a species of large sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family of true conches, the Strombidae. This species is one of the largest molluscs native to the Caribbean Sea, and tropical northwestern Atlantic, from Bermuda to Brazil, reaching up to 35.2 centimetres (13.9 in) in shell length. A. gigas is closely related to the goliath conch, Lobatus goliath, a species endemic to Brazil, as well as the rooster conch, Aliger gallus.

The queen conch is herbivorous. It feeds by browsing for plant and algal material growing in the seagrass beds, and scavenging for decaying plant matter. These large sea snails typically reside in seagrass beds, which are sandy plains covered in swaying sea grass and associated with coral reefs, although the exact habitat of this species varies according to developmental age. The adult animal has a very large, solid and heavy shell, with knob-like spines on the shoulder, a flared, thick outer lip, and a characteristic pink or orange aperture (opening). The outside of the queen conch is sandy colored, helping them blend in with their surroundings. The flared lip is absent in juveniles; it develops once the snail reaches reproductive age. The thicker the shell's flared lip is, the older the conch is.[11] The external anatomy of the soft parts of A. gigas is similar to that of other snails in the family Strombidae; it has a long snout, two eyestalks with well-developed eyes, additional sensory tentacles, a strong foot and a corneous, sickle-shaped operculum.

The shell and soft parts of living A. gigas serve as a home to several different kinds of commensal animals, including slipper snails, porcelain crabs and a specialized species of cardinalfish known as the conchfish Astrapogon stellatus. Its parasites include coccidians. The queen conch's natural predators include several species of large predatory sea snails, octopus, starfish, crustaceans and vertebrates (fish, sea turtles, nurse sharks). It is an especially important food source for large predators like sea turtles and nurse sharks. Human capture and consumption dates back into prehistory.

Its shell is sold as a souvenir and used as a decorative object. Historically, Native Americans and indigenous Caribbean peoples used parts of the shell to create various tools.

International trade in the Caribbean queen conch is regulated under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) agreement, in which it is listed as Strombus gigas.[12] This species is not endangered in the Caribbean as a whole, but is commercially threatened in numerous areas, largely due to extreme overfishing.

Taxonomy and etymology

An antique-looking illustration, numbered 321, showing a large, apparently left-handed, sea snail shell with knobs on the shoulders of the whorls
For a number of years during the 20th century, this very early illustration was designated as the neotype of this species: a figure of A. gigas from Recreatio mentis, et occuli (1684). The shell in the figure appears left-right reversed because of the engraving process. The original type was subsequently found, invalidating this designation.[13]

History

The queen conch was originally described from a shell in 1758 by Swedish naturalist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus, who originated the system of binomial nomenclature.[3] Linnaeus named the species Strombus gigas, which remained the accepted name for over 200 years. Linnaeus did not mention a specific locality for this species, giving only "America" as the type locality.[14] The specific name is the ancient Greek word gigas (γίγας), which means "giant", referring to the large size of this snail compared with almost all other gastropod molluscs.[15] Strombus lucifer, which was considered to be a synonym much later, was also described by Linnaeus in Systema Naturae.[3]

In the first half of the 20th century, the type material for the species was thought to have been lost; in other words, the shell on which Linnaeus based his original description and which would very likely have been in his own collection, was apparently missing, which created a problem for taxonomists. To remedy this, in 1941 a neotype of this species was designated by the American malacologists William J. Clench and R. Tucker Abbott. In this case, the neotype was not an actual shell or whole specimen, but a figure from a 1684 book Recreatio mentis, et occuli, published 23 years before Linnaeus was born by the Italian Jesuit scholar Filippo Buonanni (1638–1723). This was the first book that was solely about seashells.[14][16][17][18] In 1953 the Swedish malacologist Nils Hjalmar Odhner searched the Linnaean Collection at Uppsala University and discovered the missing type shell, thereby invalidating Clench and Abbott's neotype designation.[19]

Strombidae's taxonomy was extensively revised in the 2000s and a few subgenera, including Eustrombus, were elevated to genus level by some authors.[20][21][22] Petuch[4] and Petuch and Roberts[23] recombined this species as Eustrombus gigas, and Landau and collaborators (2008) recombined it as Lobatus gigas.[22] In 2020, it was recombined as Aliger gigas by Maxwell and colleagues,[24] which is the current valid name according to the World Register of Marine Species.[25]

Phylogeny

Strombidae

Terebellum terebellum

Canarium urceus

Conomurex luhuanus

Tricornis raninus

Lambis lambis

Strombus

Eustrombus

Aliger

A simplified version of the phylogeny and relationships of Strombidae according to Simone (2005)[20]

Strombus gallus

Strombus gigas

Strombus costatus

Strombus raninus

Strombus peruvianus

Strombus galeatus

Strombus latus

Strombus pugilis

Strombus alatus

Strombus gracilior

Strombus granulatus

Phylogeny and relationships of Eastern Pacific and Atlantic Strombus species, according to Latiolais et al. (2006)[21]

The phylogenetic relationships among the Strombidae were mainly studied by Simone (2005)[20] and Latiolais (2006),[21] using two distinct methods. Simone proposed a cladogram (a tree of descent) based on an extensive morpho-anatomical analysis of representatives of Aporrhaidae, Strombidae, Xenophoridae and Struthiolariidae, which included A. gigas (there referred to as Eustrombus gigas).[20]

With the exception of Lambis and Terebellum, the remaining taxa were previously allocated in the genus Strombus, including A. gigas. However, according to Simone, only Strombus gracilior, Strombus alatus and Strombus pugilis, the type species, remained within Strombus, as they constituted a distinct group based on at least five synapomorphies (traits that are shared by two or more taxa and their most recent common ancestor).[20] The remaining taxa were previously considered subgenera and were elevated to genus level by Simone. Genus Eustrombus (now considered a synonym of Lobatus[26]), in this case, included Eustrombus gigas (now considered a synonym of Aliger gigas) and Eustrombus goliath (= Lobatus goliath), which were thus considered closely related.[20]

In a different approach, Latiolais and colleagues (2006) proposed another cladogram that attempts to show the phylogenetic relationships of 34 species within the family Strombidae. The authors analysed 31 Strombus species, including Aliger gigas (there referred to as Strombus gigas), and three species in the allied genus Lambis. The cladogram was based on DNA sequences of both nuclear histone H3 and mitochondrial cytochrome-c oxidase I (COI) protein-coding gene regions. In this proposed phylogeny, Strombus gigas and Strombus gallus (= Lobatus gallus) are closely related and appear to share a common ancestor.[21]

Common names

Common names include "queen conch" and "pink conch" in English, caracol rosa and caracol rosado in Mexico, caracol de pala, cobo, botuto and guarura in Venezuela, caracol reina, lambí in the Dominican Republic and Grenada,[27][28][29][30][31] and carrucho in Puerto Rico.[32]

Anatomy

Shell

A queen conch shell is shown from five different perspectives
Five different views of an adult shell of A. gigas: abapertural (upper left), lateral (center), apertural (upper right), apical (lower left) and basal (lower right). Note: The lip of this shell has been filed down or cut down artificially, a common practice in the shell trade.
An adult queen conch shell with the lip completely intact
Abapertural (left) and apertural (right) views of a beachworn and slightly bleached-out juvenile shell of A. gigas
Aliger gigas fossil from the Pleistocene (Eemian) of Great Inagua, the Bahamas.

The mature shell grows to 15–31 centimetres (5.9–12.2 in) in length in three to five years[33][34] while the maximum reported size is 35.2 centimetres (13.9 in). However, even though they only grow to be this maximum length, the thickness of the shell is constantly increasing.[10][18][35] The shell is very solid and heavy, with 9 to 11 whorls and a widely flaring and thickened outer lip. The thickness is highly important because the thicker the shell, the better protected it is. Additionally, instead of increasing in size once it reaches its maximum, the outside shell thickens as time goes on- an important indicator of how old the queen conch is.[11] Although this notch is not as well developed as elsewhere in the family,[18] the shell feature is nonetheless visible in an adult dextral (normal right-handed) specimen, as a secondary anterior indentation in the lip, to the right of the siphonal canal (viewed ventrally). The animal's left eyestalk protrudes through this notch.[18][32][36][37]

The spire is a protruding part of the shell that includes all of the whorls except the largest and final whorl (known as the body whorl). It is usually more elongated than in other strombid snails, such as the closely related and larger goliath conch, Lobatus goliath that is endemic to Brazil.[18] In A. gigas, the glossy finish or glaze around the aperture of the adult shell is primarily in pale shades of pink. It may show a cream, peach or yellow colouration, but it can also sometimes be tinged with a deep magenta, shading almost to red. The periostracum, a layer of protein (conchiolin) that is the outermost part of the shell surface, is thin and a pale brown or tan colour.[34][36][37]

The overall shell morphology of A. gigas is not solely determined by the animal's genes; environmental conditions such as location, diet, temperature and depth, and biological interactions such as predation, can greatly affect it.[38][39] Juvenile conches develop heavier shells when exposed to predators. Conches also develop wider and thicker shells with fewer but longer spines in deeper water.[39]

The shells of juvenile queen conches are strikingly different in appearance from those of the adults. Noticeable is the complete absence of a flared outer lip; juvenile shells have a simple sharp lip, which gives the shell a conical or biconic outline. In Florida, juvenile queen conches are known as "rollers", because wave action very easily rolls their shells, whereas it is nearly impossible to roll an adult specimen, due to its shell's weight and asymmetric profile. Subadult shells have a thin flared lip that continues to increase in thickness until death.[40][41][42]

Conch shells are about 95% calcium carbonate and 5% organic matter.[43]

Historic illustrations

Index Testarum Conchyliorum (published in 1742 by the Italian physician and malacologist Niccolò Gualtieri) contains three illustrations of adult shells from different perspectives. The knobbed spire and the flaring outer lip, with its somewhat wing-like contour expanding out from the last whorl, is a striking feature of these images. The shells are shown as if balancing on the edge of the lip and/or the apex; this was presumably done for artistic reasons as these shells cannot balance like this.

One of the most prized shell publications of the 19th century, a series of books titled Illustrations conchyliologiques ou description et figures de toutes les coquilles connues, vivantes et fossiles (published by the French naturalist Jean-Charles Chenu from 1842 to 1853), contains illustrations of both adult and juvenile A. gigas shells and one uncoloured drawing depicting some of the animal's soft parts.[44] Almost forty years later, a colored illustration from the Manual of Conchology (published in 1885 by the American malacologist George Washington Tryon) shows a dorsal view of a small juvenile shell with its typical brown and white patterning.[42]

Antique illustration of large sea snail shell with flaring lip, as viewed more or less from the apex
Adult shell, apical view, Gualtieri, 1742
Similar large shell viewed from the apertural side
Adult shell, ventral view, Gualtieri, 1742
Similar shell viewed from the side opposite the aperture
Adult shell, dorsal view, Gualtieri, 1742
shell viewed from the apertural side
Juvenile shell, Tryon, 1885

Soft parts

The foot (with a brown, sickle-shaped operculum), eyestalks and snout of Aliger gigas exposed through the shell's aperture. At the tip of each eyestalk there is a well-developed eye. Near the tip is a small sensory tentacle.

Many details about the anatomy of Aliger gigas were not well known until Colin Little's 1965 general study.[45] In 2005, R. L. Simone gave a detailed anatomical description.[20] A. gigas has a long extensible snout with two eyestalks (also known as ommatophores) that originate from its base. The tip of each eyestalk contains a large, well-developed lensed eye, with a black pupil and a yellow iris and a small, slightly posterior sensory tentacle.[18][33] Amputated eyes completely regenerate.[46] Inside the mouth of the animal is a radula (a tough ribbon covered in rows of microscopic teeth) of the taenioglossan type.[45] Both the snout and the eyestalks show dark spotting in the exposed areas. The mantle is darkly coloured in the anterior region, fading to light gray at the posterior end, while the mantle collar is commonly orange. The siphon is also orange or yellow.[45] When the soft parts of the animal are removed from the shell, several organs are distinguishable externally, including the kidney, the nephiridial gland, the pericardium, the genital glands, stomach, style sac and the digestive gland. In adult males, the penis is also visible.[45]

A drawing of an adult male Aliger gigas (from Duclos in Chenu, 1844) showing the external soft parts including the spade-shaped penis on the left. Separate details show the mouth, the distal portion of the penis, and both sides of the claw-like operculum

Foot/locomotion

The species has a large and powerful foot with brown spots and markings towards the edge, but is white nearer to the visceral hump that stays inside the shell and accommodates internal organs. The base of the anterior end of the foot has a distinct groove, which contains the opening of the pedal gland. Attached to the posterior end of the foot for about one third of its length is the dark brown, corneous, sickle-shaped operculum, which is reinforced by a distinct central rib. The base of the posterior two-thirds of the animal's foot is rounded; only the anterior third touches the ground during locomotion.[20][45] The columella, the central pillar within the shell, serves as the attachment point for the white columellar muscle. Contraction of this strong muscle allows the animal's soft parts to shelter in the shell in response to undesirable stimuli.[45]

Aliger gigas has an unusual means of locomotion, first described in 1922 by George Howard Parker (1864–1955).[47][48] The animal first fixes the posterior end of the foot by thrusting the point of the sickle-shaped operculum into the substrate, then it extends the foot in a forward direction, lifting and throwing the shell forward in a so-called leaping motion. This way of moving is considered to resemble that of pole vaulting,[49] making A. gigas a good climber even of vertical concrete surfaces.[50] This leaping locomotion may help prevent predators from following the snail's chemical traces, which would otherwise leave a continuous trail on the substrate.[51]

Life cycle

A dense bed of seagrass with a shell in the middle of it
A subadult individual in a seagrass bed, Rice Bay, San Salvador Island, Bahamas

Aliger gigas is gonochoristic, which means each individual snail is either distinctly male or distinctly female.[32] Females are usually larger than males in natural populations, with both sexes existing in similar proportion.[52] After internal fertilization,[39] the females lay eggs in gelatinous strings, which can be as long as 75 feet (23 m).[37] These are layered on patches of bare sand or seagrass. The sticky surface of these long egg strings allows them to coil and agglutinate, mixing with the surrounding sand to form compact egg masses, the shape of which is defined by the anterior portion of the outer lip of the female's shell while they are layered.[39][53] Each one of the egg masses may have been fertilized by multiple males.[53] The number of eggs per egg mass varies greatly depending on environmental conditions such as food availability and temperature.[39][53] Commonly, females produce 8–9 egg masses per season,[32][54] each containing 180,000–460,000 eggs,[37] but numbers can be as high as 750,000 eggs.[39] A. gigas females may spawn multiple times during the reproductive season,[37] which lasts from March to October, with activity peaks occurring from July to September.[32]

Queen conch embryos hatch 3–5 days after spawning.[55][56] At the moment of hatching, the protoconch (embryonic shell) is translucent and has a creamy, off-white background color with small, pustulate markings. This coloration is different from other Caribbean Lobatus, such as Lobatus raninus and Lobatus costatus, which have unpigmented embryonic shells.[55] Afterwards, the emerging two-lobed veliger (a larval form common to various marine and fresh-water gastropod and bivalve mollusks)[57] spend several days developing in the plankton, feeding primarily on phytoplankton. Metamorphosis occurs some 16–40 days from the hatching,[39] when the fully grown protoconch is about 1.2 mm high.[52] After the metamorphosis, A. gigas individuals spend the rest of their lives in the benthic zone (on or in the sediment surface), usually remaining buried during their first year of life.[58] The queen conch reaches sexual maturity at approximately 3 to 4 years of age, reaching a shell length of nearly 180 mm and weighing up to 5 pounds.[32][37] Individuals may usually live up to 7 years, though in deeper waters their lifespan may reach 20–30 years[37][39][52] and maximum lifetime estimates reach 40 years.[59] It is believed that the mortality rate tends to be lower in matured conchs due to their thickened shell, but it could be substantially higher for juveniles. Estimates have demonstrated that its mortality rate decreases as its size increases and can also vary due to habitat, season and other factors.[58]

Ecology

map showing some of the Western Atlantic Ocean and the eastern parts of North America, Central America and the north part of South America, with a shaded area over the water covering Bermuda, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, all of the Caribbean Sea and south from there to the northern part of the Brazilian coast
The shaded area of this map indicates the geographical distribution of Aliger gigas.
Live snail (on sandy bottom) from the front, showing eyestalks protruding from two large notches in the edge of the lip of the shell, which looks
Anterior view of a live individual. The eyestalk on the left is protruded through the stromboid notch, and the eyestalk on the right is protruded through the siphonal canal. The outer surface of the shell is covered by periphyton
A sandy bottom. On it a large sea snail with a bright orange-red body and a large operculum is reaching far into the shell of a queen conch.
A horse conch, Triplofusus papillosus, feeding on A. gigas in Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida, June 2010
A human hand is holding an immature queen conch shell, inside which is a very large brown hermit crab.
The giant hermit crab, Petrochirus diogenes, inside a subadult shell of A. gigas

Distribution

Aliger gigas is native to the tropical Western Atlantic coasts of North and Central America in the greater Caribbean tropical zone.[37] Although the species undoubtedly occurs in other places, this species has been recorded within the scientific literature as occurring, in:[10][60][61] Aruba, (Netherlands Antilles); Barbados; the Bahamas; Belize; Bermuda; North and northeastern regions of Brazil (though this is contested);[18] Old Providence Island in Colombia; Costa Rica; the Dominican Republic; Panama; Swan Islands in Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Alacran Reef, Campeche, Cayos Arcas and Quintana Roo, in Mexico; Puerto Rico; Saint Barthélemy; Mustique and Grenada in the Grenadines; Pinar del Río, North Havana Province, North Matanzas, Villa Clara, Cienfuegos, Holguín, Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo, in the Turks and Caicos Islands and Cuba; South Carolina, Florida, with the Florida Keys and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, in the United States; Carabobo, Falcon, Gulf of Venezuela, Los Roques archipelago, Los Testigos Islands and Sucre in Venezuela; all islands of the United States Virgin Islands.

Habitat

Aliger gigas lives at depths from 0.3–18 m[37] to 25–35 m.[35][56] Its depth range is limited by the distribution of seagrass and algae cover. In heavily exploited areas, the queen conch is more abundant in the deepest range.[56] The queen conch lives in seagrass meadows and on sandy substrate,[52] usually in association with turtle grass (species of the genus Thalassia, specifically Thalassia testudinum[40] and also Syringodium sp.)[38] and manatee grass (Cymodocea sp.).[36] Juveniles inhabit shallow, inshore seagrass meadows, while adults favor deeper algal plains and seagrass meadows.[37][62] The critical nursery habitats for juvenile individuals are defined by a series of characteristics, including tidal circulation and macroalgal production, which together enable high rates of recruitment and survival.[63] A. gigas is typically found in distinct aggregates that may contain several thousand individuals.[39]

Diet

Strombid gastropods were widely accepted as carnivores by several authors in the 19th century, a concept that persisted until the first half of the 20th century. This erroneous idea originated in the writings of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who classified strombids with other supposedly carnivorous snails. This idea was subsequently repeated by other authors, but had not been supported by observation. Subsequent studies have refuted the concept, proving beyond doubt that strombid gastropods are herbivorous animals.[64] In common with other Strombidae,[21] Aliger gigas is a specialized herbivore,[34] that feeds on macroalgae (including red algae, such as species of Gracilaria and Hypnea),[42] seagrass[36] and unicellular algae, intermittently also feeding on algal detritus.[64][65] The green macroalgae Batophora oerstedii is one of its preferred foods.[37]

Interactions

A few different animals establish commensal interactions with A. gigas, which means that both organisms maintain a relationship that benefits (the commensal) species but not the other (in this case, the queen conch). Commensals of this species include certain mollusks, mainly slipper shells (Crepidula spp.) The porcelain crab Porcellana sayana is also known to be a commensal and a small cardinalfish, known as the conch fish (Astrapogon stellatus),[38] sometimes shelters in the conch's mantle for protection.[37] A. gigas is very often parasitized by protists of the phylum Apicomplexa, which are common mollusk parasites. Those coccidian[66][67] parasites, which are spore-forming, single-celled microorganisms, initially establish themselves in large vacuolated cells of the host's digestive gland, where they reproduce freely.[66][67] The infestation may proceed to the secretory cells of the same organ. The entire life cycle of the parasite typically occurs within a single host and tissue.[66]

Aliger gigas is a prey species for several carnivorous gastropod mollusks, including the apple murex Phyllonotus pomum, the horse conch Triplofusus papillosus, the lamp shell Turbinella angulata, the moon snails Natica spp. and Polinices spp., the muricid snail Phyllonotus margaritensis, the trumpet triton Charonia variegata and the tulip snail Fasciolaria tulipa.[18][33][68] Crustaceans are also conch predators, such as the blue crab Callinectes sapidus, the box crab Calappa gallus, the giant hermit crab Petrochirus diogenes, the spiny lobster Panulirus argus and others.[33][68] Sea stars, vertebrates, horse conch, octopus, eagle ray, nurse shark, fish (such as the permit Trachinotus falcatus[69] and the porcupine fish Diodon hystrix), loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) and humans also eat the queen conch.[33][68]

Uses

Four queen conch shells, all have a hole in the spire of the shell
Four subadult shells of Aliger gigas from Nevis, all having been fished and showing the cut in the spire. This cut is used to sever the columellar muscle allowing the soft parts to slide out.[70]

Conch meat has been consumed for centuries and has traditionally been an important part of the diet in many islands in the West Indies and Southern Florida. It is consumed raw, marinated, minced or chopped in a wide variety of dishes, such as salads, chowder, fritters, soups, stew, pâtés and other local recipes.[33][49][36][71] In both English and Spanish-speaking regions, for example in the Dominican Republic, Aliger gigas meat is known as lambí. Although conch meat is used mainly for human consumption, it is also sometimes employed as fishing bait (usually the foot).[59][36] A. gigas is among the most important fishery resources in the Caribbean: its harvest value was US$30 million in 1992,[39] increasing to $60 million in 2003.[72] The total annual harvest of meat of A. gigas ranged from 6,519,711 kg to 7,369,314 kg between 1993 and 1998, later production declined to 3,131,599 kg in 2001.[72] Data about US imports shows a total of 1,832,000 kg in 1998, as compared to 387,000 kg in 2009, a nearly 80% reduction twelve years later.[73]

Conch salad and conch fritters

Queen conch shells were used by Native Americans and Caribbean Indians in a wide variety of ways. South Florida bands (such as the Tequesta), the Carib, the Arawak and Taíno used conch shells to fabricate tools (such as knives, axe heads and chisels), jewelry, cookware and used them as blowing horns.[33][74] In Mesoamerican history, Aztecs used the shell as part of jewelry mosaics such as the double-headed serpent.[75] The Aztecs also believed that the sound of trumpets made from queen conch shells represented divine manifestations, and used them in religious ceremonies.[76] In central Mexico, during rain ceremonies dedicated to Tlaloc, the Maya used conch shells as hand protectors (in a manner similar to boxing gloves) during combat.[76] Ancient middens of L. gigas shells bearing round holes are considered an evidence that pre-Columbian Lucayan Indians in the Bahamas used the queen conch as a food source.[70]

Very early 20th century painting of a young girl holding a shell of this species up to the light and looking into it
Shell of this species featured in a 1902 painting by Frank Weston Benson

Brought by explorers, queen conch shells quickly became a popular asset in early modern Europe. In the late 17th century they were widely used as decoration over fireplace mantels and English gardens, among other places.[49] In contemporary times, queen conch shells are mainly utilized in handicraft. Shells are made into cameos, bracelets and lamps,[36][77] and traditionally as doorstops or decorations by families of seafaring men.[77] The shell continues to be popular as a decorative object, though its export is now regulated and restricted by the CITES agreement.[33] In modern culture, queen conch shells are often represented in everyday objects such as coins[76][78] and stamps.[79][80]

Very rarely (about 1 in 10,000 conchs),[33] a conch pearl may be found within the mantle.[33][41] Though these pearls occur in a range of colors corresponding to the colors of the interior of the shell, pink specimens are the most valuable.[81] These pearls are considered semi-precious,[18] and a popular tourist curio.[36] The best specimens have been used to create necklaces and earrings. A conch pearl is a non-nacreous pearl (formerly referred to by some sources as a 'calcareous concretion'); it differs from most pearls that are sold as gemstones in that it is not iridescent.[81] The specific weight of the conch pearl is 2.85, notably heavier than any other type. Due to the sensitive nature of the animal and the location of the pearl-forming portion of the snail within the spiral shell, commercial cultivation of pearls is considered virtually impossible.[82]

Research into the conch shell's unique architecture is currently under way at MIT.[83]

Status

Threats

On the island of Anegada, British Virgin Islands, a heap consists of thousands of empty queen conch shells, discarded after their flesh was taken for human consumption.

Queen conch populations have been rapidly declining throughout the years and have been mostly depleted in some areas in the Caribbean due to the fact that they are highly sought after for their meat and their value.[84] Within the conch fisheries, one of the threats to sustainability stems from the fact that there is almost as much meat in large juveniles as there is in adults, but only adult conchs can reproduce, and thus sustain a population.[71] In many places where adult conchs have become rare due to overfishing, larger juveniles and subadults are taken before they ever mate.

In the United States (Florida), it is currently illegal to gather or pick the queen conch either recreationally or commercially.[85] In other parts of the world where it is legal, only adult conchs can be fished. The rule is to let each conch have ample time to reproduce before taken out of its habitat, potentially leading to a more stable population. However, this rule has not been followed by countless fishers.[84][71][86] On a number of islands, subadults provide the majority of the harvest.[87] The abundance of Aliger gigas is declining throughout its range as a result of overfishing and poaching. Especially because of overfishing, many pockets of conch communities fall below the critical level needed for reproducing. A 2019 study predicted overfishing could lead to the extinction of queen conchs in as little as ten years.[88] Additionally, if the conch fishery collapses, it could potentially leave over 9,000 Bahamian fishers out of work.[84] Trade from many Caribbean countries, such as the Bahamas, Antigua and Barbuda, Honduras, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, is known or thought to be unsustainable.[86] As of 2001, queen conch populations in at least 15 Caribbean countries and states were overfished or overexploited.[86] Illegal harvest, including fishing in foreign waters and subsequent illegal international trade, is a common problem in the region.[59] The Caribbean "International Queen Conch Initiative" is an international attempt at managing this species.[61] On 13 January 2019, the Bahamas' Department of Marine Resources announced it would be making official recommendations to better protect the conch, including ending exports and increasing regulatory staff.[84]

Presently, ocean acidification is another serious threat to the queen conch. Acidity levels are rising and adversely affecting shellfish larvae. Rising atmospheric CO2 levels result in rising levels of carbonic acid in seawater, which is particularly harmful to organisms with calcium carbonate shells and structures. Certain larval stages of shellfish are very sensitive to lower seawater pH.[89]

In 2022, the US NOAA conducted a review of populations throughout its range; the study places it at a moderate risk of extinction over the next 30 years.[90][91] The study also requested, and received comments from management agencies, nations and associations throughout the Caribbean regarding the status of the species, and implications of listing the species as Threatened under the US Endangered Species Act.

Conservation

The queen conch fishery is usually managed under the regulations of individual nations. In the United States all taking of queen conch is prohibited in Florida and in adjacent Federal waters. No international regional fishery management organization exists for the whole Caribbean area, but in places such as Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, queen conch is regulated under the auspices of the Caribbean Fishery Management Council (CFMC).[59] In 2014, the Parties to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) included queen conch in Annex III of its Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol). Species included in the Annex III require special measures to be taken to ensure their protection and recovery, and their use is authorised and regulated accordingly.[92][93]

The species is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international trade (import/export) in the species and its parts and derivatives is regulated by the CITES permitting system.[39] The listing was proposed by the United States making queen conch the first large-scale fisheries product to be regulated by CITES (as Strombus gigas).[59][94][95] In 1995 CITES began reviewing the biological and trade status of the queen conch under its "Significant Trade Review" process. These reviews are undertaken to address concerns about trade levels in an Appendix II species. Based on the 2003 review,[72] CITES recommended that all countries prohibit importation from Honduras, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, according to Standing Committee Recommendations.[96] Queen conch meat continues to be available from other Caribbean countries, including Jamaica and Turks and Caicos, which operate well-managed queen conch fisheries.[59] For conservation reasons, the Government of Colombia currently bans the commercialisation and consumption of the conch between the months of June and October.[97] The Bahamas National Trust is building awareness by educating teachers and students through workshops and an awareness campaign which includes the catchy pop song Conch Gone.[98]

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  49. ^ a b c Fish and Wildlife Research Institute (2006). "Queen conch: Florida's spectacular sea snail". Sea Stats. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  50. ^ Hesse, K. O. (1980). "Gliding and climbing behaviour of the queen conch, Strombus gigas" (PDF). Caribbean Journal of Science. 16: 105–108.
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  59. ^ a b c d e f NOAA."Queen Conch (Strombus gigas)". Retrieved 4 July 2009. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  60. ^ Martin-Mora, E.; James, F. C.; Stoner, A. W. (1995). "Developmental plasticity in the shell of the queen conch Strombus gigas". Ecology. 76 (3): 981–994. doi:10.2307/1939361. JSTOR 1939361.
  61. ^ a b "International Queen Conch Initiative". NOAA: Caribbean Fishery Management Council. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
  62. ^ Stoner, A. W. (1988). "Winter mass migration of juvenile queen conch Strombus gigas and their influence on the benthic environment" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 56: 99–104. doi:10.3354/meps056099.
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  65. ^ Stoner, A.; Ray, M. (1996). "Queen conch, Strombus gigas, in fished and unfished locations of the Bahamas: effects of a marine fishery reserve on adults, juveniles, and larval production" (PDF). Fishery Bulletin. 94 (3): 551–565.
  66. ^ a b c Cárdenas, E.B.; Frenkiel, L.; Zarate, A.Z.; Aranda, D.A. (2007). "Coccidian (Apicomplexa) parasite infecting Strombus gigas Linné, 1758 digestive gland". Journal of Shellfish Research. 26 (2): 319–321. doi:10.2983/0730-8000(2007)26[319:CAPISG]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85612140.
  67. ^ a b Gros, O.; Frenkiel, L.; Aranda, D.A. (2009). "Structural analysis of the digestive gland of the queen conch Strombus gigas Linnaeus, 1758 and its intracellular parasites". Journal of Molluscan Studies. 75 (1): 59–68. doi:10.1093/mollus/eyn041. ISSN 0260-1230.
  68. ^ a b c Iversen, E.S.; Jory, D.E.; Bannerot, S. P. (1986). "Predation on queen conchs, Strombus gigas, in the Bahamas". Bulletin of Marine Science. 39 (1): 61–75.
  69. ^ Jory, D.E. (2006). "An incident of predation on queen conch, Strombus gigas L. (Mollusca, Strombidae), by Atlantic permit, Trachinotus falcatus L. (Pisces, Carangidae)". Journal of Fish Biology. 28 (2): 129–131. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1986.tb05149.x. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012.
  70. ^ a b Robertson, R. (2011). "Cracking a queen conch (Strombus gigas), vanishing uses, and rare abnormalities" (PDF). American Conchologist. 39 (3): 21–24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015.
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  72. ^ a b c CITES (2003). Review of Significant Trade in specimens of Appendix-II species. (Resolution Conf. 12.8 and Decision 12.75) Archived 7 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Nineteenth meeting of the Animals Committee, Geneva (Switzerland), 18–21.
  73. ^ NOAA (2009). National Marine Fisheries Service Fisheries Statistics and Economics Division. [1]. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
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  77. ^ a b Abbott, R.T.; Morris, P. A. (1995). A Field Guide to Shells. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 184–185. ISBN 978-0-395-69779-5.
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  81. ^ a b Fritsch, E.; Misiorowski, E.B. (1987). "The History and Gemology of Queen Conch "Pearls"". Gems & Gemology. 23 (4): 208–221. doi:10.5741/gems.23.4.208. ISSN 0016-626X. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013.
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  86. ^ a b c Theile, S. (2001). "Queen conch fisheries and their management in the Caribbean" (PDF). Traffic Europe: 1–77.
  87. ^ Oxenford, H.A.; et al. (2007). Fishing and marketing of queen conch (Strombus gigas) in Barbados (PDF). CERMES Technical Report. Vol. 16. University of the West Indies, Barbados: Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies.
  88. ^ Stoner, Allan W.; Davis, Martha H.; Kough, Andrew S. (2019). "Relationships between Fishing Pressure and Stock Structure in Queen Conch (Lobatus gigas) Populations: Synthesis of Long-Term Surveys and Evidence for Overfishing in The Bahamas". Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture. 27 (1): 51–71. doi:10.1080/23308249.2018.1480008. S2CID 59476805.
  89. ^ "Ocean Acidification's impact on oysters and other shellfish". www.pmel.noaa.gov. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
  90. ^ C., Horn; M., Karnauskas; C., Doerr, J.; H., Miller, M.; M., Neuman; R., Hill; J., McCarthy, K. (2022). "Endangered species act status review report: Queen conch (Aliger gigas)". doi:10.25923/4ykr-1m56. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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  92. ^ "Annexes of the SPAW Protocol". SPAW-RAC's website. National Park of Guadeloupe - SPAW/RAC. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
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  94. ^ Appendices I, II and III. cites.org website. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
  95. ^ NOAA Fisheries Office of International Affairs website: CITES. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
  96. ^ "Standing Committee Recommendations". CITES Official Documents No 2003/057. 2003. Archived from the original on 21 October 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
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Aliger gigas: Brief Summary ( englanti )

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Aliger gigas, originally known as Strombus gigas or more recently as Lobatus gigas, commonly known as the queen conch, is a species of large sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family of true conches, the Strombidae. This species is one of the largest molluscs native to the Caribbean Sea, and tropical northwestern Atlantic, from Bermuda to Brazil, reaching up to 35.2 centimetres (13.9 in) in shell length. A. gigas is closely related to the goliath conch, Lobatus goliath, a species endemic to Brazil, as well as the rooster conch, Aliger gallus.

The queen conch is herbivorous. It feeds by browsing for plant and algal material growing in the seagrass beds, and scavenging for decaying plant matter. These large sea snails typically reside in seagrass beds, which are sandy plains covered in swaying sea grass and associated with coral reefs, although the exact habitat of this species varies according to developmental age. The adult animal has a very large, solid and heavy shell, with knob-like spines on the shoulder, a flared, thick outer lip, and a characteristic pink or orange aperture (opening). The outside of the queen conch is sandy colored, helping them blend in with their surroundings. The flared lip is absent in juveniles; it develops once the snail reaches reproductive age. The thicker the shell's flared lip is, the older the conch is. The external anatomy of the soft parts of A. gigas is similar to that of other snails in the family Strombidae; it has a long snout, two eyestalks with well-developed eyes, additional sensory tentacles, a strong foot and a corneous, sickle-shaped operculum.

The shell and soft parts of living A. gigas serve as a home to several different kinds of commensal animals, including slipper snails, porcelain crabs and a specialized species of cardinalfish known as the conchfish Astrapogon stellatus. Its parasites include coccidians. The queen conch's natural predators include several species of large predatory sea snails, octopus, starfish, crustaceans and vertebrates (fish, sea turtles, nurse sharks). It is an especially important food source for large predators like sea turtles and nurse sharks. Human capture and consumption dates back into prehistory.

Its shell is sold as a souvenir and used as a decorative object. Historically, Native Americans and indigenous Caribbean peoples used parts of the shell to create various tools.

International trade in the Caribbean queen conch is regulated under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) agreement, in which it is listed as Strombus gigas. This species is not endangered in the Caribbean as a whole, but is commercially threatened in numerous areas, largely due to extreme overfishing.

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Lobatus gigas ( kastilia )

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Concha de caracola reina adulta (Lobatus gigas)
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Concha de caracola reina adulta (Lobatus gigas)

El Lobatus gigas (Linneo, 1758), previamente Strombus gigas Linneo, 1758, también conocido como botuto o caracol pala o caracol rosado es una especie de caracol marino comestible muy grande, un molusco gastrópodo marino de la familia Strombidae, las verdaderas conchas marinas.

L. gigas posee una concha verdadera y es uno de los moluscos más grandes de Norteamérica, Centroamérica y Puerto Rico.

Clasificación y descripción

L. gigas es un caracol marino que pertenece a la clase Gastropoda; orden Littorinimorpha; familia Strombidae.[7]​ Llega a medir hasta 300 mm de longitud, con la vuelta corporal muy desarrollada, en cuyo hombro se observan procesos espinosos y la presencia de un gran labio externo extendido en forma de ala, con llamativo colorido, desde rosa, amarillo, hasta anaranjado fuerte en el área apertural.[8]​ La hembra pone de 180.000 a 460.000 huevos. A veces un pequeño animal vive debajo del manto como protección y solo muy de vez en cuando se halla una perla dentro del manto del animal.

Distribución

Desde las Bermudas hasta las costas de Brasil se han encontrado registros[9]​ en pastos de monte marino y arena producto de detritus y de algas.

Estado de conservación

El caracol rosado sostiene una importante fracción de la pesquería en el Caribe. Desafortunadamente la especie se ha vuelto tan escasa que ahora está enlistada en el Apéndice II (especies que no están necesariamente amenazadas de extinción pero que podrían llegar a estarlo a menos que se controle estrictamente su comercio) de la Convención sobre el comercio internacional de especies amenazadas de fauna y flora silvestres (CITES). Este caracol es consumido por su carne y también por lo hermoso de su concha (se vende como souvenir).[10][9]​ La recuperación de este organismo ha sido lenta. Se decretó veda permanente (Diario Oficial de la Federación del 26 de julio de 1988).[11]

Uso

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Miles de conchas de Lobatus gigas (caracola reina) cuya carne fue consumida

Los indígenas de la región llegaron a utilizar los bordes de los caparazones de estas conchas en la fabricación de cuchillos, hachas y otros productos de uso diario.

La carne del caracol, conocida en la República Dominicana como "lambí" y en Venezuela como "guarura" en Puerto Rico "carrucho". se come cruda o hervida, y su caparazón es vendido a los turistas. Esto ha motivado una pesca desmedida que amenaza la supervivencia de esta especie.

Referencias

  1. Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae, 10th ed., vol. 1. 824 pp. Laurentii Salvii: Holmiae (Stockholm, Sweden). p. 745.
  2. Clench, W. J. (1937). "Descriptions of new land and marine shells from the Bahama Islands." Proceedings of the New England Zoölogical Club 16: 17–26, pl. 1. (Stated date: 5 February 1937.) On pages 18–21, plate 1 figure 1.
  3. Smith, M. (1940). World Wide Seashells: illustrations, geographical range and other data covering more than sixteen hundred species and sub-species of molluscs (1 edición). Lantana, Florida: Tropical Photographic Laboratory. p. 131.
  4. McGinty, T. L. (1946). "A new Florida Strombus, S. gigas verrilli". The Nautilus 60: 46–48, plates. 5–6: plate 5, figs. 2–3; plate 6, figs. 7–8.
  5. Burry, L. A. (1949). Shell Notes (Lantana, Florida: Frank Lyman) 2: 106-109.
  6. Petuch, E. J. (1994). Atlas of Florida Fossil Shells. Chicago Spectrum Press: Evanston, Illinois., xii + 394 pp., 100 pls. On page 82, plate 20: figure c.
  7. Bouchet, P. (2014). Lobatus gigas (Linnaeus, 1758). Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=564730 on 2015-01-13
  8. García-Cubas, A. y Reguero, M.; 2004; CATÁLOGO ILUSTRADO DE MOLUSCOS GASTERÓPODOS DEL GOLFO DE MÉXICO Y MAR CARIBE; Dirección General de Publicaciones y Fomento Editorial Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología; México, D.F.; 168 pp.
  9. a b Shapiro, Leo; Strombus gigas Linnaeus, 1758; acceso por: EOL rapid response; http://eolspecies.lifedesks.org/pages/18845 (visitado el 13/01/15)
  10. Apéndices I, II y III de la CITES; acceso por: Convención sobre el comercio internacional de especies amenazadas de fauna y flora silvestres; http://www.cites.org/esp/app/index.php
  11. Pérez Pérez, M., Burgos Rosas, R., Cervera Cervera, K., Espinoza Méndez, J. C.; 2002; Situación Pesquera del Caracol Strombus gigas en Yucatán; FORO REGIONAL DE CARACOL DEL GOLFO DE MÉXICO Y MAR CARIBE.

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Lobatus gigas: Brief Summary ( kastilia )

tarjonnut wikipedia ES
 src= Concha de caracola reina adulta (Lobatus gigas)  src= Concha de caracola reina adulta (Lobatus gigas)

El Lobatus gigas (Linneo, 1758), previamente Strombus gigas Linneo, 1758, también conocido como botuto o caracol pala o caracol rosado es una especie de caracol marino comestible muy grande, un molusco gastrópodo marino de la familia Strombidae, las verdaderas conchas marinas.

L. gigas posee una concha verdadera y es uno de los moluscos más grandes de Norteamérica, Centroamérica y Puerto Rico.

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Lobatus gigas ( ranska )

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Strombe géant, Lambi

Lobatus gigas (le strombe géant ou lambi) est une espèce de mollusque marin trouvé en zone équatoriale et tropicale de l'Atlantique ouest, notamment aux Antilles et en Floride. Pouvant atteindre 30 cm et 1,5 kg, il consomme des algues et divers débris végétaux. Cette espèce a beaucoup régressé en raison de la surpêche pour la consommation humaine et parfois pour l'usage décoratif de sa coquille. Il est maintenant classé comme espèce menacée et partiellement protégé par la Convention de Washington : commerce fortement limité et placé sous le contrôle des douanes dans les Antilles françaises, par exemple.

Cette espèce a aussi été dénommée Eustrombus gigas

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Coquille de strombe géant adulte.

Descriptions et biologie

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Carte de répartition.
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Coquilles de Lobatus gigas.
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Variations de forme de coquille (de Lobatus gigas).
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Coquilles de Lobatus gigas.
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Lobatus gigas dont la coquille est recouverte d'algues et organismes fixés.
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Yeux et avant de la Coquilles d'un Lobatus gigas.
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Pied musculeux et mucus d'un Lobatus gigas.

Cet invertébré (gastéropode) muni d’un pied musculeux occupe divers milieux selon son cycle de vie, la saison et l'heure de la journée. Il est réputé détritivore mais peut aussi se nourrir d'algues mortes ou vivantes dérivante (sargasses) ou d'autres débris végétaux apportés par le courant dans les dépressions ou certains fonds marins[1].

Répartition

Largement réparti dans l’ensemble des eaux de la Caraïbe, il a été abondamment pêché sur les côtes de Floride et Antilles où il a régressé.

Il peuple potentiellement tout type de fonds situés entre 0 et 100 m de profondeur. L'adulte est préférentiellement présent sur sédiment sablo-vaseux, entre 4 et 18 m en zone non exploitée par les chaluts et dragues à coquilles. Il est aujourd'hui réputé être plus particulièrement présent au sein des herbiers de phanérogames marines les mieux conservés, mais cette localisation pourrait être un effet indirect de la pression de pêche qu’il subit.

Il est également présent sur les plaines sédimentaires nues, ainsi que sur substrat dur (rocheux ou récifal). Il en serait de même concernant l’existence de stocks âgés situés en plus grande profondeur, de 20 à 60 m[2].

C’est une espèce soumise à de fréquentes migrations, qu'elles soient verticales ou horizontales, qui répondent à des stimuli thermiques et lumineux, et des migrations saisonnières sont identifiées chez les adultes[3]

Les différentes phases de son cycle vital (croissance, maturation, reproduction)

Les juvéniles coloniseraient ainsi préférentiellement les fonds entre 1,5 et 4 m, alors que les adultes préfèrent ceux de 10 à 20 m[4]. Ceci est attesté par le taux de maturité supérieur à 99 % chez les individus rencontrés à partir de 18 m. De septembre à mars, ils se concentrent sur substrat dur, pour rejoindre les herbiers de zones sédimentaires en juillet.

La disponibilité alimentaire ne serait donc pas le principal moteur de ses migrations, comme c’est souvent le cas chez les espèces marines. Le caractère favorable d'un habitat pour ce mollusque semble aussi corrélée à un bon taux de renouvellement de l’eau marine, et à des fluctuations thermiques modérée (saisonnières et journalières).

Alimentation

Lobatus gigas (dénommé lambi dans les Antilles françaises) est un détritivore à tendance herbivore (algues vertes, rouges et brunes). Il se nourrit sur le fond, de débris végétaux et de certaines algues vivantes, avec une préférence pour les sargasses[5].
Les adultes semblent s'alimenter indifféremment de jour comme de nuit, ce qui n’est pas le cas de juvéniles âgés de moins d’un an. Ces derniers mesurant moins de 50 - 100 mm ont encore un mode de vie diurne endogé (enfoui dans le sédiment) et ne remontent pour s’alimenter en surface qu’une fois la nuit tombée[6]. Ce n’est qu’au-delà de cette taille qu’ils iront peupler les herbiers marins peu profonds. Ils y forment de très important agrégats saisonniers et sont alors plus vulnérables aux actions de pêche[7]. C’est là qu’ils acquerront leur forme adulte. L'espèce a fortement régressé dans les Antilles françaises depuis les années 1960, probablement en raison de la surpêche, ce qui a justifié dès la fin des années 1980 des tentatives d'élevage, notamment étudiées par Ifremer[5].

Morphologie

Le lambi est le plus gros des Strombidae de la Caraïbe. Cependant taille et poids observés peuvent varier d’une zone à l’autre. Les spécimens les plus imposants mesurent 24 à 29 cm de long pour 700 à 1 500 g de poids total. Mais la taille moyenne constatée dans pêches est au début du XXIe siècle proche de 20 cm. Les femelles sont légèrement plus grandes que les mâles[8].

Sa coquille est constituée de micro-cristaux de carbonate de calcium sous forme d'aragonite inclus dans une matrice protéique. Elle est extrêmement solide (beaucoup plus que de simples cristaux d'aragonite) du fait de son architecture composée de couches de lamelles entrecroisées, ce qui permet la dissipation de l'énergie des chocs dans des microfissures qui ne se diffusent pas[9]. Elle possède des spires munies d’épines et son pied musculeux porte un opercule corné. Les mâles sont munis d’un long pénis extensible situé le long du canal siphonal, alors que les femelles portent des poches à œufs. À partir de 5-6 mois, la coquille se colore en rose-orangé. Et dès 3,5 - 4 ans, son large pavillon se forme. Il est également appelé lèvre[10]. L’apparition de la lèvre marque l’approche de la maturité pour le juvénile.

Reproduction

Les individus de 4 ans ayant une taille d’environ 18 cm et 5 mm d’épaisseur de lèvre sont enfin arrivés à maturité[11], ils deviennent alors des reproducteurs. Les adultes présents dans les herbiers (5 à 18 m) ou en bas de la pente récifale (20 à 60 m) vont opérer une migration reproductive saisonnière[12]. Elle va les conduire sur des fonds sédimentaires nus, où accouplements et pontes vont se succéder.

Ce phénomène bien qu’observable tout au long de l’année à Belize et au Mexique, semble se concentrer sur une seule et même période dans d’autres zones. Elle se déroule généralement d’avril à août, alors que la phase dite de repos sexuel s’étend de septembre à mars[13]. Tout au long de cette période, les femelles vont opérer 6 à 25 pontes, chacune représentant à chaque fois entre 300 000 et 1 500 000 œufs[14]. Ces derniers sont rassemblés en un long filament gélatineux de 30 m de long, lui-même aggloméré avec du sable, en un unique croissant de 10 à 15 cm de diamètre[15]. La ponte dure en moyenne 24 à 36 heures. Une même ponte pourra être le fruit de fécondations de différents partenaires[16].

Malgré le nombre de pontes et l’étendue de la saison de reproduction, un pic reproductif a été identifié par diverses études. Il suivrait le maximum de la photopériode et précéderait le maximum de température des eaux. Ce qui le situe approximativement en juillet[17]. Ces mêmes études ont identifié en zones exploitées deux stocks de reproducteurs bien distincts. Le premier regroupant les jeunes adultes présents entre 10 et 18 m se reproduisant alors plus tôt (entre février et octobre suivant la zone) que le second rassemblant les vieux adultes situées plus en profondeur (20 à 60 m) qui se reproduiraient entre avril et août. Ce qui démontre que la pression de pêche conditionnerait la distribution de cette espèce[12]. À l’issue de la saison de reproduction, chaque femelle aura contribué à produire près de 6.106 larves de lambi.

Développement

Lobatus gigas ne compte pas moins de quatre phases de vie distinctes (et une cinquième qui serait un effet indirect de la pression de pêche).

Après trois à quatre jours, les œufs libèrent les larves qui adoptent un mode vie planctonique au sein des 10 premiers mètres de la colonne d’eau. Durant cette phase qui dure deux à cinq semaines, les larves sont soumises aux courants de surface qui les dispersent sur des dizaines voir des centaines de kilomètres. Ce qui peut représenter un transfert de gènes pouvant atteindre un maximum de 900 km[18]. La plupart des larves sont mangées ou meurent durant cette période.

Ensuite la métamorphose survient, si l’ensemble des facteurs favorables nécessaires sont présents. Dans le cas contraire, les larves sont capables de retarder leur métamorphose, mais au risque de perdre définitivement cette compétence indispensable à leur survie[19]. Les larves perdent alors le velum qui leur permettait de se nourrir de microalgues, de respirer et de se mouvoir. Leur coquille s’étant épaissie les jeunes individus tombent sur le fond (1 à 2 m), où ils s’enfouissent. Ils deviennent ainsi des juvéniles[20].

Pendant un an, ils seront enfouis dans le sédiment le jour et remonteront à sa surface pour se nourrir la nuit. À la taille de 50 à 100 mm, les juvéniles d’un an regagnent définitivement la surface et entament une migration ontogénique vers les herbiers de phanérogames marine (entre 1,5 et 5 m). Là ils se rassemblent en agrégats pouvant atteindre 100 m de long sur 2,5 m de large dans certaines régions. Une hypothèse est que ces rassemblements les rendraient moins vulnérables à la prédation[21].

Ils grandissent ainsi jusqu’à l’âge de 3-4 ans correspondant à la formation de la large lèvre, témoignage du passage à l’âge adulte, et migrent alors vers des zones plus profondes (10 à 18 m). Ils colonisent toute sorte de fonds avec toujours une préférence marquée pour les herbiers de phanérogames marines en zone pêchée. Les plus vieux individus observés en zone exploitée semblent par la suite rejoindre des zones encore plus profondes (où ils échappent plus facilement aux pêcheurs). Ils forment alors un stock de reproducteurs âgés et profonds (20 à 60 m), sur lequel repose à l’heure actuelle le repeuplement des zones d’exploitation intense[22].
Ce comportement particulier disparait cependant en l’espace de quelques mois, dans les aires marines protégées quand elles sont non-pêchées, ce qui semble indiquer qu’il s’agit d’une conséquence de la pêche.

La croissance du lambi varie tout au long de ces différentes phases.  

Croissance

La croissance du lambi est discontinue et non homogène. Ce qui est à la source de nombreux problèmes concernant la gestion et le suivi des populations. Entre son éclosion et sa métamorphose, le lambi va épaissir et rendre opaque sa coquille. Puis, celle-ci va grandir de manière continue jusqu’à la formation de la lèvre caractéristique du passage à la phase adulte. Dès lors, la coquille ne grandira plus mais va s’épaissir tout comme la lèvre. Mais un processus inverse d’érosion va aussi débuter et prendre de l’ampleur avec l’âge de l’individu[23].

Tout cela, combiné à des variations de croissance dues à la localisation géographique du site de développement, contribue à l’impossibilité d’utiliser la taille ou l’épaisseur des coquilles, pour déterminer l’âge d’un individu. Ceci pose aussi le problème de la taille de première capture censée s’assurer qu’un individu puisse se reproduire avant d’entrer dans le stock exploitable d’une pêcherie. Certains individus présentant une lèvre et mesurant la taille règlementaire peuvent ne pas encore être matures et seront donc pêchés avant de s’être reproduits[23]. De nombreux facteurs environnementaux et biologiques encore mal identifiés semblent donc influencer la croissance des lambis. Mais certains sont déjà bien connus : profondeur, type de substrat, nourriture, densité … Ce sont ces mêmes facteurs qui influencent l’espérance de vie d’un individu.

Mortalité longévité

La mortalité chez Lobatus gigas varie en fonction du stade de développement. S’il est la proie d’environ 130 espèces marines, toutes n’interviennent pas tout au long de sa vie. Ainsi, les organismes planctonophages menacent uniquement la phase planctonique de l’espèce. Les larves de crustacés consomment celles de lambi. C’est également le cas de nombreux organismes comme les méduses, le corail, les gorgones, certains poissons et invertébrés. La métamorphose est également une phase critique de leur développement entrainant de fortes mortalités[23].

Jusqu’à l’âge de 2 ans, les juvéniles sont consommés par les langoustes, les poulpes, d’autres gastéropodes, les poissons, les crabes, ou les bernard l’ermite. Ils se rassemblent alors en agrégats afin de diminuer la pression de prédation[24]. Ensuite, les adultes ne sont plus menacés que par les tortues, les poulpes et les raies. Les plus âgés ont une coquille si épaisse que peu de prédateurs les inquiètent. L’homme est alors le plus grand et le plus efficace de leurs prédateurs[25]. Il en résulte une espérance de vie variable suivant que la population soit exploitée ou non, pouvant osciller entre 6 et 7 ans, en zone peu profonde, contre 26 ans en zone profonde 40 à 60 m[26].

État des populations, menaces

 src=
Amas de coquilles de lambis (l'un des prédateurs naturels des sargasse). La surpêche des lambis n'est pas la cause des pullulations d'algues brunes observées dans la Caraïbe (il s'agit d'abord de la déforestation amazonienne qui induit un lessivage de nutriments vers la mer), mais pourrait y contribuer.

En raison d'une pêche intensive et des mauvais résultats des tentatives d'élevage[5], l'espèce est désormais classé en annexe II de la convention de Washington et en annexe B du règlement européen 338/97, l'exportation de lambis, coquille de lambis ou objets comprenant des morceaux de nacre de lambis est formellement contrôlée et restreinte par les douanes.

Utilisations par l'Homme

 src=
Pututo gravé (coquille utilisée comme instrument à vent pour communiquer à distance ou pour la musique ; culture Chavín 1000-500 av. J.-C., Lombards Museum).

Lobatus gigas est dans les Antilles un mets de choix, aussi prisé et luxueux que la langouste. Dans les Antilles Françaises, son appellation gastronomique est « lambi ».

Les populations précolombiennes andines le consommaient et l'utilisaient comme trompe d'appel (« pututo »). Des coquilles sont fréquemment trouvées à proximité de tessons de terre cuite par les archéologues, dont en Martinique[27].

Sa coquille et les perles qu'il peut produire sont utilisées pour la décoration et la confection d'objets comme des bijoux, en particulier la très rare perle rose (une perle rose pour mille lambis environ).

Le Lambi est l'un des symboles du drapeau martiniquais dévoilé le 10 mai 2019[28].

Annexes

Notes et références

  1. Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; Stoner et al., 1996 (1 et 2) ; Stoner et Ray, 1996 ; Glazer et Kidney, 2004.
  2. Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; Stoner et Ray, 1996 ; Theile, 2001.
  3. Stoner et al., 1996 (1 et 2) ; Theile, 2001.
  4. Stoner, 1989 ; Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; Stoner et al., 1996 (1 et 2) ; Stoner et Ray, 1996 ; Theile, 2001.
  5. a b et c Rathier I (1987) Etat d'avancement des recherches sur l'élevage (en parc, cages (éventuellement en association avec des poissons) ou en herbiers) du Lambi (Strombus gigas) en Martinique.
  6. (Stoner, 1989 ; Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; Theile, 2001 ; Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007)
  7. (Stoner, 1989 ; Stoner et Lally, 1994 ; Stoner et al., 1996 (1 et 2) ; Theile, 2001 ; Stoner, 2003)
  8. (Theile, 2001 ; Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007)
  9. Ballarini R, Heuer A, Des secrets dans la coquille, Pour la Science, octobre 2008, p86-92
  10. (anon., 1999 ; Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007)
  11. (Berg et Olsen, 1989 ; Stoner, 1989 ; Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; Stoner et Ray, 1996 ; anon., 1999)
  12. a et b (Stoner, 1989 ; Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; anon., 1999 ; Theile, 2001)
  13. (Berg et Olsen, 1989 ; Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; anon., 1999 ; Theile, 2001)
  14. (Stoner et Ray, 1996 ; Theile, 2001 ; Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007 ; Gros et Frenkiel, 2007)
  15. (Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007)
  16. (Berg et Olsen, 1989 ; anon., 1999 ; Theile, 2001)
  17. (Stoner et Sandt, 1992)
  18. (Berg et Olsen, 1989 ; Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; anon., 1999 ; Theile, 2001 ; Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007)
  19. (Stoner et al., 1996 (1 et 2) ; Stoner, 2003)
  20. (Stoner, 1989 ; Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; anon., 1999 ; Theile, 2001 ; Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007)
  21. (Stoner, 1989 ; Stoner et Lally, 1994 ; Stoner et al, 1996 (1 et 2) ; Theile, 2001 ; Stoner, 2003)
  22. (Stoner et Sandt, 1992 ; Stoner et Ray, 1996 ; anon., 1999 ; Theile, 2001)
  23. a b et c (anon., 1999 ; Theile, 2001 ; Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007)
  24. (Stoner et Lally, 1994 ; Theile, 2001 ; Stoner, 2003)
  25. (Berg et Olsen, 1989 ; anon., 1999 ; Theile, 2001 ;Frenkiel et Aldana Aranda, 2007)
  26. (Stoner & Sandt, 1992 ; Stoner & Ray, 1996 ; anon., 1999)
  27. Antczak, A., de Antczak, M. M. M., Antczak, K., & Antczak, O. (2012). Prospection archéologique sur l’îlet Madame en Martinique. Caracas, Venezuela.
  28. « La Martinique a désormais son drapeau et son hymne », sur Martinique la 1ère (consulté le 13 mai 2019)
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Lobatus gigas: Brief Summary ( ranska )

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Strombe géant, Lambi

Lobatus gigas (le strombe géant ou lambi) est une espèce de mollusque marin trouvé en zone équatoriale et tropicale de l'Atlantique ouest, notamment aux Antilles et en Floride. Pouvant atteindre 30 cm et 1,5 kg, il consomme des algues et divers débris végétaux. Cette espèce a beaucoup régressé en raison de la surpêche pour la consommation humaine et parfois pour l'usage décoratif de sa coquille. Il est maintenant classé comme espèce menacée et partiellement protégé par la Convention de Washington : commerce fortement limité et placé sous le contrôle des douanes dans les Antilles françaises, par exemple.

Cette espèce a aussi été dénommée Eustrombus gigas

 src= Coquille de strombe géant adulte.
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Aliger gigas ( portugali )

tarjonnut wikipedia PT

Aliger gigas, popularmente conhecida como concha-rainha (BRA),[2][5] estrombo-rosa ou raínha-das-conchas (POR),[6] é uma espécie muito grande de caramujo marinho comestível, um molusco gastrópode pertencente à famíla Strombidae. Trata-se de um dos maiores gastrópodes da porção oeste da zona do Atlântico Tropical, cuja distribuição se estende de Bermudas ao Brasil. Nos diversos países onde ocorre, é também conhecido por outros nomes populares, como caracol rosado, cobo, botuto, guarura, e lambi;[7][8][9] recebendo, em inglês, as denominações de queen conch[10][11] ou pink conch.[10][12][13]

Este grande gastrópode herbívoro vive em fundo bentônico, em meio a leitos de ervas marinhas, embora seu habitat exato possa variar com os diferentes estágios de seu desenvolvimento. O animal adulto possui uma concha grande e pesada, com uma característica abertura de coloração rosada e um lábio externo bastante expandido, ausente em espécimes juvenis. Sua anatomia externa assemelha-se à de outros caramujos da mesma família; apresenta um focinho longo, dois pedúnculos oculares dotados de tentáculos sensoriais menores, um forte e um opérculo córneo, em formato de foice.

Aliger gigas possui alguns comensais, incluindo outros gastrópodes, caranguejos e peixes, e entre os seus parasitas encontram-se os coccídeos. Os predadores da concha-rainha são outros moluscos, estrelas-do-mar, crustáceos e vertebrados (peixes, tartarugas marinhas e humanos). Sua carne é consumida por humanos e empregada em uma miríade de receitas, em pratos que variam desde saladas a porções fritas. A concha, por sua vez, é comercializada como souvenir ou como objeto decorativo. Foi também utilizada por nativos americanos e por antigos povos caribenhos para a fabricação de utensílios.

A concha-rainha está protegida pela Convenção sobre o Comércio Internacional das Espécies da Fauna e da Flora Silvestres Ameaçadas de Extinção (CITES).[5][14] Tal espécie ainda não está verdadeiramente ameaçada em todo o Mar do Caribe, mas corre perigo em muitas outras áreas. A ameaça deve-se, em grande parte, à coleta exacerbada deste animal, pois sua carne é uma fonte de alimento importante para os humanos. Os regulamentos da CITES estão voltados para a interrupção da exportação de carne de Aliger gigas nos países caribenhos onde é encontrado, bem como a exploração comercial de sua concha como objeto de decoração. Ambos tipos de comércio eram tão intensos no passado que representavam uma ameaça muito séria à sobrevivência da espécie.

Etimologia e taxonomia

O nome científico da espécie tem origem na língua grega γίγας (transliterado: gigas), que significa "gigante", em provável alusão ao tamanho corpóreo excepcionalmente grande do animal. Esta espécie foi primeiramente descrita por Linnaeus, em 1758, como Strombus gigas, em seu Systema Naturae, porém os Strombidae foram submetidos a uma ampla revisão taxonômica recentemente,[2][15] e alguns subgêneros, incluindo Eustrombus, foram elevados ao nível de gênero por alguns autores. Petuch (2004)[16] e Petuch e Roberts (2007)[17] recombinaram esta espécie como Eustrombus gigas e Landau et al. (2008) a recombinaram como Lobatus gigas.[18][19] Posteriormente esta e a espécie Lobatus gallus foram transferidas para Aliger, por Maxwell et al, no artigo científico "Towards Resolving the American and West African Strombidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Neostromboidae) Using Integrated Taxonomy"; publicado em The Festivus. 52(1), páginas 3-38, em fevereiro de 2020.[20]

Tendo em vista a ausência do material utilizado por Linnaeus em sua descrição original, o neótipo desta espécie foi designado por Clench e Abbott em 1941. Não se tratava de um espécime real, mas sim uma figura do livro Recreatio mentis, et occuli escrito pelo estudioso italiano Filippo Buonanni e publicado em 1684. Entretanto, em 1953, o malacólogo Nils Hjamar Odhner vasculhou a coleção Lineana da Universidade de Uppsala, na Suécia, e descobriu a concha original que Linnaeus utilizou em sua descrição, o que invalidou o neótipo designado por Clench e Abbott. Atualmente, o tipo encontra-se depositado na coleção desta instituição.[21] Linnaeus nunca definiu qualquer localidade-tipo específica em sua descrição original, citando apenas "America" como uma referência.[22][23]

Filogenia

Strombidae

Terebellum terebellum




Canarium urceus




Conomurex luhuanus




Tricornis raninus




Lambis lambis




Strombus




Eustrombus



Aliger









As relações filogenéticas entre os Strombidae foram estudadas principalmente por Simone (2005)[24] e Latiolais (2006),[25] usando dois métodos distintos. Simone propôs um cladograma (uma árvore de descendência) baseado em uma extensa análise morfo-anatômica de espécies representantes de várias famílias incluídas na superfamília Stromboidea, como Aporrhaidae, Strombidae, Xenophoridae e Struthiolariidae, entre elas Aliger gigas (referido em seu trabalho como Eustrombus gigas). Com exceção dos gêneros Lambis e Terebellum, os táxons restantes da família estavam previamente alocados no gênero Strombus, incluindo Aliger gigas. No entanto, de acordo com Simone, apenas Strombus gracilior, Strombus alatus e Strombus pugilis, a espécie-tipo do gênero, permaneceram dentro de Strombus, pois constituíram um grupo distinto baseado em pelo menos cinco sinapomorfias morfológicas (características compartilhadas por dois ou mais taxa e seu mais recente ancestral comum exclusivo). Os táxons restantes foram previamente considerados subgêneros e foram elevados ao nível de gênero por Simone. O Gênero Eustrombus (agora considerado sinônimo de Lobatus e, posteriormente, de Aliger), neste caso, incluía Eustrombus gigas (agora considerado sinônimo de Lobatus gigas, agora Aliger gigas) e Eustrombus goliath (sinônimo de Lobatus goliath, agora Titanostrombus goliath), que foram considerados como próximos em termos evolutivos.[2][24][26]










Strombus gallus



Strombus gigas




Strombus costatus





Strombus raninus



Strombus peruvianus





Strombus galeatus




Strombus latus







Strombus pugilis



Strombus alatus




Strombus gracilior




Strombus granulatus







Em uma abordagem diferente, Latiolais e colegas (2006) propuseram outro cladograma que tenta mostrar as relações filogenéticas de 34 espécies dentro da família Strombidae. Os autores analisaram 31 espécies de Strombus, incluindo Aliger gigas (mais conhecida como Strombus gigas à época), e três espécies no gênero aliado Lambis. O cladograma foi baseado em sequências de DNA tanto da histona nuclear H3 quanto das regiões gênicas codificadoras da proteína mitocondrial citocromo c oxidase I (COI). Nesta filogenia proposta, Strombus gigas e Strombus gallus (= Lobatus gallus, agora Aliger gallus) estão intimamente relacionados e parecem compartilhar um ancestral comum.[25][27]

Anatomia

 src=
Um dos olhos de A. gigas, na extremidade do pedúnculo ocular. Há também um tentáculo sensorial menor, que se origina do pedúnculo.

Muitos detalhes da anatomia de Aliger gigas não eram bem conhecidos até 1965, quando o zoólogo americano Colin Little publicou um estudo geral sobre o assunto.[28] Detalhes anatômicos foram recentemente descritos por Simone (2005).[24] Aliger gigas possui um focinho longo e bastante extensível, que contém uma rádula do tipo tenioglossa em seu interior.[28] Dois pedúnculos oculares (também denominados omatóforos[22][24]) projetam-se de sua base, e cada um deles contém um olho grande e bem desenvolvido com íris amarelada e pupila negra, e também um tentáculo sensorial menor que se origina próximo de sua extremidade anterior.[22][29] Os olhos de Aliger gigas têm a capacidade de regenerar-se completamente caso a extremidade do pedúnculo seja amputada.[30] Tanto o focinho quanto os pedúnculos oculares apresentam manchas de coloração escura nas áreas comumente expostas. O manto apresenta coloração mais escura na parte anterior, tornado-se mais clara posteriormente. Sua margem frequentemente possui coloração alaranjada, bem como o sifão, que também pode ter uma tonalidade amarelada. Várias estruturas são facilmente distinguíveis externamente quando o animal é removido da concha, como o rim, a glândula nefridial, o pericárdio, as glândulas genitais, o estômago, o saco do estilete e a glândula digestiva.[28]

Aliger gigas tem um pé grande e forte, de coloração escura na base, tornando-se mais esbranquiçada em direção à massa visceral. A base da extremidade anterior do pé apresenta um sulco distinto, que contém a abertura da glândula pediosa. Afixado à extremidade posterior do pé, por cerca de um terço de seu comprimento, está o opérculo córneo com formato de foice ou garra, de coloração marrom escura, e que possui uma costela central conferindo-lhe um reforço estrutural. A base dos dois terços posteriores do pé do animal é arredondada, e apenas o primeiro terço é aplicado ao substrato durante a locomoção. O músculo columelar tem coloração esbranquiçada,[28] e permanece aderido à columela (o pilar central da concha univalve, ao redor do qual as espiras são constituídas[31]). A contração vigorosa desse músculo permite ao animal retrair-se para o interior da concha, em resposta a estímulos indesejados.[28]

Descrição da concha

 src=
Algumas conchas de A. gigas em Fort Napoleón, Guadalupe.
 src=
Uma ilustração de A. gigas por Duclos em Chenu, 1844, mostrando as partes moles e o opérculo, em detalhe.

A concha adulta de Aliger gigas tem de 15–31 cm de comprimento,[29] sendo o tamanho máximo já reportado de 35.2 cm.[32] É bastante sólida e pesada, apresentando de nove a dez voltas e um lábio externo bastante desenvolvido e estendido.[22] Uma fenda em forma de "U", presente no lábio externo à direita do canal sifonal da concha de um espécime dextrógiro adulto (denominado "stromboid notch" em inglês, ou "reentrância estromboide" em português),[33] é característica da família Strombidae e facilmente distinguível nesta espécie. No animal vivo, um dos pedúnculos oculares se protrai através dessa fenda.[32][34][35]

A espira (porção mais posterior da concha em espiral que compreende todas as voltas, com exceção da última, que é conhecida como volta do corpo[31]) da concha é usualmente mais alta, isto é, alongada do que a de outras espécies da família Strombidae. As extremidades da abertura da concha adulta são coloridas em tons de cor-de-rosa mais ou menos suave, a depender do indivíduo, podendo apresentar também uma coloração mais avermelhada, ou ainda uma tonalidade creme ou amarelada. O perióstraco (camada mais externa da concha, similar a uma película de espessura variável, composta unicamente de material orgânico[31]) é bastante fino, com cor bronze suave.[32][34]

Diferentemente do que ocorre com os animais adultos, as conchas de indivíduos juvenis têm uma coloração malhada de marrom e branco, e não possuem o lábio externo estendido ou espessado. Na Flórida, os juvenis são conhecidos como rollers ("roladores", em inglês), pois a ação das ondas facilmente os deslocam, fazendo rolar suas conchas. Todavia, é muito difícil que o mesmo se aplique a indivíduos adultos, que são muito maiores, mais pesados e estáveis. O lábio externo da concha tende a se estender e espessar com a idade do animal.[36][37][38]

As condições ambientais, como localização geográfica, disponibilidade de alimento e temperatura, e outros fatores externos, como ação de predadores, podem influenciar de maneira considerável a morfologia da concha de Aliger gigas.[39][40] Os indivíduos juvenis da espécie desenvolvem conchas mais espessas quando expostos à ação de predadores, se comparados a indivíduos não-expostos. Também desenvolvem conchas mais largas e grossas, com espira adornada por espinhos menos protuberantes, conforme aumenta a profundidade em que vivem.[40]

Desenhos da obra Index Testarum Conchyliorum, publicada em 1742 pelo médico e malacólogo italiano Niccolò Gualtieri, e do Manual of Conchology, publicado em 1885 pelo malacólogo americano George Washington Tryon, ilustram a morfologia de conchas em estado adulto e juvenil de Aliger gigas, sob diferentes perspectivas.[38] As ilustrações não-coloridas mostram a vista apical (note a espira alongada, no centro do desenho), ventral (note a fenda dos Strombus próxima ao canal sifonal, no topo do desenho) e dorsal de uma concha completamente desenvolvida. Nessas ilustrações, o lábio externo expandido e espessado com formato alado é marcante. O desenho colorido representa uma concha em estágio juvenil, com seu padrão típico de coloração (note a ausência da expansão do lábio externo na última volta da concha, conferindo um contorno muito mais cônico ao espécime representado):

Comportamento

A concha-rainha utiliza um método bastante peculiar para locomover-se. Esta série de manobras intrincada e curiosa foi originalmente descrita pelo zoólogo americano George Howard Parker em 1922.[41] Inicialmente, o animal fixa a extremidade posterior do pé ao substrato, fincando nele o opérculo pontiagudo. Então, estende o pé anteriormente, levantando e projetando a concha adiante no chamado "movimento de salto", muito similar a um saltador com vara.[42] O movimento de salto torna Aliger gigas um bom escalador de superfícies verticais de substrato resistente,[43] e pode auxiliar o animal a inibir seus predadores, impedindo que os traços químicos por ele deixados no substrato sejam rastreados.[44]

A espécie e o ecossistema

 src=
Um indivíduo subadulto de A. gigas em um leito de ervas marinhas em Rice Bay, Ilha de São Salvador, Bahamas.

Distribuição e habitat

Aliger gigas é nativo da América do Norte e Central.[32] Vive em bentos da zona tropical caribenha, que inclui: México, sul da Flórida, as Bahamas e Bermuda, ao norte, em profundidades variando de 0,3 m a 18 m.[32] Localidades onde a concha-rainha pode ser encontrada incluem[4][45][46][47]:

Aruba, nas Ilhas ABC; Barbados; Bimini, Ilha Cat, Eleuthera, Inagua e San Salvador em Bahamas; Belize; Bermuda; Brasil (contestado por alguns autores[22]); Costa Rica, República Dominicana e Panamá; Ilhas Swan em Honduras; Jamaica; Martinica; Alacrán, Campeche, Cayos Arcas e Quintana Roo, no México; Porto Rico; São Bartolomeu; Mustique e Granada, nas Granadinas; Pinar del Río, Havana, Matanzas, Villa Clara, Cienfuegos, Holguín, Santiago de Cuba e Guantanamo, nas Ilhas Turks e Caicos e Cuba; Carolina do Sul, Florida e Flower Garden Banks, Texas, nos Estados Unidos; Carabobo, Falcon, Golfo da Venezuela, Arquipélago de Los Roques, Los Testigos e Sucre, na Venezuela, e St. Croix, nas Ilhas Virgens.

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Em seu habitat, a concha de A. gigas normalmente encontra-se coberta por perifíton. Nesta imagem, o pedúnculo ocular à esquerda está protraído através da "fenda dos Strombus", enquanto o pedúnculo à direita está protraído através do canal sifonal.

Este grande caramujo vive em prados de ervas marinhas e substrato areno-lodoso,[48] comumente associado a espécies dos gêneros Cymodocea,[49] Thalassia[36] e Syringodium.[39] Indivíduos juvenis são avistados em prados de algas em águas rasas, bastante diferentes daqueles em que normalmente se localizam os adultos.[32][50] Os habitats utilizados como berçários pelos indivíduos juvenis são definidos por uma série de fatores combinados, características intrínsecas do ambiente e processos ecológicos, que, juntos, proporcionam altas taxas de recrutamento e sobrevivência.[51] Aliger gigas é frequentemente encontrado em agregados distintos que podem conter vários milhares de indivíduos cada.[40] O seu acasalamento, para ter sucesso, precisa ter 50 conchas, ou mais, desovando de uma vez.[5]

Ciclo de vida

Aliger gigas é dioico e a fertilização ocorre internamente.[40] As fêmeas são normalmente maiores que os machos em populações naturais, e ambos os sexos estão presentes em proporção similar.[48] Após a fertilização, as fêmeas depositam os ovos em cordões gelatinosos que podem alcançar um comprimento aproximado de até 23 m,[32] sobre a areia ou algas.[40] O cordão pode enrolar-se sobre si aglutinando-se, constituindo uma massa de ovos compacta. Cada massa de ovos pode ter sido fertilizada por múltiplos machos, e o número de ovos por massa pode variar bastante, dependendo das condições ambientais, como disponibilidade de alimento ou variações de temperatura.[40] Usualmente, as fêmeas produzem em torno de oito a nove massas de ovos por temporada[40][52] e cada uma delas pode conter de 180 000 a 460 000 ovos,[32] embora a cifra de até 750 000 ovos possa ser alcançada sob certas condições.[40] As fêmeas de Aliger gigas podem procriar várias vezes por temporada reprodutiva,[32] que dura de março a outubro, com picos de atividade entre julho e setembro.[35] Após a eclosão, as larvas véliger (uma forma larval comum a vários gastrópodes e bivalves marinhos[42]) bilobuladas emergem para passar vários dias desenvolvendo-se em meio ao plancton, alimentando-se primariamente de fitoplâncton. A metamorfose ocorre em cerca de dezesseis a quarenta dias a partir da eclosão,[40] quando a protoconcha (a concha embrionária) está a alcançar uma altura de 1,2 mm.[48] Após a metamorfose, os indivíduos de Aliger gigas passam o restante de suas vidas na zona bentônica, sobre a superfície do sedimento, normalmente permanecendo enterrados durante o primeiro ano de vida.[53]

Aliger gigas atinge a maturidade sexual na idade aproximada de três a quatro anos, com um comprimento de concha de aproximados 180 mm e pesando até 2,27 kg.[32][35] Corriqueiramente, cada indivíduo pode viver por até sete anos. Em águas profundas, podem viver até vinte ou trinta anos.[32][40][48] Estimativas de longevidade, em alguns casos, alcançam quarenta anos.[54] Acredita-se que a taxa de mortalidade tende a ser menor em indivíduos mais velhos, graças a sua concha mais espessa. Estimativas demonstram que a taxa de mortalidade de Aliger gigas diminui em proporção inversa ao tamanho do animal, mas pode variar também com o habitat, e outros fatores.[53]

Hábitos alimentares

Os gastrópodes estrombídeos foram amplamente aceitos como carnívoros por diversos autores no século XIX, conceito que perdurou até a primeira metade do século XX. Essa ideia errônea originou-se nos escritos de Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, que agrupou os estrombídeos com outros caracóis supostamente carnívoros. Esta ideia foi posteriormente repetida por outros autores, mas não foi apoiada por observações. Estudos subsequentes refutaram o conceito equivocado, provando sem dúvida que os gastrópodes estrombídeos são animais herbívoros.[55] A concha-rainha é um animal herbívoro como os demais Strombidae,[25] alimentando-se de ervas marinhas, macroalgas (incluindo a espécie Sphaerococcus confervoides[38]), e ocasionalmente detritos.[56] A macroalga verde Batophora oerstedii é notavelmente um de seus alimentos prediletos.[32]

Relações interespecíficas

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O bernardo-eremita Petrochirus diogenes, no interior de uma concha de A. gigas.

Diversas espécies de animais são comensais de Aliger gigas, o que significa que ambos os organismos mantêm uma relação onde um indivíduo se beneficia (o comensal) e o outro não obtém qualquer vantagem (neste caso, a concha-rainha). Entre os moluscos, são principalmente as espécies do gênero Crepidula.[39] O crustáceo decápode Porcellana sayana é também um de seus comensais,[39] e um pequeno peixe cardinal, conhecido como peixe-caramujo (Astrapogon stellatus[39]), por vezes aloja-se no manto de Aliger gigas para proteger-se, não trazendo-lhe qualquer benefício aparente.[32] Esta espécie de caramujo é frequentemente parasitada por coccídeos pertencentes ao filo Apicomplexa.[57][58] Estes microorganismos unicelulares alojam-se inicialmente em células vacuoladas das glândulas digestivas do hospedeiro, onde se reproduzem livremente.[57][58] A infestação pode então proceder para as células secretoras do mesmo órgão, e o ciclo de vida completo do parasita provavelmente ocorrerá no mesmo hospedeiro e tecido.[58]

Aliger gigas é presa de diversas espécies de moluscos gastrópodes carnívoros,[59] como o múrice-pomo (Murex pomum), o caramujo Turbinella angulata, os caramujos-lua Natica spp. e Polinices spp., o múrice Murex margaritensis, o trompete-de-tritão (Charonia variegata), e o caramujo-tulipa (Fasciolaria tulipa). Vários crustáceos são predadores conhecidos da concha-rainha,[59] como o siri-azul (Callinectes sapidus), o caranguejo Calappa gallus, o ermitão Petrochirus diogenes, a lagosta Panulirus argus, e muitas outras espécies. Aliger gigas é também presa de equinodermos, como a estrela-do-mar Oreaster reticulatus, e de vários vertebrados, incluindo peixes como o Trachinotus falcatus[60] e o baiacu Diodon hystrix, as tartarugas marinhas Caretta caretta e os humanos.[29][59]

Uso humano

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Objeto decorativo: o lábio externo desta concha de A. gigas foi cortado e lixado para conferir-lhe uma aparência comercial.

Histórico

As conchas de Aliger gigas foram usadas por nativos americanos e caribenhos de várias formas. Tribos do sul da Flórida (como o Tequesta), e os povos Carib, Aruaque e Taíno usavam conchas para fabricar ferramentas (como facas, cabeças de machado e formões), joias, utensílios de cozinha e as usavam como chifres de sopro.[61] Na história mesoamericana, os astecas usavam a concha como parte de mosaicos de jóias, como a serpente de duas cabeças.[62] Os astecas também acreditavam que o som de trombetas feitas de Aliger gigas representava uma manifestação divina e as usavam em cerimônias religiosas.[63] Na região central do México, durante as cerimônias de chuva dedicadas ao deus Tlaloc, os maias usavam conchas como protetores de mãos (de maneira similar às luvas de boxe) durante o combate.[63] Amontoados antigos de conchas de Aliger gigas, danificadas com buracos redondos, são considerados uma evidência de que os índios lucaios pré-colombianos, nas Bahamas, usaram essa espécie como fonte de alimento.[64]

Trazida por exploradores, as conchas de Aliger gigas rapidamente se tornaram um recurso popular no início da Europa moderna. No final do século XVII, elas foram amplamente utilizadas como decoração sobre cornijas de lareira e jardins ingleses, entre outros lugares.[65] Na contemporaneidade, as conchas de rainha são utilizadas principalmente no artesanato. Conchas são manufaturadas em camafeus, pulseiras e lâmpadas, e tradicionalmente como decoração por famílias de homens do mar.[49][66]

Como alimento

A carne deste caramujo é tradicionalmente uma parte importante da dieta em muitas ilhas das Antilhas. É consumida crua, marinada, picada ou fatiada em uma ampla variedade de receitas, como saladas, ensopados, frituras e patês, além de outras receitas locais.[5][29][49][67] Nas regiões de língua espanhola, como na República Dominicana, por exemplo, a carne de Aliger gigas é conhecida como lambí. A coleta não-sustentável de caramujos é uma ameaça e tem gerado uma preocupação crescente com a diminuição de suas populações. A carne da concha-rainha é usada principalmente para consumo humano, mas também pode ser utilizada como isca para pesca.[54]

Aliger gigas está entre os recursos pesqueiros mais importantes do Mar do Caribe, alcançando um valor comercializado de trinta milhões de dólares americanos em 1992,[40] e o dobro, sessenta milhões de dólares, em 2003.[68] O peso total da carne de Aliger gigas, comercializada entre 1993 e 1998, alcançou 6 519 711 kg a 7 369 314 kg. Posteriormente, sua produção declinou para 3 131 599 kg em 2001.[68] Dados sobre a importação de carne da concha-rainha pelos Estados Unidos mostram um número máximo de 1 832 000 kg, quase nove milhões de dólares americanos, importados no ano de 1998 para 387 000 kg, e cerca de três milhões e meio de dólares americanos, em 2009.[69]

Outros usos

A concha de Aliger gigas é popular como objeto de alto valor estético, dado seu tamanho e sua beleza, mas sua exportação é agora controlada e restringida pela CITES.[29] Na contemporaneidade, conchas de Aliger gigas são aproveitadas principalmente em artesanato. Os espécimes são utilizados para produção de camafeus, pulseiras e lamparinas,[49] entre outras coisas. Muito raramente (uma em cada 10 000 conchas-rainha[29]), uma pérola de caramujo de coloração rosada[37] é encontrada dentro do manto do animal.[29] Estas pérolas são consideradas um atrativo para turistas,[49] e as mais belas possuem valor como gemas preciosas e são utilizadas para a confecção de brincos e colares. Uma pérola de caramujo é uma concreção calcária não-nacarada, distinta de uma pérola de ostra, nacarada.[70]

Ameaças e conservação

Apenas as conchas-rainha sexualmente maduras são capazes de reproduzir-se, mas há quase a mesma quantia de carne em um indivíduo juvenil grande, quando comparado a um adulto.[67] Em locais onde os adultos se tornaram raros, animais juvenis e subadultos são frequentemente coletados por pescadores antes de terem tido a chance de reproduzir-se.[67][71] Em várias ilhas caribenhas, as conchas-rainha subadultas constituem a maior parte do pescado.[72] A abundância da concha-rainha tem declinado com o passar dos anos, como resultado de pescaria exacerbada e caça.[54] As populações da espécie em Honduras, no Haiti e na República Dominicana, em particular, estão sendo exploradas em quantidades que podem ser não-sustentáveis (sobrepesca),[54] e o comércio em vários países do Mar do Caribe é tido como provavelmente ou certamente não-sustentável.[54] A pesca ilegal de Aliger gigas, sobretudo em águas estrangeiras e subsequente comércio ilegal internacional, é um problema amplo e comum na região.[54] A International Queen Conch Initiative (Iniciativa Internacional da concha-rainha, em inglês) é uma tentativa de organizar a pescaria desta espécie, e tem um sítio eletrônico próprio.[47]

Regulamentação

Aliger gigas é mencionado na CITES desde 1985[40] e está no seu Apêndice II[14] desde 1992, por conta do contínuo declínio de suas populações[40] e, portanto, sua comercialização é estritamente regulamentada.[73] Nos Estados Unidos, toda a pesca de conchas-rainha é proibida na Flórida e águas federais adjacentes.[54] Não existe qualquer organização internacional de manejo da pesca dessa espécie no Mar do Caribe.[54] Todavia, em Porto Rico e nas Ilhas Virgens, a concha-rainha está regulamentada sob os auspícios do Conselho Caribenho de Manejo da Pesca (CFMC).[54]

Em 1990, a Convenção para a Proteção e Desenvolvimento do Ambiente Marinho da Região do Caribe (Convenção de Cartagena) incluiu a concha-rainha no Anexo II de seu Protocolo Sobre Áreas Especialmente Protegidas e Vida Selvagem (protocolo SPAW) como uma espécie que pode ser utilizada racionalmente e de modo sustentável, e que requer medidas de proteção.[54] Isto levou os norte-americanos a proporem a adição desta espécie no Apêndice II da CITES em 1992, e Aliger gigas tornou-se o primeiro produto de pescaria de larga escala a ser regulamentado pela CITES.[54] Desde 1995, a CITES tem revisado o status biológico e comercial da concha-rainha através de seu sistema de Revisão de Comércio Significativo (Significant Trade Review, em inglês). Este sistema é utilizado quando existe preocupação quanto aos níveis de comércio de espécies presentes no Apêndice II. Baseado na revisão de 2003,[68] a CITES recomendou que todos os países proibissem a importação da concha-rainha de Honduras, Haiti e da República Dominicana (veja Standing Committee Recommendations da CITES[74]). Aliger gigas continua disponível em outros países caribenhos, incluindo Jamaica e as ilhas Turcas e Caicos, que possuem um eficiente manejo de sua pescaria.[54]

Galeria de imagens

Ver também

Referências

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Aliger gigas: Brief Summary ( portugali )

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Aliger gigas, popularmente conhecida como concha-rainha (BRA), estrombo-rosa ou raínha-das-conchas (POR), é uma espécie muito grande de caramujo marinho comestível, um molusco gastrópode pertencente à famíla Strombidae. Trata-se de um dos maiores gastrópodes da porção oeste da zona do Atlântico Tropical, cuja distribuição se estende de Bermudas ao Brasil. Nos diversos países onde ocorre, é também conhecido por outros nomes populares, como caracol rosado, cobo, botuto, guarura, e lambi; recebendo, em inglês, as denominações de queen conch ou pink conch.

Este grande gastrópode herbívoro vive em fundo bentônico, em meio a leitos de ervas marinhas, embora seu habitat exato possa variar com os diferentes estágios de seu desenvolvimento. O animal adulto possui uma concha grande e pesada, com uma característica abertura de coloração rosada e um lábio externo bastante expandido, ausente em espécimes juvenis. Sua anatomia externa assemelha-se à de outros caramujos da mesma família; apresenta um focinho longo, dois pedúnculos oculares dotados de tentáculos sensoriais menores, um forte e um opérculo córneo, em formato de foice.

Aliger gigas possui alguns comensais, incluindo outros gastrópodes, caranguejos e peixes, e entre os seus parasitas encontram-se os coccídeos. Os predadores da concha-rainha são outros moluscos, estrelas-do-mar, crustáceos e vertebrados (peixes, tartarugas marinhas e humanos). Sua carne é consumida por humanos e empregada em uma miríade de receitas, em pratos que variam desde saladas a porções fritas. A concha, por sua vez, é comercializada como souvenir ou como objeto decorativo. Foi também utilizada por nativos americanos e por antigos povos caribenhos para a fabricação de utensílios.

A concha-rainha está protegida pela Convenção sobre o Comércio Internacional das Espécies da Fauna e da Flora Silvestres Ameaçadas de Extinção (CITES). Tal espécie ainda não está verdadeiramente ameaçada em todo o Mar do Caribe, mas corre perigo em muitas outras áreas. A ameaça deve-se, em grande parte, à coleta exacerbada deste animal, pois sua carne é uma fonte de alimento importante para os humanos. Os regulamentos da CITES estão voltados para a interrupção da exportação de carne de Aliger gigas nos países caribenhos onde é encontrado, bem como a exploração comercial de sua concha como objeto de decoração. Ambos tipos de comércio eram tão intensos no passado que representavam uma ameaça muito séria à sobrevivência da espécie.

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