Squirrels are known from the end of the Eocene in Wyoming and the early Oligocene in southern France.
Sciurids are a typical meal for many opportunistic domestic and wild predators. The most common predators may be birds of prey, such as eagles and hawks, falcons, owls, and cats, canids, and weasels. But many predators have been observed eating squirrels, including large snakes, bigmouth bass, and chimpanzees . Squirrels are also hunted for food and fur by humans.
The most common tactics of sciurids for avoiding predators is camouflage and escape. Squirrels typically have coats with color that matches their surroundings. Tree squirrels often have lighter coloration on the ventral side compared to the dorsal, allowing them to blend in with the light sky to a predator that is looking at the squirrel from below and at to blend in with the dark ground when being stalked by an aerial predator. Squirrels also avoid capture by quickly darting away from predators, remaining vigilant, biting, clawing, hiding in burrows or nests and sounding alarm calls. Squirrels that are commonly attacked by snakes take on a completely different defense tactic known as mobbing. Especially common in communal prairie dogs (Cynomys), these squirrels will attack snakes, pouncing, biting and scratching until the snake leaves the area near the burrow or is killed.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Squirrels are characterized by their long bodies, soft fine hair (although some have very thick hair), and large eyes. The hindfeet have five digits while their forefeet have four digits. Claws are found on all terminal phalanges except the thumb, which has a nail. Vibrissae, which are important for tactical stimuli, are found all over the body by the nose, cheek, eye, chin, wrist, feet, and outside of the legs. Sciurids vary in size from very small, like African pygmy squirrels (Myosciurus pumilio, approximately 10 g), to substantially large, such as Alpine marmots (Marmota marmota, 3 to 8 kg). They also vary substantially in fur color including black, white, red, and brown. Sciurids have three basic morphologies: ground squirrel, tree squirrel, and flying squirrel forms. Ground squirrels tend to have large broad forefeet, with the middle digit being the longest, short, stout limbs used for digging, and short tails. Tree squirrels have long muscular legs, long arms, large ears, and long bushy tails. Flying squirrels are characterized by their gliding membrane, a furred patagium which attaches to the forelimbs via the styliform cartilage at the wrist and extends down to the heel of the hindlimbs. Additionally, flying squirrels have the longest limbs relative to body size of all squirrels.
What links all squirrels is their skull architecture and relatively primitive jaw structure. Their skulls are short, with a short rostrum and arched profile. The skull has an broad, tilted zygomatic plate that serves as the attachment point for the lateral branch of the masseter muscle. The superficial branch of masseter muscle originates on a prominent bump of bone of the side of rostrum called the masseteric tubercle. They have small infraorbital foramena that is not enlarged to transmit muscle as it is in myomorphous (mice and rats) and hystricomorphous (cavys and guinea pigs) rodents. Squirrels have long jugals, well-developed postorbital processes, and large bullae that are not inflated. The anterior ends of the jugals contact the frontals and the palate is broad and relatively short, ending at the same level as the molar row. The zygomasseteric architecture of skulls is sciuromorphous (the lateral branch of the masseter muscle has shifted to the rostrum).
The teeth of sciurids is characterized by four chisel-like incisors covered in enamel that grow continuously and have roots that extend well back into the maxilla and mandible. Since they are used for gnawing, these teeth are kept short and sharp. The incisors are followed by a diastema and cheek teeth which are rooted and brachydont or hypsodont. The dental formula of sciurids is 1/1, 0/0, 1-2/1, 3/3 = 20-22.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; heterothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; female larger; male larger
Squirrels have been found to live a maximum of 8 to 14 years in the wild and up to 16 or more years in captivity. However, many squirrels do not live past their first year of life in the wild.
From trees to burrows underground, sciurids are found in a vast array of habitats, including rainforests, arid grasslands, arctic tundras, forests, suburban areas, and cities. Sciurids can be found at high elevations, such as the Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalaya), which are found at elevations up to 5000 meters.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; polar ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; taiga ; desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest ; mountains
Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural ; riparian
Squirrels are found worldwide, native to all terrestrial regions with the exception of Australia, Madagascar, southern South America, Antarctica, Greenland, many oceanic islands, and certain desert regions such as the Sahara. Two species of squirrels were introduced to Australia in the 19th century. One of those species, Sciurus carolinensis, is now believed to be extinct. However, a flourishing feral colony of Funambulus pennantii persists there. Squirrels are especially diverse in African and southeast Asian forests.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native ); ethiopian (Native ); neotropical (Native ); australian (Introduced )
Other Geographic Terms: holarctic
Most squirrels eat mainly tree seeds and fruit, but their diet is diverse, including insects, eggs, fungi, lichens, and small vertebrates. While some squirrels consume fungi as a secondary component of their diet, it makes up nearly half of the diet of other species. Many species opportunistically take animal prey, such as the young and eggs of birds or other mammals. Foods such as buds, shoots, flowers, bark, lichens, and green plant material have generally low energy content per unit weight and make up a smaller portion of the diet. But the amount of each type of food consumed is determined mainly by its availability and accessibility. For this reason, diet composition changes from region to region, season to season, and year to year. Many squirrel species cache or hoard food as well.
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates, Eats eggs, Insectivore ); herbivore (Frugivore , Granivore ); omnivore ; mycophage
Squirrels are important sources of prey for a vast array of predators including predators that are threatened or endangered. For rare species such as snow leopards and northern spotted owls, squirrels are an essential part of the diet. Black-footed ferrets eat almost exclusively prairie dogs. Tree and flying squirrels are also essential in the regeneration of forests around the world through their seed dispersal activities. This is not only because seeds are left in the feces of these animals but also because of the caching habits of many squirrels. Squirrels are also important in dispersing the spores of fungi that they eat, including ecologically important underground endorhyzal fungi. Squirrels serve as host to a number of parasites such as fleas, mites and ticks. These parasites are known for causing the transfer of a number of diseases, such as plague, from squirrel to squirrel and to other mammals, including humans. Some species have also been identified as playing the role of a keystone species in their ecosystem. One study conducted by Kotiliar et al. (1999) confirmed that prairie dogs acted as a keystone species in the Great Plains of the United states. Not only were prairie dogs an important food source for predators such as golden eagles and swift foxes, but their burrows were very important for a number of animals as well. Abandoned burrows were used as housing for animals ranging from raccoons and cottontail rabbits to shrews and voles. Others were found to feed on the vegetation that had been disturbed by the construction of prairie dog colonies. The digging of these burrows were also found to be beneficial for a number of plants because of the aeration of soil and fertilizing properties in their feces.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates; soil aeration ; keystone species
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Squirrels are hunted for their meat and pelts. Squirrel pelts were also once used as a form of currency. The modern word for money in Finland actually comes from a root word that means squirrel skins. Since their diets consist of mainly fruits and seeds, squirrels become very useful in seed dispersal. Squirrels that eat flowers or drink nectar may also aid in pollination. Squirrels are used in medical and scientific research. A research project at the Institute of Arctic Biology at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks has been studying hibernation in arctic ground squirrels to learn more about strokes, heart attacks, and neurodegenerative diseases in humans caused by reduced blood flow. Groundhogs suffer from a virus very similar to Hepatitis B in humans and exhibit similar disease progression such as cancer of the liver and liver disease. For this reason, these animals are used as models for studying the disease, treatments, and advances in liver transplant techniques (summarized in Thorington and Ferrell, 2006).
Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material; research and education; pollinates crops
The majority of problems sciurids cause humans are a result of their voracious appetites. These animals dig up seeds planted by farmers as well as devouring crops. Many ground and tree squirrels commonly participate in “bark stripping” where they pull the bark off of trees to get to the tissue underneath. This may stunt the growth of the tree, cause a reduction in fruit production, or cause the tree to die. Ranchers see prairie dogs as a threat, although those threats are generally not substantiated. Squirrels can be seen as a nuisance to homeowners as well. They may chew through electrical and telephone wiring, insulation, and house siding. Squirrels sometimes climb into and cache food in transformers and generators, causing power outages in surrounding communities. Squirrels may carry diseases, such as plague, which can be transmitted to humans and domestic animals. In western North America, rock squirrels and prairie dog species are the most common and frequent source of transmission to humans.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest; causes or carries domestic animal disease ; household pest
Squirrels are a diverse group consisting of approximately 279 species and 51 genera that are broken into five subfamilies (Ratufinae, Sciurillinae, Sciurinae, Xerinae, and Callosciurinae). The family Sciuridae includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels, and flying squirrels. Tree squirrels have long, bushy tails, sharp claws and large ears. Some have well-developed ear tufts. Flying squirrels have a furred membrane (patagium) extending between the wrist and ankle that allows them to glide between trees. Ground squirrels are generally more robust than tree squirrels and often have short, sturdy forelimbs that are used for digging. Their tails, while fully furred, generally are not as bushy as those of tree squirrels.
Sciurids range in body size from mouse-sized African pygmy squirrels to robust red giant flying squirrels of Asia, weighing up to 3 kilograms. They vary greatly in geographic range and habitat. Squirrels are native throughout the world, with the exception of Antarctica, Australia, southern South America, and some desert regions. They occupy habitats ranging from tundra to rainforest. Some squirrels live solitary lives such as woodchucks, while others, such as prairie dogs, live in communities of hundreds of individuals with complex social structures. Squirrels are largely herbivorous, eating seeds, nuts, fruits, fungi, and other plant matter; however, insects, eggs and the occasional small vertebrate may be part of the diverse diet of these animals.
Of the 279 species of Sciuridae, two are listed as critically endangered while another 15 are listed as endangered and 16 are listed as vulnerable. The most endangered sciurid is the Vancouver Marmot (Marmota vancouverensis), consisting of only an estimated 35 individuals in the wild as of 2004. Common factors leading to these marmots being listed as endangered include destruction of habitat and human encroachment. Lack of accurate information on populations and threats is another important factor in sciurid conservation generally.
Squirrels have distinct vocalizations for particular situations, such as infants calling to their mothers and adults vocalizing during aggression. Males vocalize during the mating season to attract mates. Many squirrel species use distinctive alarm calls to warn conspecifics of dangers, including alarm calls that warn of specific threats, distinguishing between aerial and terrestrial predators. Squirrels also use posture and movement as a form of communication, with messages carried by tail position, stomping of the feet, or body posture. As in most mammals, olfaction is very important in communication. Females indicate sexual receptiveness through pheromones and social position or relatedness may also be inferred through chemical cues.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Sciurid mating systems are polygynandrous; multiple males may mate with multiple females in a single breeding season. Generally, females are widely dispersed and males do not defend a territory, but this behavior varies. Some species of ground squirrels live in groups, forcing males to defend a small territory to attract females. In North America, many sciurids have two peak times of reproduction each year: one from December to January and the other from May to June. The sciurid breeding season is marked by the development of male testes and sexual swelling of the females, as is common in many mammals. Males may follow the scent left by estrous females or they may simply chase females. Groups of males, ranging from 4 to 9 individuals, chase a female from branch to branch at top speeds in what is known as a “mating chase.” Typically, one dominant male stands out from the rest. His dominance is determined by his ability to keep close proximity both during and between mating chases. After the female accepts a particular male, copulation ensues, and the mating chase continues, allowing for multiple copulations for both males and females. Ground squirrels, however, have a different mating system because they hibernate through the winter. Females go into estrous soon after hibernation, marking the beginning of breeding season. Female receptivity varies between species. Shorter estrous allows a single male to mate a single female, while longer estrous allows a single female to mate with multiple males. Ground squirrel mating rituals take place underground or in the nest, therefore much of this behavior is unknown.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Gestation ranges from 29 to 65 days, depending on the size of the species, with smaller squirrels having shorter gestation periods. For squirrels that hibernate, mothers must wean their young in enough time to gain winter weight for hibernation. All sciurids give birth to their young in a nest. Although a single male can fertilize an entire litter, usually a litter has varying paternity, so a single litter could have multiple fathers. A typical litter consists of four offspring that are born naked, with closed eyes and ears. Development and sexual maturity varies from species to species, with some squirrels being able to leave the nest after 26 days, and reaching sexual maturity by 87 days, to squirrels that are fully developed after 42 days, but don’t reach sexual maturity until they are 3 years old. Hibernating squirrels tend to develop more quickly, with lactation times averaging 38 days. In tree and flying squirrels, lactation averages 70 days, longer than most other squirrel groups. African tree squirrels tend to be born at larger birth weights and have relatively shorter times to independence.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
All squirrels are altricial at birth. Parental investment involves the female providing food and care for the young. In species in which females aggregate, they may bequeath natal territory to juveniles, which increases survivorship. In some African sciurids, females share in the care of their young.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female); inherits maternal/paternal territory
Squirrels belong to a large family of small or medium-sized rodents called the Sciuridae. The family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels, chipmunks, marmots (including woodchucks), flying squirrels, and prairie dogs. Squirrels are indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa, and have been introduced to Australia. The earliest known squirrels date from the Eocene and are most closely related to the mountain beaver and to the dormouse among living rodent families.
Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae (/sɪˈjuːrɪdeɪ, -diː/), a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrels. Squirrels are indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa, and were introduced by humans to Australia.[1] The earliest known fossilized squirrels date from the Eocene epoch, and among other living rodent families, the squirrels are most closely related to the mountain beaver and to the dormice.
The word squirrel, first attested in 1327, comes from the Anglo-Norman esquirel which is from the Old French escurel, the reflex of a Latin word sciurus, which was taken from the Ancient Greek word σκίουρος (skiouros; from σκία-ουρος) 'shadow-tailed', referring to the long bushy tail which many of its members have.[2][3]
The native Old English word for the squirrel, ācweorna, survived into only Middle English (as aquerne) before being replaced.[4] The Old English word is of Common Germanic origin, cognates of which are still used in other Germanic languages, including the German Eichhörnchen (diminutive of Eichhorn, which is not as frequently used); the Norwegian ikorn/ekorn; the Dutch eekhoorn; the Swedish ekorre and the Danish egern.
A group of squirrels is called a "dray"[5] or a "scurry".[6]
Squirrels are generally small animals, ranging in size from the African pygmy squirrel and least pygmy squirrel at 10–14 cm (3.9–5.5 in) in total length and just 12–26 g (0.42–0.92 oz) in weight,[7][8] to the Bhutan giant flying squirrel at up to 1.27 m (4 ft 2 in) in total length,[9] and several marmot species, which can weigh 8 kg (18 lb) or more.[10][11] Squirrels typically have slender bodies with very long very bushy tails and large eyes. In general, their fur is soft and silky, though much thicker in some species than others. The coat color of squirrels is highly variable between—and often even within—species.[12]
In most squirrel species, the hind limbs are longer than the fore limbs, while all species have either four or five toes on each foot. The feet, which include an often poorly developed thumb, have soft pads on the undersides[13] and versatile, sturdy claws for grasping and climbing.[14] Tree squirrels, unlike most mammals, can descend a tree head-first. They do so by rotating their ankles 180 degrees, enabling the hind feet to point backward and thus grip the tree bark from the opposite direction.[15]
Squirrels live in almost every habitat, from tropical rainforest to semiarid desert, avoiding only the high polar regions and the driest of deserts. They are predominantly herbivorous, subsisting on seeds and nuts, but many will eat insects and even small vertebrates.[16]
As their large eyes indicate, squirrels have an excellent sense of vision, which is especially important for the tree-dwelling species. Many also have a good sense of touch, with vibrissae on their limbs as well as their heads.[13]
The teeth of sciurids follow the typical rodent pattern, with large incisors (for gnawing) that grow throughout life, and cheek teeth (for grinding) that are set back behind a wide gap, or diastema. The typical dental formula for sciurids is 1.0.1.31.0.1.3.[17]
Many juvenile squirrels die in the first year of life. Adult squirrels can have a lifespan of 5 to 10 years in the wild. Some can survive 10 to 20 years in captivity.[18] Premature death may occur when a nest falls from the tree, in which case the mother may abandon her young if their body temperature is not correct. Many such baby squirrels have been rescued and fostered by a professional wildlife rehabilitator until they could be safely returned to the wild,[19] although the density of squirrel populations in many places and the constant care required by premature squirrels means that few rehabilitators are willing to spend their time doing this and such animals are routinely euthanized instead.
Stated purposes of squirrels' tails, to benefit the squirrel, include:[20]
The hairs from squirrel tails are prized in fly fishing when tying fishing flies. A special quality of squirrel tail hair is that it is all guard hairs, not undercoat.
When the squirrel sits upright, its tail folded up its back may stop predators looking from behind from seeing the characteristic shape of a small mammal.
Squirrel in sunlight
Squirrel in Chandigarh
Squirrel near Chandigarh
Squirrel on mango tree
Squirrels mate either once or twice a year and, following a gestation period of three to six weeks, give birth to a number of offspring that varies by species. The young are altricial, being born naked, toothless, and blind. In most species of squirrel, the female alone looks after the young, which are weaned at six to ten weeks and become sexually mature by the end of their first year. In general, the ground-dwelling squirrel species are social, often living in well-developed colonies, while the tree-dwelling species are more solitary.[13]
Ground squirrels and tree squirrels are usually either diurnal or crepuscular,[21] while the flying squirrels tend to be nocturnal—except for lactating flying squirrels and their young, which have a period of diurnality during the summer.[22]
.jpg)
Because squirrels cannot digest cellulose, they must rely on foods rich in protein, carbohydrates, and fats. In temperate regions, early spring is the hardest time of year for squirrels because the nuts they buried are beginning to sprout (and thus are no longer available to eat), while many of the usual food sources are not yet available. During these times, squirrels rely heavily on tree buds. Squirrels, being primarily herbivores, eat a wide variety of plants, as well as nuts, seeds, conifer cones, fruits, fungi, and green vegetation. Some squirrels, however, also consume meat, especially when faced with hunger.[16][24] Squirrels have been known to eat small birds, young snakes, and smaller rodents, as well as bird eggs and insects. Some tropical squirrel species have shifted almost entirely to a diet of insects.[25]
Squirrels, like pigeons and other fauna, are synanthropes, in that they benefit and thrive from their interaction in human environments. This gradual process of successful interaction is called synurbanization, wherein squirrels lose their inherent fear of humans in an urban environment.[26] When squirrels were almost completely eradicated during the Industrial Revolution in New York, they were later re-introduced to "entertain and remind" humans of nature. The squirrel blended into the urban environment so efficiently that when synanthropic behavior stops (i.e. people do not leave trash outside during particularly cold winters), they can become aggressive in their search for food.
Aggression and predatory behavior has been observed in various species of ground squirrels, in particular the thirteen-lined ground squirrel.[27] For example, Bernard Bailey, a scientist in the 1920s, observed a thirteen-lined ground squirrel preying upon a young chicken.[28] Wistrand reported seeing this same species eating a freshly killed snake.[29] There has also been at least one report of squirrels preying on atypical animals, such as an incident in 2005 where a pack of black squirrels killed and ate a large stray dog in Lazo, Russia.[30] Squirrel attacks on humans are exceedingly rare, but do occur.[31][32]
Whitaker examined the stomachs of 139 thirteen-lined ground squirrels and found bird flesh in four of the specimens and the remains of a short-tailed shrew in one;[33] Bradley, examining the stomachs of white-tailed antelope squirrels, found at least 10% of his 609 specimens' stomachs contained some type of vertebrate, mostly lizards and rodents.[34] Morgart observed a white-tailed antelope squirrel capturing and eating a silky pocket mouse.[35]
The living squirrels are divided into five subfamilies, with about 58 genera and some 285 species.[36] The oldest squirrel fossil, Hesperopetes, dates back to the Chadronian (late Eocene, about 40–35 million years ago) and is similar to modern flying squirrels.[37]
A variety of fossil squirrels, from the latest Eocene to the Miocene, have not been assigned with certainty to any living lineage. At least some of these probably were variants of the oldest basal "protosquirrels" (in the sense that they lacked the full range of living squirrels' autapomorphies). The distribution and diversity of such ancient and ancestral forms suggest the squirrels as a group may have originated in North America.[38]
Apart from these sometimes little-known fossil forms, the phylogeny of the living squirrels is fairly straightforward. The three main lineages are the Ratufinae (Oriental giant squirrels), Sciurillinae and all other subfamilies. The Ratufinae contain a mere handful of living species in tropical Asia. The neotropical pygmy squirrel of tropical South America is the sole living member of the Sciurillinae. The third lineage, by far the largest, has a near-cosmopolitan distribution. This further supports the hypothesis that the common ancestor of all squirrels, living and fossil, lived in North America, as these three most ancient lineages seem to have radiated from there; if squirrels had originated in Eurasia, for example, one would expect quite ancient lineages in Africa, but African squirrels seem to be of more recent origin.[38]
The main group of squirrels can be split into five subfamilies. The Callosciurinae, 60 species mostly found in South East Asia; the Ratufinae 4 cat-sized species found in south and southeast Asia; the Sciurinae contains the flying squirrels (Pteromyini) and the tree squirrels, 83 species found world wide;[39] Sciurillinae a single South American species; and Xerinae includes three tribes of mostly terrestrial squirrels, including the Marmotini (marmots, chipmunks, prairie dogs, and other Holarctic ground squirrels), Xerini (African and some Eurasian ground squirrels), and Protoxerini (African tree squirrels).
Squirrels have been kept as pets in Western society at least until the 19th century. Because of their small size and tame nature, they were especially popular with women and the clergy.[40]
Squirrels are a cause for concern because they often cause electrical disruptions. It has been hypothesized that the threat to the internet, infrastructure and services posed by squirrels may exceed that posed by cyber-attacks.[41]
Squirrels have been reported to be "successfully trained" in Chongqing, China to sniff out illicit drugs and in 2023, a team of six Eurasian red squirrels had become part of a sub-unit within the Chongqing city police dog brigade. According to Chongqing police department, their small size and agility are beneficial as they are able to help the police detect drugs through "tiny spaces" in warehouses and storage units that dogs are unable to reach. Yin Jin, a police dog handler, who had been assigned to train these squirrels told The Paper that "these squirrels have an acute sense of smell. But in the past, our training problems for small rodents was not developed enough to attempt a program like this" and that her team of squirrels have so far done an "excellent job" in drug detection exercises, but are not yet ready to be deployed.[42][43][44]
Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae (/sɪˈjuːrɪdeɪ, -diː/), a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrels. Squirrels are indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa, and were introduced by humans to Australia. The earliest known fossilized squirrels date from the Eocene epoch, and among other living rodent families, the squirrels are most closely related to the mountain beaver and to the dormice.
