Adult common kingsnake diet varies across subspecies and is very broad, but published reports are available for a few representative subspecies. Eastern kingsnakes and Florida kingsnakes feed mainly on other snakes, including venomous snakes (coral snakes, copperheads, massasaugas, and rattlesnakes), eastern garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis), northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon), ring-neck snakes (Diadophis punctatus), smooth earth snakes (Virginia valerius), and worm snakes (Carphasphis amonenus). They also feed on five-lined skinks (Plestiodon fasciatus), white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus), and the eggs of northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus).
Diet also varies by subspecies. Black kingsnakes feed primarily on hognosed snakes (Heterodon platirhinos), red-bellied snakes (Storeria occipitomaculata), black racers (Coluber constrictor), black rat snakes (Pantherophis obsoletus), fence lizards (Sceloporus consobrinus), red spotted newts (Notophthalmus viridescens), house mice (Mus musculus), and meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus). Black desert kingsnakes prey mainly on house mice (Mus), rats (Rattus), and southern desert horned lizards (Phrynosoma platyrhinos calidiarum). Megonigal (1985) reported seeing a speckled kingsnake kill and eat an adult copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix). They also eat other non-venomous snakes, birds, vertebrate eggs, lizards, mice, and rats. California kingsnakes prey on mice, gopher snakes (Pituophis), California alligator lizards (Elgaria multicarinata multicarinata), and racers (Coluber).
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; amphibians; reptiles; eggs; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)
Predators of common kingsnakes include; alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Florida, larger snakes, hawks, raccoons (Procyon lotor), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana). Common kingsnakes have several defenses against potential predators. The most common is hissing, striking, “S” shaped striking pose, biting, and flight. They flee when threatened, rather than hold their ground. They are also able to spread a pungent musk that serves as an alarm substance to other common kingsnakes in the area. The banded and striped pattern of California kingsnakes, and other subspecies, disguises their movement and body outline when they are fleeing from a predator. Their coloration may make them cryptic in leaf litter and against other backgrounds.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Because the physical description of Lampropeltis getula varies so greatly across subspecies, each will be described in turn. One measure they all share is the length of hatchlings: 20 to 28 cm at hatching. Adult eastern kingsnakes (L. g. getula) can reach a length of 61 to 153 cm. They are large, solid, glossy black snakes with yellow (sometimes white) crossbars extending the length of the snake. The head is solid black with several yellow or white spots decorating the head scales. Speckled kingsnakes (L. g. holbrooki) can reach a length of 51 to 132 cm as adults. They are black with yellow “specks” on and throughout its scales. The underside is pale yellow to white with some of the black scales curling around the sides. California kingsnakes (L. g. california) can reach lengths of 91 to 106 cm. They have white crossbars intercepting black patches along the length of the back. The head is normally white with a black top and a few black scales on the side. Adult Florida kingsnakes (L. g. floridana) can be 106 to 138 cm long. The only major difference between Florida kingsnakes and eastern kingsnakes has 60 crossbands, whereas eastern kingsnakes have only 30. The underbelly is pale yellow with alternating patterns of black scales in a “zigzag” pattern. Black kingsnakes (L. g. niger), reach 91 to 122 cm and are rarely totally black. They normally have traces of approximately 50 to 95 faint crossbars of yellow or white spots. Outer Banks kingsnakes (L. g. stricticeps) can reach 123 to 153 cm. They can be easily mistaken for other subspecies including eastern, speckled, and Florida kingsnakes. They have yellow crossbars and yellow “specks” between the crossbars, as well as a mostly pale yellow underbellies with some black scales extending to the sides. Black desert kingsnakes (L. g. nigrita) can reach lengths of 106 to 132 cm. They are black and glossy with approximately 75 thin yellow crossbars. This subspecies also has yellow spots on the black scales that extend to the sides of the snake.
Range mass: 1361 to 2268 g.
Average mass: 1814 g.
Range length: 8 to 153 cm.
Average length: 130 cm.
Other Physical Features: heterothermic
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
Little information is available on the longevity of wild common kingsnakes. Most available information is from captive snakes. Ernst and Barbour (1989) found that the oldest wild common kingsnake was 9 years old (reported in 1937). AnAge reported that the longest living kingsnake in captivity was 33.3 years old.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 9 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 5.5 years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 33.3 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 33.3 years.
Primary habitat varies by subspecies. Common kingsnakes can be found in forests, grasslands, deserts, and urban areas. Microhabitats of most subspecies include: under wood or lumber, in trash piles, barns, along stone walls, on sunny railroad embankments, in stump holes, or in sunny clearings. Coastal subspecies like Florida kingsnakes and some eastern kingsnakes can be found along the edges of swamps, marshes, and dikes. Other subspecies, such as California kingsnakes and black desert kingsnakes are restricted to arid areas. Elevation also varies by subspecies. For example, California kingsnakes have the widest range in elevation, from the Pacific coastline to 915 m. Eastern kingsnakes (123 to 305 m) and black kingsnakes (153 to 305 m) share similar limited elevation ranges. Speckled kingsnakes can be found at elevations up to 610 meters.
Range elevation: 0 to 915 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains
Wetlands: marsh ; swamp
Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural ; riparian
Common kingsnakes are one of the only kingsnake species found throughout most of North America. There are seven subspecies of Lampropeltis getula in North America. Lampropeltis getula getula (eastern kingsnake) is found on the east coast of North America from southern New Jersey and southeast Pennsylvania to the eastern parts of West Virginia, southwest to Mobile Bay, Alabama, and east through northern Florida. Lampropeltis getula floridana (Florida kingsnake) is found on the peninsula of Florida south to Dade County. Lampropeltis getula californiae (California kingsnake) is restricted to southwestern California and Baja California. Lampropeltis getula holbrooki (speckled kingsnake) is found in southwestern Illinois, eastern Iowa, and south central Alabama. Lampropeltis getula nigra (black kingsnake) is found west of the Appalachian mountains and east of the Mississippi River; this includes the region from West Virginia to southern Ohio, southeastern Illinois, and northern Alabama. Lampropeltis getula sticticeps (Outer Banks kingsnake) is found only in North Carolina from Cape Hatteras to Cape Lookout. Lampropeltis getula nigrita (black desert kingsnake) can be found in southern Arizona and northwestern Mexico. Subspecies overlap and interbreed in several different regions across North America.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
Common kingsnakes are beneficial for the ecosystem. They help keep rodent and frog populations in balance as well as other snakes like rattlesnakes (Crotalus) and cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus). They are also prey for larger snakes and predatory birds and mammals. Snider and Bawler (1992) conducted a study to find if parasites were the cause of common kingsnake declines in Florida. They found suggestions of parasite activity but no direct evidence. Van Peenan and Birdwell (1968) found evidence of several species of parasites affecting common kingsnakes. These include apicomplexan species (Sarcocystis and Eimeria species).
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Common kingsnakes are one of the most popular snakes to own as pets, next to boa constrictors (Boa constrictor). They play an important role in controlling populations of venomous snakes, which can pose a threat to humans.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; controls pest population
Other than the occasional defensive bite, there are no known adverse effects of Lampropeltis getula on humans.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings)
Snake eggs have a large amount of yolk that contains the fats and the carbohydrates necessary for embryo development. Towards the final stages of development, the fetal snake absorbs the yolk. Additionally, some of the calcium for the egg’s shell is extracted by the embryo and is used to form its skeleton. After the skeleton is formed, the shell becomes thinner and more flexible. Oxygen exchange decreases over time, which in turn urges the hatchling to break out of the egg, using the deciduous egg "tooth" on the nose.
After common kingsnakes hatch, they stay in the nest until they shed their skin for the first time. This normally takes about a week. The hatchlings then disperse. Information about post-hatching is scarce. Common kingsnakes reach sexual maturity at approximately half their potential maximum size from 60 to 92 cm. In captivity, they can reach sexual maturity much sooner because of an abundant food source and limited parasites and disease.
Development - Life Cycle: indeterminate growth
Common kingsnakes are listed as a “species of concern” on the U.S. Federal list. This may be because Florida kingsnakes, L. g. floridana, are in decline. Reasons for declines include anthropogenic causes through extensive pet trade, road fatalities, and habitat loss. Invasive fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) are also harming L. g. floridana populations by competing for food sources like turtle eggs.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
There is not a great deal of information about how common kingsnakes communicate. However, some research has investigated the role of their cloacal scent glands in mating and deterrents. Brisbin (1968) conducted an experiment dealing with a captive-bred eastern kingsnake female that was placed on a table with the scent of a wild-caught male Florida kingsnake. The female showed evidence of an “alarm-reaction” by twisting away and secreting her own scents from her glands. Common kingsnakes most likely communicate with their tongues (providing sense of smell and taste), and their scent gland secretions. Indeed, they often follow the scent gland secretions of the opposite sex for mating purposes. They also have been observed using tongue flicks to find chemical signatures. These behaviors could be related to sexual behaviors by use of pheromones or as a repellent. They have excellent vision, like most species of snakes. Hearing is extremely restricted to the sensing of vibrations.
Communication Channels: visual ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic ; vibrations ; chemical
Male common kingsnakes compete for females. If two males are in the same area they will both raise their heads, necks, and fore parts of their bodies and entwine them. Males then try to press each other to the ground. The losing male will retreat and lay coiled in a prone position with his head flat to the ground. The victorious male will return to the female who waits nearby and copulate. Males are able to find females through pheromone trails. When mating, males lie atop females and bite their necks. Males then coil their tails under the females until their cloacas align. The male uses his hemipenis to enter the females’ cloacae. Copulation can last for several minutes to several hours.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Common kingsnakes mate in the spring, allowing females time to lay their eggs when the weather is still warm enough for proper incubation. Their gestation period is about 60 days. In warmer climates (e.g. Florida), courtship can begin as early as March. In northern portions of the range, courtship is delayed until April or May.
A female may produce a single clutch from multiple mates. Females may also produce more than one clutch per season as a result of more than one mating. The female chooses the nesting site, which can include rotting logs and stumps, as well as sawdust piles. Common kingsnakes breed yearly and have been known to produce more than one clutch per season. The breeding season is between March and August. The average number of offspring is 10 eggs per clutch (range 3 to 24). Average gestation period for female kingsnakes is 60 to 62 days (range 50 to 80 days). Hatchlings can weigh between 9 and 14 grams. Females reach sexual maturity at 2 to 4 years. Males reach sexual maturity at age 1 to 4.
Breeding interval: Yearly, common kingsnakes have been known to produce more than one clutch per season.
Breeding season: Common kingsnakes breed from March to August.
Range number of offspring: 3 to 24.
Average number of offspring: 10.
Range gestation period: 50 to 80 days.
Average gestation period: 60-62 days.
Range time to independence: 3 to 14 days.
Average time to independence: 7 days.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 to 4 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2-3 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 to 4 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2-3 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; sexual ; oviparous
After copulation the male will leave the female and not return to help with parental care. After the female lays her eggs she will disperse and not return to the nest.
Parental Investment: no parental involvement; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)
Lampropeltis getula, commonly known as the eastern kingsnake,[3] common kingsnake,[4] or chain kingsnake,[5] is a harmless colubrid species endemic to the United States and Mexico. It has long been a favorite among collectors.[5] Nine subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.[6]
Adult specimens of the speckled kingsnake, L. g. holbrooki, are the smallest race at 91.5 cm (36.0 in) in snout-to-vent length (SVL) on average, while L. g. getula is the largest at 107 cm (42 in) SVL on average.[7] Specimens up to 208.2 cm (82.0 in) in total length (including tail) have been recorded.[8] Weight can vary from 285 g (10.1 oz) in a small specimen of 87.2 cm (34.3 in) in total length, to 2,268 g (80.0 oz) in large specimens, of over 153 cm (60 in) in total length.[7][9]
The color pattern consists of a glossy black, blue black, or dark brown ground color, overlaid with a series of 23-52 white chain-like rings.[5][10] Kingsnakes from the coastal plains have wider bands, while those found in mountainous areas have thinner bands or may be completely black.
Common names for L. getula include eastern kingsnake,[3] common kingsnake,[4] chain kingsnake,[5] kingsnake, Carolina kingsnake, chain snake, bastard horn snake, black kingsnake, black moccasin, common chain snake, cow sucker, eastern kingsnake, horse racer, master snake, North American kingsnake, oakleaf rattler, pied snake, pine snake, racer, rattlesnake pilot, thunder-and-lightning snake, thunderbolt, thunder snake, wamper, wampum snake.[10] In North Carolina, it is also called the pied piper.
L. getula is found in the United States in Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, portions of Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, south and southwest Illinois, southern Indiana, southern Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, southern and western Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, southern Ohio, Oklahoma, southern Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, southern Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia. It is also found in northern Mexico, including all of Baja California.[2] It has been introduced to Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands, where in 2014, the population had reached an estimated 20,000 individuals.[11]
The preferred habitats of L. getula are open areas, particularly grassland, but also chaparral, oak woodland, abandoned farms, desert, low mountains, sand, and any type of riparian zone, including swamps, canals, and streams. A study on the habitat use of the Eastern Kingsnake found that overall they prefer and can be found in sites with thick layer of leaf litter and dense shrubbery. From their observations throughout the course of research, they found that 79% of their tracked specimen spent the majority of their time concealed under the cover of soil and leaf litter.[12]
Although commonly described as diurnal, some reports suggest that the Eastern Kingsnake are crepuscular or nocturnal during the hottest parts of the year. [13]They will often retreat into rodent burrows as nocturnal retreats.[14]
It has been found that Eastern Kingsnake home ranges often show little-to-no overlap.[15]
Some studies show that Eastern Kingsnakes (L. g. getula), especially males, are territorial, and will commence in combat if their territory is threatened by another snake.[15]
L. getula eats other snakes, including venomous snakes such as copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix), which are responsible for more venomous snakebites than any other in the United States, as well as coral snakes (Micruroides and Micrurus), massasaugas (Sistrurus catenatus), and other rattlesnakes (Crotalus and Sistrurus).[16] Among the non-venomous snakes preyed upon include common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis), common watersnakes (Nerodia sipedon), ring-necked snakes (Diadophis punctatus), smooth earth snakes (Virginia valeriae), and worm snakes (Carphophis amoenus).[16]
It has developed a hunting technique to avoid being bitten by clamping down on the jaws of the venomous prey, but even if envenomated, it is immune. It also eats amphibians, turtle eggs, bird eggs (including those of the northern bobwhite [Colinus virginianus]),[16] lizards (such as five-lined skinks [Plestiodon fasciatus]),[16] and small mammals (such as white-footed mice [Peromyscus leucopus]),[16] which it kills by constriction.[17]
Due to their diet of eating other snake species, kingsnakes are a key factor in the spread of ophidiomycosis. This is a relatively new snake fungal disease originating from the fungus, Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. This disease has a variety of impacts on snakes and the extent of this impact is still being researched.[18]
L. getula is oviparous. Adult females lay up to several dozen eggs that hatch after 2.0-2.5 months of incubation. Hatchlings are brightly colored and feed on small snakes, lizards, and rodents.[5] Eastern Kingsnakes (L. g. getula) are active from April–October in most parts of their habitat range and breeding occurs in the spring months.[19] Neck-biting is a common behavior when mating.[20]
Long a favorite among collectors, L. getula does well in captivity, living to 25 years or more. Some of the most popular subspecies of the common kingsnake kept in captivity are the California, Brooks', Florida, and Mexican black kingsnakes.[5]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Lampropeltis getula, commonly known as the eastern kingsnake, common kingsnake, or chain kingsnake, is a harmless colubrid species endemic to the United States and Mexico. It has long been a favorite among collectors. Nine subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.
