dcsimg

Distribution in Egypt

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Nile region, Oases, Mediterranean region and Sinai.

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Global Distribution

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Macaronesia, Europe, Mediterranean region, west Asia; widely cultivated for fodder in many regions of the World, probably native of west Asia.

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Associations

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Plant / resting place / on
Acyrthosiphon pisum may be found on live Medicago sativa
Remarks: season: winter

Foodplant / miner
larva of Agromyza frontella mines leaf of Medicago sativa
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Apion filirostre feeds within bud of Medicago sativa

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / feeds on
pycnidium of Ascochyta coelomycetous anamorph of Ascochyta imperfecta feeds on live stem of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / feeds on
basally immersed pseudothecium of Byssothecium circinans feeds on rootstock of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / spot causer
acervulus of Colletotrichum coelomycetous anamorph of Colletotrichum trifolii causes spots on live stem of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / feeds on
Hypera meles feeds on Medicago sativa

Foodplant / spot causer
conidioma of Sporonema coelomycetous anamorph of Leptotrochila medicaginis causes spots on live leaf of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / miner
larva of Liriomyza congesta mines leaf of Medicago sativa
Other: major host/prey

Plant / resting place / within
puparium of Ophiomyia curvipalpis may be found in stem of Medicago sativa
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / sap sucker
Palomena prasina sucks sap of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / parasite
sporangium of Peronospora aestivalis parasitises live Medicago sativa
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / parasite
sporangium of Peronospora trifoliorum parasitises live Medicago sativa

Foodplant / pathogen
pycnidium of Phoma coelomycetous anamorph of Phoma medicaginis var. medicaginis infects and damages live stem of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / spot causer
immersed pycnidium of Phyllosticta coelomycetous anamorph of Phyllosticta medicaginis causes spots on live leaf of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / gall
Physoderma alfalfae causes gall of live, conspicously warted stipule of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / spot causer
apothecium of Pseudopeziza medicaginis causes spots on live leaf of Medicago sativa
Remarks: season: 6-12

Foodplant / feeds on
larva of Sitona hispidulus feeds on root of Medicago sativa

Foodplant / feeds on
larva of Sitona lepidus feeds on Medicago sativa

Foodplant / parasite
mostly hypophyllous uredium of Uromyces pisi-sativi parasitises live leaf of Medicago sativa
Other: minor host/prey

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Comments

provided by eFloras
Lucerne or alfalfa is widely cultivated as fodder.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 305 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
source
Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
editor
S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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eFloras.org
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Description

provided by eFloras
Mostly erect to suberect perennial herbs, 30-60 cm, pubescent to subglabrous. Leaflets 5-20 mm long, 3-10 mm broad, obovate to sublinear, dentate at apex, appressed pubescent; entire or dentate at base. Inflorescence a peduncled raceme, peduncle much longer than petiole. Calyx teeth as long as the tube. Corolla 6-12 mm long, violet to pale lavender. Fruit falcate or in a loose spiral of 11-4 turns, glabrous to appressed pilose, 10-20-seeded.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 305 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
source
Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
editor
S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
project
eFloras.org
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Distribution

provided by eFloras
Distribution: Pakistan, India, Central Asia to Europe, Orient and N. Africa; widely cultivated.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 305 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
source
Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
editor
S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
project
eFloras.org
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Distribution

provided by eFloras
Probably a native of the Mediterranean region and W. Asia, now introduced and naturalised widely in the temperate regions of the world.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal Vol. 0 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
source
Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal @ eFloras.org
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K.K. Shrestha, J.R. Press and D.A. Sutton
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Elevation Range

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2900 m
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal Vol. 0 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
source
Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal @ eFloras.org
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K.K. Shrestha, J.R. Press and D.A. Sutton
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Flower/Fruit

provided by eFloras
Fl.Per.: May-September.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 305 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
source
Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
editor
S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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eFloras.org
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Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
alfalfa
lucerne
luzerne
snailclover
purple medick
yellow alfalfa
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bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Value

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cover, density, marsh

Dabbling ducks (mallards, gadwalls, blue-winged teals, northern pintail,
northern shovelers, American green-winged teals, and American wigeons)
will use haylands for nesting, although this is not the most preferred
nesting cover. Over 80 percent of nests found in haylands are found in
alfalfa, which is highly attractive to mallards and gadwalls after it
has reached half of its mature height and density [16,64,73].

Sharp-tailed grouse and prairie chickens prefer early seral vegetation,
such as retired crop and haylands that contain alfalfa, for courtship
grounds [63,83]. Areas in the cropland adjustment program (CAP), in
which seeded grasses and legumes (particularly alfalfa) are left for
wildlife habitat, are used for food and cover by a variety of birds,
including pheasant, sharp-tailed grouse, greater prairie chicken,
American bitterns, marsh hawks, short-eared owls, and many passerine
birds [30].

Regional cover values of alfalfa for selected wildlife species are as
follows [27]:

UT CO WY MT ND
Elk ---- poor ---- poor ----
Mule deer poor ---- poor ---- good
White-tailed deer ---- poor good good ----
Antelope poor fair poor good good
Upland game birds good good good good good
Waterfowl fair ---- good ---- good
Small nongame birds good good good good good
Small mammals good good good good good
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bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Description

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: association, herb

Alfalfa is an introduced perennial herb. It can reach 24 to 35 inches
(60-90 cm) in height, with 5 to 25 or more erect stems per plant, which
arise from a narrow, woody crown. It has a deep taproot, 10 to 17 feet
(3-5 m) in sandy soils, and 23 to 30 feet (7-9 m) under favorable
conditions [50,110]. Many older plants have roots up to 63 feet (19 m)
deep. A record depth of 130 feet (39 m) was reported in the roof of a
mine tunnel in Nevada [39]. Varieties are available with different root
system types: taproot, branching roots, rhizomatous, and creeping
(horizontal rootstocks that give rise to independent plants) [94,110].
The roots form nodules in association with Rhizobium spp. bacteria,
which fix atmospheric nitrogen. Alfalfa also has endomycorrhizal
associates [27].

Saponic glycosides are found in alfalfa, which are suspected of
contributing to bloat in ruminants [29].
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bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Alfalfa originated in southwestern Asia, was first cultivated in Iran,
and now has a worldwide distribution due to its popularity as an
agricultural species. It was introduced into the United States in 1736
in Georgia, but it was not until around 1850 that it began to be more
widely planted. It is planted in all 50 states and is widely planted in
Canada. It is naturalized in many areas [12,37,50,95].
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bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Ecology

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: fire regime, root crown

As a perennial with a narrow root crown, alfalfa will survive most fires
by sprouting after being top-killed. Alfalfa hard seeds may be
scarified by moderate-severity fires [126,91].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
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cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Management Considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: fire management, forb, fuel

The fire susceptibility of rangeland vegetation depends on the reduction
of fuel loads through animal use or drought which reduces standing crop
size [49].

Seeded alfalfa fields are often burned prior to growth initiation in the
spring to reduce insect pests. This treatment results in destruction of
insect eggs and adults, and reduces debris from the previous growing
season that encourages insect population growth. Since soil preburn
conditions are attained within 160 days of the fire, it is unlikely
that a 3-year interval between fires would be detrimental to the soil
[28].

Under current evaluation is a method of presuppression fire management
called "greenstrip management." This involves the production of a
vegetative fuelbreak of green plants that are less flammable than the
surrounding native vegetation. Alfalfa is the most commonly used forb
for this purpose [86].
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cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: geophyte, hemicryptophyte

Hemicryptophyte
Geophyte
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bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat characteristics

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Alfalfa is well adapted to a wide range of climatic and edaphic
conditions, but it does best in deep, loamy soils with porous subsoils.
It is intolerant of flooding, waterlogging, or poor soil drainage. It
requires large amounts of lime. Alfalfa does not do well on acid or
very alkaline soils, although it will tolerate some alkalinity. It has
fair salt tolerance [47,50,110]. It is naturalized to roadsides, old
fields, and waste places [37].

Alfalfa will tolerate drought and is known as a good producer in dry
years. It needs about 12 inches (30 cm) of precipitation per year on
good soils, 14 inches (36 cm) on less favorable soils [111]. Irrigation
greatly enhances productivity in dry climates [50,106].

Regional elevation distributions are as follows:

Utah 4,500 - 8,600 ft (1,364-2,606 m)
Colorado 4,800 - 8,500 ft (1,455-2,576 m)
Wyoming 3,700 - 8,800 ft (1,121-2,667 m)
Montana 3,400 - 6,600 ft (1,030-2,000 m) [27]
Idaho up to 8,000 ft (up to 2,424 m) [110]

Alfalfa does poorly at high elevations [53,109].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

Occurs in most SAF Cover Types
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cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

More info for the term: shrub

FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
FRES17 Elm - ash - cottonwood
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir - spruce
FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon - juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
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cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

Occurs in most Kuchler Plant Associations
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bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Rangeland Cover Types

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the term: cover

Occurs in most SRM Cover Types
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Immediate Effect of Fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: root crown, top-kill

Moderately severe fires will top-kill alfalfa shoots, and severe fires
may cause damage to or kill the root crown, killing the plant [85].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cover, formation, frequency

Alfalfa is consumed by most herbivores and omnivores, including all
classes of livestock and big game animals. It is valued for
rehabilitation of overgrazed ranges in part because it begins growth
early and retains green succulence later than grasses [111]. Graham
[45] reported that 27 species of birds and 46 species of mammals are
known to use alfalfa. Birds utilizing the leaves, flowers, or seeds
include sage grouse, sharptailed grouse, pheasant, California quail,
gray partridge, American wigeon, mallard, and little brown crane
[88,104,111]. Alfalfa is consumed by juvenile prairie chickens in
summer, composing up to 7 percent of crop volume [101].

The seeds are consumed by rodents, rabbits, upland birds, waterfowl, and
songbirds. They are a preferred food for deer mice in Nevada [35].
Alfalfa is a source of nectar and pollen for insects [111,114]. Many
small mammals, including jackrabbits, marmots, pocket gophers, prairie
dogs, various ground squirrels, kangaroo rats, and mice graze alfalfa.
Pocket gophers consume roots [45,111].

Stands containing alfalfa are a preferred location for brood rearing by
Canada geese. They nest elsewhere, then bring the brood to these sites,
apparently for both food and cover [48]. The gray partridge is often
found nesting in agricultural lands containing alfalfa [11].

Alfalfa is rated as highly valuable for elk in summer and fall, but it
is not used as food in winter and spring [1,6,67,111]. Alfalfa use by
mule deer and white-tailed deer is highest in summer and fall
[1,6,26,108,111]. Mule deer in the Great Basin sagebrush formation in
California will use small amounts of alfalfa through the winter [68].
Alfalfa is a highly preferred species for pronghorn in the summer. Does
and fawns were found at greater frequency on sites planted with alfalfa
mixtures than on adjacent shrub-dominated rangeland [111,127]. Moose
will consume alfalfa in summer, and bighorn sheep consume alfalfa in
winter and spring [6,92].
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cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Life Form

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: forb

Forb
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bibliographic citation
Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: competition, cool-season, cover, forbs, forest, grassland, litter, natural, prescribed fire, presence, seed, selection, shrub, shrubs, warm-season, wildfire

Alfalfa is the most highly valued and widely planted legume. Before
planting, however, managers should take into account the grazing
management plan for the range unit. Seeded species can do more
harm than good, and alfalfa may not always be the most appropriate
legume [46,97]. There is a general trend for preferring native species
for rangeland over introduced species where feasible. It is often the
case that assembly of native seed mixtures is more expensive than
commercially available seed. There are, however, some companies that
are starting to make native legumes available [96,97].

The choice of alfalfa for plantings should depend on climatic and
edaphic conditions favorable to alfalfa establishment. A minimum of 10
to 12 inches (28-38 cm) of precipitation is needed, at least half of it
not snow. Alfalfa is the only exotic legume recommended for planting in
southwestern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta [56]. It appears to
be limited by high elevations [109]. Alfalfa performance and
persistence is quite variable and is dependent on a number of factors,
not all of them predictable [42]. Seedings of alfalfa mixtures in
southeastern Oregon have persisted for 17 years or more, and as long or
longer in other western states [60,99]. The weather factors following
seeding are considered to be highly important in determining successful
establishment. A severe frost following germination is lethal [50].

Grazing management is also influential in establishment and persistence.
'Nomad' alfalfa normally forms seed, so grazing prescriptions that are
designed to favor trampling of seed (thus scarifying it and making a
firm seedbed) may improve persistence [60]. A general trend in western
rangeland seedings is that initial establishment and productivity are
usually good to excellent and drop off as the stand matures [95]. In
southern Oregon, a 1972 aerial seeding of 'Nomad' alfalfa in stands of
crested wheatgrass was "spotty" by 1975 and still lower by 1986. In a
pinyon-juniper type in central Utah, initial coverage of alfalfa on a
chained and seeded rangeland was excellent but declined slightly from
1982 to 1985 [21]. Creeping rooted cultivars are longer lived than
other strains on sites with 12.6 to 15 inches (32-38 cm) precipitation
[51]. The value of alfalfa is such that even a small amount contributes
to forage quality and productivity [49].

Since it is difficult to choose seed mixtures that are perfectly adapted
to particular conditions and produce a specified composition of species,
mixtures of a wide variety of seeds are preferred in most cases [21].
The choice of the grass species to be seeded with alfalfa has an effect
on alfalfa persistence. 'Whitmar' bluebunch wheatgrass
(Pseudoroegenaria spicata) allowed more alfalfa to coexist than did
'Greenar' bluebunch wheatgrass or 'Nordan' crested wheatgrass (Agropyron
cristatum) [60].

In the western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) zone of central Oregon,
a range planting study failed to establish alfalfa. The area receives
11 to 15 inches (28-38 cm) precipitation and has shallow clayey loam
soil. The author concluded that the inclusion of seeds of grasses,
forbs, and shrubs other than crested wheatgrass and Siberian wheatgrass
(Agropyron sibiricum) is "questionable" for the western juniper zone
[69]. It is probable that the planting conditions may have been too dry
for good establishment or that deer or rodents may have damaged the seed
and/or seedlings too heavily. There are other reports of range seeding
failures and plantings that did not have productivity results as high as
expected; these also may have failed to take into account initial
planting conditions or may have failed for more obscure reasons
(competition, rodent predation on seeds or roots etc.) [14,23,60,102].

For rangeland improvement in aspen (Populus spp.) parklands in
Saskatchewan, smooth brome (Bromus inermis) is planted with alfalfa.
Areas that have been chained and seeded are susceptible to regrowth of
aspen and prickly rose (Rosa acicularis) suckers. Application of
herbicides to control aspen and prickly rose have a detrimental effect
on alfalfa. Alfalfa is sensitive to picloram, 2,4,-D and 2,4,5-T, and
is killed at levels applied to control woody species [7]. It may
therefore be only beneficial to include alfalfa in such plantings when a
mix of 2,4-D and picloram is applied 5 to 10 years after the forage
stand is seeded [8]. In a study to control woody reinvaders (aspen and
snowberry [Symphoricarpos occidentalis]) in burned and seeded aspen
parkland, it was found that early season, short-duration heavy grazing
severely reduced competition from woody suckers. Newly germinated
forage seedlings survived better and resulted in a more rapid
establishment of forages than under either late-season, short-duration
heavy grazing or no grazing [4].

Establishment: Alfalfa establishes best with a firm seedbed, and
drilling is the preferred method of seeding in most areas
[42,53,91,110]. Recommended planting depth is 1/4 to 1/2 inch (1 mm-
2 mm) [53]. Seed germination is inhibited by the presence of pine and
juniper litter over buried seed. In pinyon-juniper types, germination
may be enhanced by broadcast seeding rather than drilling [34,89]. No
added nitrogen is needed if the seed is inoculated with Rhizobium
bacteria. However, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur should be
supplemented if the soil is deficient in these nutrients [110,114]. The
acid intolerance of alfalfa may be overcome by the addition of calcium
and nitrogen fertilizers, which counteracted the effects of low pH under
laboratory conditions [115].

Some recommended seeding rates (certified pure live seed) are as
follows:

For pure stands 15 - 20 lbs per acre (17-22 kg/ha) [50]
9 lbs per acre (10 kg/ha) [110]
10-15 lbs per acre(12.5-22 kg/ha) [53]

For mixed stands 1-2 lbs per acre (1.25-2.5 kg/ha) [53,111]
2.5 lbs per acre (2.8 kg/ha) [99]

Viable seed is bright olive green [111].

No significant effect on yield was detected between applications where
all seeds were mixed and seeded, and applications where alfalfa was
seeded alternately with crested wheatgrass [101].

The preference of deer mice for alfalfa seed has contribute seeding
failures in Nevada; deer and rodents probably contributed to seeding
failures in northeastern Washington and on a subalpine grassland study
in north-central Washington [32,35,109]. In a study of the combined and
individual effects of deer, rabbit, and rodent use of alfalfa, deer use
was found to have a greater negative impact than rabbit use. Rabbit
damage is usually minimal, except in peak rabbit population years [95].
The soil-loosening effect of alfalfa roots may increase rodent burrowing
activity, which can contribute to postestablishment failures [45].

Seeding dates vary with location. In South Dakota, late summer seedings
are more successful than spring seedings. Sowing can take place later
farther south; near the Gulf of Mexico, alfalfa can be sown as late as
October, and in the Southwest, plantings can be made as late as
December. North and east of Nebraska, spring sowing is usually best
with a companion grain crop [50]. If the management goal is to provide
a seasonally balanced grassland, it is important to delay seeding to
favor warm-season species. If planted too early, the tendency is to
establish a stand dominated by cool-season species [84].

Planting methods and further management considerations are detailed in
Horton 1989 [53], Hull and others 1958 [55], Love and Jones 1952 [73],
and in:

1. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station. 1979. User guide to vegetation. Gen. Tech.
Rep. INT-64. Ogden, UT.
2. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station. 1979. User guide to soils. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-68. Ogden, UT.

For postfire regeneration projects in Alberta, where much of the organic
matter is destroyed by fire, alfalfa seeded with wheatgrasses, red
fescue, brome grasses, and clovers is more successful in spring
plantings than fall plantings [2]. The concern has been raised that
seeding introduced species such as alfalfa can suppress native
vegetation. In degraded big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) habitat
types, cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) is an invading species that is
reduced by moderate to severe wildfires. Since the native perennial
grass seed bank in these areas is depauperate, postfire seeding of
introduced species after such wildfires can greatly reduce the acreage
invaded by cheatgrass. These seedings appear to prevent revegetation by
species native to the area, so managers must be able to judge which
areas are likely to be invaded by cheatgrass after fire (which can be
partially predicted by the amount of unburned organic litter remaining
after a fire) and seed those, leaving other areas to natural
regeneration [128].

Livestock use: Rangeland use of alfalfa carries the risk of bloat in
cattle, horses, and sheep. This risk can be reduced by planting
perennial grasses to cover at least half of the site [50,110,114].
Bloat risk is also reduced by delaying grazing until after flowering is
completed [110].

Alfalfa does not persist on moderately to heavily grazed rangelands
unless there are well-timed rest periods [53]. A short period of
intense grazing during May and June is considered more favorable
management for alfalfa than a long period of summer grazing [97].
Alfalfa tolerates rotational grazing; stands will weaken rapidly if
grazed continuously [50]. Hafenrichter [46] recommends a rotation
deferred system in bunchgrass areas. Grazing should not be closer than
4 to 6 inches (10-15 cm). Alfalfa is sensitive to depletion of root
reserves in the fall and should not be grazed heavily at this time
[110]. Frequent, intense clipping decreases lateral shoot spread [95].
The longevity of alfalfa in some semiarid environments appears related
to the degree of utilization--persistence is enhanced when only lightly
used [99]. Some cultivars are more tolerant of grazing than others. A
prostrate growth form is associated with persistence under grazing [20].
For example, under close grazing, 'Nomad' alfalfa assumes a prostrate
form, which increases its tolerance to grazing [60].

Methods for hay production are detailed in [46,50,70,110,130,131].

Insect pests: The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) causes stunted,
wilted plants and reduces cold hardiness. The alfalfa weevil (Hypera
postica) is the most important pest in the United States and Ontario.
It can defoliate both first and second cuttings of hay, reducing hay
yield up to 50 percent and also reducing hay quality. Alfalfa curculio
(Sitona scissifrons), a weevil that attacks leaf edges, is not a problem
in established stands but can destroy seedling fields. Lygus plant bugs
(Lygus spp.) mostly damage seed production. The alfalfa looper
(Autographa californica) is not a serious problem except where local
outbreaks can cause severe damage. Grasshoppers (Melanoplus spp.,
Camnula spp.) consume all plant parts and can be extremely destructive
in dry years [110].

Control of insect pests: The pea aphid, alfalfa weevil, and alfalfa
looper are subject to biological control; chemical control is also
recommended for the pea aphid, alfalfa weevil, alfalfa curculio, lygus
plant bugs on seed crops; outbreaks of alfalfa looper; and for
grasshoppers [110].

Diseases: Most diseases of alfalfa become more severe with the age of
the stand; most stands are free of disease the first year, with the
exception of alfalfa sickness. Disease can be established by the second
year, and by the fourth year, it is often uneconomical to maintain the
stand. Stands can be kept healthy by such management practices as
adequate fertilizer and water. Varieties should be chosen that are
resistent to diseases common to the area.

Leaf and stem diseases include common leaf spot, yellow leaf blotch,
black stem, downy mildew, and verticillium wilt. Crown and root
diseases include winter crown rot crown bud rot, bacterial wilt, alfalfa
sickness, and brown root rot [110].

Control: Burning in the spring before growth begins prevents crop
injury by the burn and reduces the amount of infected leaves. Crown and
root diseases are mitigated with adequate fertilizer and by allowing
plants to recover in the spring before cutting or grazing. Adequate
late summer growth builds up winter reserves and reduces disease
susceptibility [110].

Wildlife use: Sharp-tailed and sage grouse habitat can be developed in
North Dakota by planting brome grass and alfalfa and left undisturbed
until stand vigor declines. Vigor can then be restored by mechanical
disturbance, reseeding, or burning, with prescribed burning considered
the least disruptive to grouse [62,63]. For wildlife habitat
(particularly dabbling ducks) in the northern prairie pothole region, it
is recommended that native grasses be planted on sites that receive 20
inches (51 cm) or more annual precipitation, and that introduced grasses
and legumes (particularly alfalfa) be used in the drier areas. It is
considered better for duck nesting if fields of 40 acres (25 ha) or more
are established near or adjacent to wetland types of habitat [30].
Removal of cover by mowing affects the distribution of breeding ducks
but probably does not decrease the overall breeding population.
However, residual growth is an important component of selection of nest
sites for many species of ducks, and therefore nesting would be
increased by allowing some areas to go unmowed in the latter part of the
season [75].

Gray partridge nesting in North Dakota can be encouraged in alfalfa
stands that are adjacent to cereal crops (especially on roadsides and
field edges). These stands are best if left unmowed so that heights of
9 to 12 inches (23-30 cm) are achieved. Programs to leave unmowed
strips along the crop side of fields and roadsides could greatly
increase potential nest sites for gray partridge [11].

Upland sandpipers in North Dakota have experienced population declines,
largely due to past hunting and loss of habitat. Many acres of suitable
habitat have been converted to grasses and legumes, notably alfalfa and
sweetclover. Alfalfa fields are usually too tall for upland sandpipers,
which prefer cover heights between 6 and 12 inches (15 and 30 cm).
Alfalfa is not recommended for upland sandpiper habitat and therefore a
management goal to increase habitat for upland sandpipers would include
conversion of alfalfa fields to native vegetation where appropriate
[62].

Management for pronghorn includes the maintenance of rangeland in seral
stages such that grasses and forbs dominate, with a low (15-20 percent)
shrub cover [127]. This was accomplished historically by periodic
wildfire, and today can be accomplished by prescribed fire or by
chaining and drill-seeding big sagebrush communities dominated by tall
shrubs. Recommended seed mixtures contain approximately six species
each of grasses, forbs, and shrubs [127]. Including alfalfa in the seed
mixtures is highly recommended for a number of habitat types. This
technique is considered very successful for pronghorn habitat
improvement in southeastern Oregon [59,61]. After at least 6 years,
alfalfa constituted 10 percent of the vegetation on most planted sites
[127].

Cultivars: For nonirrigated land, 'Ranger' alfalfa is a hardy,
wilt-resistant variety. It is widely adapted throughout the northern
and central United States. 'Ladak' alfalfa produces a large first crop
but is very slow to recover recovery after cutting. It has some
resistance to wilt and leaf diseases. It is most valued in cold, dry
climates. 'Vernal' alfalfa is a variety developed in Wisconsin and has
excelled 'Ranger' in both yield and stand persistence. 'Nomad' alfalfa
is a creeping or pasture-type which persists under intensive and
continuous grazing. It has rather wide adaptation throughout the
Northwest and elsewhere under dry and cold conditions. 'Rambler'
alfalfa is also a creeping variety that spreads by true underground
roots. It is adapted to the prairie provinces of Canada and northern
areas in the United States [111,122].

A more complete list of cultivars and their availability can be found
in :

1. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 1960.
Alfalfa varieties in the United States. Agric. Handb. 177.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 30 p.
2. Barnes, D. K.; Smith, D. L. 1984 Review and description of alfalfa
varieties. In: Report of the Alfalfa Improvement Conference.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research
Service: 115-118.
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Nutritional Value

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More info for the terms: density, fresh, selection

Alfalfa is considered one of the most nutritious forages available,
producing more protein per hectare than any other crop. It is
considered an important source of vitamin A, and of 10 other vitamins as
well [12,23,50,60]. White and Wight [122] found that pasture yield had
an inverse relationship to forage quality: the higher the density, the
lower the crude protein (CP) and dry matter digestibility. Phenological
stage accounts for 97 percent of the variation in neutral detergent
fiber and in vitro dry matter digestibility: nutritive value decreased
with maturity [103]. There have been numerous studies on the nutritive
value of fresh alfalfa, as hay, pelleted, and ensiled.

A selection of values for some characteristics is as follows [9,38,110]:

CP(%) available P(%) dry matter acid detergent
STAGE CP(%) digestibility(%) fiber(%)
_____________________________________________________________________
vegetative 32.8 31.8 0.44 84 18.1
flower 29.2 28 0.38 79 21.7
mature 25.6 24.2 0.32 74 25.3
regrowth 22.0 20.2 0.26 69 28.9 [38]

Digestible protein (%) for selected species is as follows [82]:

dried vegetative early bloom
________________________________________
Cattle 12 15.1
Sheep 12 15.3
Goats 12.4 14.6
Horses 11.9 14
Rabbits 11.6 13.6

Further detailed information is available in The Atlas of Nutritional
Data on United States and Canadian feeds [82].

Regional food values for selected wildlife species are as follows [27]:


UT CO WY MT ND
Elk good good good good good
Mule deer good good good good good
White-tailed deer ---- good good good good
Antelope good good good good good
Upland game birds good ---- good ---- fair
Waterfowl good ---- good ---- good
Small non-game birds good ---- good good fair
Small mammals good ---- good good fair
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

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AL AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA
HI ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD
MA MI MN MS MO MT NE NV NH NJ
NM NY NC ND OH OK OR PA RI SC
SD TN TX UT VT VA WA WV WI WY
AB BC MB NF NT NS ON PE PQ SK
YT MEXICO
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Other uses and values

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More info for the terms: forbs, shrubs

Alfalfa is a highly valued agricultural species due to the quality of
hay it produces, its soil-conditioning properties, and ability to fix
nitrogen. It is valued for the ability to fix nitrogen during drought
when other legumes are not nodulated or not actively fixing nitrogen
[57]. It is excellent as pasture for swine, and is used as pasture for
cattle and sheep, despite the hazard due to bloat. Bloat is reduced when
alfalfa is planted with perennial grasses [50,110,114].

Alfalfa is a primary honey plant in North America [53,114].

Alfalfa is a recommended component of vegetational snow fences: trees,
shrubs, and forbs planted alongside highways and railroads to reduce
snow drift on the road. Alfalfa contributes wildlife forage and helps
catch and store snow [107].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Palatability

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Alfalfa is highly palatable to all classes of livestock and big game
species [27,32,50,110].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Phenology

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More info on this topic.

More info for the term: cool-season

Alfalfa is generally considered a cool-season species, although
succulent growth can take place through the summer. Growth begins early
in the spring [84,119]. Flowering takes place from May to October,
depending on latitude [37].

Some reported dates for anthesis are as follows [27]:

Utah June-August
Colorado May-October
Wyoming June-September
Montana June-August
North Dakota June-September

Alfalfa can remain green throughout the summer, and dies back in the
fall with heavy frost. There is a critical period in early fall for
transfer of food reserves to the roots [50].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Plant Response to Fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cool-season, moderate-severity fire, prescribed fire

Alfalfa fields that were burned to control insect pests were monitored
for soil changes and plant response. The root systems of the plants
were not adversely affected by the fire, and subsequent crops were
similar in appearance and productivity to that of unburned control
plots. Soil preburn conditions (organic matter and nitrogen) were
attained within 160 days [28]. Canopy coverage of alfalfa increased by
the end of the first growing season following a prescribed fire in May
but showed no significant difference from unburned controls in the
second growing season (which may be attributed to the low precipitation
that year) [85]. Mixtures of cool-season grasses and alfalfa and/or
sweetclover respond best (in productivity) to prescribed fires from
March to June. The lowest response by alfalfa is to late summer-early
fall fires [52,65,85].

In a study of individual plant responses to a spring fire in a tallgrass
prairie stand, Pemble and others [87] found that a moderate-severity
fire resulted in a slight decrease in the amount of flowering (flowers
per plant and plants in flower) in alfalfa.
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Post-fire Regeneration

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More info for the terms: ground residual colonizer, herb, rhizome, secondary colonizer

Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: formation, scarification, seed

Alfalfa is obligately insect pollinated. Bees are the major insect
pollinators of alfalfa. Leafcutter bees (Megachile rotundata) and
alkali bees (Nomia melanderi) are efficient pollinators. Honeybees
(Apis mellifera) also visit alfalfa flowers but are not as efficient for
pollination [50].

There are approximately 200,000 seeds per pound (441,000 seeds/kg) [50].
On average, 45 to 73 percent of seeds are hard and require scarification
for efficient germination [116]. The percentage of hard seeds varies
with the area producing the seed. In warmer climates, such as southern
California, the number of hard seeds is around 20 percent; in cooler
areas in Washington, the amount of hard seeds is around 40 to 50
percent. Similarly, lower altitude areas have lower proportions of hard
seed than corresponding higher altitudes [43,25]. The most common
method for scarification is mechanical means [93]. Hard seeds became
permeable to water after 4 minutes at 219 degrees F (104 deg C) [90].
Radiation treatments were also effective in rendering hard seeds
permeable; radio frequencies were found to be the most efficient [113].
Busse [10] found that extreme cold also efficiently releases seed for
water uptake.

Seeds can be long-lived. Seed stored in unheated sheds attained 81
percent germination after 19 years [54]. In soils previously unoccupied
by rhizobial nitrogen-fixers the seeds need to be inoculated with
Rhizobium bacteria for root nodule formation nitrogen fixation [40,110].

Seedlings of alfalfa are not very aggressive, but established plants are
very competitive, especially the creeping rooted varieties [50].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Successional Status

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More info for the term: cover

Alfalfa is probably not shade tolerant. In a study of alfalfa planted
on chained aspen parklands, alfalfa cover decreased steadily as
overstory canopy increased [7].



Alfalfa establishing on an old roadbed in a sagebrush community. ©2006 Louis-M. Landry.

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Sullivan, Janet. 1992. Medicago sativa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Synonyms

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Medicago sativa forma alba Benke. [37]
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Taxonomy

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More info for the term: diploid

The currently accepted scientific name for alfalfa is Medicago sativa L.


Alfalfa is considered a species complex, with many
subspecies. Diploid and tetraploid forms are both common,
though all alfalfa cultivars are tetraploid [100]. Subspecies
that may occur in North America are [116]:

Medicago sativa L. subsp. caerulea (Less. ex Ledeb.) Schmalh
Medicago sativa L. subsp. falcata (L.) Arcang., yellow alfalfa
Medicago sativa L. subsp. glomerata (Balb.) Rouy
Medicago sativa subsp. sativa
Medicago sativa L. subsp. × tunetana Murb.

Medicago sativa readily hybridizes with Siberian alfalfa (Medicago
falcata). The intermediate form, variegated alfalfa, is named Medicago
sativa media [37]. Some authors consider the hybrid a separate species,
Medicago media [50,110,113]. An alternatively used name
for the hybrid is Medicago x varia Martyn, or M. s. subsp. x varia (Martyn)
Arcang. [100,129].
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Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites

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More info for the terms: animal unit month (AUM), competition, cover, forbs, forest, reclamation, shrubland, tree, wildfire

Alfalfa is widely used for rehabilitation of overgrazed rangelands. It
is recommended for improvement of both wildlife habitat and livestock
ranges in many areas, especially in the drier western states
[32,77,106,114,127]. Many authors report at least short-term forage
yield increases when rangelands are seeded with alfalfa and grass
mixtures [42,71,99]. It is used in interior forests as part of
erosion-control projects. Compacted soils also benefit from alfalfa in
plantings because alfalfa has deep roots that will grow vigorously in
compacted soils.

There is a general concern about introducing species into ecosystems;
however, nitrogen-fixing species can be a way to facilitate invasion of
native plants that have higher soil nutrient requirements than are
present [33]. Under suitable conditions alfalfa can survive and
increase on rangeland in Utah for 10 years or more [58]. It has been
found to be long-lived and productive in semiarid pastures, persisting
for 25 years or more, with successful self-seeding at rates sufficient
to replace mature plants dying from disease, rodent damage, or
environmental stress [96]. It reseeds on sites with as little as
11 inches (28 cm) of precipitation [96]. Areas in Utah planted with
grass and alfalfa mixtures are estimated to have increased rangeland
productivity from 3.53 acres (1.41 ha) per animal unit month (AUM) to
1.32 acres (0.53 ha) per AUM. Overall, reseeded ranges have resulted in
improved weight gains and performance for cattle and sheep, resulting in
a net economic gain (after costs of reseeding) [96]. 'Ladak' alfalfa
was seeded with other grasses and legumes on mountain meadows in poor
condition to improve productivity and provide forage for livestock and
wildlife, and to provide sage grouse summer habitat [31].

Seeding mixtures for revegetating areas damaged by wildfire often
include alfalfa [32]. Use of alfalfa and other seeded species for
erosion control may, however, have a negative effect on the
establishment of tree species. In sugar maple (Acer saccharum)-hickory
(Carya spp.) forest regions of Quebec, alfalfa was found to contribute
to the inhibition of tree establishment, either through direct
competition or by encouraging rodent populations that damage tree
seedlings [15].

Alfalfa is recommended for seeding mined soils to reduce erosion,
increase forage value, and as a soil conditioner. On a surface-mined
site in an eastern Montana ponderosa pine savanna, alfalfa was broadcast
seeded in a mixture of perennial grasses and forbs. Alfalfa and
sweetclover (Melilotus spp.) produced a total of 424 pounds per acre
(475 kg/ha) on grazed sites in 1975 and alfalfa produced 1,449 pounds
per acre (1,623 kg/ha) on grazed sites in 1978. Thus, alfalfa can
persist for at least a few years in this habitat and produce good
quantities of forage [24]. On strip-mined soils in Illinois, a 15- to
20-year-old stand of brome grass (Bromus spp.) and alfalfa had no
detectable soil profile development. This plot was plowed and reseeded
with a mixture of grass and alfalfa, and established 59 percent cover of
alfalfa. Usable forage after 2 years of growth resulted in productivity
of 5,796 pounds per acre (6,490 kg/ha) for alfalfa [24]. In the first
reported instance of moose activity on reclaimed mine spoils, sites that
were planted to alfalfa, clover (Trifolium spp.), and grasses were found
to have a higher incidence of moose use than the untreated adjacent
forest and shrubland, although the amount of difference was small [91].

Alfalfa is used for revegetation projects on many mined sites in the
western United States, and primarily in northern Illinois and similar
areas where the mined soils do not require additions of lime or
fertilizer [119]. Reasonably good establishment can be expected as long
as there is sufficient precipitation (a minimum of 10 to 12 inches [28
cm]) and soil conditions are taken into account [13,91]. In a study on
coal mine reclamation in Arizona, alfalfa was able to establish on mined
soils but only had moderate performance [22].

In Manitoba, on mixed-grass prairie sites disturbed by military tank
maneuvers, it appears that leaving the disturbed sites alone to return
to native vegetation is just as beneficial as reseeding with mixtures
of grasses and alfalfa [125].
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Physical Description

provided by USDA PLANTS text
Perennial, Herbs, Stems woody below, or from woody crown or caudex, Taproot present, Nodules present, Stems erect or ascending, Stems or branches arching, spreading or decumbent, Stems less than 1 m tall, Stems solid, Stems or young twigs glabrous or sparsely glabrate, Stems or young twigs sparsely to densely hairy, Leaves alternate, Leaves petiolate, Stipules conspicuous, Stipules green, triangulate to lanceolate or foliaceous, Stipules persistent, Stipules adnate to petiole, Stipules toothed or laciniate, Leaves compound, Leaves pinnately 3-foliolate, Leaves odd pinnate, Leaflets dentate or denticulate, Leaflets opposite, Leaflets 3, Leaves glabrous or nearly so, Inflorescences globose heads, capitate or subcapitate, Inflorescence axillary, Flowers zygomorphic, Calyx 5-lobed, Calyx glabrous, Petals separate, Corolla papilionaceous, Petals clawed, Petals orange or yellow, Petals blue, lavander to purple, or violet, Banner petal ovoid or obovate, W ing petals narrow, oblanceolate to oblong, Wing petals auriculate, Wing tips obtuse or rounded, Keel tips obtuse or rounded, not beaked, Stamens 9-10, Stamens diadelphous, 9 united, 1 free, Filaments glabrous, Style terete, Fruit a legume, Fruit unilocular, Fruit indehiscent, Fruit strongly curved, falcate, bent, or lunate, Fruit spirally coiled or contorted, Fruit exserted from calyx, Fruit 2-seeded, Fruit 3-10 seeded, Seeds reniform, Seed surface smooth, Seeds olive, brown, or black.
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Alfalfa

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A close up of alfalfa sprouts, which are commonly used as a garnish on soups or as a filling in sandwiches and salads.

Alfalfa (/ælˈfælfə/) (Medicago sativa), also called lucerne, is a perennial flowering plant in the legume family Fabaceae. It is cultivated as an important forage crop in many countries around the world. It is used for grazing, hay, and silage, as well as a green manure and cover crop. The name alfalfa is used in North America. The name lucerne is the more commonly used name in the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The plant superficially resembles clover (a cousin in the same family), especially while young, when trifoliate leaves comprising round leaflets predominate. Later in maturity, leaflets are elongated. It has clusters of small purple flowers followed by fruits spiralled in 2 to 3 turns containing 10–20 seeds. Alfalfa is native to warmer temperate climates. It has been cultivated as livestock fodder since at least the era of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Etymology

The word alfalfa is a Spanish modification of the Arabic word al-faṣfaṣa ultimately from an Old Persian compound *aspa-sti- meaning horse food.[4][5]

History

Alfalfa seems to have originated in south-central Asia, and was first cultivated in ancient Iran.[6][7] According to Pliny (died 79 AD), it was introduced to Greece in about 490 BC when the Persians invaded Greek territory. Alfalfa cultivation is discussed in the fourth-century AD book Opus Agriculturae by Palladius, stating: "One sow-down lasts ten years. The crop may be cut four or six times a year ... A jugerum of it is abundantly sufficient for three horses all the year ... It may be given to cattle, but new provender is at first to be administered very sparingly, because it bloats up the cattle."[8] Pliny and Palladius called alfalfa in Latin medica, a name that referred to the Medes, a people who lived in ancient Iran. The ancient Greeks and Romans believed, probably correctly, that alfalfa came from the Medes' land, in today's Iran. (The ancient Greeks and Romans also used the name medica to mean a citron fruit, once again because it was believed to have come from the Medes' land). This name is the root of the modern scientific name for the alfalfa genus, Medicago.

The medieval Arabic agricultural writer Ibn al-'Awwam, who lived in Spain in the later 12th century, discussed how to cultivate alfalfa, which he called الفصفصة (al-fiṣfiṣa).[9] A 13th-century general-purpose Arabic dictionary, Lisān al-'Arab, says that alfalfa is cultivated as an animal feed and consumed in both fresh and dried forms.[10] It is from the Arabic that the Spanish name alfalfa was derived.[11]

In the 16th century, Spanish colonizers introduced alfalfa to the Americas as fodder for their horses.[12]

In the North American colonies of the eastern US in the 18th century, it was called "lucerne", and many trials at growing it were made, but generally without sufficiently successful results.[7] Relatively little is grown in the southeastern United States today.[13] Lucerne (or luzerne) is the name for alfalfa in Britain, Australia, France, Germany, and a number of other countries. Alfalfa seeds were imported to California from Chile in the 1850s. That was the beginning of a rapid and extensive introduction of the crop over the western US States[6] and introduced the word "alfalfa" to the English language. Since North and South America now produce a large part of the world's output, the word "alfalfa" has been slowly entering other languages.

Ecology

Alfalfa is a perennial forage legume which normally lives four to eight years, but can live more than 20 years, depending on variety and climate.[14] The plant grows to a height of up to 1 metre (3 feet 3 inches), and has a deep root system, sometimes growing to a depth of more than 15 m (49 ft) to reach groundwater. Typically the root system grows to a depth of 2–3 m (7–10 ft) depending on subsoil constraints.[14] Owing to this deep root system, it helps to improve soil nitrogen fertility and protect from soil erosion.[15] This depth of root system, and perenniality of crowns that store carbohydrates as an energy reserve, make it very resilient, especially to droughts. Alfalfa has a tetraploid genome.[16]

Alfalfa is a small-seeded crop, and has a slowly growing seedling, but after several months of establishment, forms a tough "crown" at the top of the root system. This crown contains shoot buds that enable alfalfa to regrow many times after being grazed or harvested; however, overgrazing of the buds will reduce the new leaves on offer to the grazing animal.

This plant exhibits autotoxicity, which means it is difficult for alfalfa seed to grow in existing stands of alfalfa.[17] Therefore, alfalfa fields are recommended to be rotated with other species (for example, corn or wheat) before reseeding.[18] The exact mechanism of auto-toxicity is unclear, with medicarpins and phenols both seeming to play a role.[19] Levels of autotoxicity in soil depends on soil type (clay soils maintain autotoxicity for longer), cultivar and age of the previous crop. A soil assay can be used to measure autotoxicity.[20] Resistant to autotoxicity also varies by cultivar, a tolerant one being 'WL 656HQ'.[21]

Culture

Lucerne fields in the Kalahari Desert (2017)

Alfalfa is widely grown throughout the world as forage for cattle, and is most often harvested as hay, but can also be made into silage, grazed, or fed as greenchop.[22] Alfalfa usually has the highest feeding value of all common hay crops. It is used less frequently as pasture.[18] When grown on soils where it is well-adapted, alfalfa is often the highest-yielding forage plant, but its primary benefit is the combination of high yield per hectare and high nutritional quality.[23]

Its primary use is as feed for high-producing dairy cows, because of its high protein content and highly digestible fiber, and secondarily for beef cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.[24][25] Alfalfa hay is a widely used protein and fiber source for meat rabbits. In poultry diets, dehydrated alfalfa and alfalfa leaf concentrates are used for pigmenting eggs and meat, because of their high content in carotenoids, which are efficient for colouring egg yolk and body lipids.[26] Humans also eat alfalfa sprouts in salads and sandwiches.[27][28] Dehydrated alfalfa leaf is commercially available as a dietary supplement in several forms, such as tablets, powders and tea.[29] Fresh alfalfa can cause bloating in livestock, so care must be taken with livestock grazing on alfalfa because of this hazard.[30]

Like other legumes, its root nodules contain bacteria, Sinorhizobium meliloti, with the ability to fix nitrogen, producing a high-protein feed regardless of available nitrogen in the soil.[31] Its nitrogen-fixing ability (which increases soil nitrogen) and its use as an animal feed greatly improve agricultural efficiency.[32][33]

Alfalfa can be sown in spring or fall, and does best on well-drained soils with a neutral pH of 6.8–7.5.[34][35] Alfalfa requires sustained levels of potassium and phosphorus to grow well.[36] It is moderately sensitive to salt levels in both the soil and irrigation water, although it continues to be grown in the arid southwestern United States, where salinity is an emerging issue.[37][38][39] Soils low in fertility should be fertilized with manure or a chemical fertilizer, but correction of pH is particularly important.[40] Usually a seeding rate of 13–20 kg/ha (12–18 lb/acre) is recommended, with differences based upon region, soil type, and seeding method.[41] A nurse crop is sometimes used, particularly for spring plantings, to reduce weed problems and soil erosion, but can lead to competition for light, water, and nutrients.[42]

In most climates, alfalfa is cut three to four times a year, but it can be harvested up to 12 times per year in Arizona and southern California.[43][44] Total yields are typically around 8 tonnes per hectare (3+12 short tons per acre) in temperate environments, but yields have been recorded up to 20 tonnes per hectare (9 short tons per acre).[44] Yields vary with region, weather, and the crop's stage of maturity when cut. Later cuttings improve yield, but with reduced nutritional content.[45]

Beneficial insects

Honey bee (Apis mellifera), a pollinator on alfalfa flower

Alfalfa is considered an insectary, a place where insects are reared, and has been proposed as helpful to other crops, such as cotton, if the two are interplanted, because the alfalfa harbours predatory and parasitic insects that would protect the other crop.[46] Harvesting the alfalfa by mowing the entire crop area destroys the insect population, but this can be avoided by mowing in strips so that part of the growth remains.[46]

Pests and diseases

Like most plants, alfalfa can be attacked by various pests and pathogens. Diseases often have subtle symptoms which are easily misdiagnosed and can affect leaves, roots, and stems.

Some pests, such as the alfalfa weevil, aphids, armyworms, and the potato leafhopper,[47] can reduce alfalfa yields dramatically, particularly with the second cutting when weather is warmest.[48] Spotted alfalfa aphid, broadly spread in Australia, not only sucks sap but also injects salivary toxins into the leaves.[49] Registered insecticides or chemical controls are sometimes used to prevent this and labels will specify the withholding period before the forage crop can be grazed or cut for hay or silage.[48] Alfalfa is also susceptible to root rots, including Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, and Texas root rot.[50][51][52] Alfalfa is also susceptible to downy mildew caused by the oomycete species Peronospora aestivalis.[53]

Harvesting

Alfalfa hay on the way to Clayton, New Mexico, circa 1915.
Cylindrical bales of alfalfa

When alfalfa is to be used as hay, it is usually cut and baled.[54] Loose haystacks are still used in some areas, but bales are easier for use in transportation, storage, and feed.[55] Ideally, the first cutting should be taken at the bud stage, and the subsequent cuttings just as the field is beginning to flower, or one-tenth bloom because carbohydrates are at their highest.[56] When using farm equipment rather than hand-harvesting, a swather cuts the alfalfa and arranges it in windrows.[57] In areas where the alfalfa does not immediately dry out on its own, a machine known as a mower-conditioner is used to cut the hay.[54] The mower-conditioner has a set of rollers or flails that crimp and break the stems as they pass through the mower, making the alfalfa dry faster.[58] After the alfalfa has dried, a tractor pulling a baler collects the hay into bales.

Several types of bales are commonly used for alfalfa. For small animals and individual horses, the alfalfa is baled into small, two-string bales, commonly named by the strands of string used to wrap it. Other bale sizes are three-string, and so on up to half-ton (six-string) "square" bales – actually rectangular, and typically about 40 cm × 45 cm × 100 cm (16 in × 18 in × 39 in).[16] Small square bales weigh from 25 to 30 kg (55 to 66 lb) depending on moisture, and can be easily hand separated into "flakes". Cattle ranches use large round bales, typically 1.4 to 1.8 m (4 ft 7 in to 5 ft 11 in) in diameter and weighing from 500 to 1,000 kg (1,100 to 2,200 lb). These bales can be placed in stable stacks or in large feeders for herds of horses or unrolled on the ground for large herds of cattle.[16] The bales can be loaded and stacked with a tractor using a spike, known as a bale spear, that pierces the center of the bale,[59] or they can be handled with a grapple (claw) on the tractor's front-end loader. A more recent innovation is large "square" bales, roughly the same proportions as the small squares, but much larger. The bale size was set so stacks would fit perfectly on a large flatbed truck. These are more common in the western United States.

When used as feed for dairy cattle, alfalfa is often made into haylage by a process known as ensiling.[24] Rather than being dried to make dry hay, the alfalfa is chopped finely and fermented in silos, trenches, or bags, where the oxygen supply can be limited to promote fermentation.[60] The anaerobic fermentation of alfalfa allows it to retain high nutrient levels similar to those of fresh forage, and is also more palatable to dairy cattle than dry hay.[61] In many cases, alfalfa silage is inoculated with different strains of microorganisms to improve the fermentation quality and aerobic stability of the silage.[62][63]

Worldwide production

Worldwide alfalfa production

During the early 2000s, alfalfa was the most cultivated forage legume in the world.[64] Worldwide production was around 436 million tons in 2006.[64] In 2009, alfalfa was grown on approximately 30 million hectares (74 million acres) worldwide; of this North America produced 41% (11.9 million hectares; 29 million acres), Europe produced 25% (7.12 million hectares; 17.6 million acres), South America produced 23% (7 million hectares; 17 million acres), Asia produced 8% (2.23 million hectares; 5.5 million acres), and Africa and Oceania produced the remainder.[65] The US was the largest alfalfa producer in the world by area in 2009, with 9 million hectares (22 million acres), but considerable production area is found in Argentina (6.9 million hectares; 17 million acres), Canada (2 million hectares; 4.9 million acres), Russia (1.8 million hectares; 4.4 million acres), Italy (1.3 million hectares; 3.2 million acres), and China (1.3 million hectares; 3.2 million acres).[65]

United States

In the United States in 2012, the leading alfalfa-growing states were California, Idaho, and Montana.[13] Alfalfa is predominantly grown in the northern and western United States;[13] it can be grown in the southeastern United States, but leaf and root diseases, poor soils, and a lack of well-adapted varieties are often limitations.[66]

California

Varieties resistant to the spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata) are necessary there, but even that is not always enough due to constant resistance evolution.[67] See also § Varieties.[67]

Australia

New South Wales

New South Wales produces 40% of Australia's lucerne.[68] Due to the introduction of the spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata) in the 1700s all varieties grown there must be resistant to it (see also § Varieties).[68]

Alfalfa and bees

Alfalfa field

Alfalfa seed production requires the presence of pollinators when the fields of alfalfa are in bloom.[16] Alfalfa pollination is somewhat problematic, however, because western honey bees, the most commonly used pollinator, are less than ideal for this purpose; the pollen-carrying keel of the alfalfa flower trips and strikes pollinating bees on the head, which helps transfer the pollen to the foraging bee.[16] Western honey bees, however, do not like being struck in the head repeatedly and learn to defeat this action by drawing nectar from the side of the flower. The bees thus collect the nectar, but carry no pollen, so do not pollinate the next flower they visit.[69] Because older, experienced bees do not pollinate alfalfa well, most pollination is accomplished by young bees that have not yet learned the trick of robbing the flower without tripping the head-knocking keel.

When western honey bees are used to pollinate alfalfa, the beekeeper stocks the field at a very high rate to maximize the number of young bees.[69] However, Western honey bee colonies may suffer protein stress when working alfalfa only, because alfalfa pollen protein is deficient in isoleucine, one of the amino acids essential in the diet of honeybee larvae.

Today, the alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotundata) is increasingly used to circumvent these problems.[70] As a solitary but gregarious bee species, it does not build colonies or store honey, but is a very efficient pollinator of alfalfa flowers.[70] Nesting is in individual tunnels in wooden or plastic material, supplied by the alfalfa seed growers.[69] The leafcutter bees are used in the Pacific Northwest, while western honeybees dominate in California alfalfa seed production.[69]

M. rotundata was unintentionally introduced into the United States during the 1940s, and its management as a pollinator of alfalfa has led to a three-fold increase in seed production in the U.S. The synchronous emergence of the adult bees of this species during alfalfa blooming period in combination with such behaviors as gregarious nesting, and utilization of leaves and nesting materials that have been mass-produced by humans provide positive benefits for the use of these bees in pollinating alfalfa.[71]

A smaller amount of alfalfa produced for seed is pollinated by the alkali bee, mostly in the northwestern United States. It is cultured in special beds near the fields. These bees also have their own problems. They are not portable like honey bees, and when fields are planted in new areas, the bees take several seasons to build up.[69] Honey bees are still trucked to many of the fields at bloom time.

B. affinis is important to the agricultural industry, as well as for the pollination of alfalfa.[72] It is known that members of this species pollinate up to 65 different species of plants, and it is the primary pollinator of key dietary crops, such as cranberries, plums, apples, onions, and alfalfa.[73]

Varieties

Small square bales of alfalfa

Considerable research and development has been done with this important plant. Older cultivars such as 'Vernal' have been the standard for years, but many public and private varieties better adapted to particular climates are available.[74] Private companies release many new varieties each year in the US.[75]

Most varieties go dormant in the fall, with reduced growth in response to low temperatures and shorter days.[75] 'Nondormant' varieties that grow through the winter are planted in long-season environments such as Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California, whereas 'dormant' varieties are planted in the Upper Midwest, Canada, and the Northeast.[75] 'Nondormant' varieties can be higher-yielding, but they are susceptible to winter-kill in cold climates and have poorer persistence.[75]

Most alfalfa cultivars contain genetic material from sickle medick (M. falcata), a crop wild relative of alfalfa that naturally hybridizes with M. sativa to produce sand lucerne (M. sativa ssp. varia). This species may bear either the purple flowers of alfalfa or the yellow of sickle medick, and is so called for its ready growth in sandy soil.[76] Traits for insect resistance have also been introduced from M. glomerata and M. prostrata, members of alfalfa's secondary gene pool.[77]

Watering an alfalfa field

Most of the improvements in alfalfa over the last decades have consisted of better disease resistance on poorly drained soils in wet years, better ability to overwinter in cold climates, and the production of more leaves. Multileaf alfalfa varieties have more than three leaflets per leaf.[78]

Alfalfa growers or lucerne growers have a suite of varieties or cultivars to choose from in the seed marketplace and base their selection on a number of factors including the dormancy or activity rating, crown height, fit for purpose (i.e., hay production or grazing), disease resistance, insect pest resistance, forage yield, fine leafed varieties and a combination of many favourable attributes. Plant breeding efforts use scientific methodology and technology to strive for new improved varieties.

The L. Teweles Seed Company claimed it created the world's first hybrid alfalfa.[79]

Wisconsin and California and many other states publish alfalfa variety trial data. A complete listing of state variety testing data is provided by the North American Alfalfa Improvement Conference (NAAIC) State Listing, as well as additional detailed alfalfa genetic and variety data published by NAAIC.

Genetic modification

Roundup Ready alfalfa, a genetically modified variety, was released by Forage Genetics International in 2005. This was developed through the insertion of a gene owned by Monsanto Company that confers resistance to glyphosate, a broad-spectrum herbicide, also known as Roundup. Although most grassy and broadleaf plants, including ordinary alfalfa, are killed by Roundup, growers can spray fields of Roundup Ready alfalfa with the glyphosate herbicide and kill the weeds without harming the alfalfa crop.

Legal issues in the US

In 2005, after completing a 28-page environmental assessment (EA)[80] the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) granted Roundup Ready alfalfa (RRA) nonregulated status[81] under Code of Federal Regulations Title 7 Part 340,[82] called, "Introduction of Organisms and Products Altered or Produced Through Genetic Engineering Which Are Plant Pests or Which There Is Reason to Believe Are Plant Pests", which regulates, among other things, the introduction (importation, interstate movement, or release into the environment) of organisms and products altered or produced through genetic engineering that are plant pests or that there is reason to believe are plant pests. Monsanto had to seek deregulation to conduct field trials of RRA, because the RRA contains a promoter sequence derived from the plant pathogen figwort mosaic virus.[80] The USDA granted the application for deregulation, stating that the RRA with its modifications: "(1) Exhibit no plant pathogenic properties; (2) are no more likely to become weedy than the nontransgenic parental line or other cultivated alfalfa; (3) are unlikely to increase the weediness potential of any other cultivated or wild species with which it can interbreed; (4) will not cause damage to raw or processed agricultural commodities; (5) will not harm threatened or endangered species or organisms that are beneficial to agriculture; and (6) should not reduce the ability to control pests and weeds in alfalfa or other crops."[80] Monsanto started selling RRA and within two years, more than 300,000 acres were devoted to the plant in the US.[83]

The granting of deregulation was opposed by many groups, including growers of non-GM alfalfa who were concerned about gene flow into their crops.[80] In 2006, the Center for Food Safety, a US non-governmental organization that is a critic of biotech crops, and others, challenged this deregulation in the California Northern District Court.[84] Organic growers were concerned that the GM alfalfa could cross-pollinate with their organic alfalfa, making their crops unsalable in countries that ban the growing of GM crops.[85] The District Court ruled that the USDA's EA did not address two issues concerning RRA's effect on the environment,[86] and in 2007, required the USDA to complete a much more extensive environmental impact statement (EIS). Until the EIS was completed, they banned further planting of RRA but allowed land already planted to continue.[83][87] The USDA proposed a partial deregulation of RRA but this was also rejected by the District Court.[84] Planting of RRA was halted.

In June 2009, a divided three-judge panel on the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the District Court's decision.[88] Monsanto and others appealed to the US Supreme Court.[88]

On 21 June 2010, in Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms, the Supreme Court overturned the District Court decision to ban planting RRA nationwide as there was no evidence of irreparable injury.[89] They ruled that the USDA could partially deregulate RRA before an EIS was completed. The Supreme Court did not consider the District Court's ruling disallowing RRA's deregulation and consequently RRA was still a regulated crop waiting for USDA's completion of an EIS.[84]

This decision was welcomed by the American Farm Bureau Federation, Biotechnology Industry Organization, American Seed Trade Association, American Soybean Association, National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance, National Association of Wheat Growers, National Cotton Council, and National Potato Council.[90] In July 2010, 75 members of Congress from both political parties sent a letter to Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack asking him to immediately allow limited planting of genetically engineered alfalfa.[91][92] However the USDA did not issue interim deregulatory measures, instead focusing on completing the EIS. Their 2,300-page EIS was published in December 2010.[93] It concluded that RRA would not affect the environment.

Three of the biggest natural food brands in the US lobbied for a partial deregulation of RRA,[94] but in January 2011, despite protests from organic groups, Secretary Vilsack announced that the USDA had approved the unrestricted planting of genetically modified alfalfa and planting resumed.[95][96][97] Secretary Vilsack commented, "After conducting a thorough and transparent examination of alfalfa ... APHIS [Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service] has determined that Roundup Ready alfalfa is as safe as traditionally bred alfalfa."[98] About 20 million acres (8 million hectares) of alfalfa were grown in the US, the fourth-biggest crop by acreage, of which about 1% were organic. Some biotechnology officials forecast that half of the US alfalfa acreage could eventually be planted with GM alfalfa.[99]

The National Corn Growers Association,[100] the American Farm Bureau Federation,[101] and the Council for Biotech Information[102] warmly applauded this decision. Christine Bushway, CEO of the Organic Trade Association, said, "A lot of people are shell-shocked. While we feel Secretary Vilsack worked on this issue, which is progress, this decision puts our organic farmers at risk."[99] The Organic Trade Association issued a press release in 2011 saying that the USDA recognized the impact that cross-contamination could have on organic alfalfa and urged them to place restrictions to minimize any such contamination.[103] However, organic farming groups, organic food outlets, and activists responded by publishing an open letter saying that planting the "alfalfa without any restrictions flies in the face of the interests of conventional and organic farmers, preservation of the environment, and consumer choice."[104] Senator Debbie Stabenow, Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee,[105] House Agriculture Committee Chairman Frank Lucas[105] and Senator Richard Lugar[106] issued statements strongly supporting the decision "... giving growers the green light to begin planting an abundant, affordable and safe crop" and giving farmers and consumers the choice ... in planting or purchasing food grown with GM technology, conventionally, or organically." In a joint statement, US Senator Patrick Leahy and Representative Peter DeFazio said the USDA had the "opportunity to address the concerns of all farmers", but instead "surrender[ed] to business as usual for the biotech industry."[107]

The non-profit Center for Food Safety appealed this decision in March 2011[108] but the District Court for Northern California rejected this motion in 2012.[109]

Phytoestrogens in alfalfa and effect on livestock fertility

Alfalfa, like other leguminous crops, is a known source of phytoestrogens,[110] including spinasterol,[111] coumestrol, and coumestan.[112] Because of this, grazing on alfalfa during breeding can cause reduced fertility in sheep and in dairy cattle if not effectively managed.[112][113]

Coumestrol levels in alfalfa have been shown to be elevated by fungal infection, but not significantly under drought stress[114] or aphid infestation.[115] Grazing management can be utilised to mitigate the effects of coumestrol on ewe reproductive performance, with full recovery after removal from alfalfa.[113] Coumestrol levels in unirrigated crops can be predicted practically using weather variables.[116]

Toxicity of canavanine

Raw alfalfa seeds and sprouts are a source of the amino acid canavanine. Much of the canavanine is converted into other amino acids during germination so sprouts contain much less canavanine than unsprouted seeds.[117] Canavanine competes with arginine, resulting in the synthesis of dysfunctional proteins. Raw unsprouted alfalfa has toxic effects in primates, including humans, which can result in lupus-like symptoms and other immunological diseases in susceptible individuals,[118][119] and sprouts also produced these symptoms in at least some primates when fed a diet made of 40% alfalfa. Stopping consumption of alfalfa seeds can reverse the effects.[120]

Nutritional value

Sprouted alfalfa seeds

Raw alfalfa seed sprouts are 93% water, 2% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). In a 100-gram (3+12-ounce) reference amount, raw alfalfa sprouts supply 96 kilojoules (23 kilocalories) of food energy and 29% of the Daily Value of vitamin K. They are a moderate source of vitamin C, some B vitamins, phosphorus, and zinc.

Sprouting

Sprouting alfalfa seeds is the process of germinating seeds for consumption usually involving just water and a jar. However, the seeds and sprouts must be rinsed regularly to avoid the accumulation of the products of decay organisms along with smells of rot and discoloration. Sprouting alfalfa usually takes three to four days with one tablespoon of seed yielding up to three full cups of sprouts.[121]

Health effects

The United States National Institutes of Health (US NIH) reports there is "Insufficient evidence to rate effectiveness [of alfalfa] for" the following:[122]

  • High cholesterol
  • Kidney problems
  • Bladder problems
  • Prostate problems
  • Asthma
  • Arthritis
  • Diabetes
  • Upset stomach
  • Other conditions

Further, the US NIH has identified several safety concerns and medication interactions. US NIH summarizes:

Alfalfa leaves are POSSIBLY SAFE for most adults. However, taking alfalfa seeds long-term is LIKELY UNSAFE. Alfalfa seed products may cause reactions that are similar to the autoimmune disease called lupus erythematosus.

Alfalfa might also cause some people's skin to become extra sensitive to the sun.[122]

As noted above, raw unsprouted alfalfa has toxic effects in primates, including humans, which can result in lupus-like symptoms and other immunological diseases in susceptible individuals.[118][119][122]

The US NIH calls out special precautions and warnings for the following:[122]

  • Pregnancy or breast-feeding: Using alfalfa in amounts larger than what is commonly found in food is possibly unsafe during pregnancy and breast-feeding. There is some evidence that alfalfa may act like estrogen, and this might affect the pregnancy.
  • Auto-immune diseases: Alfalfa might cause the immune system to become more active, and this could increase the symptoms of these diseases.
  • Hormone-sensitive conditions (such as breast cancer, uterine cancer, ovarian cancer, endometriosis, or uterine fibroids): Alfalfa might have the same effects as the female hormone estrogen.
  • Diabetes: Alfalfa might lower blood sugar levels.
  • Kidney transplant: There is one report of a kidney transplant rejection following the three-month use of a supplement that contained alfalfa and black cohosh. This outcome is more likely due to alfalfa than black cohosh. Alfalfa's immune system boost might make the anti-rejection drug cyclosporine less effective.

US NIH warns that alfalfa interacts with warfarin (Coumadin) in a major way; the two should not be combined.[122] US NIH warns that alfalfa interacts with the following medicine types moderately; the user should be cautious when taking alfalfa with these:[122]

  • Birth control pills (contraceptive drugs)
  • Estrogens – Large amounts of alfalfa might have some of the same effects as estrogen. However, even large amounts of alfalfa are not as strong as estrogen pills. Taking alfalfa along with estrogen pills might decrease the effects of estrogen pills.
  • Medications for diabetes (antidiabetes drugs)
  • Medications that decrease the immune system (immunosuppressants)
  • Medications that increase sensitivity to sunlight (photosensitizing drugs)

US NIH warns that alfalfa may interact with herbs and supplements associated with the following:[122]

  • Those that might lower blood sugar
  • Iron
  • Vitamin E

Refer to [122] for the most current information and details.

Gallery

References

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Alfalfa: Brief Summary

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A close up of alfalfa sprouts, which are commonly used as a garnish on soups or as a filling in sandwiches and salads.

Alfalfa (/ælˈfælfə/) (Medicago sativa), also called lucerne, is a perennial flowering plant in the legume family Fabaceae. It is cultivated as an important forage crop in many countries around the world. It is used for grazing, hay, and silage, as well as a green manure and cover crop. The name alfalfa is used in North America. The name lucerne is the more commonly used name in the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The plant superficially resembles clover (a cousin in the same family), especially while young, when trifoliate leaves comprising round leaflets predominate. Later in maturity, leaflets are elongated. It has clusters of small purple flowers followed by fruits spiralled in 2 to 3 turns containing 10–20 seeds. Alfalfa is native to warmer temperate climates. It has been cultivated as livestock fodder since at least the era of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

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