Though Atropa belladonna is sometimes found as an understory herb, it often occurs in open communities dominated by other plants. Species often associated with the plant include Sambucus nigra, Urtica dioica, Arctium lappa, Mercurialis perennis, Bryonia dioica, Rubus caesius, Glechoma hederacea, Verbascum thapsus, Scrphularia nodosa, Ligustrum vulgare, and Pteridium aquilinum, among others (Butcher 1947).
The plant is protogynous and produces and conceals nectar at the base of its ovaries.Bees, particularly honeybees and bumblebees, are the principal pollinators of A. belladonna (Butcher 1947).Birds, such as pheasants, as well as some insects, including the fleabeetle and Potato beetle, and mammals, including sheep, rabbits, and hares, have also been observed eating parts of the plant (Butcher 1947).
Some viruses have been reported to attack belladonna.Belladonna mottle virus, which belongs to the turnip mosaic virus group, is spread by nematodes living in sandy soil (Rita & Animesh 2011). Slugs and garden snails have often been gathered off of Atropa belladonna plants.Larvae of the Chrysomelid beetle Epitrix atropae have been found on the roots of belladonna.The adults of this species have also been found feeding on the leaves.Caterpillars have occasionally been reported as living off of the plant as well.A. belladonna can also be harmed by Phytophthora erythroseptica, which has been found (in Scotland and Holland) to cause a root and crown disease. A large number of fungi (though mostly unidentified) have been observed in belladonna plants in America.One such fungus is the endophytic and pathogenic Diaporthe chailleti (Butcher 1947). Cercospora atropae, a type of leaf spot, is another parasitic fungus of A. belladonna (Butcher 1947).
Seed dispersal in A. belladonna is often accomplished through birds.Birds, especially pheasants, are known to eat many of the berries.Since the seeds are able to cling to both each other and the ovary walls, they can be carried great distances from their parent plant.The seeds are frequently found in bird droppings near bushes, under trees, or near other kinds of convenient perching areas.Humans also disperse the seeds as soil containing belladonna seeds or plants neighboring A. belladonna plants with seeds attached are transported to new locations. The seeds can also be dispersed by gravity when the fruits drop from the plant, usually around January.One additional dispersal method is through water, as the seeds are able to float in water for about 1.5 days (Butcher 1947).
This plant species is commonly found in disturbed woodland areas.It is also often found growing on rocky hillsides, steep cliffs, and other regions in which the soil content consists of abundant amounts of calcium carbonate.Belladonna is nitrophilous, meaning that it thrives in soils rich in nitrogen.It is frequently found growing in open or uncultivated areas, and is only very rarely found in grass communities (Cross 2012).It also occurs in areas of former cultivation (among ruins) in parts of Europe and as a weedy species in areas where the soil has been disturbed.It seems to grow most abundantly in areas shaded by trees, on limestone or chalk, or on wooded hills.Belladonna plants that are exposed to too much sun often become very stunted in growth (Rita & Animesh 2011).The plants require a moist atmosphere, well-drained soil, and a source of shade (though not excessive shade, since this has also been found to reduce the vigor of the plant) (Butcher 1947).
Atropa belladonna provides many benefits to humans.The main chemical components of the plant include scopolamine (hyoscine) and atropine.In large quantities, these can be harmful (and even lethal) to humans.However, in small, controlled amounts, these compounds can have very beneficial applications.The chemicals from Atropa belladonna can be used to treat extreme inflammation, preventing sepsis, and have strong effects on the nervous system.They are also used in many homeopathic treatments of infections (Cross 2012).
L-atropine was isolated from A. belladonna in the 1830’s, and this discovery allowed scientists to study and understand the effects of neurotransmitters, especially acetylcholine, on humans and other mammals (Lee 2007). Atropine is an anticholinergic, meaning that it blocks the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine on the nervous system (Cross 2012).For this reason, it can be administered as an antidote for poisoning by organophosphates or nerve gases because it outcompetes (antagonizes) these chemicals for access to the neuroreceptors. It was used during the 1970’s to reverse the effects of exposure to the cholinergic agonist, physostigmine, in military personnel (Greenblatt & Shader 1973).Related to its effects on the central nervous system, atropine can help in stopping muscle spasms and allowing the return of normal heart rate after exposure to toxins such as nerve gas (Cross 2012). Atropine can also be used to lower blood pressure and lessen the effects of hypertension (Abraham et al. 1981).
Studies with mice have shown that atropine has immunoprotective and gastroprotective effects when behavior alterations occur due to increased levels of stress (Cromwell 1943).Studies using rabbits have shown that atropine can also be used to dilate the pupils.In humans, this practice is more risky, as reversal of the process could take up to 10 days, and excessive use could lead to blindness (Salazar et al. 1976). Nonetheless, the compound has been used in optometry in order to dilate pupils during cataract surgeries and also (though ill-advisedly) to dilate the pupils in order to increase cosmetic appeal. Currently, atropine sulfate drops are a popularly prescribed treatment for amblyopia (an eye condition commonly known as “lazy eye”) (Cross 2012).
Hyoscine has been found to be much safer to use than atropine.It has anesthetic effects and has been used to calm mental patients.It has more recently been discovered to be potentially useful in treating major depressive or anxiety disorders in humans and in regulating mood and behavior.Clinical trials with humans are now underway (Drevets & Furey 2010). Hyoscine is also used in anti-vertigo drugs and other drugs that aid in the prevention of motion sickness (Pyykkö et al. 1985).
Atropa belladonna (Deadly Nightshade) is a herbaceous perennial plant native to Europe, SW Asia and NW Africa, which has long been known for its toxic properties. It has been used as a poison and a recreational drug. Adding to its negative aura is the fact that it is thought that this plant has been used in practices of witchcraft, divination, and sorcery. The name Atropa comes from the goddess Atropos, who is one of the three Fates of Greek and Roman mythology. She and the other Fates spun the thread of human destiny, which Atopos could cut off whenever she felt so inclined (Hunziker 2001, Campbell 2007, Cross 2012).
Though the plant has a sinister reputation, it has many positive properties. Atropa belladonna has been found to have many pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications. A member of the family Solanaceae, it is closely related to plants such as tomato and potatoes, as well as other toxic plants, such as Datura, Hyoscyamus, and Nicotiana (Campbell 2007). The plant itself is a herbaceous perennial, often 1-1.5 m (occasionally up to 2 m) in height, when full-grown.It has a purplish stem that is densely covered in short, fine hairs.It has broad, dark green ovate leaves (6-20 cm long) which are formed in uneven pairs, one leaf in each pair being much larger than the other.Its roots are thick, white in colour, fleshy, and about 15 cm or more in length. The bell-shaped flowers are 2 cm long, purple with a pale base, and grow solitary in the axils of the leaves. It usually flowers between June and September. The fruit are shiny, black berries that are full of sweet, dark, ink-like juice. The berries are often consumed by animals as a way of seed dispersal despite their toxicity to humans (Rita & Animesh 2011).
Other names sometimes used include belladonna, devil’s berries, or beautiful death (Cross 2012, Rita & Animesh 2011). It has earned a reputation for itself as a sort of “temptress” because of the beautiful appearance, yet toxic nature, of its flowers and berries.In fact, its species name belladonna means beautiful lady in Italian (Campbell 2007).
Atropa belladonna is native to south central Europe, northwestern Africa, and southwestern Asia. The distribution limits are between 32° and 55° N latitude, from sea level in the north of its range (e.g. England) to 1700 m or more in the Mediterranean region. It primarily occurs in areas with well-drained, calcareous soil and shaded woodland habitats, but can also occur on dry, sunny scrubland sites (Blamey & Grey-Wilson 1989; Rita & Animesh 2011; Stace & Meijden undated).
It has been introduced and naturalised in a few other areas, and is occasionally found as a weedy species north to southern Scandinavia (Naturhistoriska riksmuseet 1997), and in some areas of Canada and the United States (Scott 1991).
Atropa belladonna is a large herbaceous perennial that grows to 1-1.5 m tall, rarely 2 m tall, with an erect posture.It has a stem that ranges from purplish to green in colour and is covered in short, fine hairs. Its roots are thick, white in colour, fleshy, and 15 cm or more in length.It has broad leaves, oval in shape, 6-20 cm long, which are alternate or in uneven opposite pairs (one leaf much larger than the other).The often asymmetrical leaves have a smooth texture and are green in colour. The plants typically start branching at about 20-30 cm from the ground. The flowers are bell-shaped and purple with conspicuous yellow anthers. They are 2-3 cm long and grow in solitude, drooping from the axils of the leaves. The flowers usually appear between June and September, after which they produce dark, shiny black or purple berries containing sweet, dark, ink-like juices. The berries are 1.5-2 cm in diameter and are 2-celled (Blamey & Grey-Wilson 1989; Stace & Meijden undated).
The highly toxic alkaloids atropine, hyoscyamine and bellodonnine are present throughout the plant (Cross 2012, Rita & Aminesh 2011, Butcher 1947). The toxins are most prevalent in the roots of the plant, followed by the leaves and flowers, and then the berries, which contain the least amount of toxic alkaloids (Rita & Aminesh 2011).
Atropa belladonna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae,[1] which also includes tomatoes, potatoes and eggplant (aubergine). It is native to Europe, North Africa and Western Asia, including Turkey. Its distribution extends from Ireland in the west to western Ukraine and the Iranian province of Gilan in the east. It is also naturalised or introduced in some parts of Canada and the United States.
The foliage and berries are extremely toxic when ingested, containing tropane alkaloids.[1][2][3][4] These toxins include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, which cause delirium and hallucinations,[1][2][3][5][6] and are also used as pharmaceutical anticholinergics.[1] Tropane alkaloids are of common occurrence not only in the Old World tribes Hyoscyameae (to which the genus Atropa belongs) and Mandragoreae, but also in the New World tribe Datureae - all of which belong to the subfamily Solanoideae of the plant family Solanaceae.[1]
Atropa belladonna has unpredictable effects.[2] The antidote for belladonna poisoning is physostigmine or pilocarpine, the same as for atropine.[7]
Atropa belladonna has a long history of use as a medicine, cosmetic, and poison.[8][3][9] Known originally under various folk names (such as "deadly nightshade" in English), the plant was named Atropa belladonna by Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) when he devised his classification system. Linnaeus chose the genus name Atropa because of the poisonous properties of these plants. Atropos (lit. "unturning one"), one of the Three Fates in Greek mythology, is said to have cut a person's thread of life after her sisters had spun and measured it. Linnaeus chose the species name belladonna ("beautiful woman" in Italian) in reference to the cosmetic use of the plant during the Renaissance, when women used the juice of the berries in eyedrops intended to dilate the pupils and make the eyes appear more seductive.[10][3][11][12]
Extracts of plants in the deadly nightshade family have been in use since at least the 4th century BC, when Mandragora (mandrake) was recommended by Theophrastus for treatment of wounds, gout, and sleeplessness, and as a love potion. In the first century BC, Cleopatra used Atropine-rich extracts from the Egyptian henbane plant (another nightshade) for the above-mentioned purpose of dilating the pupils of her eyes.
The use of deadly nightshades as a poison was known in ancient Rome, as attested by the rumour that the Roman empress Livia Drusilla used the juice of Atropa belladonna berries to murder her husband, the emperor Augustus.[13]
In the first century AD, Dioscorides recognized wine of mandrake as an anaesthetic for treatment of pain or sleeplessness, to be given prior to surgery or cautery.[14] The use of nightshade preparations for anaesthesia, often in combination with opium, persisted throughout the Roman and Islamic empires and continued in Europe until superseded in the 19th century by modern anaesthetics.
The modern pharmacological study of Atropa belladonna extracts was begun by the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge (1795–1867). In 1831, the German pharmacist Heinrich F. G. Mein (1799–1864)[15] succeeded in preparing a pure crystalline form of the active substance, named atropine.[16] [17]
Atropa belladonna is a branching herbaceous perennial rhizomatous hemicryptophyte, often growing as a subshrub from a fleshy rootstock. Plants can reach a height of 2 m (7 ft) (more commonly 1.5 m (5 ft)), and have ovate leaves up to 18 cm (7 in) long. The bell-shaped flowers are dull purple tinged yellow-green toward the base and are faintly scented. The fruits are berries, which are green, ripening to a shiny black, and approximately 1.5 cm (0.6 in) in diameter. The berries are sweet and are consumed by animals that disperse the seeds in their droppings, even though they contain toxic alkaloids (see Toxicity).[18] There is a pale-yellow flowering form called Atropa belladonna var. lutea with pale yellow fruit.
A. belladonna is sometimes confused with the much less poisonous black nightshade, Solanum nigrum, belonging to a different genus within Solanaceae.[19] A comparison of the fruit shows that black nightshade berries are spherical, have a dull lustre and grow in clusters, whereas the berries of deadly nightshade are much glossier, twice as large, somewhat flattened and are borne singly. Another distinction is that black nightshade flowers are not tubular but white and star-shaped, bearing a central cone of yellow anthers.
Atropa belladonna is native to temperate southern, Central and Eastern Europe; North Africa, Turkey, Iran and the Caucasus, but has been cultivated and introduced outside its native range. In southern Sweden it was recorded in Flora of Skåne in 1870 as grown in apothecary gardens near Malmö.[20]
In Britain it is native only on calcareous soils, on disturbed ground, field margins, hedgerows and open woodland. More widespread as an alien, it is often a relic of cultivation as a medicinal herb. Seed is spread mainly by birds.[21]
It is naturalised in parts of North America, where it is often found in shady, moist locations with limestone-rich soils. It is considered a weed species in parts of the world,[22] where it colonizes areas with disturbed soils.[23]
Atropa belladonna is rarely used in gardens, but, when grown, it is usually for its large upright habit and showy berries.[24] Germination of the small seeds is often difficult, due to hard seed coats that cause seed dormancy. Germination takes several weeks under alternating temperature conditions, but can be sped up with the use of gibberellic acid.[25] The seedlings need sterile soil to prevent damping off and resent root disturbance during transplanting.
Atropa belladonna is in the nightshade family (Solanaceae), which it shares with potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, jimsonweed, tobacco, wolfberry, and chili peppers. The common names for this species include belladonna, deadly nightshade, divale, dwale,[26] banewort, devil's berries, death cherries, beautiful death, devil's herb, great morel, and dwayberry.[27]
The name Atropa belladonna was published by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753.[28] Atropa is derived from the name of the Greek goddess Atropos ('she who may not be turned aside' i.e. 'the inflexible' or 'the implacable')—one of the three Greek fates or destinies who would determine the course of a man's life by the weaving of threads that symbolized his birth, the events in his life, and finally his death, with Atropos cutting these threads to mark the last of these.[29][30] The name "belladonna" comes from the Italian language, meaning 'beautiful lady';[26] originating either from its usage as a cosmetic to beautify pallid skin,[31] or more probably, from its usage to increase the pupil size in women.[29][30]
Belladonna is one of the most toxic plants known,[32][33] and its use by mouth increases risk in numerous clinical conditions, such as complications of pregnancy, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, and psychiatric disorders, among others.[2][3] All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids.[2][34][35] Roots have up to 1.3%, leaves 1.2%, stalks 0.65%, flowers 0.6%, ripe berries 0.7%, and seeds 0.4% tropane alkaloids; leaves reach maximal alkaloid content when the plant is budding and flowering, roots are most poisonous in the end of the plant's vegetation period.[36] Belladonna nectar is transformed by bees into honey that also contains tropane alkaloids.[37] The berries pose the greatest danger to children because they look attractive and have a somewhat sweet taste.[27][38][39] The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part, though this can vary from one specimen to another.[27][34]
The active agents in belladonna, atropine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and hyoscyamine, have anticholinergic properties.[3][40][41] The symptoms of belladonna poisoning include dilated pupils, sensitivity to light, blurred vision, tachycardia, loss of balance, staggering, headache, rash, flushing, severely dry mouth and throat, slurred speech, urinary retention, constipation, confusion, hallucinations, delirium, and convulsions.[3][32][42][43][44] In 2009, A. belladonna berries were mistaken for blueberries by an adult woman; the six berries she ate were documented to result in severe anticholinergic syndrome.[45] The plant's deadly symptoms are caused by atropine's disruption of the parasympathetic nervous system's ability to regulate involuntary activities, such as sweating, breathing, and heart rate. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is an anticholinesterase (such as physostigmine) or a cholinomimetic (such as pilocarpine), the same as for atropine.[46]
Atropa belladonna is also toxic to many domestic animals, causing narcosis and paralysis.[47] However, cattle and rabbits eat the plant seemingly without suffering harmful effects.[43] In humans, its anticholinergic properties will cause the disruption of cognitive capacities, such as memory and learning.[40]
Belladonna cultivation is legal in Southern and Eastern Europe, Pakistan, North America, and Brazil.[36] Belladonna leaves and roots can be bought with a medical prescription in pharmacies throughout Germany.[48] In the United States, there is only one approved prescription drug containing belladonna alkaloids such as atropine, and the FDA regards any over-the-counter products claiming efficacy and safety as an anticholinergic drug, to be illegal.[49]
The common name belladonna originates from its historic use by women, as bella donna is Italian for "beautiful woman". Drops prepared from the belladonna plant were used to dilate women's pupils, an effect considered to be attractive and seductive.[11][12][9] Belladonna drops act as a muscarinic antagonist, blocking receptors in the muscles of the eye that constrict pupil size.[50] Belladonna is currently rarely used cosmetically, as it carries the adverse effects of causing minor visual distortions, inability to focus on near objects, and increased heart rate. Prolonged usage was reputed to cause blindness.[51]
In the United States, belladonna is marketed as a dietary supplement, typically as an atropine ingredient in over-the-counter cold medicine products.[32][49] Although such cold medicine products are probably safe for oral use at typical atropine dosages (0.2 milligram), there is inadequate scientific evidence to assure their effectiveness.[49] By FDA guidelines for supplements, there are no regulated manufacturing standards for cold medicines containing atropine, with some belladona supplements found to contain contaminants.[32]
Scientific evidence to recommend the use of A. belladonna in its natural form for any condition is insufficient,[2][3][32] although some of its components, in particular l-atropine, which was purified from belladonna in the 1830s, have accepted medical uses.[43] Donnatal is a prescription pharmaceutical, that combines natural belladonna alkaloids in a specific, fixed ratio with phenobarbital to provide peripheral anticholinergic or antispasmodic action and mild sedation.[52] Donnatal contains 0.0194 mg of atropine.[52] According to the FDA and Donnatal labeling, it is possibly effective for use as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (irritable colon, spastic colon, mucous colitis) and acute enterocolitis.[52][53] Donnatal is not approved by the FDA as being either safe or effective.[52] According to the FDA, Donnatal use has significant risks: it can cause harm to a fetus if administered to a pregnant woman, can lead to heat prostration if used in hot climates, may cause constipation, and may produce drowsiness or blurred vision.[52]
The Towns-Lambert or Bella Donna Cure was a regimen for treating alcohol use disorder in the early 20th century.[54]
Belladonna has been used in herbal medicine for centuries as a pain reliever, muscle relaxer, and anti-inflammatory, and to treat menstrual problems, peptic ulcer disease, histaminic reaction, and motion sickness.[2][3][55][56][9]
At least one 19th-century eclectic medicine journal explained how to prepare a belladonna tincture for direct administration.[57] In homeopathic practices, belladonna was prescribed by German physician Samuel Hahnemann as a topical medication for inflammation and pain.[2] In the form of Doktor Koster's Antigaspills, belladonna was a homeopathic medication for upset stomach and excessive flatulence.[58] There is insufficient scientific evidence justifying the use of belladonna for these or any other clinical disorders.[2]
In 2010 and 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration warned consumers against the use of homeopathic teething tablets and gels containing belladonna as used for infants and children, stating that the products may be toxic, causing "seizures, difficulty breathing, lethargy, excessive sleepiness, muscle weakness, skin flushing, constipation, difficulty urinating, or agitation".[59][60]
Atropa belladonna and related plants, such as Datura stramonium (commonly known as jimson weed), have occasionally been used as recreational drugs because of the vivid hallucinations and delirium they produce.[61] These hallucinations are most commonly described as very unpleasant, and recreational use is considered extremely dangerous because of the high risk of unintentional fatal overdose.[62][63][64][65][9] The main psychoactive ingredients are the alkaloids scopolamine and, to a lesser extent, hyoscyamine.[66] The effects of atropine on the central nervous system include memory disruption, which may lead to severe confusion.[67] The major effects of belladonna consumption last for three to four hours; visual hallucinations can last for three to four days, and some negative aftereffects are preserved for several days.[36]
The tropane alkaloids of A. belladonna were used as poisons, and early humans made poisonous arrows from the plant.[68][9] In Ancient Rome, it was used as a poison by Agrippina the Younger, wife of Emperor Claudius, on the advice of Locusta, a woman who specialized in poisons, and Livia, who is rumored to have used it to kill her husband Emperor Augustus.[68][69]
Macbeth of Scotland, when he was still one of the lieutenants of King Duncan I of Scotland, used it during a truce to poison the troops of the invading Harold Harefoot, King of England, to the point that the English troops were unable to stand their ground and had to retreat to their ships.[30][9]
Medical historians also suspect that Solomon Northup, a free black man who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1841, was poisoned using a combination of Atropa belladonna and laudanum.[70]
In the past, witches were believed to use a mixture of belladonna, opium poppy and other plants, typically poisonous (such as monkshood and hemlock), in flying ointment, which they allegedly applied to help them fly to gatherings with other witches or to experience bacchanalian carousal.[71][9] Carlo Ginzburg and others have argued that flying ointments were preparations meant to encourage hallucinatory dreaming; a possible explanation for the inclusion of belladonna and opium poppy in flying ointments concerns the known antagonism between tropane alkaloids of belladonna (scopolamine) and opiate alkaloids in the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum (to be specific, morphine), which produces a dream-like waking state (hypnagogia) or potentiated dreams while the user is asleep. This antagonism was known in folk medicine and discussed in traditional medicine formularies.[72][73] Belladonna is also notable for the unpredictability of its toxic effects.[74][75]
Among the ancient folk traditions of the Romanian (Moldavian) / Ukrainian region of Bukovina in the Carpathians is the ritual for a Bukovinian girl to enhance her attractiveness by making an offering to deadly nightshade. She entered the fields on a Sunday in Shrovetide, clad in her Sunday best, accompanied by her mother and bringing a bag of bread, salt, and brandy. She would dig up a deadly nightshade root and leave the three offerings in its place. As she returned home, she carried the root on the top of her head. On the way both to and from home, she avoided all quarrels and arguments. If asked by anyone on the way back what she was taking home, she would not divulge the truth or the spell would break.[76]
Specimen with abundant flowers and green, immature berries
Single flower, showing long pedicel springing from leaf axil.
Atropa belladonna L. Corolla and calyx of single flower in profile.
Atropa belladonna L. Single flower angled to show both exterior and interior.
Atropa belladonna L. Single flower, full face, showing reticulated corolla base and insertion of (characteristically curled) stamens, and pistil.
Single flower, three-quarter face, showing fine detail of puberulent stigma
Atropa belladonna L. single flower back-lit by bright sunlight to reveal purple reticulation of yellowish-green corolla tube.
Back-lit corolla, showing contrast between pubescent, ribbed exterior and more glabrous interior
Cross-section of corolla, showing ripe anthers with flocculent, cream pollen
Atropa belladonna L. Reverse of fruiting calyx, showing concave backs of calyx lobes with dirt from air pollution coating sticky trichomes.
The translucent yellow berries of Atropa belladonna lutea.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) Atropa belladonna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which also includes tomatoes, potatoes and eggplant (aubergine). It is native to Europe, North Africa and Western Asia, including Turkey. Its distribution extends from Ireland in the west to western Ukraine and the Iranian province of Gilan in the east. It is also naturalised or introduced in some parts of Canada and the United States.
The foliage and berries are extremely toxic when ingested, containing tropane alkaloids. These toxins include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, which cause delirium and hallucinations, and are also used as pharmaceutical anticholinergics. Tropane alkaloids are of common occurrence not only in the Old World tribes Hyoscyameae (to which the genus Atropa belongs) and Mandragoreae, but also in the New World tribe Datureae - all of which belong to the subfamily Solanoideae of the plant family Solanaceae.
Atropa belladonna has unpredictable effects. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is physostigmine or pilocarpine, the same as for atropine.
