Cock's Foot

orchardgrass
cocksfoot (European)

More info for the terms: cool-season, spikelet

Orchardgrass is a cool-season, perennial bunchgrass, 1.4 to 4 feet
(0.5-1.2 m ) tall with erect, glabrous culms and blades 4 to 16 inches
(10-40 cm) long and 0.1 to 0.5 inch (0.2-1.1 cm) wide.  The
inflorescence is a panicle with two to six florets per spikelet, with
the spikelets tightly clustered on one side of the branch.  Orchardgrass
is nonrhizomatous [21].  Most root development is in the upper 3 inches
(8 cm) of soil but extends to at least 18 inches (46 cm) below the
surface [23], producing a dense sod of medium-sized roots [26].

Orchardgrass was introduced to the eastern United States from Europe in
1760.  It is widely planted in the United States and Canada, and is
found from Nova Scotia south to the Carolinas, west to central
California, and north to coastal British Columbia [21,67].
 

More info for the term: fire regime

NO-ENTRY

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".

More info for the terms: cover, fire intensity, fire management, forbs, forest, frequency, fuel, fuel moisture, grassland, habitat type, herbaceous, seed, severity, shrub, shrubs, tree, wildfire

Orchardgrass is frequently seeded onto areas disturbed by fire to
control soil erosion.  Concern has been raised that the increase of
grass species in the area, especially summer-dormant grasses such as
orchardgrass, could increase the risk of fast-spreading, low-intensity
fires that could set back the rate of tree and shrub regeneration.  The
application of seed to reduce erosion is, therefore, not always
beneficial [12,31].

Orchardgrass mixtures are recommended in the conversion of chaparral to
grassland to reduce fire intensity and frequency [6].


FIRE CASE STUDY
SPECIES: Dactylis glomerata
FIRE CASE STUDY CITATION :
Sullivan, Janet, compiler. 1992. Orchardgrass response to spring and fall burning
for wildlife habitat improvement in western Montana. In: Dactylis glomerata.
In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer).
Available: https://www.fs.fed.us
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REFERENCE :
Noste, Nonan V. 1982. Vegetation response to spring and fall burning for
wildlife habitat improvement. In: Baumgartner, David M., compiler &
editor. Site preparation and fuels management on steep terrain:
Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 February 15-17; Spokane, WA. Pullman,
WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 125-132. [51].


SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION :
Spring- moderate severity
Fall -extreme severity


STUDY LOCATION :
Ten miles (16 km) north of Missoula, Montana, on a generally southeast
aspect below 4,920 feet (1,500 m).


PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY :
The study site had been previously burned by wildfire in 1945, which set
back the successional stage to a seral shrub community.  The habitat
type is Douglas-fir/ninebark (Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus
malvaceus).  This area remained unburned until 1979 (the year of the
prescribed burns), and the shrub species important for wildlife had
become decadent.

Herbaceous vegetation aerial crown cover averaged 19 percent prior to
the fall burn, and 24 percent prior to the spring burn.

Species present on the site prior to the spring burn were serviceberry
(Amelanchier alnifolia), evergreen ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus,
creeping Oregon grape (Berberis repens), ninebark (Physocarpus
malvaceus), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), Scouler willow (Salix
scouleriana), snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), spreading dogbane
(Apocynum androsaemifolium), kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi),
arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata), pinegrass (Calamagrostis
rubescens), elk sedge (Carex geyeri), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata),
and timothy (Phleum pratense).  Species present present prior to the
fall burned site included all of the above, except creeping Oregon
grape, spreading dogbane, arrowleaf balsamroot, kinnikinnick, and
timothy, but did include Douglas hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii) and
spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa).


TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE :
The target species for this study was evergreen ceanothus (Ceanothus
velutinus), selected for its importance to wildlife.  A number of
species were monitored preburn and postburn.  Orchardgrass on the spring
burn site was in a green growing stage, not yet in flower.  On the fall
burn site, orchardgrass was generally dormant (tall dead material with a
green basal rosette).


SITE DESCRIPTION :
Both burned sites occurred on generally southeast aspect below 4,920
feet (1,500 m).  The slope averages 30 percent with a maximum of 50
percent.


FIRE DESCRIPTION :
Fuel loadings on the fall burn were greater than on the spring burn, but
fuel loadings on both sites were low.  The amount of fine fuel was
marginal for carrying the fire.

The fall fire prescription called for a "hot fire moving fast enough to
consume all grasses and forbs and kill the cambium at the stems of most
of the shrubs."  For the fall fire, rate of spread ranged from 40 chains
per hour on the lower slope to 56 chains per hour on the upper slope.
On the spring fire, rate of spread ranged from 10 chains per hour on the
mid-slope, 11 chains per hour on the upper slope to 18 chains per hour
on the lower slope.

Weather and fuel moisture conditions during the burn are shown in the
tables below:

Fine fuel moisture contents:

---------------------------------------
Transect                   Fuel
                    Dead          Live
---------------------------------------
                    ----(percent)-----
Fall fire             6             55
F1-4 upper slope      8             62
F1-2 mid slope        8             53
F1-1 lower slope

Spring fire
S1-2 upper slope      8             67
S1-3 mid slope        9            156
S1-1 lower slope     12            149
---------------------------------------


Weather conditions during the burn:

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        Observations
                        -----------------------------------------------
                          Dry bulb      Relative            Wind
                         temperature    humidity          velocity
    Transect
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       (deg F(deg C))   (percent)    (Mi/h)       (km/h)

Fall fire
F1-4 upper slope          59 (15)          30       6/gusts to 8    (10)
F1-2 mid slope            69 (20)          23       8               (13)
F1-1 lower slope          70 (21)          18       7/gusts to 12   (11)

Spring fire
S1-2 upper slope          65 (18)          36       5/gusts to 7    (8)
S1-3 mid slope            57 (14)          30       6/gusts to 10   (10)
S1-1 lower slope          62 (17)          37       6/gusts to 8    (10)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------


FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES :
In the 2 years following the spring burn, herbaceous aerial crown cover
averaged 21 to 22 percent.  In the 2 years following the fall burn,
average herbaceous aerial crown cover was 28 percent. Orchardgrass was
considered an important component of the preburn vegetation that
reproduced well.

Prior to the spring burn, orchardgrass provided 253 cubic feet per acre
(2.9 m3/ha) and in the following 2 years provided 45 cubic feet per acre
(0.52 m3/ha) and 654 cubic feet per acre (7.5 m3/ha) respectively.

Prior to the fall burn, orchardgrass is reported as 554 cubic feet per
acre (6.35 m3/ha), and in the years following the burn is reported as 30
and 134 cubic feet per acre (0.34 and 1.54 m3/ha), respectively.


FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS :
The fall burn was hotter and faster moving than the spring burn, and
apparently caused more damage to orchardgrass plants than did the spring
burn.  But even the greater severity of the fall burn did not result in
a complete removal of orchardgrass.  As is true of most perennial grass
species, orchardgrass is well adapted to recover after even severe
fires, although recovery is slower after severe burns or hot fires.  If
the management objective is to increase orchardgrass specifically (as
this study was not intended), then a less severe treatment, such as the
spring burn, would be recommended.

More info for the term: severity

The fall burn was hotter and faster moving than the spring burn, and
apparently caused more damage to orchardgrass plants than did the spring
burn.  But even the greater severity of the fall burn did not result in
a complete removal of orchardgrass.  As is true of most perennial grass
species, orchardgrass is well adapted to recover after even severe
fires, although recovery is slower after severe burns or hot fires.  If
the management objective is to increase orchardgrass specifically (as
this study was not intended), then a less severe treatment, such as the
spring burn, would be recommended.

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: hemicryptophyte

  
   Hemicryptophyte

Orchardgrass is best adapted to well-drained, rich or moderately fertile
soils with an adequate water regime (12 inches or more annual
precipitation [30 cm]) [24,28,62,71] and temperatures that are not
extreme [4,28].  Optimum top growth is achieved at temperatures of
approximately 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 deg C) [72].  Orchardgrass is
shade tolerant and does well at higher elevations in the western United
States and Canada (4,900 to 6,200 feet [1,500-1,900,m]) [28].  It is
widely planted in the eastern United States, most notably in
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia [13].

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

More info for the term: shrub

   FRES11  Spruce - fir
   FRES19  Aspen - birch
   FRES20  Douglas-fir
   FRES21  Ponderosa pine
   FRES26  Lodgepole pine
   FRES29  Sagebrush
   FRES34  Chaparral - mountain shrub
   FRES36  Mountain grasslands
   FRES37  Mountain meadows
   FRES38  Plains grasslands
   FRES39  Prairie
   FRES40  Desert grasslands
   FRES41  Wet grasslands

In general, bunchgrasses with large accumulations of dead material can
generate high temperatures for long periods of time after the fire has
passed.  This can reduce fire survival for older plants [73].

More info for the terms: cover, forest, natural

Orchardgrass is moderately nutritious and highly palatable to deer, elk,
bighorn sheep, cattle, and domestic sheep and goats.  The persistent,
green, basal rosette provides good winter forage for deer and elk
[14,50].  Early spring growth provides green forage for all species
[60].  Cattle will eat orchardgrass preferentially in early spring and
summer, up to 50 percent of total diet [59,65].  Elk and mule deer also
prefer orchardgrass over a number of other species [42].  In areas
disturbed by fire where orchardgrass has been seeded (usually in a
mixture with other grasses and forbs), wildlife use increases over
nonseeded areas and nonburned areas [19,42,44,50,58].  Forest openings,
where orchardgrass is dominant, are associated with rufous hummingbirds,
pine siskins, slate-colored juncos, American robins, valley pocket
gophers, desert harvest mice, deer mice, Mexican voles, and white-tailed
deer [56].  Grasshopper sparrows and eastern meadowlarks were more
abundant in cultivated fields in Georgia codominated by orchardgrass
than in fallow or natural fields [33].  Wild turkeys graze orchardgrass
in winter, and poults use it as a source of cover and insects in late
summer.  Rabbits use orchardgrass for food and cover; Canada geese feed
on the seeds and leaves [13].

More info for the terms: codominant, forbs, shrub, woodland

An introduced species, orchardgrass is not generally used for habitat
typing.  However, Sugihara and others [68] have described an Oregon
white oak (Quercus garryana)/orchardgrass vegetation type in Redwood
National Park, California.  This vegetation type occurs exclusively as
closed canopy stands, and is predominant on lower slopes.  A mixture of
tall perennial grasses and perennial forbs codominates the understory
with orchardgrass.  The shrub layer is sparse.  Other important
associates in this type include yerba buena (Satureja douglasii),
mountain sweetroot (Osmorhiza chilensis), California strawberry
(Fragaria californica), western sanicle (Sanicula crassicaulis),
American vetch (Vicia americana), and climbing bedstraw (Galium
nuttallii).  California honeysuckle (Lonicera hispidula) and rigid
betony (Stachys rigida) are common characteristic species [68].

Smith [64] has described an Oregon white oak/poison oak (Toxicodendron
diversilobum)/orchardgrass vegetation type as an even-aged woodland with
three well-developed strata.  Oregon white oak and California black oak
(Quercus kellogii) are the dominant overstory trees; poison oak and wild
rose (Rosa spp.) are the dominant midstory or shrub-layer; and
orchardgrass and hedgehog dogtail (Cynosurus echinatus) are codominant
grasses [64].

Orchardgrass is listed as a dominant or codominant understory plant in
the following publications:

Plant associations within the Interior Valleys of the Umpqua River
  Basin, Oregon [64]. 
The principal plant associations of the Saint Lawrence Valley [74].
Vegetation of the Bald Hill oak woodlands, Redwood National Park,
  California [68].

More info for the term: graminoid

Graminoid

More info for the terms: forbs, frequency, tree, wildfire

As a forage species, orchardgrass does not withstand continuous heavy
use; it is therefore recommended for planting in less accessible sites,
and for early season, moderate grazing [32,47,65].  Grazing tends to
increase both crude protein and dry matter production, and increase
production of phytomass the following spring [57].  Orchardgrass
responds well to nitrogen fertilizers, and moderately well to coplanting
with legumes [62,72].  Clipping height has an effect on productivity--it
is recommended that orchardgrass not be clipped below 3 inches (7.6 cm)
in height as it appears to become much more drought sensitive [72].
Clipping frequency is apparently not as critical; orchardgrass has been
found to be as productive when cut at 2- to 3-week intervals as when cut
at 5- to 7-week intervals [72].

Burned sites (either from wildfire, or sites that have been logged and
burned) seeded with orchardgrass had higher forage values than either
unseeded or unburned areas [37,45,53].  However, seeded grasses may
suppress growth of desirable timber species and native forbs.
[2,17,35,45,47].  Seidel and others [61] reported that seedling
mortality of Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine were slightly increased (5-6
percent) over unseeded areas.  They concluded that a light rate of
seeding is compatible with the establishment of tree seedlings [61].
Seedling survival of trees planted in established stands of orchardgrass
can be greatly enhanced (depending on soil type) by the application of
herbicide before planting.

On sites where growth of tree seedlings is desirable, grazing by cattle
and wildlife improves tree growth compared with no grazing or grazing by
wildlife alone.  The degree of forage use and timing of grazing are
critical to tree growth/cattle use compatibility; light, early season
grazing is the most beneficial [36,47].

Orchardgrass is ranked below other popular grass species in nutritive
value and is considered by many farmers to be poor, but this perception
is based on harvesting orchardgrass for hay after its peak nutritive
level in the spring.  Nutritive values have been shown to decline
steadily after the early season peak [62,72].  Crude protein is highest
in the spring and declines to an average winter level of 4.3 percent
[62].

A number of studies have been done on nutritional values and
digestibility for cattle, elk, and domestic sheep.  The tables below
represent the range of average values as reported by author under
different conditions and extraction methods.

   Cattle        crude protein  14-16% [22]  16-19% [7]
                 crude fiber    23-25% [22]
                 lignin         4-8.5% [22]  5-7%   [9]
                 organic matter 92-93% [22]
                 dry matter     20-25% [9]
                 digestibility  56-77% [22]  55-59% [9]

   Sheep         crude protein  8-21% 
                 fiber          17-33%
                 organic matter 89-93%
                 digestibility  55-81% [22]

   Elk           crude protein   9-13%
                 organic matter  87%
                 digestibility   55-62% [8]

     AK AZ  AR  CA  CO  CT  DE  GA  HI  ID     
IL IN  IA  KS  KY  ME  MD  MA  MI  MN     
MO MT  NE  NV  NH  NJ  NM  NY  NC  ND     
OH OK  OR  PA  RI  SC  SD  TN  TX  UT     
VT VA  WA  WV  WI  WY  AB  BC  NF  NS     
ON PQ

Orchardgrass is a widely planted pasture grass [1,21,25,62] and is used
to increase forage production on rangelands [48].  It is frequently part
of mixtures that are seeded in mountain brush (especially Gambel oak
(Quercus gambelii) types to improve rangeland.  These mixtures are
drilled or broadcast seeded after some type of surface
preparation--usually removal of brush by burning or chaining, or by
herbicide application [6,38].  Orchardgrass is used to stabilize ski
slopes in Montana and to suppress annual weeds [5,39,40,41].

Palatability is rated high for cattle, elk, mule deer, and white-tailed
deer [15,50,59,64].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: seed

Orchardgrass begins growth early in spring and flowers from May to
September or October.  In dry areas it is dormant in summer, but will
add new growth in the fall, and will flower again in fall under
appropriate conditions.  Most European populations are obligately
dormant in the summer, showing no growth even when irrigated.  Some
Mediterranean populations do not have this obligate dormancy [16].  A
green basal rosette is maintained through winter [14].  Flowering
appears to be temperature rather than light dependent [20].  Seed
shattering takes place in late summer; most seed will germinate in fall
as there is no innate dormancy [24].

Orchardgrass is reported to increase or remain stable after burning
[11,52]. 

More info for the terms: caudex, graminoid, ground residual colonizer, secondary colonizer, tussock

   Tussock graminoid
   Caudex, growing points in soil
   Ground residual colonizer (onsite, initial community)
   Secondary colonizer - offsite seed

More info for the terms: formation, seed, tiller

Orchardgrass reproduces largely by seed and by tiller formation.  The
relatively large seed does not have an innate dormancy [24].  Seed can
germinate in either light or darkness; germination is largely controlled
by moisture availability, and most seed germinates in the fall.  Thus,
orchardgrass does not tend to build up seedbanks in the soil [24].

More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

    1  Northern Pacific Border
    2  Cascade Mountains
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    6  Upper Basin and Range
    7  Lower Basin and Range
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains
    9  Middle Rocky Mountains
   10  Wyoming Basin
   11  Southern Rocky Mountains
   12  Colorado Plateau
   13  Rocky Mountain Piedmont
   14  Great Plains
   15  Black Hills Uplift
   16  Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

More info for the term: severity

Spring- moderate severity
Fall -extreme severity

Both burned sites occurred on generally southeast aspect below 4,920
feet (1,500 m).  The slope averages 30 percent with a maximum of 50
percent.

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: competition

Facultative Seral Species

Orchardgrass is shade tolerant.  It is often seeded on disturbed areas
and is naturalized to fields, meadows, and waste places [67].  It is
long-lived but susceptible to replacement by native species, especially
in drier areas, and does not usually persist past 1 or 2 decades
[12,42,43].

Stands of orchardgrass tend to become clumpier with age, especially
under high nitrogen conditions.  This may be best explained by the
relative amounts of competition among tillers and among plants [72].

Dactylis aschersoniana Graebn.

The currently accepted scientific name of orchardgrass is Dactylis
glomerata L. [21,62,67]. Recognized varieties include [21]:

Dactylis glomerata var. ciliata Peterm.
Dactylis glomerata var. detonsa Fries

More info for the terms: cover, forbs, seed

Orchardgrass is widely recommended and used for a variety of
rehabilitation applications.  It is recommended for planting with a
mixture of grasses and legumes to reduce erosion after devegetation by
fire.  Orchardgrass often shows early success, eventually being replaced
by native vegetation or other seeded species [12,45,49].

Orchardgrass is used in seed mixtures with other grasses and forbs
(usually clover or alfalfa) for rehabilitation of overgrazed lands.  The
success of orchardgrass appears to depend on the appropriateness of the site
to specific adaptations of orchardgrass cultivars, and also on proper
management of grazing [1,10,18,47,63].

Orchardgrass is planted in areas that have been logged and burned to
provide a vegetative cover for soil stabilization and provide forage for
cattle and/or wildlife [10,31,49].

Orchardgrass is also used for rehabilitation of sites disturbed by
mining [28,46].  The most successful applications in the western United
States appear to be sites that are relatively cool and moist (upper
elevations, shaded areas, etc.) [27,29,53].

Plantings of orchardgrass mixtures do well where there is adequate
moisture (12 inches or more annual precipitation) [28,60] and where
temperatures are not extreme [4,70].  In the drier western states it is
better adapted for higher elevations or in irrigated pastures and
croplands [69].  However, in the northeastern United States,
particularly the southern part of the region, orchardgrass is so well
adapted that it will invade alfalfa stands (Medicago spp.) [72].

Some cultivars are more drought resistant than others [54,55].  The
following list of cultivars indicates the wide range of strains
available; there are many more cultivars available--new ones are still
being listed.

'LATAR' is a late-season strain, highly recommended for pasture and hay
production; it is 10 percent higher in digestibility than other
cultivars and is more compatible with legumes, especially alfalfa
(Medicago sativa) [30].

'POTOMAC' is an early-season strain, better adapted to mountain sites
[30].

'PAIUTE' is more drought tolerant than other cultivars [30].

'POMAR' is a specially adapted low-growing strain particularly suited as
a cover crop in orchards and for road bank stabilization [30].