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Associations

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Giant sea bass are most likely to be preyed upon while they are in larval or juvenile stages, by a wide variety of marine mammals and fish. Due to their large size, only large sharks and humans have the ability to prey on adults.

Known Predators:

  • great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias)
  • humans (Homo sapiens)
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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Jeremy Wright, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Morphology

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Juvenile giant sea bass are a brilliant shade of orange, with distinctive large black spots. As a fish matures, its spots deminish and its colorful exterior gradually darkens and acquires a bronzy purple hue. At full maturity, it begins to develop a white underside while the rest of its body turns black or even gray. Features characteristic of giant sea bass are dorsal spines that fit into grooves in the back and a large mouth specialized for ambush predation. Perhaps the most well-known feature of this species is its large size, with individuals historically exceeding 2 meters in length.

Range mass: 255.6 (high) kg.

Range length: 2.5 (high) m.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Life Expectancy

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The oldest scientifically aged fish was estimated to be 75 years old, weighing 197 kilograms. It is believed that giant sea bass may potentially live for over a century.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
75 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild:
100 (high) years.

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Habitat

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Juvenile giant sea bass are found at depths of 6 to 10 m, over mud flats and in coastal lagoons of southern California and the Baja California peninsula. Older juveniles and adults are found in 10 to 40 m of water over sandy bottoms, kelp beds and rocky reefs, as well as within deep ridges at depths of 70 to 80 m. Adult sea bass venture offshore of these coastal areas at various times in the year to prey on groups of spawning squid.

Range depth: 6 to 80 m.

Average depth: 40 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; coastal

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Behavior

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This species has the ability to rapidly and dramatically change color, producing black spots and white mottling over the body. It is believed that these color changes serve as stress signals and a means of communication between conspecifics. In addition to the use of visual cues, giant sea bass are able to perceive their environment through the use of their lateral line system, which detects pressure changed and movement in surrounding waters. They can also detect dissolved chemical substances via their nares, which are analogous to nostrils in terrestrial animals.

Communication Channels: visual

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; vibrations ; chemical

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Conservation Status

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Giant sea bass have been protected in California since 1982, when the California State Legislature recognized the great decline in populations and banned recreational and commercial fishing for this species. However, the species can still be fished in Mexico. In 1990, Proposition 132 passed in California, banning the use of gill nets within coastal waters as a public initiative to prevent further population declines of giant sea bass.

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Paul Detwiler, San Diego Mesa College
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Jeremy Wright, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Life Cycle

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There is little specific information on the development of this species. Like in other broadcast spawning marine teleosts, fertilized eggs develop into planktonic, lechithotropic larvae that drift with coastal currents while developing into fully developed juveniles.

Development - Life Cycle: indeterminate growth

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Jeremy Wright, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits

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There are no known adverse effects of giant sea bass on humans.

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Benefits

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Giant sea bass were one of the most economically important species of fish in the Gulf of California and were fished heavily in the 1930’s and 40’s for their value as food. As a protected species, their current value lies in ecotourism, attracting divers from around the world to coastal marine sanctuaries in California to catch a glimpse of these undersea giants.

Positive Impacts: ecotourism ; research and education

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Paul Detwiler, San Diego Mesa College
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Associations

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Giant sea bass are top-level carnivores that prey on many kelp forest species of invertebrates and fish. This species is also a host for endoparasitic monogenean flukes and ectoparasitic isopods, which attach themselves to the gill rakers. Señoritas are a species of cleaner fish that share a mutualistic symbiosis with giant sea bass, removing these external crustacean parasites from the gills, skin, and inside of the mouth.

Mutualist Species:

  • señoritas (Oxyjulis californica)

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • Nerocila californica (Order Isopoda, Subphylum Crustacea)
  • Cycloplectanum caballeroi (Class Monogenea, Phylum Platyhelminthes)
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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Paul Detwiler, San Diego Mesa College
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Jeremy Wright, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Trophic Strategy

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Giant sea bass mainly consume benthic invertebrates including rock crab (Cancer antennarius) and California spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus), and will also prey on other fishes, such as round stingrays (Urobatis halleri), ocean whitefish (Caulolatilus princeps), California barracuda (Sphyraena argentea), kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus), and barred sand bass (Paralabrax nebulifer). They are sit-and-wait ambush predators, that capture their prey by rapidly opening their mouth, creating a vacuum that sucks their prey into their throats.

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans; echinoderms

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore )

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Paul Detwiler, San Diego Mesa College
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Jeremy Wright, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Distribution

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Giant sea bass inhabit coastal waters of California, from Humboldt Bay to the tip of Baja California, Mexico.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Paul Detwiler, San Diego Mesa College
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Jeremy Wright, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Reproduction

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Spawning behavior of giant sea bass has rarely been observed in the field. One study documented groups of 2 to 20 fish spawning in one particular area. As is the case with other broadcast spawning species, pair bonds are not formed, and individuals may spawn multiple times with several different mates.

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Male giant sea bass reach sexual maturity at about 18 kg, while females mature at sizes of 23 to 27 kg. These sizes correspond to an age of 11 to 13 years for either gender. During a three mouth spawning period from July to September, females may produce up to 60,000,000 eggs. After fertilization, the eggs absorb water and swell up, measuring up to 1.6 mm in diameter (much larger than the eggs of other bass species). Eggs are positively buoyant and float to the surface. After hatching, larvae drift and feed on plankton for about a month until they sink and start their juvenile phase.

Breeding interval: Giant sea bass spawn annually, potentially engaging in multiple individual spawning events during a single spawning season.

Breeding season: Spawning occurs once a year between July to September.

Range number of offspring: 60,000,000 (high) .

Range gestation period: 24 to 36 hours.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 11 to 13 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 11 to 13 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); broadcast (group) spawning; oviparous

As is the case with the majority of species that broadcast spawn, there is no parental investment beyond the energy required to produce gametes.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement

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Helke, Z. and A. Lahr 2012. "Stereolepis gigas" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Stereolepis_gigas.html
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Zack Helke, San Diego Mesa College
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Paul Detwiler, San Diego Mesa College
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Jeremy Wright, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Biology

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Black sea bass can swim very fast for short distances (4) but are not built for sustained speed and the vast majority of their prey is caught on the sea bed (3). As the black sea bass rapidly opens its huge mouth a vacuum is produced, which draws in organisms crawling across the bottom or buried just below the surface, although some mid-water fish are also ambushed and sucked in. The diet largely consists of a range of fish such as sting rays, skates, flatfish, small sharks, as well as various crustaceans and octopus and squid (3). Black sea bass mature at seven to ten years. Large spawning aggregations form over the period of June to September, and remain together for a period of one to two months (1). Large females are capable of producing enormous numbers of eggs, up to 60 million or more, which hatch in around 24 to 36 hours. The larvae then drift around feeding on plankton for about a month before becoming bottom-dwelling juveniles (3). Remarkably, individuals have been known to live to an age of at least 70 years (2).
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Conservation

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The black sea bass has been protected in California since 1981 and in Mexico since 1992. Both commercial and recreational fishing of this species were prohibited in California in 1981, although two fish per angler per trip are allowed to be caught south of the U.S.-Mexican border and one fish per trip to be taken incidentally by commercial fishermen. The law also limited the amount of black sea bass that could be caught in Mexican waters and landed in California (1). Although these laws have prevented commercial fishermen from targeting and profiting from these fish, they have failed to protect the habitats occupied by the species from fishing and have probably done little to reduce incidental mortality, since black sea bass entangled in nets have simply been discarded back into the sea (5). Indeed, many fish in spawning aggregations in the summer have been caught and released, frequently receiving injuries in the process (6). However, the banning of gill nets in California in 1990 has probably helped significantly reduce the incidental mortality of this species, and anecdotal data suggest that numbers may be beginning to rebound (1) (5). Nevertheless, either voluntary or imposed seasonal and/or area closures would undoubtedly help further minimise incidental mortalities and greatly aid the recovery of this magnificent and dramatic giant of the sea (3) (6).
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Description

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As implied by its alternative name of giant sea bass, the most dramatic feature of this fish is its conspicuous size, with the largest individual recorded reaching a phenomenal 255.6 kg – a true giant of the ocean (2) (3)! The bulky, robust fish has a large mouth, small teeth and a distinctive single, strongly-notched dorsal fin (4). Almost as impressive as its size is the variation in colour displayed by this species. Juveniles start out life as a bright orange colour with black spots, with the orange turning a more bronzy purple as the individual grows and the spots fading as the fish gets darker. Large adults often appear solid black to grey, with a white underside, but retain the ability to display large black spots. Indeed, black sea bass are in fact capable of rapid and dramatic colour changes, from dark above and light below to displaying white mottling or simply changing from jet black to pale grey. These colour changes are thought to act as a form of communication between individuals or to be an indication of stress (3).
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Habitat

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Adults typically inhabit rocky bottoms near kelp beds in waters deeper than 30 m, while juveniles usually occur in and around kelp beds as well as sandy bottom areas at depths of 12 to 21 m (1).
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Range

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Found in the Eastern Pacific, from Humboldt Bay in California, U.S.A., to the tip of Baja in Mexico, as well as being found in the northern half of the Gulf of California. Recorded also in the coastal waters of northern Japan, although this occurrence is suspected to represent a misidentification (1).
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Status

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Classified as Critically Endangered (CR A1bd) on the IUCN Red List 2004 (1).
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Threats

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The black sea bass has been massively over-fished in both California and Mexican waters, leaving this water giant Critically Endangered. Indeed, so dramatic were these declines that between 1932 and 1980 commercial landings diminished from 115 tonnes biomass to 5 tonnes in Californian waters, and from 363 tonnes to 12 tonnes in Mexican waters. The species' limited distribution, large size and aggregation in spawning areas made it an easy target for fisheries (1). Unfortunately, its slow growth and late onset of sexual maturity make the fish extremely vulnerable to population collapses from over-fishing, and slow to recover (5). Additionally, it appears that the black sea bass may also be suffering from toxin poisoning. Sediments along the coast of California have been found to carry very high levels of toxins such as DDE and PCB, with an area off the Palos Verdes peninsula thought to contain possibly the highest loads of DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) in the world's oceans. The toxins cannot be broken down so, as a mid-level predator, black sea bass ingest the cumulative toxins in increased concentrations from the food chain below it, and have been found to be carrying extremely high body burdens of DDE and PCB in southern California. The chemicals have been recorded to interfere with normal reproductive biology in other species of fish, as well as amphibians, reptiles and birds, but more research is needed into the effects they are having on this giant fish and its process of recovery in California (3).
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Life Cycle

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Pelagic spawner (Ref. 56049).
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Biology

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Occur on rock bottoms; near shore, outside kelp beds and along drop-offs (Ref. 2850). Large specimens usually found deeper than 30 m, small ones over sand and in kelp beds mostly from 12-21 m (Ref. 2850). Aggregate for spawning in summer (Ref. 2850). Pelagic spawners (Ref. 56049). Longevity of 90 to 100 years (Ref. 56049) stemmed from speculation on the age of a 557 lb fish caught in 1962, but the oldest age determined from otoliths of a 435 lb fish was 72 to75 years (Ref. 4563). Validated age so far is up to >50 years using bomb radiocarbon (A.H. Andrews, pers. comm.)
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Importance

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fisheries: commercial; gamefish: yes
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Giant sea bass

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The giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) is a fish native to the North Pacific Ocean. Although commonly referred to as a giant sea bass, black sea bass or giant black sea bass, it is actually a wreckfish in the family Polyprionidae rather than in the sea bass family Serranidae.[3]

Characteristics

Photo of a particularly large giant sea bass being displayed

Giant sea bass reaching a size of 8.2 feet (2.5 m) and a weight of up to 562 pounds (255 kg) have been reported. However, in Charles F. Holder's book The Channel Islands of California, published in 1910, the author claims specimens taken from the Gulf of California attained 800 pounds (360 kg). Aside from its tremendous size, the giant sea bass is also known for its lengthy lifespan. They mature around the age of 11 or 12, around the weight of 50 pounds (23 kg). However, some of the largest specimens have been known to exceed 7 ft, and are estimated to be 75 years or older.[4] In the eastern North Pacific, its range is from Humboldt Bay, California, to the Gulf of California, Mexico, most common from Point Conception southward. In the northwestern Pacific it occurs around Japan.[5] It usually stays near kelp forests, drop-offs, or rocky bottoms and sand or mudflats.[6] Juvenile giant sea bass can be found at depths around 69 feet (21 m), with adults of the species found at depths below 66 feet (20 m).[7] Juveniles of the species are brightly colored in red or orange, however as individuals of the species mature they take on more muddled colors of gray or brown.[8]

Diet

Within kelp forests giant sea bass are the apex predator.[8] Giant sea bass feed on crustaceans, as well as a wide variety of fish. For populations off the coast of California, anchovies and croaker are prominent food sources. Mackerel, sheephead, whitefish, sand bass, and several types of crab also make up the sea bass's diet. Despite their great size and bulky appearance, giant sea bass have been known to move extremely quickly, outstripping bonito.[4]

History and conservation

Drawing, 1897

Recreational fishing of the giant sea bass began in the late 19th century.[9]: 150  Caught off the Central and Southern California coasts in the 20th century, the peak catch of the giant sea bass was in 1932.[6] Giant sea bass were once a relatively common inhabitant of Southern California waters, yet in the 1980s, it was facing the threat of local extinction off the California coast.[10]

Giant sea bass were also a popular "big game" quarry for both freediving and scuba spearfishermen. In the 1970s, spearfishing for this species was made illegal by the California Department of Fish and Game. One unfortunate incident precipitated this abrupt change in the law. Several freedivers had taken 7 fish at Santa Cruz Island. Unable to eat nearly a ton of fish, they sold the fish illegally to a fish market in San Pedro. Fish and Game wardens discovered that the fish had been speared by observing the holes and slip tips left behind in their bodies.[11]

By the late 1970s, biologists with the California Department of Fish and Game, recognized that the local population of giant sea bass was in trouble. Actions were taken, resulting in protection from commercial and sport fishing that went into effect in 1982.[1] In 1996, the species was listed as critically endangered by the IUCN.[12] As of 2004, it is suggested that the population size of Giant Sea Bass in California may be increasing as it is under protection; however, there is no hard data to support it.[1] In 2016, the first successful captive breeding of the species occurred at that Aquarium of the Pacific.[10] The total breeding population in California in 2018 is estimated to be around 500 individuals, of which 40 to 50 return to spawn around Catalina Island each year.[13]

Giant sea bass remain understudied in the Mexican portion of its range, although efforts are underway to monitor the population size, genetic connectivity, and fishing pressure along the Pacific coast of the Baja peninsula.[14] More than half of the range of the giant sea bass are within Mexican waters.[15] In Mexico, the giant sea bass is called mero gigante.[8] The peak catch of giant sea bass in Mexican waters occurred in 1932, when the catch was over 800,000 pounds (360,000 kg).[9]: 209  Prior to 1964, commercial catches of giant sea bass in Mexican waters were above 200,000 pounds (91,000 kg).[9]: 209  In 1981, United States commercial fishermen were initially allowed to catch up to 1,000 pounds (450 kg) of giant sea bass per trip into Mexican waters, and no more than 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) per year; in 1988 the regulation changed to only allow a single giant sea bass fish to be taken in per trip if taken incidentally.[16] Within those waters for over half a century the average catch of giant sea bass by Mexican fishermen has been 55 tonnes (55,000 kg).[15]

References

  1. ^ a b c Cornish, A. (Grouper & Wrasse Specialist Group) (2004). "Stereolepis gigas". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T20795A9230697. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T20795A9230697.en. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  2. ^ Eschmeyer, William N.; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "Genera in the family Polyprionidae". Catalog of Fishes. California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  3. ^ "Stereolepis gigas". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 18 April 2006.
  4. ^ a b Schultz, Ken (2004). Ken Schultz's Field Guide to Saltwater Fish. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. p. 182. ISBN 9780471449959.
  5. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2019). "Sterolepis gigas" in FishBase. April 2019 version.
  6. ^ a b "Giant sea bass". Animals. Monterey Bay Aquarium. 1999. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  7. ^ "Giant Sea Bass". Online Learning Center. Aquarium of the Pacific. 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
  8. ^ a b c "About Giant Sea Bass". Marine Science Institute. UC Santa Barbara. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  9. ^ a b c Leet, William S.; Dewees, Christopher M.; Klingbeil, Richard; Larson, Eric J., eds. (December 2001). California's Living Marine Resources: A Status Report. California Department of Fish and Game Resource Agency. University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources. ISBN 978-1-879906-57-0. LCCN 2001098707.
  10. ^ a b Sahagun, Louis (4 March 2020). "Scientists seed local seas with imperiled fish. Can giant sea bass make a comeback?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
  11. ^ Terry, Maas. "Black Seabass Return". Blue Water Freedivers. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
  12. ^ "Giant (Black) Sea Bass". Channel Islands National Park. National Park Service. 12 December 2019. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  13. ^ Sahagun, Louis (21 July 2018). "Giant sea bass are mysterious to scientists. Understanding them could help the species survive". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  14. ^ Ramirez-Valdez, Arturo; Villasenor-Derbez, Juan Carlos; Sgarlatta, Maria Paula; Rowell, Timothy J.; Dominguez-Guerrero, Isai; Hernandez, Arturo; Gomez, Antonio Gomez; Cota, Juan Jose; Santana-Morales, Omar; Dominguez-Reza, Ricardo; Castro, Jhonatan. "Proyecto Mero Gigante".
  15. ^ a b Ramirez-Valdez, Arturo (4 August 2021). "Giant sea bass are thriving in Mexican waters scientific research that found them to be critically endangered stopped at the US-Mexico border". The Conversation. Waltham, Massachusetts. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
    Ramirez-Valdez, Arturo (9 August 2021). "Marine Ecologist Surprised To Find "Critically Endangered" Giant Sea Bass Thriving in Mexican Waters". SciTechDaily. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  16. ^ Department of Fish and Game. Giant Sea Bass (Stereolepis gigas) (PDF) (Report). State of California. Retrieved 11 August 2021.

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Giant sea bass: Brief Summary

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The giant sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) is a fish native to the North Pacific Ocean. Although commonly referred to as a giant sea bass, black sea bass or giant black sea bass, it is actually a wreckfish in the family Polyprionidae rather than in the sea bass family Serranidae.

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