dcsimg

Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

provided by AnAge articles
Maximum longevity: 32 years (wild) Observations: IMR was estimated based on data from the wild (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/).
license
cc-by-3.0
copyright
Joao Pedro de Magalhaes
editor
de Magalhaes, J. P.
partner site
AnAge articles

Morphology

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys are large birds of prey (55 to 58 cm long), with a wingspan ranging from 145 to 170 cm. Their long wings have a characteristic bend at the carpal ("wrist") joints. They are bright white underneath, with dark brown patches at the carpal joints and a mottled dark brown necklace. Other identifying markings include a dark stripe through each eye, and a dark brown back. The feet of this species are pale blue-gray, and the beak is black. Juvenile ospreys resemble adults, but have a somewhat speckled appearance due to buff-colored tips on their dark brown upper-wing and back coverts and a less well-defined necklace. Juveniles also have an orange-red iris, rather than the yellow iris that is typical of adults. Juvenile plumage is replaced by adult plumage by 18 months of age.

On average, while not necessarily longer, female ospreys are 20% heavier than males and have a wingspan that is 5 to 10% greater. In North America, for example, male ospreys range in mass from 1200 to 1600 g, whereas females range from 1600 to 2000 g. Female ospreys also often have darker plumage and a more defined necklace than their male counterparts.

Ospreys display morphological variation by region. Tropical and subtropical individuals tend to be smaller than individuals that breed at higher latitudes. The four subspecies of ospreys show some variation in size and color. Pandion haliaetis haliaetus and P.h. carolinensis are the largest and darkest subspecies. P.h.ridgwayi is approximately the same size as carolinensis, but is paler on the head and breast. P.h. cristatus is the smallest subspecies, with a dark necklace and pale crown.

Ospreys have several morphological adaptations to their unique fish-eating lifestyle. These adaptations include relatively long legs for a raptor, spiny footpads called spicules, long, sharp, curved claws, and a reversible outer toe to aid in gripping slippery fish. In addition, ospreys have dense oily plumage and efficient nasal valves that prevent water from entering the nostrils when the bird dives to catch a fish.

Range mass: 1200 to 2000 g.

Range length: 55 to 58 cm.

Range wingspan: 145 to 170 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger; sexes colored or patterned differently

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Life Expectancy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys are a relatively long-lived bird species. The oldest known osprey in North America was a 25-year old male. The oldest known female was 23 years old. However, very few individuals live to this age. Chance of survival from one year to the next varies between populations, but is estimated to be approximately 60% for young ospreys (less than 2 years old) and 80 to 90% for adult ospreys.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
25 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
314 months.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Habitat

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys have a wide distribution because they are able to live almost anywhere where there are safe nest sites and shallow water with abundant fish. Nests are generally found within 3 to 5 km of a water body such as a salt marsh, mangrove (Rhizophora) swamp, cypress (Taxodium) swamp, lake, bog, reservoir or river. The frequency with which each of these habitat types is used varies by geographic region.

Ospreys choose structures that can support a bulky nest, and that are safe from ground-based predators. Nest sites can be safe from predators either by being difficult for a predator to climb (e.g. on a cliff) or by being over water or on a small island. Over-water nest sites that are often used by ospreys include buoys and channel markers, dead trees and artificial nest platforms. Ospreys have also been known to nest on various man-made structures, such as power poles, duck blinds, communication towers, buildings and even billboards. In many cases, nests that are built on artificial structures such as nest platforms and power poles are more stable and fledge more chicks per breeding season than nests on naturally-occuring structures.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial ; saltwater or marine ; freshwater

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest ; mountains

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; coastal ; brackish water

Wetlands: marsh ; swamp

Other Habitat Features: suburban ; riparian ; estuarine

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Distribution

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys have a worldwide distribution, wintering or breeding on every continent except Antarctica. Ospreys are not known to breed in South America or Indo-Malasia, but are sometimes found there in the winter. Ospreys are winter breeders in Egypt and some Red Sea islands. Regions where ospreys are particularly abundant include Scandinavia and the Chesapeake Bay region of the United States.

There are four subspecies of ospreys, which are separated by geographic region. Pandion haliaetus carolinensis breeds in North America and the Caribbean, and winters in South America. P. h. haliaetus breeds in the Palearctic region (Europe, north Africa and in Asia, north of the Himalayas) and winters in south Africa, India and the East Indies. P. h. ridgwayi is a non-migratory subspecies. It resides in the Caribbean, with a range that extends from the Bahamas and Cuba to southeast Mexico and Belize. The final subspecies, P. h. leucocephalus is also a non-migratory subspecies. Its range includes Australia and the southwest Pacific.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native ); ethiopian (Native ); neotropical (Native ); australian (Native ); oceanic islands (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: holarctic ; cosmopolitan

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Trophic Strategy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys are unusual among raptors for being piscivores. Their diet consists almost exclusively of fish (≥99% of prey items). They are generally opportunistic, and will eat whatever fish species are accessible to them – either in shallow waters, or near the surface of deeper waters. Studies in North America have documented more than 80 different prey species of ospreys. However, 2 or 3 common species may dominate the diet of local ospreys in a given area.

Ospreys hunt for fish on the wing (less often from a perch), flapping and gliding 10 to 40 meters above the water. When an osprey spots a fish, it hovers briefly, then dives toward the surface of the water. Just before hitting the water, the osprey swings its legs forward and bends its wings back, plunging feet-first into the water. The osprey uses strong, almost horizontal wing beats to lift itself and its prey from the water. Once airborne, the osprey rearranges the fish in its feet, carrying it with one foot in front of the other so that the fish is facing forward. This position presumably makes the fish more aerodynamic, and easier to carry. The osprey then takes the fish to a perch, often near the nest, to eat. Osprey generally eat fish beginning with the head and working toward the tail. A male who is also providing food for a mate and offspring during the breeding season will typically consume at least part of the fish before delivering the remainder to the female. Ospreys do not cache fish. If a fish is larger than an osprey (and his mate and offspring if breeding) can consume, the fish is discarded, carried around with the osprey, or left in the nest. Ospreys do not generally need to drink water. Fish flesh supplies sufficient amounts of water to meet their requirements.

Ospreys catch fish on 24 to 74% of their dives. This success rate is affected by individual ability, weather and tide. Some studies have shown that ospreys are most successful hunting at midtide and when the weather is calm.

Though the vast majority of osprey prey items are live fish, ospreys have been observed to eat other foods on occasion. These include birds, snakes, voles, squirrels, muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus), salamanders, conchs, and even a small alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Reports of ospreys feeding on carrion are rare. However, they have been observed eating dead white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and opossum (Didelphis virginiana).

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; amphibians; reptiles; fish; carrion ; mollusks

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore )

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys are vulnerable to predation from aerial predators, such as owls and eagles . In North America, Bald eagles and great horned owls are known predators of osprey nestlings and (occasionally) adults. The speckled appearance of osprey chicks camouflages them in the nest and may be an adaptation to minimize predation by diurnal avian predators like the bald eagle.

Raccoons, snakes and other climbing animals are suspected predators of osprey eggs and nestlings. Selection by such terrestrial predators may explain why the majority of osprey nests in many area, for example in the Chesapeake Bay region of the U.S., are built over water. Crocodilians may prey on wintering ospreys. Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) sometimes kill ospreys bathing and roosting near water in Africa.

Known Predators:

  • great horned owls (Bubo virginianus)
  • raccoons (Procyon lotor)
  • Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus)
  • bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

While ospreys provide food for some species (see Predation), it is unlikely that they represent a significant portion of the diet of any species. Ospreys do prey on fish, and are likely have some effect on local fish populations. Like most predators, ospreys are host to many different species of parasites, including feather mites. They are not parasitic or mutualistic with any other species.

Ospreys nests are used by many species of birds other than ospreys. Smaller cavity-nesting species, such as common grackles, tree swallows, barn swallows, European starlings and house sparrows build nests within osprey nests. Other larger species will usurp osprey nests for their own use in the spring before the resident ospreys return. In North America, these species include great blue herons, Canada geese, bald eagles, Red-tailed hawks, Great horned owls, herring gulls and common ravens.

Ospreys in some areas, particularly boreal and other northern forested regions, may have historically been dependant on beavers for creation of habitat. Beavers create osprey habitat by building dams, which create shallow ponds for fishing and dead trees appropriate for building nests.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys may be a valuable indicator species for monitoring the long-term health of large rivers, bays and estuaries. Ospreys are well-suited to this role because of their piscivorous lifestyle and their known sensitivity to many contaminants. They are also relatively easily studied because they have conspicuous nests and are tolerant of short-term disturbance such as nest observations by researchers. The presence of ospreys may also benefit local economies by boosting ecotourism.

Positive Impacts: ecotourism

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

There are no known negative impacts of ospreys on humans. In the past, some fishermen have believed that ospreys competed with them for fish. However, studies have demonstrated that ospreys take a very small portion of all fish harvested and are not serious competition for commercial and recreational fishing.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Conservation Status

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys are not listed under the Endangered Species Act. However, this species is listed as threatened, endangered or a species of special concern in several U.S. states, including Michigan. Ospreys are also protected under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act and CITES Appendix II. They are not listed on the IUCN Red List.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the main threats to osprey populations were egg collectors and shootings. These declined by the mid-twentieth century, though some shootings still occur. With the introduction and widespread use of the pesticide DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane), osprey populations in many areas declined sharply from the 1950’s through the 1970’s. During this period, 90% of breeding pairs disappeared from the Atlantic coast between New York City and Boston. DDT was banned in the U.S. around 1970, but continues to be used in some countries that serve as wintering grounds for ospreys. Populations of ospreys largely rebounded after the banning of DDT and are now reaching historic levels. Installation of artificial nest structures, hacking projects and new habitat created by reservoirs have allowed osprey populations to increase and expand their range.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

State of Michigan List: threatened

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Behavior

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Ospreys use several different vocalizations to communicate with one another. Up to five different calls have been recognized by researchers. These calls are nearly always associated with a visual display, such as a characteristic flight or posture. Vocalizations are used for begging, alarm, courtship, and nest defense. One notable display is the “sky-dance,” which is an elaborate aerial display performed by males during courtship and early incubation. During this display, a male carrying a fish or nest material gives a screaming call while simultaneously performing short undulating flights separated by periods of hovering. Alarm calls are often given when a potential predator or disturbance such as a boat or human approaches the nest. These calls are usually accompanied by erect posturing and diving flight.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Untitled

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Bones belonging to earlier Pandion species from the mid- to late-Miocene (approx. 13 million years ago) were found in California and Florida. These prehistoric osprey species were slightly less robust than modern ospreys, but otherwise very similar.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Reproduction

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Some ospreys migrate seasonally, but not all. Non-migratory populations breed and winter in the same location, though they may wander several hours from their nest during the non-breeding season. These populations begin breeding between December and March. Migratory populations generally breed where winters are cold enough to drive fish into deep water where they are inaccessible. These populations begin breeding in April or May.

Courtship in ospreys centers on food and nest sites. In migratory osprey populations, males and females arrive at the nest site separately, the male often arriving several days earlier than the female. Male ospreys sometimes perform a conspicuous aerial display near the nest site. This display usually occurs during early courtship, and may serve to attract potential mates or to threaten an intruder. Both sexes collect materials for the nest, but the female does most of the arranging of materials at the nest. Osprey nests are typically constructed of sticks, and lined with softer materials such as seaweed, kelp, grasses or cardboard. A wide variety of flotsam and jetsam may also be incorporated into osprey nests, including fishing line, plastic bags and nearly anything else that an osprey might find and can lift. Osprey pairs use the same nest year after year, but must spend some time each year repairing it and adding materials before eggs can be laid.

Once a pair has established a nest, the male begins to deliver food to the female. This feeding continues until the young fledge or the nest fails. Generally, females that receive more food are more receptive to mating attempts by the male, and are less likely to copulate with other males. Females beg for food from their mates, and occasionally from neighboring males if they are not well fed by their mate. Males may protect their paternity by feeding their mate. They may also protect their paternity by guarding their mate from other males and copulating frequently when she is most fertile (several days before egg laying).

Ospreys are generally monogamous. However, polygyny can occur in rare instances where nest sites are close enough together that a male can defend two nests. When this occurs, the first nest usually experiences higher reproductive success than the second because the male devotes more resources to that nest.

Mating System: monogamous ; polygynous

The breeding season of ospreys differs between populations. Non-migratory populations breed in the winter and spring, laying eggs between December and March. The breeding season of migratory populations occurs in the spring and summer, with egg laying in April and May. Two to four eggs are laid over a period of several days, each 1 to 2 days apart. Both the male and female incubate the eggs, which hatch after approximately 40 days. Because incubation starts when the first egg is laid, the eggs hatch asynchronously in the order in which they were laid. Chicks that hatch first are larger and have a competitive advantage over those that are hatch later. If food becomes scarce, the smaller chicks are less successful in competing for food, and often die. This decrease in the number of chicks in the nest makes food more available to the surviving chicks, and increases their likelihood of survival. This process, common in raptors, is called brood reduction.

When osprey chicks hatch, they are covered in white down with brown streaks on the face, back, and wings. This is replaced by charcoal-colored down after approximately 10 days. Feathers begin to replace the down at approximately two weeks. By one month after hatching, chicks have reached 70 to 80% of the adult size. Osprey chicks fledge between 48 and 76 days old. Generally, chicks in migratory populations fledge sooner than those in non-migratory populations. After fledging, young ospreys begin to hunt on their own. However, they often continue to return to the nest to receive food from their parents for two to eight weeks after fledging. Because ospreys migrate individually, juvenile ospreys must be fully independent of their parents by the time the southward migration begins.

Ospreys are sexually mature at approximately 3 years old, but may not breed until age 5 in areas where nest sites are scarce. Migratory ospreys in both Europe and the U.S. exhibit a pattern of behavior that is unusual in raptors. Rather than returning to the breeding grounds in their first summer, yearling ospreys almost always remain on the wintering grounds throughout the year. They then return to the breeding grounds the following summer when they are more likely to be able to breed successfully. This strategy allows young ospreys that are too physically immature to breed to avoid an unnecessary migration.

Breeding interval: Ospreys breed once yearly.

Breeding season: The breeding season lasts for approximately 2.5 to 4 months. Breeding begins between December and March in non-migratory populations. In migratory populations, breeding begins in April or May.

Range eggs per season: 1 to 7.

Average eggs per season: 3.

Range time to hatching: 32 to 43 days.

Range fledging age: 48 to 59 days.

Range time to independence: 7 to 17 weeks.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; oviparous

Average eggs per season: 3.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
1095 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
1095 days.

Both male and female ospreys care for their young. Ospreys provide parental care by protecting their young from from predators and weather, and by feeding them. During incubation and the nestling stage, the male osprey provides food to the female and the chicks. This entails delivering 60 to 100 g of fish to the nest per daylight hour (3 to 10 fish per day) during the nestling and fledgling stages. When a fish is delivered to the nest, one of the adults rips pieces of flesh from the fish and feeds them to the chicks. Parents continue to feed the young until two to eight weeks after they fledge.

During the first weeks after hatching, osprey chicks are not able to control their body temperature well. The female parent broods the chicks almost constantly for the first two weeks. She continues to brood them intermittently during very hot or cool weather until they are approximately four weeks old. Both parents expend considerable effort protecting the nest from intruders, including other ospreys and potential predators.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Watkins, P. 2000. "Pandion haliaetus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html
author
Patricia Sharpe Watkins, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Status in Egypt

provided by Bibliotheca Alexandrina LifeDesk

Resident breeder.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Bibliotheca Alexandrina
author
BA Cultnat
provider
Bibliotheca Alexandrina

Brief Summary

provided by EOL authors
The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is a fish-eating hawk found along coastlines and around marshes, lakes, and rivers almost worldwide. Ospreys are often seen flying over water searching for prey, then hovering and plunging feet first to capture a fish in their talons (fish are normally carried head first and belly down). Bald Eagles may sometimes chase them and force them to drop their catch. During migration, Ospreys may be seen far from water, even over deserts. Migrants travel singly, not in flocks. The Osprey's diet consists almost entirely of fish, generally in the range of 10 to 30 cm in length. Rarely, small mammals, birds, or reptiles may be eaten. Ospreys breed in the New World over most of North America south to Guatemala; in the Old World, they breed from the British Isles, Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northern Siberia south (at least locally) through much of Eurasia and most of Africa and Australia to South Africa, the Himalayas, Tasmania, New Caledonia, and the Solomon Islands. They winter from the southern United States south through Middle America, the West Indies, and South America (including the Galapagos Islands) to southern Chile, northern Argentina, and Uruguay; in the Old World, Ospreys winter from the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas, India, and eastern China south through the remainder of the breeding range. The Osprey's courtship display includes the pair circling high together; the male may fly high and then dive repeatedly in the vicinity of the nest site, often carrying a fish or stick. The nest is usually constructed at the top of a large tree (often with a dead or broken top) not far from water. Utility poles or other structures, including nesting platforms erected by humans expressly for Ospreys, may also be used. They may nest on the ground on small islands and on cliffs or giant cacti in western Mexico. The nest site is typically very open to the sky. The bulky nest, built by both sexes, is made of sticks and lined with smaller materials. Nests may be reused for many years, with material added each year. Typical clutch size is 3 (range 2 to 4). The eggs, which are creamy white with brown blotches, are incubated by both parents (but mainly the female) for around 38 days. When the young first hatch, the female remains with them most of the time, sheltering them from sun and rain, and the male brings fish back to the nest, which the female feeds the young. Age at first flight is around 51 to 54 days. In the mid-20th century, Osprey populations in the United States and elsewhere plummeted as a result of accumulations of the pesticide DDT in the food chain, which prevented the formation of normal eggshells (DDT can interfere with normal calcium absorption, resulting in thin eggshells). With the reduction in use of DDT and other conservation efforts, populations of Ospreys and some other affected species have rebounded. (Kaufman 1996; AOU 1998; Dunn and Alderfer 2011)
license
cc-by-3.0
copyright
Leo Shapiro
original
visit source
partner site
EOL authors

Associated Plant Communities

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: association

Ospreys occur in a variety of plant communities in association with
riparian habitat including shrublands, grasslands, swamps, and
coniferous and deciduous forests [14,24,30]. In Minnesota, ospreys nest
most frequently in lowland communities such as those dominated by black
spruce (Picea mariana) and tamarack (Larix laricina) [17]. In
California, ospreys are primarily associated with ponderosa pine (Pinus
ponderosa) and mixed-conifer types [30].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
osprey
fish hawk
fish eagle
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Conservation Status

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Information on state- and province-level protection status of animals in the
United States and Canada is available at NatureServe, although recent changes
in status may not be included.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Requirements

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, snag, tree

Ospreys typically nest at the extreme tip of a tree or snag with little
or no overhead cover [17]. They prefer tall snags that provide good
visibility and security [5]. Ospreys also prefer to nest over water for
protection against climbing predators. Islands free of mammalian
predators allow safe nesting in low trees and even on the ground.
Swamps also provide safe nesting [24].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The osprey is nearly worldwide in distribution. It breeds in temperate
and tropical regions of all continents except South America. In North
America the subspecies carolinensis breeds from northwest Alaska and
northern Yukon to central Labrador and Newfoundland and south to Baja
California, central Arizona, southern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and
southern Florida [5,28]. They are migratory throughout most of their
range, wintering in Central and South America as far south as Argentina
and Chile [4,25]. Populations in southern Florida, Baja California, and
the Pacific coast of Mexico are year-round residents [25]. The
distributions of the other three subspecies are as follows [4]:

P. h. haliaetus - occurs from the Palearctic (Europe, the northwest
coast of Africa, and Asia north of the Himalayas).
P. h. ridgwayii - occurs in the Caribbean
P. h. cristatus - occurs in Australia, New Guinea, and nearby South
Pacific islands.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Food Habits

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The osprey diet consists almost entirely of fish, but they will
occasionally eat frogs, snakes, ducks, crows, and small mammals
[5,6,28,29]. Ospreys can penetrate only about 3 feet (1 m) below the
water surface. Therefore, they generally catch only surface fish or
those that frequent shallow flats and shorelines. Ospreys are
opportunists. If fish are abundant, accessible, and the right size they
seldom go unconsumed [24]. Poole [24] found that along the southern
coast of New England, about one-half of the fish ospreys eat during the
breeding season are winter flounder (Pseudopleuonectes americanus).
White herring (Alosa spp.) and Menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) each
supply another 20 percent of the diet. Inland ospreys are likely to eat
the same species of fish throughout the breeding season, but coastal
populations change prey regularly in response to the seasonal migration
of marine fish [24]. Ospreys in western North America often eat
suckers, carp, bullhead (Ictalurus spp.), and perch (Perca flavescens)
when nesting near warm shallow lakes or reservoirs but eat trout when
nesting near deeper, colder waters [24,29].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat-related Fire Effects

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, short-term effects

Information was not found in the literature on habitat related fire
effects of the osprey; however, fires will presumably create and destroy
snags used by ospreys. Additionally, the short-term effects of a
riparian fire may affect the osprey's food supply. Removal of
streamside vegetation increases the risk of streambank erosion, reduces
available habitat and raises stream temperatures, all of which could
potentially reduce fish populations in the stream. However, the
long-term effect of fire on fish populations could be benefical. The
thinning and removal of conifers along streams by fire and stimulation
of deciduous vegetation promotes cover, provides shading, and allows
development of terrestrial insects important in the diet of fish [31].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the terms: hardwood, swamp

1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
17 Pin cherry
18 Paper birch
19 Gray birch - red maple
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
22 White pine - hemlock
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
28 Black cherry - maple
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white-cedar
38 Tamarack
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
42 Bur oak
43 Bear oak
44 Chestnut oak
45 Pitch pine
46 Eastern redcedar
50 Black locust
51 White pine - chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
57 Yellow-poplar
58 Yellow-poplar - eastern hemlock
59 Yellow-poplar - white oak - northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
61 River birch - sycamore
62 Silver maple - American elm
63 Cottonwood
64 Sassafras - persimmon
65 Pin oak - sweetgum
69 Sand pine
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
73 Southern redcedar
75 Shortleaf pine
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
84 Slash pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
88 Willow oak - water oak - diamondleaf oak
89 Live oak
91 Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
92 Sweetgum - willow oak
93 Sugarberry - American elm - green ash
94 Sycamore - sweetgum - American elm
95 Black willow
107 White spruce
108 Red maple
98 Pond pine
96 Overcup oak - water hickory
101 Baldcypress
111 South Florida slash pine
109 Hawthorn
110 Black oak
201 White spruce
202 White spruce - paper birch
203 Balsam poplar
204 Black spruce
208 Whitebark pine
209 Bristlecone pine
210 Interior Douglas-fir
211 White fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
216 Blue spruce
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
219 Limber pine
221 Red alder
222 Black cottonwood - willow
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES39 Prairie
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the terms: bog, forest, shrub, woodland

K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K009 Pine - cypress forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa pine
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
K022 Great Basin pine forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K025 Alder - ash forest
K026 Oregon oakwoods
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K031 Oak - juniper woodlands
K032 Transition between K031 and K037
K047 Fescue - oatgrass
K049 Tule marshes
K050 Fescue - wheatgrass
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K053 Grama - galleta steppe
K054 Grama - tobosa prairie
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass - grama - buffalograss
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K071 Shinnery
K072 Sea oats prairie
K073 Northern cordgrass prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K076 Blackland prairie
K077 Bluestem - sacahuista prairie
K078 Southern cordgrass prairie
K079 Palmetto prairie
K080 Marl - everglades
K081 Oak savanna
K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100
K083 Cedar glades
K084 Cross Timbers
K085 Mesquite - buffalograss
K086 Juniper - oak savanna
K087 Mesquite - oak savanna
K088 Fayette prairie
K089 Black Belt
K090 Live oak - sea oats
K091 Cypress savanna
K092 Everglades
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K094 Conifer bog
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
K097 Southeastern spruce - fir forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K105 Mangrove
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K116 Subtropical pine forest
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management Considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: natural

In the 1960's osprey populations declined as a result of DDT which were
washed into water courses and ingested by fish. These DDT residues
affected the estrogen hormone which controls calcium and egg shell
thickness, resulting in thinner shells and broken eggs [4,26].
Following tight restrictions on the use of DDT, pesticide residues
declined, and North American osprey populations increased consistently
between 1968 and 1981. Ospreys are still vulnerable to contamination
during migration in Central and South America, where DDT continues to be
used to control mosquitos which carry malaria parasites [26].

Some bird species have been observed forming protective nesting
associations with ospreys by building their nests in the sides or
bottoms of the stick nests of ospreys. These include house wrens
(Troglodytes aedon), house sparrows (Passer domesticus), European
starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), common grackles (Quiscalus quiscula),
night-herons (Nycticorax spp.), swallows (Hirundinidae), and jays
(Corvidae) [26].

Artificial nest sites are successfully used by ospreys. One study
showed that the overall breeding success improved from 45.9 percent in
natural trees to 62.9 percent in man-made platforms [12].

Human disturbance during the critical periods of incubation and early
nesting stages can be fatal to embryos and nestlings if adults are kept
from their nests. Until an osprey pair becomes habituated to human
activities, human disturbance will jeopardize their nesting success
[29].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals

AL
AK
AZ
AR
CA
CO
CT
DE
FL
GA

ID
LA
ME
MD
MA
MI
MN
MS
MO
MT

NV
NH
NJ
NM
NY
NC
OH
OK
OR
PA

RI
SC
SD
TN
TX
UT
VT
VA
WA
WI
WY

AB
BC
MB
NB
NF
NT
NS
ON
PE
PQ

SK
YT

license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Predators

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Crocodiles (Crocodylus spp.) have been known to eat ospreys roosting on
mudbanks, but only owls (mostly great horned owls [Bubo virginianus])
kill adult ospreys with any regularity. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) will
eat osprey eggs and chicks. Predators exert a major impact on the nest
sites ospreys choose. Most climbing predators like raccoons seem
reluctant to swim far, so only aerial predators such as owls reach
overwater nests easily [24].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Preferred Habitat

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: cacti

Ospreys occupy a wide range of habitats near water, primarily lakes,
rivers, and coastal waters with adequate supplies of fish [4]. Their
nests are generally built within 6 to 7 miles (9.6-11.2 km) of large
lakes or rivers with slow-moving water [14,30]. Flattened portions of
partially broken off snags, trees, rocks, dirt pinnacles, cacti, and
numerous man-made structures such as utility poles and duck blinds are
used for nests [14,28,30]. The nests consist of a large interwoven pile
of sticks lined with some soft material such as cedar bark or moss
[28,30]. The area around the nest is generally open, giving the birds
clear access when landing. Ponderosa pine in the western United States,
tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) in the eastern United States, and mangroves
(Rhizophora spp.) in the subtropics are all favored as nest trees for
this reason [24].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The currently recognized scientific name for the osprey is Pandion
haliaetus (Linnaeus) [4,24,32]. Four subspecies are recognized. Size and
plumage best separate subspecies, but the differences are not always
clear. This report will primarily deal with the North American
subspecies: Pandion haliaetus ssp. carolinesis (Gmelin). Other
recognized subspecies are [24,32]:

Pandion haliaetus ssp. haliaetus
Pandion haliaetus ssp. ridgwayi
Pandion haliaetus ssp. cristatus
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Timing of Major Life History Events

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Courtship - Ospreys generally arrive on their breeding grounds in late
March or early April. Pair bonding persists from one year to the next,
and the same nest site may be used for many years [26]. Most ospreys
are monogamous; occasionally they breed as a polygynous trio (one male
breeding concurrently with two females) [24].

Age at first reproduction - Ospreys generally first breed when they are
between 3 and 4 years old [24,28]. Juveniles spend about 17 months on
the wintering gounds. At around 2 years of age they return to the
nesting grounds but do not breed until the following year [28]. Age at
first reproduction varies not only among individual ospreys but among
populations, apparently in relation to the availability of nest sites
and other resources. For example, birds along the eastern shore of
Chesapeake Bay do not start breeding until they are 5 to 7 years old due
to the lack of nest sites [24].

Clutch/incubation/fledging - Most migratory ospreys lay two to four eggs
from late April to early May and incubate them for 5 to 6 weeks [24,28].
An average of 1.1 to 1.3 young per active nest are fledged per year
[28]. Young fledge when they are about 2 months old [4,28]. They
return to the nest for feeding and roosting for another week, and can be
found nearby for sometime after that [4]. Most resident ospreys lay
their clutch in winter. In southern Florida, for example, ospreys lay
from early December until late February [24].

Life span - On average, out of 100 fledged young, 37 will be alive 4
years after fledging, 17 will be alive 8 years after fledging, and only
six to eight will be alive 12 years after fledging. The greatest
longevity recorded is 25 years [24].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

U.S. Federal Legal Status

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Not listed
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Use of Fire in Population Management

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: fire regime

NO-ENTRY

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Tesky, Julie L. 1993. Pandion haliaetus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Osprey

provided by wikipedia EN

The osprey (Pandion haliaetus), /ˈɒspri, -pr/,[2] also called sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk, is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large raptor, reaching more than 60 cm (24 in) in length and 180 cm (71 in) across the wings. It is brown on the upperparts and predominantly greyish on the head and underparts.

The osprey tolerates a wide variety of habitats, nesting in any location near a body of water providing an adequate food supply. It is found on all continents except Antarctica, although in South America it occurs only as a non-breeding migrant.

As its other common names suggest, the osprey's diet consists almost exclusively of fish. It possesses specialised physical characteristics and unique behaviour in hunting its prey. Its unique characteristics classify it in its own taxonomic genus, Pandion, and family, Pandionidae.

Taxonomy

The osprey was described by Carl Linnaeus under the name Falco haliaeetus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.[3] The genus, Pandion, is the sole member of the family Pandionidae, and used to contain only one species, the osprey (P. haliaetus). The genus Pandion was described by the French zoologist Marie Jules César Savigny in 1809.[4][5] It has always presented something of a riddle to taxonomists, but here it is treated as the sole living member of the family Pandionidae, and the family listed in its traditional place as part of the order Accipitriformes.

Other schemes place it alongside the hawks and eagles in the family Accipitridae. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy has placed it together with the other diurnal raptors in a greatly enlarged Ciconiiformes, but this results in an unnatural paraphyletic classification.[6]

American subspecies
Australasian subspecies is the most distinctive
Californian bird with scraps of fish on its beak

The osprey is unusual in that it is a single living species that occurs nearly worldwide. Even the few subspecies are not unequivocally separable. There are four generally recognised subspecies, although differences are small, and ITIS lists only the first three.[4]

  • Pandion haliaetus haliaetus(Linnaeus, 1758): the nominate subspecies, occurring in the Palearctic realm.[7]
  • P. haliaetus carolinensis(Gmelin, 1788): mainland Americas. This form is larger, darker bodied and has a paler breast than the type of the first description.[7]
  • P. haliaetus ridgwayiMaynard, 1887: Caribbean islands. This form has a very pale head and breast compared with nominate haliaetus, with only a weak eye mask.[7] It is non-migratory. Its scientific name commemorates American ornithologist Robert Ridgway.[8]
  • P. haliaetus cristatus(Vieillot, 1816): coastline and some large rivers of Australia and Tasmania. The smallest and most distinctive subspecies, also non-migratory.[7] Some authorities have assigned it full species status[9] as Pandion cristatus, known as the eastern osprey.[10]

Fossil record

To date there have been two extinct species named from the fossil record.[11] Pandion homalopteron was named by Stuart L. Warter in 1976 from fossils of Middle Miocene, Barstovian age, found in marine deposits in the southern part of California. The second named species Pandion lovensis, was described in 1985 by Jonathan J. Becker from fossils found in Florida and dating to the latest Clarendonian and possibly representing a separate lineage from that of P. homalopteron and P. haliaetus. A number of claw fossils have been recovered from Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments in Florida and South Carolina.

The oldest recognized family Pandionidae fossils have been recovered from the Oligocene age Jebel Qatrani Formation, of Faiyum, Egypt. However, they are not complete enough to assign to a specific genus.[12] Another Pandionidae claw fossil was recovered from Early Oligocene deposits in the Mainz basin, Germany, and was described in 2006 by Gerald Mayr.[13]

Etymology

The genus name Pandion derives from Pandíōn Πανδίων, the mythical Greek king of Athens and grandfather of Theseus, Pandion II. The species name haliaetus (Latin: haliaeetus)[14] comes from Greek ἁλιάετος haliáetos "sea-eagle" (also ἁλιαίετος haliaietos) from the combining form ἁλι- hali- of ἅλς hals "sea" and ἀετός aetos, "eagle".[15][16]

The origins of osprey are obscure;[17] the word itself was first recorded around 1460, derived via the Anglo-French ospriet and the Medieval Latin avis prede "bird of prey," from the Latin avis praedae though the Oxford English Dictionary notes a connection with the Latin ossifraga or "bone breaker" of Pliny the Elder.[18][19] However, this term referred to the bearded vulture.[20]

Description


Problems playing this file? See media help.

The osprey differs in several respects from other diurnal birds of prey. Its toes are of equal length, its tarsi are reticulate, and its talons are rounded, rather than grooved. The osprey and owls are the only raptors whose outer toe is reversible, allowing them to grasp their prey with two toes in front and two behind. This is particularly helpful when they grab slippery fish.[21] The osprey is 0.9–2.1 kg (2.0–4.6 lb) in weight and 50–66 cm (20–26 in) in length with a 127–180 cm (50–71 in) wingspan. It is, thus, of similar size to the largest members of the Buteo or Falco genera. The subspecies are fairly close in size, with the nominate subspecies averaging 1.53 kg (3.4 lb), P. h. carolinensis averaging 1.7 kg (3.7 lb) and P. h. cristatus averaging 1.25 kg (2.8 lb). The wing chord measures 38 to 52 cm (15 to 20 in), the tail measures 16.5 to 24 cm (6.5 to 9.4 in) and the tarsus is 5.2–6.6 cm (2.0–2.6 in).[22][23]

The upperparts are a deep, glossy brown, while the breast is white, sometimes streaked with brown, and the underparts are pure white. The head is white with a dark mask across the eyes, reaching to the sides of the neck.[24] The irises of the eyes are golden to brown, and the transparent nictitating membrane is pale blue. The bill is black, with a blue cere, and the feet are white with black talons.[21] On the underside of the wings the wrists are black, which serves as a field mark.[25] A short tail and long, narrow wings with four long, finger-like feathers, and a shorter fifth, give it a very distinctive appearance.[26]

In flight, Northern Territory, Australia

The sexes appear fairly similar, but the adult male can be distinguished from the female by its slimmer body and narrower wings. The breast band of the male is also weaker than that of the female, or is non-existent, and the underwing coverts of the male are more uniformly pale. It is straightforward to determine the sex in a breeding pair, but harder with individual birds.[26]

The juvenile osprey may be identified by buff fringes to the plumage of the upperparts, a buff tone to the underparts, and streaked feathers on the head. During spring, barring on the underwings and flight feathers is a better indicator of a young bird, due to wear on the upperparts.[24]

In flight, the osprey has arched wings and drooping "hands", giving it a gull-like appearance. The call is a series of sharp whistles, described as cheep, cheep or yewk, yewk. If disturbed by activity near the nest, the call is a frenzied cheereek![27]

Osprey call

Distribution and habitat

The osprey is the second most widely distributed raptor species, after the peregrine falcon, and is one of only six land-birds with a worldwide distribution.[28] It is found in temperate and tropical regions of all continents, except Antarctica. In North America it breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to the Gulf Coast and Florida, wintering further south from the southern United States through to Argentina.[29] It is found in summer throughout Europe north into Ireland, Scandinavia, Finland and Great Britain though not Iceland, and winters in North Africa.[30] In Australia it is mainly sedentary and found patchily around the coastline, though it is a non-breeding visitor to eastern Victoria and Tasmania.[31]

There is a 1,000 km (620 mi) gap, corresponding with the coast of the Nullarbor Plain, between its westernmost breeding site in South Australia and the nearest breeding sites to the west in Western Australia.[32] In the islands of the Pacific it is found in the Bismarck Islands, Solomon Islands and New Caledonia, and fossil remains of adults and juveniles have been found in Tonga, where it probably was wiped out by arriving humans.[33] It is possible it may once have ranged across Vanuatu and Fiji as well. It is an uncommon to fairly common winter visitor to all parts of South Asia,[34] and Southeast Asia from Myanmar through to Indochina and southern China, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.[35]

Behaviour and ecology

Diet

Osprey with American Gizzard Shad.

The osprey is piscivorous, with fish making up 99% of its diet.[36] It typically takes live fish weighing 150–300 g (5.3–10.6 oz) and about 25–35 cm (9.8–13.8 in) in length, but virtually any type of fish from 50 g (1.8 oz) to 2 kg (4.4 lb) can be taken.[22] Even larger 2.8 kg (6.2 lb) northern pike (Esox lucius) has been taken in Russia.[37] The species rarely scavenges dead or dying fish.[38]

Osprey feeding on a recently caught fish in Kartung, the Gambia. Characteristically its tongue often pokes out whilst swallowing food.

Ospreys have vision that is well adapted to detecting underwater objects from the air. Prey is first sighted when the osprey is 10–40 m (33–131 ft) above the water, after which the bird hovers momentarily and then plunges feet first into the water.[39] They catch fish by diving into a body of water, oftentimes completely submerging their entire bodies. As an osprey dives it adjusts the angle of its flight to account for the distortion of the fish's image caused by refraction. Ospreys will typically eat on a nearby perch but have also been known to carry fish for longer distances.[40]

Occasionally, the osprey may prey on rodents, rabbits, hares, other mammals, snakes, turtles, frogs, birds, salamanders, conchs and crustaceans.[41][42][43] Reports of ospreys feeding on carrion are rare. They have been observed eating dead white-tailed deer and Virginia opossum.[44]

Adaptations

The osprey has several adaptations that suit its piscivorous lifestyle:

  • reversible outer toes[45]
  • sharp spicules on the underside of the toes[45]
  • closable nostrils to keep out water during dives
  • backward-facing scales on the talons which act as barbs to help hold its catch
  • dense plumage which is oily and prevents its feathers from getting waterlogged.[46]

Reproduction

Preparing to mate on the nest
Osprey standing next to its nest showing their relative sizes
Osprey chick (P h. carolinensis) in nest

The osprey breeds near freshwater lakes and rivers, and sometimes on coastal brackish waters. Rocky outcrops just offshore are used in Rottnest Island off the coast of Western Australia, where there are 14 or so similar nesting sites of which five to seven are used in any one year. Many are renovated each season, and some have been used for 70 years. The nest is a large heap of sticks, driftwood, turf or seaweed built in forks of trees, rocky outcrops, utility poles, artificial platforms or offshore islets.[36][47] As wide as 2 meters and weighing about 135 kg (298 lb), large nests on utility poles may be fire hazards and have caused power outages.[48]

Generally, ospreys reach sexual maturity and begin breeding around the age of three to four, though in some regions with high osprey densities, such as Chesapeake Bay in the United States, they may not start breeding until five to seven years old, and there may be a shortage of suitable tall structures. If there are no nesting sites available, young ospreys may be forced to delay breeding. To ease this problem, posts are sometimes erected to provide more sites suitable for nest building.[49] In some regions ospreys prefer transmission towers as nesting sites, e.g. in eastern Germany.[50]

Egg, collection of the Museum Wiesbaden

The nesting platform design developed by one organization, Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. has become the official design of the State of New Jersey, U.S. The nesting platform plans and materials list, available online, have been utilized by people from a number of different geographical regions.[51] Osprey-watch.org is the global site for mapping osprey nest locations and logging observations on reproductive success.[52]

Ospreys usually mate for life. Rarely, polyandry has been recorded.[53] The breeding season varies according to latitude; spring (September–October) in southern Australia, April to July in northern Australia and winter (June–August) in southern Queensland.[47] In spring the pair begins a five-month period of partnership to raise their young. The female lays two to four eggs within a month, and relies on the size of the nest to conserve heat. The eggs are whitish with bold splotches of reddish-brown and are about 6.2 cm × 4.5 cm (2.4 in × 1.8 in) and weigh about 65 g (2.3 oz).[47] The eggs are incubated for about 35–43 days to hatching.[54]

The newly hatched chicks weigh only 50–60 g (1.8–2.1 oz), but fledge in 8–10 weeks. A study on Kangaroo Island, South Australia, had an average time between hatching and fledging of 69 days. The same study found an average of 0.66 young fledged per year per occupied territory, and 0.92 young fledged per year per active nest. Some 22% of surviving young either remained on the island or returned at maturity to join the breeding population.[53] When food is scarce, the first chicks to hatch are most likely to survive. The typical lifespan is 7–10 years, though rarely individuals can grow to as old as 20–25 years.

The oldest European wild osprey on record lived to be over thirty years of age. In North America, great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) are the only major predators of ospreys, capable of taking both nestlings and adults.[55][56][57][58][59] However, kleptoparasitism by bald eagles, where the larger raptor steals the osprey's catch, is more common than predation. The white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), which is very similar to the bald eagle, may harass or prey on the osprey in Eurasia.[60] Raccoons (Procyon lotor) can be a serious threat to nestlings or eggs if they can access the nest.[61] Endoparasitic trematodes (Scaphanocephalus expansus and Neodiplostomum spp.) have been recorded in wild ospreys.[62]

Migration

European breeders winter in Africa.[63] American and Canadian breeders winter in South America, although some stay in the southernmost U.S. states such as Florida and California.[64] Some ospreys from Florida migrate to South America.[65] Australasian ospreys tend not to migrate.

Studies of Swedish ospreys showed that females tend to migrate to Africa earlier than males. More stopovers are made during their autumn migration. The variation of timing and duration in autumn was more variable than in spring. Although migrating predominantly during the day, they sometimes fly in the dark hours particularly in crossings over water and cover on average 260–280 km (160–170 mi) per day with a maximum of 431 km (268 mi) per day.[66] European birds may also winter in South Asia, as indicated by an osprey tagged in Norway being monitored in western India.[67] In the Mediterranean, ospreys show partial migratory behaviour with some individuals remaining resident, whilst others undertake relatively short migration trips.[68]

Mortality

Swedish ospreys have a significantly higher mortality rate during migration seasons than during stationary periods, with more than half of the total annual mortality occurring during migration.[69] These deaths can also be categorized into spatial patterns: Spring mortality occurs mainly in Africa, which can be traced to crossing the Sahara desert. Mortality can also occur through mishaps with human utilities, such as nesting near overhead electric cables or collisions with aircraft.[70]

Conservation

Adults on a man-made nest in New Jersey, US

The osprey has a large range, covering 9,670,000 km2 (3,730,000 sq mi) in just Africa and the Americas, and has a large global population estimated at 460,000 individuals. Although global population trends have not been quantified, the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and for these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.[71] There is evidence for regional decline in South Australia where former territories at locations in the Spencer Gulf and along the lower Murray River have been vacant for decades.[32]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the main threats to osprey populations were egg collectors and hunting of the adults along with other birds of prey,[55][72] but osprey populations declined drastically in many areas in the 1950s and 1960s; this appeared to be in part due to the toxic effects of insecticides such as DDT on reproduction.[73] The pesticide interfered with the bird's calcium metabolism which resulted in thin-shelled, easily broken or infertile eggs.[29] Possibly because of the banning of DDT in many countries in the early 1970s, together with reduced persecution, the osprey, as well as other affected bird of prey species, have made significant recoveries.[36] In South Australia, nesting sites on the Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island are vulnerable to unmanaged coastal recreation and encroaching urban development.[32]

Cultural depictions

Literature

  • The Roman writer Pliny the Elder reported that parent ospreys made their young fly up to the sun as a test, and dispatched any that failed.[74]
  • Another odd legend regarding this fish-eating bird of prey, derived from the writings of Albertus Magnus and recorded in Holinshed's Chronicles, was that it had one webbed foot and one taloned foot.[72][75]
  • The osprey is mentioned in the famous Chinese folk poem "guan guan ju jiu" (關關雎鳩); "ju jiu" 雎鳩 refers to the osprey, and "guan guan" (關關) to its voice. In the poem, the osprey is considered to be an icon of fidelity and harmony between wife and husband, due to its highly monogamous habits. Some commentators have claimed that "ju jiu" in the poem is not the osprey but the mallard duck, since the osprey cannot make the sound "guan guan".[76][77]
  • The Irish poet William Butler Yeats used a grey wandering osprey as a representation of sorrow in The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems (1889).[74]
  • There was a medieval belief that fish were so mesmerised by the osprey that they turned belly-up in surrender,[72] and this is referenced by Shakespeare in Act 4 Scene 5 of Coriolanus:

I think he'll be to Rome
As is the osprey to the fish, who takes it
By sovereignty of nature.

Religion

In Buddhism, the osprey is sometimes represented as the "King of Birds", especially in 'The Jātaka: Or, Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births' , no. 486.

Iconography

The osprey pictured in the coat of arms of Sääksmäki
Cap badge of the Selous Scouts was a stylized osprey

Sports

The osprey is used as a brand name for various products and sports teams, such as the Ospreys (a Welsh Rugby team) and Seattle Seahawks (an American football team of the National Football League). The official mascot of athletic teams at the University of North Carolina Wilmington is named Sammy C. Hawk. The Riverhawk is the mascot for Northeastern State University in Tahlequah, Oklahoma as well as the University of Massachusetts-Lowell. The Osprey is the mascot of the University of North Florida in Jacksonville, Florida.

Other

So-called "osprey" plumes were an important item in the plume trade of the late 19th century and used in hats including those used as part of the army uniform. Despite their name, these plumes were actually obtained from egrets.[80]

During the 2017 regular session of the Oregon Legislature, there was a short-lived controversy over the western meadowlark's status as state bird versus the osprey. The sometimes-spirited debate included state representative Rich Vial playing the meadowlark's song on his smartphone over the House microphone.[81] A compromise was reached in SCR 18,[82] which was passed on the last day of the session, designating the western meadowlark as the state songbird and the osprey as the state raptor.

References

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2021). "Pandion haliaetus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22694938A206628879. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22694938A206628879.en. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  2. ^ "osprey". The Chambers Dictionary (9th ed.). Chambers. 2003. ISBN 0-550-10105-5.
  3. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Falco haliaeetus". Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae [Stockholm]: Laurentii Salvii. p. 125.
  4. ^ a b "Pandion haliaetus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
  5. ^ Graves, R. (1955). "The Sons of Pandion". Greek Myths. London: Penguin. pp. 320–323. ISBN 0-14-001026-2.
  6. ^ Salzman, Eric (1993). "Sibley's Classification of Birds". Birding. 58 (2): 91–98. Archived from the original on 13 April 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2007.
  7. ^ a b c d Tesky, Julie L. (1993). "Pandion haliaetus". U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
  8. ^ Barrow, M.V. (1998). A passion for Birds: American ornithology after Audubon. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04402-3.
  9. ^ Christidis, L.; Boles, W.E. (2008). Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds. Csiro Publishing. ISBN 978-0643065116.
  10. ^ "Pandion cristatus". Avibase.
  11. ^ "Pandion entry". Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  12. ^ Olson, S.L. (1985). "Chapter 2. The fossil record of birds". Avian Biology. Vol. 8. Academic Press. pp. 79–238. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-249408-6.50011-X.
  13. ^ Mayr, Gerald (2006). "An osprey (Aves: Accipitridae: Pandioninae) from the early Oligocene of Germany". Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments. 86 (1): 93–96. doi:10.1007/BF03043637. S2CID 140677653.
  14. ^ haliaeetos. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
  15. ^ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 185, 290–291. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  16. ^ ἁλιάετος, ἅλς, ἀετός. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  17. ^ Livingston, C.H. (1943). "Osprey and Ostril". Modern Language Notes. 58 (2): 91–98. doi:10.2307/2911426. JSTOR 2911426.
  18. ^ Morris, W. (1969). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Boston: American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc. and Houghton Mifflin Company.
  19. ^ "Osprey". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
  20. ^ Simpson, J.; Weiner, E., eds. (1989). "Osprey". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2.
  21. ^ a b Terres, J.K. (1980). The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds. New York, NY: Knopf. pp. 644–646. ISBN 0-394-46651-9.
  22. ^ a b Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D.A. (2001). Raptors of the World. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 978-0-618-12762-7.
  23. ^ "Osprey". All About Birds. Cornell Lab of Ornithology.P. h. carolinensis
  24. ^ a b "Osprey" (PDF). Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. 1999. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2007.
  25. ^ Robbins, C. S.; Bruun, Bertel; Zim, H. S.; Singer, A. (1983). Birds of North America (Revised ed.). New York: Golden Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN 0-307-37002-X.
  26. ^ a b Forsman, Dick (2008). The Raptors of Europe & the Middle East: A Handbook of Field Identification. Princeton University Press. pp. 21–25. ISBN 978-0-85661-098-1.
  27. ^ Peterson, Roger Tory (1999). A Field Guide to the Birds. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-395-91176-1.
  28. ^ Monti, Flavio; Duriez, Olivier; Arnal, Véronique; Dominici, Jean-Marie; Sforzi, Andrea; Fusani, Leonida; Grémillet, David; Montgelard, Claudine (2015). "Being cosmopolitan: evolutionary history and phylogeography of a specialized raptor, the Osprey Pandion haliaetus". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 15: 255. doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0535-6. PMC 4650845. PMID 26577665.
  29. ^ a b Bull, J.; Farrand, J. Jr (1987). Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds: Eastern Region. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 469. ISBN 0-394-41405-5.
  30. ^ Hume, R. (2002). RSPB Birds of Britain and Europe. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 89. ISBN 0-7513-1234-7.
  31. ^ Simpson, K.; Day, N.; Trusler, P. (1993). Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Ringwood, Victoria: Viking O'Neil. p. 66. ISBN 0-670-90478-3.
  32. ^ a b c Dennis, T.E. (2007). "Distribution and status of the Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) in South Australia". Emu. 107 (4): 294–299. doi:10.1071/MU07009. S2CID 84883853.
  33. ^ Steadman, D. (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7.
  34. ^ Rasmussen, P.C.; Anderton, J.C. (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide Vols 1 & 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. ISBN 978-8496553859.
  35. ^ Strange, M. (2000). A Photographic Guide to the Birds of Southeast Asia including the Philippines and Borneo. Singapore: Periplus. p. 70. ISBN 962-593-403-0.
  36. ^ a b c Evans, D.L. (1982). "Status Reports on Twelve Raptors: Special Scientific Report Wildlife" (238). U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  37. ^ Adrianova, Olga V. & Boris N. Kashevarov. "Some results of long-term raptor monitoring in the Kostomuksha Nature Reserve." Status of Raptor Populations in Eastern Fennoscandia. Kostomuksha (2005).
  38. ^ Ferguson-Lees, J. & Christie, D.A. & Franklin, K. & Mead, D. & Burton, P.. (2001). Raptors of the world. Helm Identification Guides.
  39. ^ Poole, A.F.; Bierregaard, R.O.; Martell, M.S. (2002). Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). Osprey (Pandion haliaetus). The Birds of North America. Philadelphia, PA: The Birds of North America, Inc.
  40. ^ Dunne, Pete (2012). Hawks in flight : the flight identification of North American raptors (Second ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-395-70959-7.
  41. ^ Ferguson-Lees, J. & Christie, D.A. & Franklin, K. & Mead, D. & Burton, P.. (2001). Raptors of the world. Helm Identification Guides.
  42. ^ "Osprey". The Peregrine Fund.
  43. ^ Goenka, D.N. (1985). "The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus haliaetus) preying on a Gull". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 82 (1): 193–194.
  44. ^ "Pandion haliaetus (Osprey)". Animal Diversity Web.
  45. ^ a b Clark, W.S.; Wheeler, B.K. (1987). A field guide to Hawks of North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-36001-3.
  46. ^ "Pandion haliaetus Linnaeus Osprey" (PDF). Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  47. ^ a b c Beruldsen, G. (2003). Australian Birds: Their Nests and Eggs. Kenmore Hills, Queensland. p. 196. ISBN 0-646-42798-9.
  48. ^ "Osprey nest moved by BC Hydro crews weighs 300 pounds". CBC News - British Columbia, Canada. 28 November 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
  49. ^ "Osprey". Chesapeake Bay Program. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  50. ^ Rabe D (2015). Fischadler - Jungvögel am Nest (Mecklenburg, Osprey, Pandion haliaetus) (in German). Retrieved 8 February 2023 – via YouTube.
  51. ^ "Osprey platform plans". Retrieved 23 November 2011.
  52. ^ "Project Osprey Watch". Osprey-watch.org. Retrieved 30 September 2013.
  53. ^ a b Dennis, T.E. (2007). "Reproductive activity in the Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) on Kangaroo Island, South Australia". Emu. 107 (4): 300–307. doi:10.1071/MU07010. S2CID 85099678.
  54. ^ Poole, Alan F. Ospreys, A Natural and Unnatural History 1989
  55. ^ a b Kirschbaum, K.; Watkins, P. "Pandion haliaetus". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  56. ^ Flemming, S.P.; Bancroft, R.P. (1990). "Bald Eagle attacks Osprey nestling". Journal of Raptor Research. 24: 26–27.
  57. ^ Macdonald, J.; Seymour, N.R. (1994). "Bald Eagle attacks adult Osprey" (PDF). Journal of Raptor Research. 28 (2): 122.
  58. ^ Cold, C.W. (1993). "Adult male Osprey killed at nest by Great Horned Owl". Passenger Pigeon. 55: 269–270.
  59. ^ Lafontaine, A.R.; Fowler, J.H. (1976). "Golden Eagle preys on Osprey". Auk. 93: 390–391.
  60. ^ Willgohs, J.F. (1961). The white-tailed eagle Haliaëtus albicilla albicilla (Linné) in Norway. Norwegian Universities Press.
  61. ^ Reese, J. (1969). "A Maryland Osprey population 75 years ago and today". Maryland Birdlife. 25 (4): 116–119.
  62. ^ Hoffman, Glenn L.; Wu, L.Y.; Kingscote, A.A. (1953). "Scaphanocephalus expansus (Crepl.), a Trematode of the Osprey, in North America". The Journal of Parasitology. 39 (5): 568. doi:10.2307/3273860. JSTOR 3273860.
  63. ^ Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (2001). Birds of Europe. Princeton University Press. pp. 74–75. ISBN 0-691-05054-6.
  64. ^ "Migration Strategies and Wintering Areas of North American ospreys as Revealed by Satellite Telemetry" (PDF). Newsletter Winter 2000. Microwave Telemetry Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 2 December 2008.
  65. ^ Martell, M.S.; Mcmillian, M.A.; Solensky, M.J.; Mealey, B.K. (2004). "Partial migration and wintering use of Florida by ospreys" (PDF). Journal of Raptor Research. 38 (1): 55–61. mirror Archived 26 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  66. ^ Alerstam, T.; Hake, M.; Kjellén, N. (2006). "Temporal and spatial patterns of repeated migratory journeys by ospreys". Animal Behaviour. 71 (3): 555–566. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.05.016. S2CID 53149787.
  67. ^ Mundkur, Taej (1988). "Recovery of a Norwegian ringed Osprey in Gujarat, India". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 85 (1): 190.
  68. ^ Monti, F.; Grémillet, D.; Sforzi, A.; Sammuri, G.; Dominici, J.M.; Bagur, R.T.; Navarro, A.M.; Fusani, L.; Duriez, O. (2018). "Migration and wintering strategies in vulnerable Mediterranean Osprey populations". Ibis. 160 (3): 554–567. doi:10.1111/ibi.12567.
  69. ^ Klaassen, Raymond H. G.; Hake, Mikael; Strandberg, Roine; Koks, Ben J.; Trierweiler, Christiane; Exo, Klaus-Michael; Bairlein, Franz; Alerstam, Thomas (16 September 2013). "When and where does mortality occur in migratory birds? Direct evidence from long-term satellite tracking of raptors". Journal of Animal Ecology. 83 (1): 176–184. doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12135. PMID 24102110.
  70. ^ Washburn, Brian E. (2014). "Human–Osprey Conflicts: Industry, Utilities, Communication, and Transportation". Journal of Raptor Research. 48 (4): 387–395. doi:10.3356/jrr-ospr-13-04.1. S2CID 30695523.
  71. ^ BirdLife International (2019). "Pandion haliaetus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22694938A155519951. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22694938A155519951.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  72. ^ a b c d Cocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005). Birds Britannica. London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 136–141. ISBN 0-7011-6907-9.
  73. ^ Ames, P. (1966). "DDT Residues in the eggs of the Osprey in the North-eastern United States and their relation to nesting success". Journal of Applied Ecology. British Ecological Society. 3 (Suppl): 87–97. doi:10.2307/2401447. JSTOR 2401447.
  74. ^ a b de Vries, Ad (1976). Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. p. 352. ISBN 0-7204-8021-3.
  75. ^ a b Cooper, J.C. (1992). Symbolic and Mythological Animals. London: Aquarian Press. p. 170. ISBN 1-85538-118-4.
  76. ^ H. U. Vogel; G. N. Dux, eds. (2010). Concepts of nature: a Chinese-European cross-cultural perspective. Vol. 1. Brill. ISBN 978-9004185265.
  77. ^ Jiang, Yi; Lepore, Ernest (2015). Language and Value: ProtoSociology. Vol. 31. BoD–Books on Demand. ISBN 9783738622478.
  78. ^ "Osprey". Birds of the World on Postage Stamps. Retrieved 1 January 2008.
  79. ^ "The Osprey". Province of Nova Scotia. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 3 June 2013.
  80. ^ "Birds and Millinery". Bird Notes and News. 2 (1): 29. 1906.
  81. ^ "Lawmakers adjourn 2017 session with mixed results for biggest priorities". OregonLive.com. 8 July 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2017.
  82. ^ "SCR 18". state.or.us. Retrieved 15 October 2017.

Notes

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN

Osprey: Brief Summary

provided by wikipedia EN

The osprey (Pandion haliaetus), /ˈɒspri, -preɪ/, also called sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk, is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large raptor, reaching more than 60 cm (24 in) in length and 180 cm (71 in) across the wings. It is brown on the upperparts and predominantly greyish on the head and underparts.

The osprey tolerates a wide variety of habitats, nesting in any location near a body of water providing an adequate food supply. It is found on all continents except Antarctica, although in South America it occurs only as a non-breeding migrant.

As its other common names suggest, the osprey's diet consists almost exclusively of fish. It possesses specialised physical characteristics and unique behaviour in hunting its prey. Its unique characteristics classify it in its own taxonomic genus, Pandion, and family, Pandionidae.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN

Description

provided by World Register of Marine Species
Length: 55-58 cm. Plumage: dark brown above, white below; facial mast brown; dusky streaks form an irregular band on breast; underwing coverts white, flight feathers and under tail barred dark and light. Immature like adult. Bare parts: iris yellow; bill black with blue-grey cere; feet and legs blue-grey. Habitat: coastal and inland waters.

Reference

Brown, L.H., E.K. Urban & K. Newman. (1982). The Birds of Africa, Volume I. Academic Press, London.

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Edward Vanden Berghe [email]

Diet

provided by World Register of Marine Species
usually preys on poor grade fish such as suckers and sunfish but has been seen carrying small salmon

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Kennedy, Mary [email]

Distribution

provided by World Register of Marine Species
North America

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Kennedy, Mary [email]