dcsimg

Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

provided by AnAge articles
Maximum longevity: 6.4 years (wild) Observations: These animals have a short lifespan and high mortality rates in the wild. Annual adult mortality can be over 80%, though that value drops to 52-59% if hunting is excluded. Ageing has also been suggested as an underlying factor for all causes of death. Maximum longevity in the wild is 6.4 years and very few individuals live more than 5 years (http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/). A lifespan of 10 years has been suggested (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/), but this has not been confirmed.
license
cc-by-3.0
copyright
Joao Pedro de Magalhaes
editor
de Magalhaes, J. P.
partner site
AnAge articles

Behavior

provided by Animal Diversity Web

The well known "bob-white" call is a minor part of northern bowhites' overall vocal repetoire. Their entire vocal array is known and has been classified into calls based on group movement, food-finding, avoidance of enemies, and reproduction (sexual and parental). Nonvocal interactions are diverse and characteristic of many small quails. For example, head-shaking, head-scratching and preening are characteristic of dominant birds.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Conservation Status

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Populations of northern bobwhite are declining. Habitat loss, particularly due to the increase in large-scale farming and the reduction of fence rows and suitable habitat plots are thought to be the major factor in the decline. One subspecies, the masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), is considered endangered. Northern bobwhite are listed as near threatened by the IUCN.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: endangered; no special status

CITES: appendix i

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

There are no known adverse affects of northern bobwhites on humans.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Economically, northern bobwhites are one of North America's most important game birds, especially in the southern and midwestern United States. Annual harvest in 1970 was estimated to be 35 million birds in 37 states and 2 Canadian provinces, the largest harvest of non-migratory upland game birds (Dimmick 1992). Northern bobwhites are one of the most extensively studied species of birds in the world. They have played a major role in captive laboratory studies to test the physiological and behavioral effects of pesticides on wildlife. They also were the subject of the first modern systematic study of a wild animal's life history in relation to environmental and habitat factors that influence its abundance.

Positive Impacts: food ; research and education

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Northern bobwhites are host to parastic worms. These worms do not often kill their host, but their presence is associated with low body weight in northern bobwhites and this may negatively influence survival and reproduction. Northern bobwhites also host a wide variety of external parasites such as lice, ticks, mites, and fleas.

Northern bobwhites are important prey for birds of prey and small, terrestrial predators. They are also important seed and foliage predators and may influence the plant communities in which they live.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • Lice
  • Ticks
  • Mites
  • Fleas
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Trophic Strategy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

The diet consists primarily of seeds but also includes green leafy material, fruits, and invertebrates. Approximately 85% of the diet is vegetation and 15% animal matter. However, the relative quantity of each is seasonal (Ehrlich, et al 1988).

In early spring, leafy material is an important source of vitamins. Insects are important from spring until autumn; during these months they may constitue a quarter of the diet. Females consume more insects than males in response to elevated need for protein during egg laying. Fruits are also an important summer source of carbohydrates. Seeds and legumes constitute the majority of the bobwhite diet in fall and winter. Hatchlings are completely dependent on insects as a food source (Landers and Mueller 1986).

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Granivore )

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Distribution

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Northern bobwhites can be found from southeastern Ontario to Central America. Highest population densities are reached in the eastern United States and Mexico. Bobwhites can also be found throughout Cuba. Disjunct populations exist in Washington, Oregon, Idaho and northwestern Mexico.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Habitat

provided by Animal Diversity Web

In forest habitats, northern bobwhites show a clear preference for early successional vegetation created by disturbances from fire, agriculture, and timber-harvesting. In rangeland habitats, bobwhites are found in both early and later successional vegetation. Bobwhite habitats must contain a diversity of invertebrates, seeds, and herbaceous plants. Cover that provides protection from predators, weather, and provides nesting material is also essential. Water is not normally an important factor in habitat determination of the bobwhite because ample water can be obtained from dew.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest ; scrub forest

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Life Expectancy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Northern bobwhites have a short life span and high mortality rates. Few individuals live longer than five years, and about 80% live less than one year. Exposure is an important source of mortality during the winter. Deep snows and prolonged periods of cold may cause extensive losses. Also, feeding in agricultural environments can lead to exposure to contaminants which often have lethal effects.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
6 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild:
8 to 12 months.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Morphology

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Bobwhites are small (140 to 170 grams) galliform birds with rounded wings and a square tail. They range in length from 20.3 to 24.7 cm with a wingspan from 9 to 12 cm. Bobwhites are sexually dimorphic with regard to facial and throat coloration, wing coverts, and beak color. Adult males are distinguished by white facial stripes and throat in contrast to the buff coloration of females and juveniles. The wing coverts of males have sharply contrasting black markings on the feathers while the wing coverts of females lack color distinctions. The base of the mandible is black in males and yellow in females. White edges, dark bars, and vermiculations on the reddish brown back and white breast create a mottled appearance.

Range mass: 140 to 170 g.

Range length: 20.3 to 24.7 cm.

Range wingspan: 9 to 12 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes colored or patterned differently; male more colorful

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Predation is an important source of mortality for northern bobwhites. Known predators include Cooper's hawks, raccoons, opossums, skunks and foxes. When adults with chicks encounter predators, they perform distraction displays such as fluttering and wing-dragging. This anti-predator behavior seems to be learned and is rarely seen in captive-reared birds. Their coloration helps to make them hard to see in the dense undergrowth that is their preferred habitat.

Known Predators:

  • Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii)
  • raccoons (Procyon lotor)
  • Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana)
  • striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis)
  • foxes (Vulpes)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Reproduction

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Originally thought to be monogamous, there is now clear evidence of ambisexual polygamy among northern bobwhites, meaning that both males and females are known to incubate and raise broods with more than one mate during the breeding season.

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Courtship and pair formation can begin as early as February in south Texas while occurring later at higher latitudes. Nest building, egg laying, and incubation occur intensively from May to August. The beginning of the nesting season in Texas has been tied to rainfall and vegetation growth. Bobwhites mate in their first year of life and rear one brood a year. Nests destroyed before hatching will be rebuilt while broods lost after hatching are usually not replaced. South Texas broods have been reported as late as November and December.

Breeding pairs build ground nests of dead grasses. Dimmick (1992) reports the frequent use of broomsedge (-Andropogon virginicus-) in nests. Nests are saucer shaped softball size depressions in the ground (Klimstra and Roseberry 1975, Dimmick 1992). Klimstra and Roseberry (1975) found 85% of nests to be domed or covered with a canopy. Nest with no canopies were found to be significantly more common later in the breeding season (Klimstra and Roseberry 1975). Dimmick (1992) reports nest construction can occur over two days and take approximately 4 hours. Data are conflicting as to which sex actually builds nests. Klimstra and Roseberry (1975) and Stokes (1967) observed pairs building nest while other studies have found that males completed the majority of nest building (Dimmick 1992). Eggs are laid at a rate of one per day beginning one day after the nest is completed (Dimmick 1992). Multiple hens have been shown to lay eggs into a single nest with average clutch sizes of 12 to 14 eggs (Dimmick 1992). Klimstra and Roseberry (1975) report variation in single female clutch sizes of 6 to 28 eggs. Bobwhites reduce clutch size after each nest failure (Dimmick 1992). The incubation period is approximately 23 days (Dimmick 1992). Klimstra and Roseberry (1975) reported incubation by males at 26.4% of nests observed. Stokes (1967) observed exclusive incubation by both males and females. Females have been observed laying a second clutch and incubating them while the male tends to the original nest. Both parents alternate brooding of the young. Both parents have been observed to defend young by attacking perceived aggressors and by performing broken wing displays.

Breeding interval: Northern bobwhites typically breed once yearly, although there can be up to three broods per breeding season.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from February to October, depending on the region.

Range eggs per season: 6 to 28.

Average eggs per season: 12-14.

Average time to hatching: 23 days.

Average fledging age: 14 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Average time to hatching: 23 days.

Average eggs per season: 15.

Bobwhite hatchlings are able to walk about and follow their parents almost immediately following hatching. Both males and females incubate the eggs, brood the hatchlings, and provide for the young until they reach independence at about 2 weeks old. Both parents have been observed to defend young by attacking perceived aggressors and by performing broken wing displays.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chumchal, M. 2000. "Colinus virginianus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Colinus_virginianus.html
author
Matthew Chumchal, Southwestern University
editor
Stephanie Fabritius, Southwestern University
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Kathleen Bachynski, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Colinus virginianus

provided by DC Birds Brief Summaries

The only native quail in much of its range, the Northern Bobwhite is most easily identified by its small size (8 ½ - 10 ½ inches), mottled brown body, small black bill, and short tail. Males have a white throat, white eye-stripe, and black cheek patch, while females have a more brownish head. The Northern Bobwhite inhabits a large part of the eastern United States and extreme southern Canada. Other populations occur in Mexico and the West Indies. This species is non-migratory in all parts of its range. Northern Bobwhites inhabit a variety of open habitats, including overgrown fields, forest clearings, grasslands, and scrub. Traditionally, forest fires helped create habitat for this species by removing thicker vegetation; today, human activity has a similar impact on habitat in certain areas. Northern Bobwhites mainly eat seeds and other plant material, but insects make up a higher proportion of this species’ diet in summer. Due to its preference for semi-open habitat types, Northern Bobwhites may be most easily observed foraging for food on the ground. When startled, this species may either run away or “explode” into the air and fly a short distance to safety. Northern Bobwhites are most active during the day.

Threat Status: Near Threatened

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Smithsonian Institution
author
Reid Rumelt

Colinus virginianus

provided by EOL authors

The only native quail in much of its range, the Northern Bobwhite is most easily identified by its small size (8 ½ - 10 ½ inches), mottled brown body, small black bill, and short tail. Males have a white throat, white eye-stripe, and black cheek patch, while females have a more brownish head. The Northern Bobwhite inhabits a large part of the eastern United States and extreme southern Canada. Other populations occur in Mexico and the West Indies. This species is non-migratory in all parts of its range. Northern Bobwhites inhabit a variety of open habitats, including overgrown fields, forest clearings, grasslands, and scrub. Traditionally, forest fires helped create habitat for this species by removing thicker vegetation; today, human activity has a similar impact on habitat in certain areas. Northern Bobwhites mainly eat seeds and other plant material, but insects make up a higher proportion of this species’ diet in summer. Due to its preference for semi-open habitat types, Northern Bobwhites may be most easily observed foraging for food on the ground. When startled, this species may either run away or “explode” into the air and fly a short distance to safety. Northern Bobwhites are most active during the day.

References

  • Brennan, Leonard A. 1999. Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/397
  • Colinus virginianus. Xeno-canto. Xeno-canto Foundation, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). The Internet Bird Collection. Lynx Edicions, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • eBird Range Map - Northern Bobwhite. eBird. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, N.d. Web. 20 July 2012.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-4.0
copyright
Smithsonian Institution
bibliographic citation
Rumelt, Reid B. Colinus virginianus. June-July 2012. Brief natural history summary of Colinus virginianus. Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
author
Robert Costello (kearins)
original
visit source
partner site
EOL authors

Associated Plant Communities

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: hardwood

Northern bobwhite primarily inhabit hardwood forests of the eastern
United States and pine (Pinus spp.) forests of the South. They also
inhabit grasslands, and in the Southwest, shrubby savannahs [2,16].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
northern bobwhite
bobwhite quail
bobwhite
quail
colin
partridge
Virginia partridge
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Conservation Status

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Information on state- and province-level protection status of animals in the
United States and Canada is available at NatureServe, although recent
changes in status may not be included.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Requirements

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cactus, cover, density, forbs, woodland

Northern bobwhite need brushy cover for hiding and resting, but cover
should be open enough to allow the birds to move about and see
predators. In the Southwest, a mature mesquite, paloverde (Cercidium
spp.), and wolfberry (Lycium spp.) overstory with lovegrass (Eragrositis
spp.) and gramma grass (Bouteloua spp.) in the understory provides ample
cover for masked bobwhite quail [6]. Mesquite mixed with pricklypear
cactus and sumac (Rhus spp.) also provides good cover [10]. Cover
should be 100 to 200 yards (91.4-182.8 m) apart and 3 to 10 yards
(2.7-9.1 m) in diameter [10].

Northern bobwhite nest in shallow depressions on the ground in areas
where density of grasses and forbs is moderate [2,15]. A mix of
cropland, woodland, and pasture that provides essential foods is ideal
[15]. Northern bobwhite roost in coveys (formations of birds in a
circle) in thick vegetation during winter [16].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The northern bobwhite's range extends from southern Maine and Ontario
south to Florida and west to the eastern fringes of Wyoming, Colorado,
and New Mexico. Isolated populations inhabit eastern Washington,
western Idaho, and northwestern Oregon [2,7]. Populations of northern
bobwhite have been introduced to parts of Hawaii and southern British
Columbia [12]. Ranges of individual subspecies are listed below [7].

C. v. subsp. marilandicus - from southwestern Maine through central
Virginia
C. v. subsp. mexicanus - eastern United States from the Atlantic Seaboard
to the Midwest
C. v. subsp. virginianus - from Virginia south to northern Florida and
southeast Alabama
C. v. subsp. floridanus - south peninsular Florida
C. v. subsp. taylori - from South Dakota to northern Texas and east to
western Missouri and northwestern Arkansas
C. v. subsp. texanus - southwestern Texas south into Mexico
C. v. subsp. ridgwayi - extreme south-central Arizona into Mexico
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Food Habits

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: mast

Northern bobwhite eat primarily seeds, fruits, and insects, as well as
new plant growth in the spring [2]. They tend to eat a larger amount
and greater variety of legume (Leguminosae) seeds than seeds from any
other plant family, except in southern Florida and the West [15]. Some
food plants include oak, pine, and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua)
mast, mesquite, bayberry (Myrica cerifera), persimmon (Diospyros spp.),
redbay (Persea borbonia), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), partridge
pea (Cassia spp.), lespedeza (Lespedeza spp.), milkpea (Galactia spp.),
gallberry (Ilex spp.), skunk daisy (Ximenesia encelioides), plum (Prunus
spp.), grape (Vitis spp.),, hackberry (Celtis spp.), panicgrass (Panicum
spp.), and clover (Trifolium spp.). Quail also consume cowpeas (Vigna
spp.), corn (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum spp.), and other cultivated
small grains, but these grains are usually gleaned from fields after
harvest; quail seldom damage growing crops. Insects eaten by northern
bobwhite include mosquitoes, beetles (Coleoptera), grasshoppers
(Orthoptera), and ants (Hymenoptera) [2,3,10,13,15,16].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat-related Fire Effects

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, shrubs

Prescribed burning has been deemed one of the most effective means of
stimulating and controlling vegetation for improvement of northern
bobwhite habitat [15]. Prescribed fires in the pine forests of Alabama
increased the number of legume species and improved these species'
quality, which caused an increase in quail numbers [21]. Burning in
these habitats after March, however, can kill lespedeza, an important
food, as well as destroy nesting cover [22]. Frequent fires that do not
allow regeneration of adequate nesting cover may also be detrimental to
quail.

Pine-oak types in Georgia were burned each year for 3 years to determine
the effects of fire on northern bobwhite nesting success [23]. Sites
were burned in late March and early April. The most preferred nesting
sites were those areas left unburned for 1 year. Those burned in the
current spring were least preferred. Lotebush, the primary cover for
bobwhite quail in the Texas Rolling Plains, increased in response to
prescribed burning. Shrubs, however, did not fully recover and become
useful to quail until the 5th or 6th postfire year.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the terms: hardwood, swamp

1 Jack pine
15 Red pine
21 Eastern white pine
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
43 Bear oak
57 Yellow-poplar
63 Cottonwood
64 Sassafras - persimmon
65 Pin oak - sweet gum
67 Mohrs ("shin") oak
68 Mesquite
69 Sand pine
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
72 Southern scrub oak
74 Cabbage palmetto
75 Shortleaf pine
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
84 Slash pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
87 Sweet gum - yellow poplar
89 Live oak
92 Sweetgum - willow oak
97 Atlantic white-cedar
104 Sweetbay - swamp tupelo - redbay
109 Hawthorn
111 South Florida slash pine
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

More info for the term: shrub

FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES41 Wet grasslands
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the terms: cactus, forest, shrub

K026 Oregon oakwoods
K027 Mesquite bosque
K031 Oak - juniper woodlands
K039 Blackbrush
K043 Paloverde - cactus shrub
K054 Grama - tobosa prairie
K058 Grama - tobosa shrubsteppe
K059 Trans-Pecos shrub savanna
K060 Mesquite savanna
K061 Mesquite - acacia savanna
K062 Mesquite - live oak savanna
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K071 Shinnery
K073 Northern cordgrass prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K076 Blackland prairie
K077 Bluestem - sacahuista prairie
K078 Southern cordgrass prairie
K079 Palmetto prairie
K080 Marl - everglades
K081 Oak savanna
K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100
K083 Cedar glades
K084 Cross Timbers
K085 Mesquite - buffalograss
K086 Juniper - oak savanna
K087 Mesquite - oak savanna
K088 Fayette prairie
K089 Black Belt
K090 Live oak - sea oats
K091 Cypress savanna
K092 Everglades
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K114 Pocosin
K115 Sand pine scrub
K116 Subtropical pine forest
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management Considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, shrubs

Good northern bobwhite habitat requires good interspersion of food
species and cover that is not too dense. Good habitat can support about
one bird per acre (2.5/ha) [11]. In a habitat improvement experiment in
Florida, pine forests were cleared and subterranean clover (Trifolium
subterraneum) planted to encourage the establishment of arthropods, an
important food for chicks [14]. Habitat management programs in Illinois
included planting food patches and a combination of prescribed burning
and sharecropping. Food patch plantings generally failed to be of any
long-term value. Areas that were sharecropped and burned during winter
and spring at 2-year intervals produced more quail than areas planted
with food patches or areas that were sharecropped but not burned [3].

Rosene [15] recommended managing forests on an uneven-aged rotation
basis, and thinning after 20 years to maintain an open canopy. He also
suggested creating parklike woodlands in the South with high open
canopies and a thin, spotty pattern of shrubs in the understory. For
woodlands in the northern fringes of northern bobwhite range, it is best
to maintain groups of conifers with low growing limbs as insulation
against severe weather.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals

AL
AZ
AR
CO
CT
DC
DE
FL
GA
HI

ID
IL
IN
IA
KS
KY
LA
MD
MA
MI

MN
MS
MO
MT
NE
NH
NJ
NM
NY
NC

OH
OK
OR
PA
RI
SC
SD
TN
TX
UT

VT
VA
WA
WV
WI
WY



BC
ON



MEXICO

license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Predators

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Predators of adult northern bobwhite include hawks and eagles
(Accipitridae), falcons (Falconidae), foxes (Vulpes, Urocyon), bobcat
(Lynx rufus), and domestic cats (Felis sylvestris) and dogs (Canis
domesticus). Predators of chicks and eggs include weasels and skunks
(Mustelidae), raccoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossum (Didelphis
virginiana), snakes (Coluber spp.; Elaphe spp.), crows and ravens
(Corvus spp.), rats (Ratus norvegicus), and squirrels and chipmunks
(Sciuridae) [8,11,16].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Preferred Habitat

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cactus, cover, hardwood, shrub, tree, woodland

Northern bobwhite prefer open hardwood forests and southern pine
forests, as well as grasslands, pastures, meadows, and agricultural land
with shrubby cover. Northern bobwhite tend to avoid areas with dense
tree and shrub cover [2,10,16]. In a Texas study, however, northern
bobwhite selected dense herbaceaous cover and selected areas with grass
cover as opposed to bare ground [20]. In the Southwest, bobwhite quail
may select mesquite canyons with pricklypear cactus (Opuntia spp.)
cover in the summer and open woodlands in the winter [2]. Nest sites
are usually found near woodland openings where ground cover is not too
thick [15]. In Arizona, masked bobwhite quail select areas with 75
percent to 100 percent ground cover near edges of mesquite and
grassland/forb communities [6].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The currently accepted scientific name for northern bobwhite is Colinus
virginianus Linnaeus. There are seven subspecies in North America
[7,26]:

Colinus virginianus subsp. floridanus (Coues)
Colinus virginianus subsp. marilandicus (Linnaeus)
Colinus virginianus subsp. mexicanus (Linnaeus)
Colinus virginianus subsp. ridgwayi Brewster
Colinus virginianus subsp. taylori Lincoln
Colinus virginianus subsp. texanus (Lawrence)
Colinus virginianus subsp. virginianus
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Timing of Major Life History Events

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: forest

Mating Season - April through June in the South, but can be as early as
February and March; begins a few weeks later in the
North.
Clutch - 14 to 16 eggs, usually laid 15 to 18 days after mating;
incubation period is 23 days; two females may lay eggs
in one nest; may lay subsequent clutches if others fail.
Fledge - 14 days, but juveniles remain with adults for about 50 days.
Lifespan - up to 10 years [8,11,15,16].



Northern bobwhite nest.

license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

U.S. Federal Legal Status

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The masked bobwhite quail, subspecies ridgwayi, is listed as Endangered
throughout its range [19].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Use of Fire in Population Management

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, duff, fire regime, forest

Prescribed burning can improve and increase food species, clear dense
vegetation, provide more forest openings, and encourage early seral
types that provide cover [3,11,18]. Fire is a frequently used
management tool for northern bobwhite habitat improvement in the South
[15]. Here, late winter or fall burning is recommended over spring and
summer burning [11,21,22]. Burning between mid-February and the end of
March can make available seeds that are buried below the duff layer.
Insects begin to emerge after March in the South, and late-spring fires
could kill this food source, as well as consume seeds, important to
northern bobwhite [15]. Other evidence suggests that spring or summer
fires may increase food plants, including some legumes and Desmodium
spp. [25]. Prescribed burning should only be employed if, after
determining quail population limiting factors, fire can improve those
limiting factors [22]. Renwald and others [24] make recommendations for
burning in mesquite types to ensure adequate bobwhite quail cover.

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Colinus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Northern bobwhite

provided by wikipedia EN

The northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), also known as the Virginia quail or (in its home range) bobwhite quail, is a ground-dwelling bird native to Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, with introduced populations elsewhere in the Caribbean, Europe, and Asia. It is a member of the group of species known as New World quail (Odontophoridae). They were initially placed with the Old World quail in the pheasant family (Phasianidae), but are not particularly closely related. The name "bobwhite" is an onomatopoeic derivation from its characteristic whistling call. Despite its secretive nature, the northern bobwhite is one of the most familiar quails in eastern North America, because it is frequently the only quail in its range. Habitat degradation has contributed to the northern bobwhite population in eastern North America declining by roughly 85% from 1966 to 2014.[4] This population decline is apparently range-wide and continuing.[5][6]

There are 20 subspecies of northern bobwhite, many of which are hunted extensively as game birds. One subspecies, the masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), is listed as endangered with wild populations located in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and a reintroduced population in Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona.

Taxonomy and systematics

Subspecies

Plate 76 of Birds of America by John James Audubon depicting Virginian Partridge.

There are 20 recognized subspecies in four groups. One subspecies, the Key West bobwhite (C. v. insulanus), is extinct. The subspecies are listed in taxonomic order:[7][8]

  • Eastern group
  • Grayson's group
    • C. v. graysoni (Lawrence, 1867) - Grayson's bobwhite - west-central Mexico
    • C. v. nigripectus (Nelson, 1897) - Puebla bobwhite - eastern Mexico
  • Black-breasted group
    • C. v. pectoralis (Gould, 1843) - black-breasted bobwhite - eastern slopes and mountains of central Veracruz
    • C. v. godmani (Nelson, 1897) - Godman's bobwhite - eastern slopes and mountains of central Veracruz
    • C. v. minor (Nelson, 1901) - least bobwhite - northeastern Chiapas and Tabasco
    • C. v. thayeri (Bangs and Peters, 1928) - Thayer's bobwhite - northeastern Oaxaca
  • Masked group
    • C. v. ridgwayi (Brewster, 1885) - masked bobwhite - north-central Sonora; reintroduced to Arizona
    • C. v. atriceps (Ogilvie-Grant, 1893) - black-headed bobwhite - interior of western Oaxaca
    • C. v. harrisoni (Orr and Webster, 1968) - Harrison's bobwhite - southwestern Oaxaca
    • C. v. coyoleos (Müller, PLS, 1776) - Coyoleos bobwhite - Pacific Coast of Oaxaca and Chiapas
    • C. v. salvini (Nelson, 1897) - Salvin's bobwhite - coastal and southern Chiapas
    • C. v. insignis (Nelson, 1897) - Guatemalan bobwhite - Guatemala (Rio Chiapas Valley) and southeastern Chiapas (includes former subspecies nelsoni)

The holotype specimen of Ortyx pectoralis Gould (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1842 (1843), p.182.) is held in the collections of the National Museums Liverpool at the World Museum, with accession number D3713. The specimen died in the aviary at Knowsley Hall, Lancashire and came to the Liverpool national collection via the 13th Earl of Derby's collection, which was bequeathed to the people of Liverpool in 1851.

Description

C. virginianus is a moderately-sized quail, and is the only small galliform native to eastern North America. The bobwhite can range from 24 to 28 cm (9.4 to 11.0 in) in length with a 33 to 38 cm (13 to 15 in) wingspan. As indicated by body mass, weights increase in birds found further north, as corresponds to Bergmann's rule. In Mexico, northern bobwhites weigh from 129 to 159 g (4.6 to 5.6 oz) whereas in the north they average 170 to 173 g (6.0 to 6.1 oz) and large males can attain as much as 255 g (9.0 oz).[9][10] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 9.7 to 11.7 cm (3.8 to 4.6 in), the tail is 5 to 6.8 cm (2.0 to 2.7 in) the culmen is 1.3 to 1.6 cm (0.51 to 0.63 in) and the tarsus is 2.7 to 3.3 cm (1.1 to 1.3 in).[11] It has the typical chunky, rounded shape of a quail. The bill is short, curved and brown-black in color. This species is sexually dimorphic. Males have a white throat and brow stripe bordered by black. The overall rufous plumage has gray mottling on the wings, white scalloped stripes on the flanks, and black scallops on the whitish underparts. The tail is gray. Females are similar but are duller overall and have a buff throat and brow without the black border. Both sexes have pale legs and feet.

Distribution and habitat

The northern bobwhite can be found year-round in agricultural fields, grassland, open woodland areas, roadsides and wood edges. Its range covers the southeastern quadrant of the United States from the Great Lakes and southern Minnesota east to New York State and southern Massachusetts, and extending west to southern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado front-range foothills to 7,000 feet, and all but westernmost Texas.

It is absent from the southern tip of Florida (where the extinct Key West bobwhite subspecies once lived) and the highest elevations of the Appalachian Mountains, but occurs in eastern Mexico and in Cuba, and has been introduced to Hispaniola (both the Dominican Republic and Haiti), the Bahamas, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands (formerly), Puerto Rico, France, China, Portugal, and Italy. Isolated populations also have been introduced in Oregon and Washington. The northern bobwhite has also been introduced to New Zealand.[12]

There is no self-sustaining population in Pennsylvania, where the bird is considered extirpated;[13] it is also considered extirpated in the states of New Hampshire[14] and Connecticut.[15] Its distribution in New York has been limited to Suffolk and Nassau Counties on Long Island, as well as potential population pockets in Upstate New York. The bird is considered declining or extirpated throughout much of the Northeastern United States.[16] Similarly, the bird is almost extirpated from Ontario (and Canada as a whole), with the only self-sustaining population confirmed to exist recorded on Walpole Island.[17]

Vocalizations

The clear whistle "bob-WHITE" or "bob-bob-WHITE" call is very recognizable. The syllables are slow and widely spaced, rising in pitch a full octave from beginning to end. Other calls include lisps, peeps, and more rapidly whistled warning calls.

Behavior and ecology

Egg

Like most game birds, the northern bobwhite is shy and elusive. When threatened, it will crouch and freeze, relying on camouflage to stay undetected, but will flush into low flight if closely disturbed. It is generally solitary or paired early in the year, but family groups are common in the late summer and winter roosts may have two dozen or more birds in a single covey.[18]

Breeding

The species was once considered monogamous, but with the advent of radio telemetry, the sexual behavior of bobwhites has better been described as ambisexual polygamy.[19] Either parent may incubate a clutch for 23 days, and the precocial young leave the nest shortly after hatching. The main source of nest failure is predation, with nest success averaging 28% across their range.[20] However, the nest success of stable populations is typically much higher than this average, and the aforementioned estimate includes values for declining populations.

Brooding behavior varies in that amalgamation (kidnapping, adopting, creching, gang brooding) may occur.[21][22] An incubating parent may alternatively stay with its young. A hen may re-nest up to four times until she has a successful nest. However, it is extremely rare for bobwhites to hatch more than two successful nests within one nesting season.[23]

Food and feeding

The northern bobwhite's diet consists of plant material and small invertebrates, such as ticks, snails, grasshoppers, beetles, spiders, crickets, and leafhoppers.[24] Plant sources include seeds, wild berries, partridge peas, and cultivated grains. It forages on the ground in open areas with some spots of taller vegetation.[25]

Optimal nutrient requirements for bobwhite vary depending on the age of bird and the time of the year. For example, the optimal protein requirement for egg laying hens (23% protein) is much higher than for males (16%).[26][27]

Relationship to humans

Introduced populations

European Union

Northern bobwhite were introduced into Italy in 1927,[28] and are reported in the plains and hills in the northwest of the country. Other reports from the EU are in France, Spain, and Yugoslavia.[29] As bobwhites are highly productive and popular aviary subjects, it is reasonable to expect other introductions have been made in other parts of the EU, especially in the U.K. and Ireland, where game-bird breeding, liberation, and naturalization are relatively common practices.[30]

New Zealand

From 1898[31] to 1902, some 1,300 birds were imported from America and released in many parts of the North and South Islands,[32] from Northland to Southland. The bird was briefly on the Nelson game shooting licence, but: "It would seem that the committee was a little too eager in placing these Quail on the licence, or the shooters of the day were over-zealous and greedy in their bag limits, for the Virginian Quail, like the Mountain Quail were soon a thing of the past."[33] The Taranaki (Acclimatisation) Society released a few in 1900 and was confidant that in a year or two they might offer good sport; two years later, broods were reported and the species was said to be steadily increasing; but after another two years they seemed to have disappeared and that was the end of them. The Otago (Acclimatisation) Society imported more in 1948,[34] but these releases did no good.[35][36] After 1923, no more genuinely wild birds were sighted until 1952, when a small population was found northwest of Wairoa in the Ruapapa Road area. Since then, bobwhite have been found at several localities around Waikaremoana, in farmland, open bush and along roadsides.[32]

More birds have been imported into New Zealand by private individuals since the 1990s and a healthy captive population is now held by backyard aviculturists and have been found to be easily cared for and bred and are popular for their song and good looks. A larger proportion of the national captive population belong to a few game preserves and game bird breeders. Though the birds would be self-sustaining in the wild if they were protected; it is tricky to guess what the effect of an annual population subsidy and hunting has on any of the original populations from the Acclimatisation Society releases.

An albino hen was present in a covey in Bayview, Hawkes Bay for a couple of seasons sometime around 2000.[37]

Captivity

Domesticated northern bobwhite

Housing

Bobwhites are generally compatible with most parrots, softbills and doves. This species should, however, be the only ground-dwelling species in the aviary. Most individuals will do little damage to finches, but one should watch that nests are not being crushed when the species perches at night. Single pairs are preferred, unless the birds have been raised together as a group since they were chicks. Some fighting will occur between cocks at breeding time. One cock may be capable of breeding with several hens, but the fertility seems to be highest in the eggs from the preferred hen. Aviary style is a compromise between what is tolerated by the bird and what is best for the bird. Open parrot-style type aviaries may be used, but some birds will remain flighty and shy in this situation. In a planted aviary, this species will generally settle down to become quite tame and confiding. Parents with chicks will roost on the ground, forming a circular arrangement, with heads facing outwards. In the early morning and late afternoon, the cock will utter his call, which, although not loud, carries well and may offend noise-sensitive neighbors. Most breeding facilities keep birds in breeding groups on wire up off the ground. This keeps the birds clean and generally avoids diseases and parasites, which can devastate a covey. Cages with mesh floors for pairs and trios are also employed, but usually where there is a photo-period manipulation to keep birds breeding through winter.

Feeding

In the wild the northern bobwhite feeds on a variety of weed and grass seeds, as well as insects. These are generally collected on the ground or from low foliage. Birds in the aviary are easily catered for with a commercial small seed mix (finch, budgerigar, or small parrot mix) when supplemented with greenfeed. Live food is not usually necessary for breeding, but will be ravenously accepted. High protein foods such as chicken grower crumble are more convenient to supply and will be useful for the stimulation of breeding birds. Extra calcium is required, especially by laying hens; it can be supplied in the form of shell grit, or cuttlefish bone.[38]

Breeding

If a nesting site and privacy are not provided, hens will lay anywhere within an open aviary. Hens that do this may, in a season, lay upwards of 80 eggs, which can be taken for artificial incubation and the chicks hand-raised. Hens with nesting cover that do make a nest (on the ground) will build up 8–25 eggs in a clutch, with eggs being laid daily.[39]

Mutations and hybrids

Some captive bobwhite hybrids recorded are between blue quail (scaled quail),[40] Gambel's quail, California quail, and mountain quail. It has long been suggested that there are Japanese quail hybrids being bred commercially; however, there is a distinct lack of photographic proof to substantiate this. Inter-subspecific hybrids have been common.

Several mutations have long been established, including Californian Jumbo, Wisconsin Jumbo, Northern Giant, Albino, Snowflake, Blonde, Fawn, Barred, Silver, and Red.

Status

The northern bobwhite is rated as a Near-threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.[41] The northern bobwhite is threatened across its range due to habitat loss and habitat degradation. Changing land use patterns and changing fire regimes have caused once prime habitat to become unfavorable for the bobwhite.

Masked bobwhite

The masked bobwhite subspecies, C. v. ridgwayi, is listed as endangered in the U.S. The birds were twice declared extirpated in Arizona in the past century. It was originally endemic to southern Arizona in the U.S., and northern Sonora in Mexico. It is considered a Critically Imperiled Subspecies by NatureServe.[42]

The masked bobwhite was in decline since its discovery in 1884. By 1900, the subspecies was already extinct in the U.S. Populations remained in Mexico, but their study was curtailed by political events in Mexico, including the Mexican Revolution and the last of the Yaqui Wars. A population of the masked bobwhite was finally discovered and studied in Mexico, in 1931 and 1932.[43]

A native population historically existed in Sonora, but by 2017, its population appeared to be declining, or possibly extinct.[43] A 2017 study recorded no wild sightings of the bird in Sonora.[44] Decline of the species has been attributed to intense livestock grazing in an ecosystem that does not rejuvenate quickly.

A captive flock was established in Arizona in the 1970s. The George Miksch Sutton Avian Research Center (Sutton Center) became involved with conservation efforts in 2017 to establish a breeding population at the Sutton Center in Oklahoma, in order to reintroduce birds to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge (BANWR).[45] In 2019, biologists from the Sutton Center transported 1,000 chicks by road vehicle to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge. In 2020, a projected total of 1,200 birds will be transported by airplanes to BANWR.[46] These recent actions are supplemental, and in addition to other conservation efforts in the past, seem to aid the subspecies' future conservation efforts.[47][48]

In popular culture

In 2023, the masked bobwhite subspecies will be featured on a United States Postal Service Forever stamp as part of the Endangered Species set, based on a photograph from Joel Sartore's Photo Ark. The stamp will be dedicated at a ceremony at the National Grasslands Visitor Center in Wall, South Dakota.[49]

See also

References

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2021). "Colinus virginianus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22728956A178045540. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  2. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  3. ^ "Northern Bobwhite". World Bird Info. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
  4. ^ "Northern Bobwhite". Cornell University. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
  5. ^ "The 116th Christmas Bird Count Summary". National Audubon Society. 21 November 2016. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2017.
  6. ^ "BBS Trend Maps - Northern Bobwhite Colinus virginianus". Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  7. ^ "Megapodes, guans, guineafowl, New World quail – IOC World Bird List". www.worldbirdnames.org. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  8. ^ Brennan, Leonard A.; Hernandez, Fidel; Williford, Damon (2020). "Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), version 1.0". Birds of the World. doi:10.2173/bow.norbob.01.
  9. ^ Pheasants, Partridges, and Grouse : A Guide to the Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Grouse, Guineafowl, Buttonquails, and Sandgrouse of the World (Princeton Field Guides) by Tami Davis Biddle. Princeton University Press (2002). ISBN 978-0691089089.
  10. ^ Nelson, A. L. and A. C. Martin. 1953. Gamebird weights. J. Wildl. Manage. 17:36-42.
  11. ^ Aldrich, J. W. 1946. The United States races of the bob-white. The Auk 63:493-508.
  12. ^ "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Colinus virginianus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. October 2016.
  13. ^ "Northern Bobwhite Quail".
  14. ^ "Official New Hampshire State Bird List". New Hampshire Audubon. 28 February 2019. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  15. ^ Gallo, Frank (18 June 2021). "Checklist of the Birds of Connecticut". Connecticut Ornithological Association. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
  16. ^ "Species Assessment for Northern bobwhite" (PDF). New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. 1 November 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
  17. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  18. ^ National Audubon Society (n.d.). "Northern bobwhite: Colonus virginialis". www.audubon.org. National Audubon Society. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
  19. ^ Hernandez, F (2012). Beef, Brush, and Bobwhites. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 9781603444750.
  20. ^ Rollins, D; Carroll, JP (2001). "Impacts of Predation on Northern Bobwhite and Scaled Quail". Journal of Wildlife Management. 29: 39–51.
  21. ^ Faircloth, BC; Palmer, WE; Carroll; JP (2005). "Post-Hatching Brood Amalgamation in Northern Bobwhites / Mezcla polluelos parvadas de Colinus virginianus". Journal of Field Ornithology. 76: 175–182. doi:10.1648/0273-8570-76.2.175. S2CID 53983235.
  22. ^ Brooks, JL (2007). "Gang-Brooding in Northern Bobwhites in West Texas". Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 119: 137–138. doi:10.1676/06-040.1. S2CID 86453173.
  23. ^ Sisson, DC (2017). "TRIPLE BROOD PRODUCTION BY NORTHERN BOBWHITES". National Quail Symposium. 8: 238.
  24. ^ Butler, DA; Palmer, WE; Cook, MP (2012). "The invertebrate diet of northern bobwhite chicks in Georgia, United States". Animal Biodiversity and Conservation. 35 (2): 415–418. doi:10.32800/abc.2012.35.0415.
  25. ^ "Northern Bobwhite" (PDF). Wildlife Habitat Council. September 1999. pp. 2–3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  26. ^ Nestler, RB (1949). "Nutrition of Bobwhite Quail". Journal of Wildlife Management. 13 (4): 342–358. doi:10.2307/3795628. JSTOR 3795628.
  27. ^ Case, RM; Robel, RJ (1974). "Bioenergetics of the Bobwhite". Journal of Wildlife Management. 38 (4): 638–652. doi:10.2307/3800031. JSTOR 3800031.
  28. ^ Ghigi, 1968
  29. ^ Meriggi, Alberto; Gariboldi, Armando; Magnani, Barbara (January 1992). "Habitat requirements of the bobwhite quail in northern Italy". Bolletino di Zoologia. 59 (1): 73–78. doi:10.1080/11250009209386651.
  30. ^ "Bobwhite Quail".
  31. ^ Ayson, L.F. 1899:1.
  32. ^ a b K.E. Westerskov, MSc, PhD. Complete Book of New Zealand Birds
  33. ^ Ann.Rep. Nelson Acclimatisation Society, 1968:38
  34. ^ Ann. Rep. Otago Acclimatisation Society, 1948
  35. ^ Ann. Rep. North Canterbury Acclimatisation Society, 1954:21
  36. ^ Gamekeepers for the Nation, 1994, R.M. McDowell
  37. ^ J.J. Holland
  38. ^ Coles, Brian H. (2009). Handbook of Avian Medicine (Second ed.). Saunders Ltd. pp. 309–334. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7020-2874-8.X0001-6. ISBN 978-0-7020-2874-8.
  39. ^ The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. "Northern Bobwhite". All About Birds.org. Cornell University. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
  40. ^ McCabe, Robert A. (1954). "Hybridization between the Bob-White and Scaled Quail". The Auk. 71 (3): 293–297. doi:10.2307/4081671. ISSN 0004-8038. JSTOR 4081671.
  41. ^ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  42. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  43. ^ a b Brown, David; Clark, Kevin (8 November 2017). "The Saga of the Masked Bobwhite: Lessons Learned and Unlearned". National Quail Symposium Proceedings. 8 (1). ISSN 2573-5667.
  44. ^ García-Solórzano, David; López-González, Edgardo; Islas, Carlos (8 November 2017). "Conservation Status of the Masked Bobwhite in Sonora, Mexico". National Quail Symposium Proceedings. 8 (1). ISSN 2573-5667.
  45. ^ "Masked Bobwhite – Sutton Center". suttoncenter.org. George Miksch Sutton Avian Research Center. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
  46. ^ Bostian, Kelly. "Tiny birds, big wings - volunteer flights helping to prop up endangered quail population". Tulsaworld.com. Tulsa World. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
  47. ^ "Masked Bobwhite | 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation" (PDF). US Fish and Wildlife Service. March 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  48. ^ Carpenter, James W.; Gabel, Robert R.; Goodwin, John G. (1991). "Captive breeding and reintroduction of the endangered masked bobwhite". Zoo Biology. 10 (6): 439–449. doi:10.1002/zoo.1430100602. ISSN 1098-2361.
  49. ^ "Postal Service Spotlights Endangered Species". United States Postal Service. 19 April 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2023.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN

Northern bobwhite: Brief Summary

provided by wikipedia EN

The northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), also known as the Virginia quail or (in its home range) bobwhite quail, is a ground-dwelling bird native to Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, with introduced populations elsewhere in the Caribbean, Europe, and Asia. It is a member of the group of species known as New World quail (Odontophoridae). They were initially placed with the Old World quail in the pheasant family (Phasianidae), but are not particularly closely related. The name "bobwhite" is an onomatopoeic derivation from its characteristic whistling call. Despite its secretive nature, the northern bobwhite is one of the most familiar quails in eastern North America, because it is frequently the only quail in its range. Habitat degradation has contributed to the northern bobwhite population in eastern North America declining by roughly 85% from 1966 to 2014. This population decline is apparently range-wide and continuing.

There are 20 subspecies of northern bobwhite, many of which are hunted extensively as game birds. One subspecies, the masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), is listed as endangered with wild populations located in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and a reintroduced population in Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN