Common Cuttlefish

Sepia officinalis is prey for large fish, seals, sharks, dolphins and whales. The cuttlefish avoids predation by camouflaging with its environment, disorienting predators by releasing ink when threatened, and propelling itself away from danger.

Known Predators:

• sharks
• dolphins and toothed whales (Odontoceti)
• large fish
• seals
• sea lions and fur seals

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Sepia officinalis measures up to 45 cm in mantle length, ranging from 30 cm in subtropic areas to 49 cm in temperate areas. Weights are between 2 kg (subtropic areas) and 4 kg (temperate areas). The largest recorded individual reached a mantle length of 60 cm. European cuttlefish have large eyes and a mouth with beak like jaws located at the base of the mantle. The mantle houses reproductive and digestive organs, as well an internal shell called the cuttlebone. The cuttlebone shape is oblong with a rounded posterior end and an anterior end that tapers to a point.

The body of S. officianalis is broad and dorso-ventrally flattened, having an oval shaped cross section. A pair of flat, wide fins runs the length of the mantle. The mouth is surrounded by eight arms and two longer tentacles, all equipped with suckers. Mature Sepia officinalis exhibit a zebra stripe pattern on the dorsal surface of their mantles during breeding season. Adult males are distinguished by white and black zebra bands on their fourth arm, as well as white arm spots. Sepia officinalis is able to change the color and even texture of its skin using structures called chromatophores, leucophores, and iridophores. These structures function to camouflage this species to its variable surroundings. Generally, however, Sepia officinalis has a mottled black or brown color.

Range mass: 2 to 4 kg.

Range length: 60 (high) cm.

Average length: 45 cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; sexes colored or patterned differently

Sepia officinalis has a typical lifespan of one to two years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 1 to 2 years.

Typical lifespan
Status: captivity: 1 to 2 years.

Sepia officinalis is a marine organism, categorized as a “shallow water cephalopod”, dwelling in sandy or muddy substrates. Its habitat ranges from subtidal waters to depths of 200 meters. Members of this species follow seasonal migrations. They spend spring and summer in inshore waters, then migrate to depths of 100 m to 200 m during autumn and winter. Sepia officinalis commonly spends the daytime hidden in sand.

Range depth: 0 to 200 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; coastal

Sepia officinalis is generally found in the eastern North Atlantic, throughout the English Channel, and south into the Mediterranean Sea so it is often referred to as the "European Cuttlefish". However, populations have also been recorded along the west coast of Africa, and as far south as South Africa.

Biogeographic Regions: atlantic ocean (Native ); mediterranean sea (Native )

Sepia officinalis preys upon a wide variety of animals. It primarily feeds on crustaceans and fish, but has also been known to eat gastropods, nemertean worms, polychaetes and even other cuttlefish. Sepia officinalis is an ambush predator that hunts by blending in with its background and sneaking up on prey. When the prey is close, Sepia officinalis has two modes of attack. One is to shoot out its two longer tentacles, grab the prey using the suckers on the tentacular clubs at the tips of the tentacles and bring the prey into its beak to feed. The other attack mode is pounce on its prey and use its arms to capture and maneuver the prey while it tears at the prey with its radula and beak. Both adult and immature cuttlefish hunt for food during the night. Some studies have shown that cuttlefish embryos have the ability to learn about prey items while still encased in their eggs using their fully-developed eyes to observe prey species. Hatchlings that observed crabs while inside their eggs preferred to eat crab over other prey items.

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic or marine worms; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore , Vermivore)

Sepia officinalis is highly active, grows quickly and expends high amounts of energy per reproductive effort. In order to meet its energetic needs, a cuttlefish will eat voraciously. Therefore, cuttlefish play an important ecological role as consumers. Because they eat a wide variety of prey and can be highly mobile, cuttlefish can fill a broad and flexible ecological niche.

Sepia officinalis has highly developed eyes and often communicates with other cuttlefish and predators using visual cues. Not only does it use its skin-changing ability to convey messages, but it also communicates by swimming in certain patterns or holding its tentacles in certain postures. In addition to communicating by altering its skin’s appearance, a cuttlefish can also indicate that it feels threatened by ejecting black ink from its siphon.

Communication Channels: visual

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile

This species of cuttlefish are believed to be abundant and faces no threat of extinction. Studies indicate that fishing is occurring around the maximum sustainable yield, so no special conservation status is applied to them.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

Females deposit clusters of eggs on seaweed, shells, and other substrate along the seafloor. Eggs measure 6 to 9 mm in diameter, hatching after about 2 months, or 30-90 days, depending on water temperature. Once hatched, the young Sepia officinalis have a total length of 50 mm. Newly hatched young are well developed and can almost immediately start feeding on small prey. Growth rates vary with temperature, the young growing faster at lower temperatures. Sepia officinalis generally reaches maturity at 14 to 18 months of age.

There are no known adverse effects of Sepia officinalis on humans.

Sepia officinalis is commercially fished and eaten by humans. Its ink has many uses including homeopathic medicinal uses and use as dyes and paint. Many people keep cuttlefish as pets. People often give cuttlebones from cuttlefish to their pet birds as dietary supplements and to keep their birds' beaks in good health.

Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food ; body parts are source of valuable material; source of medicine or drug ; research and education

Sepia officinalis has separate male and female sexes. In the spring and summer, male and females migrate to shallow, warmer waters to spawn. They exhibit elaborate courtships, wherein males attract females through spectacular displays of colored bands passing rapidly along their bodies. Males then hold their arms stiffly in a basket formation to show their virility. Similarly, females display a uniform gray color when ready to mate. Mate guarding, in which males aggressively fight over and guard their females, is also common.

Mating System: polygynous

Mating in Sepia officinalis involves internal fertilization. The male deposits spermaphores into the female’s buccal membrane using a hectocotylized arm (tentacle arm used as intromittent organ). Males carry as many as 1400 spermatophores, while females carry somewhere between 150 and 4000 eggs, depending on body size. Sepia officinalis reaches sexual maturity at 14 to 18 months of age. Females can lay eggs several times at the ends of their lives. However, after spawning both male and females die.

Breeding interval: European cuttlefish typically breed only once in their lifetime.

Breeding season: European cuttlefish breed during the spring and summer.

Range number of offspring: 100 to 1000.

Range gestation period: 30 to 90 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 14 to 18 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 13 to 18 months.

Key Reproductive Features: semelparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); oviparous

Fertilized eggs are stored in the oviduct of the female Sepia officinalis until they are ready to be deposited. Eggs are produced with deposits of ink, to color and, therefore, camouflage the eggs for protection. A young Sepia officinalis hatches with a yolk to provide nutritious support until they are able to catch their own prey.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female)

Cuttlefish swim using the fin that passes around the body. They can also rapidly expel water and move quickly by 'jet-propulsion' (4). Like all cephalopods, the common cuttlefish is an active predator, feeding on molluscs, young fish, and crabs. Other species of cuttlefish may also be taken, and cannibalism has been reported (2). When threatened, this species releases ink (known as sepia) into the water to produce a protective 'cloud' which confuses predators and allows the cuttlefish to escape (4). During spring and summer, males and females migrate to warmer water in order to spawn (2). Males often engage in spectacular displays to attract a female, in which bands of colour pass rapidly along the body; fighting over females is common (4). The eggs are attached to objects on the sea floor such as shells and seaweeds (2); after spawning, both the males and females die (4). Young cuttlefish reach maturity at 14-18 months of age, and the average life span is 1-2 years (2).

No conservation action has been targeted at this common species.

The cephalopods (meaning 'head-footed'), a group of molluscs containing the octopuses, squid and cuttlefish, are probably the most intelligent of all invertebrates. They have well-developed heads, with large eyes and mouths that feature beak-like jaws (3). The body of the common cuttlefish is flattened and broad, and is therefore oval in cross-section (2). A fin runs around the body from behind the head (2). Encircling the mouth there are eight 'arms' with suckers, which are used to manipulate prey, there are also two tentacles with flattened paddle-like tips, which can be rapidly extended and are used to catch prey (4). This species has excellent camouflage; it is able to change its colour to match its surroundings (2). Colour is therefore extremely variable, but is typically blackish-brown, mottled or striped, usually with paler underparts (2). Cuttlefish have an internal shell known as a cuttlebone, which is filled with gas and aids buoyancy; these shells are found washed ashore, and are often given to pet birds as a source of calcium and other minerals.

Occurs from the shallow sublittoral zone to depths of 200m, where it is found on muddy and sandy substrates (2).

In Britain, this cuttlefish is found around southern and western coasts. Elsewhere, the species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Baltic Sea to South Africa, and also in the Mediterranean (2).

Common and widespread.

This common species is fished commercially, and is also caught in bycatch (2).

Super fast color changes, mysterious eyes and a spectacular mating ritual. The cuttlefish is an unusual animal. It has a large internal shell as backbone, which serves for improving buoyancy as well as sturdiness. You often find these cuttlebones on the beach. They are sold in pet stores as a source of calcium for caged birds. Cuttlefish are easily frightened; it is difficult to display them in a Sea Aquarium. The common cuttlefish is very common in the North Sea, down to a depth of around 150 meters. In the spring, it migrates via the English Channel to coastal waters to reproduce.

These cephalopodsuse three types of cells in their skin for their camouflage displays: chromatophores, iridophores, and leucophores.

The chromatophores are small neuronally controlled "pigment sacs" that cover the body. When expanded by 15-25 radial muscles, each chromatophore displays either brown, red, or yellow coloration depending on the type of pigment it contains. When thousands of these chromatophores are expanded, they form the visual body pattern. Because these are directly innervated by the brain, they can be expanded or contracted in milliseconds, resulting in a rapidly adaptive body pattern change.

The iridophores are plate-like cells stacked beneath the chromatophores that reflect iridecent light by their diffraction of ambient light. Beneath the iridophores, the leucophores are cells which reflect the ambient light (typically a whitish color under natual sunlight).

These cell types together allowthese animals to maintain such effective camouflage in their environment.

An important commercial resource throughout its range. World catches attributed to this species varied between 8 500 and 14 000 t in recent years. The catch reported for 1981 totalled 12 800 t, taken almost exclusively by Italy in the Mediterranean (Fishing Area 37) (FAO, 1983). Prominent catches of unidentified cuttlefishes (Sepia spp. and Sepiola spp.), most of which are believed to be S. officinalis, also are taken off West Africa (Fishing Area 34). In 1981, these catches amounted to about 29 100 t showing a slight decrease against previous years. For many years Spain has taken the largest catches in this area. The finfish discarded by Spanish cuttlefish trawlers was estimated at approximately 63% in 1976 and included more than 90 species categories, primarily, sparids (Pagellus erythrinus and P. acarne ), jack mackerels (Trachurus spp.), flatfishes, electric rays (Torpedo spp.), and weevers (Trachinus spp.) (Bravo de Laguna, Fernandez & Santana, 1976). While the Japanese share in the West African cuttlefish catches went down drastically, Moroccan participation in this fishery, which started only in 1980, is steadily increasing. Senegalese catches remained relatively stable over the last 5 years (FAO, 1983). It is suspected, that the overall effort exceeds the optimum level and that present catch levels could be maintained or even increased with reduced effort (Caddy, 1981). In the industrial fisheries, common cuttlefish is primarily trawled, either as a target species or as bycatch to demersal finfishes. On the other hand, the artisanal fisheries utilize a great variety of highly selective gear, such as spears, pots and traps, often combined with the use of light. One particular fishing method used in calm, transparent waters consists of luring the males with a live female attached to a thin line. Once the male has grabbed the female, both are pulled up, the male is detached, and the female lowered again. The live female, may be substituted with a mirror which causes the male to mistake his own image for the female. Common cuttlefish is usually marketed fresh and frozen, and is a highly appreciated food item, particularly in Japan, Republic of Korea, Italy and Spain. Aquaculture has been tried experimentally and also appears promising for large-scale ventures.The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 14 638 t. The countries with the largest catches were Tunisia (6 622 t) and Greece (3 123 t).

A demersal, neritic species occurring predominantly on sandy to muddy bottomsfrom the coastline to about 200 m depth, but most abundant in the upper 100 m; larger individuals are encountered in the deeper part of the range.Seasonal migrations (mainly vertical) have been shown to occur in all stocks. For the population off Senegal, Bakhaykho & Drammeh (1982) suggest a seasonal north-south, and an offshore-inshore migration pattern. In the western Mediterranean, in early spring, large individuals leave the deeper water, where they spend the winter, to migrate into shallower water (males precede females by about a week). This group is followed by a succession of smaller cuttlefish arriving in shallow waters throughout the summer. In autumn the gradual descent beings. Spawning occurs in shallow waters, throughout the year, with peaks at water temperatures from 13° to 15°C: in the western Mediterranean, between April and July, off Senegal and on the Sahara Banks between January and April (primarily big adults); there is a second minor spawning peak of medium and small-sized individuals in late summer and early autumn. Males may carry up to 1 400 spermatophores, females between 150 and 4 000 eggs, depending on their size. Eggs measure from 8 to 10 mm in diameter and are attached in grape-like clusters to seaweeds, debris, shells and other substrates. They hatch after 30 to 90 days depending on temperature (21.5 ° to 15°C, respectively). The total length of hatchlings is 7 or 8 mm. Growth rate varies directly with temperature and inversely with size (Pascual, 1978). Larvae hatched in early summer from the spring brood usually participate in the autumn spawning of the following year, while those from the autumn brood spawn in spring in their second year of life. Thus, the two cycles alternate. Males predominate in the adult phase because of massive postspawning mortality among large females. Food consists of small molluscs, crabs, shrimps, other cuttlefishes, and juvenile demersal fishes. Cannibalism is common and has been interpreted as "strategy" to overcome temporary shortage of adequately sized prey (Caddy, 1979). Daily feeding rates of 10 to 30% of body weight in juveniles do not seem unlikely, in view of the high growth rate and the relatively short lifespan (up to 2 years in the fishery).Predators of common cuttlefish include sharks, sparids and other demersal fishes and cuttlefishes.

Tentacular club with 5 or 6 suckers in each transverse row, the median ones moderately enlarged; swimming keel not extending proximally beyond base of club. Left arm IV hectocotylized by reduction in size of suckers in proximal 5 to 8 horizontal rows (S. officinalis type) or in proximal 8 to 13 rows (S. hierredda type); dorsal protective membrane of normal width (S. officinalis type) or little developed (S. hierredda type); cuttlebone anteriorly and posteriorly rounded (not acuminate), with parallel sides and a weak spine visible in juveniles, but embedded in chitin in adults, the striated zone not extending past midpoint of length (S. officinalis type), cuttlebone acuminate at both ends, with a spine also in adults and striations sometimes extending past midpoint of length (S. hierredda type).

Eastern Atlantic: from the Baltic and North Seas to South Africa; Mediterranean Sea.

Maximum mantle length 45 cm, weight up to 4 kg in temperate waters, but only little more than 30 cm and 2 kg in subtropical seas. Common sizes in the West Saharan fisheries range between 15 and 25 cm. In that area, length at first maturity is 13.5 cm mantle length in females, and between 12 and 14 cm in males. Off Tunisia, length at first maturity is 12 cm in females, and 10 cm in males.

Sepia officinalis Linnaeus, 1758

Sepia filliouxi Lafont, 1869:11.

Sepia mediterranea Ninni, 1884:159.

DIAGNOSIS.—Body flattened, fins starting at anterior edge of mantle. Arm suckers quadriserial, usually 5–8 rows of reduced suckers on hectocotylus. Tentacular club suckers in oblique series of 7 to 8 generally small suckers; only 5 to 6 median suckers greatly enlarged. Sepion oval, width 30%–40% of length in male, 33%–42% in female. Anterior striae rounded or rounded M-shaped. Inner cone without distinct ventral ledge. Outer cone wide. Spine more or less prominent, surrounded by chitinous shield. Shield covering dorsal side of outer cone.

ORIGINAL REFERENCE.—Linnaeus, 1758:658.

TYPE LOCALITY.—? Eastern Atlantic.

TYPE.—Type not traced.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Eastern Atlantic, from the Shetland Islands and southern Norway south through the Mediterranean Sea to northwestern Africa (not present in the Baltic Sea).

Common cuttlefish

The common cuttlefish or European common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) is one of the largest and best-known cuttlefish species. They are a migratory species that spend the summer and spring inshore for spawning and then move to depths of 100 to 200m during autumn and winter. They grow to 49 cm in mantle length (ML) and 4 kg in weight. Animals from subtropical seas are smaller and rarely exceed 30 cm in ML.

The common cuttlefish is native to at least the Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, and Baltic Sea, although subspecies have been proposed as far south as South Africa. It lives on sand and mud seabeds and it can tolerate brackish water conditions.

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