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In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / blood sucker
adult of Forcipomyia paludis sucks the blood of live wing base (upper side) of adult of Zygoptera

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Brief Summary

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Damselflies (suborder Zygoptera) are one of two lineages in the insect order Odonata, the other being the dragonflies (suborder Anisoptera).While similar to dragonflies, damselflies can be distinguished by the following features:

  1. At rest, most damselflies (except the spreadwings; family Lestidae) hold their wings above and parallel to their body, whereas dragonflies spread them out at a 90 degree angle from the body.
  2. Fore- and hind- wings of damselflies are similar in size and shape, whereas dragonfly forewings are smaller and narrower at the base than are the hindwings.
  3. Damselflies usually have smaller and more delicate bodies than do dragonflies, and are weaker flyers.
  4. Damselflies have smaller eyes than dragonflies; unlike dragonflies, damselfly eyes rarely touch.
  5. Larval damselflies have three large gill appendages at the end of their body, whereas dragonfly larvae have internal gills.

Like dragonflies, damselflies are very visual hunters.The adults tend to fly around water sources, and females lay their eggs in water. Damselfly eggs (about 1 mm long) are less round and more elongated than are dragonfly eggs.The fully aquatic larval stage is long-lasting, usually a year or two and in some species up to six years, and consists of 6-15 molts.The nymphs are voracious, carnivorous ambush predators and have large extendible jaws (prehensile labium) for catching prey.Adults also are carnivorous. While generalists, their main food source is often found to be small insects, especially flies.Damelflies tend to be more cold-hearty and pollution-hearty than are dragonflies.

Found worldwide, the damselfly lineage comprises nearly 3000 named species.An extensive recent molecular phylogeny has reinterpreted relationships among and taxonomy of the damelsflies (Dijkstra et al. 2014), which were historically based on wing venation, defining 27 damselfly families, significantly more than the 18 or so previously defined.This study also suggests that the more challenging damselfly families may be split further in future studies.

(Batlet 2004; Dijkstra et al. 2014; Sabet-Peyman and Speer 2000; Wikipedia 2014)

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Waterjuffer ( Afrikaans )

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'n Waterjuffer is 'n soort insek van die suborde Zygoptera, wat tot die orde Odonata behoort. Die term Zygoptera beteken "vlerke wat in pare voorkom". Waterjuffers is delikate, swak-vlieënde insekte. 'n Volwasse waterjuffer het 'n lang, skraal liggaam, wat groen, blou, rooi, geel, swart of bruin is en dikwels helderkleurig. Die kleur van sommige van die spesies verskil in verskillende omgewings, verbleikend van helderblou tot 'n dowwe pers waar hulle reageer op koeler temperatuur of lig.[1]

Die meeste waterjuffers hou hulle vlerke oor hulle eie liggaam, nie uit na die kante soos naaldekokers nie. Waterjuffers is kleiner as naaldekokers, en hulle is aan die kante van die kop, nie bo-op die kop nie.[2]

Die mannetjies van die meeste waterjuffers het helderder kleure as die wyfies. Beide geslagte het breë, langwerpige koppe met 'n groot, wyd geskeide uitpeuloë en baie kort voelers. Volwassenes gebruik hul harige agterpote om prooi in vlug te vang. Sodra die prooi gevang is, vreet hulle dit terwyl hulle dit met hul pote vashou.[1]

Volwassenes word gewoonlik regdeur die jaar gedurende die dag gesien. Waterjuffers is vleisetende insekte wat naby varswater leef en broei. Hulle vlieg in tandem tydens paring en hulle paringspatroon is nogal ongewoon.[1]

Verwysings

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Waterjuffer: Brief Summary ( Afrikaans )

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'n Waterjuffer is 'n soort insek van die suborde Zygoptera, wat tot die orde Odonata behoort. Die term Zygoptera beteken "vlerke wat in pare voorkom". Waterjuffers is delikate, swak-vlieënde insekte. 'n Volwasse waterjuffer het 'n lang, skraal liggaam, wat groen, blou, rooi, geel, swart of bruin is en dikwels helderkleurig. Die kleur van sommige van die spesies verskil in verskillende omgewings, verbleikend van helderblou tot 'n dowwe pers waar hulle reageer op koeler temperatuur of lig.

Die meeste waterjuffers hou hulle vlerke oor hulle eie liggaam, nie uit na die kante soos naaldekokers nie. Waterjuffers is kleiner as naaldekokers, en hulle is aan die kante van die kop, nie bo-op die kop nie.

Die mannetjies van die meeste waterjuffers het helderder kleure as die wyfies. Beide geslagte het breë, langwerpige koppe met 'n groot, wyd geskeide uitpeuloë en baie kort voelers. Volwassenes gebruik hul harige agterpote om prooi in vlug te vang. Sodra die prooi gevang is, vreet hulle dit terwyl hulle dit met hul pote vashou.

Volwassenes word gewoonlik regdeur die jaar gedurende die dag gesien. Waterjuffers is vleisetende insekte wat naby varswater leef en broei. Hulle vlieg in tandem tydens paring en hulle paringspatroon is nogal ongewoon.

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Zygoptera ( Asturian )

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 src=
Caballín del diañu azul común (Enallagma cyathigerum).

Los zigópteros (Zygoptera) son un suborde del orde Odonata conocíos vulgarmente como caballinos del diañu, "cortanarices" o tamién, menos frecuentemente, como damiselas (del inglés damselfly). Estremase d'otros odonatos porque les sos nales en descansu allíniense xuntu al abdome y porque los güeyos tán considerablemente separaos.

Bioloxía

Los caballinos del diañu, como'l restu de odonatos, son hemimetábolos (metamorfosis incompleta) y el so estadiu ninfal ye acuáticu. La fema pon güevos na agua, dacuando na vexetación somorguiada, o a lo cimero n'árboles, en cuévanos que reciben agua d'agua. Les ninfes son carnívores, comiendo larves de mosquitos, Daphnia, y otros organismos acuáticos.

Les branquies de les ninfes son grandes y esternes, a la fin del abdome. Dempués d'un tiempu importante na metamorfosis, l'adultu remanez y come mosques, mosquitos, y otros inseutos pequeños [cita [ensin referencies]. Delles especies tropicales grandes aliméntense d'arañes.

Referencies

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Zygoptera: Brief Summary ( Asturian )

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 src= Caballín del diañu azul común (Enallagma cyathigerum).

Los zigópteros (Zygoptera) son un suborde del orde Odonata conocíos vulgarmente como caballinos del diañu, "cortanarices" o tamién, menos frecuentemente, como damiselas (del inglés damselfly). Estremase d'otros odonatos porque les sos nales en descansu allíniense xuntu al abdome y porque los güeyos tán considerablemente separaos.

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Zigòpters ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Crystal128-pipe.svg
Aquest article o secció no cita les fonts o necessita més referències per a la seva verificabilitat.

Els zigòpters (Zygoptera) són un subordre dins l'ordre Odonata, coneguts popularment com a cavallets del diable. Es diferencien d'altres odonats perquè les seves ales en descans s'alineen al costat de l'abdomen i perquè els ulls estan netament separats.

Els cavallets del diable, com la resta d'odonats, són hemimetàbols (metamorfosi incompleta) i el seu estadi nimfal és aquàtic. La femella pon ous a l'aigua, de vegades en la vegetació submergida, o al capdamunt en arbres, en cavitats que reben aigua de pluja. Les nimfes són carnívores, menjant larves de mosquits, Daphnia, i altres organismes aquàtics.

Les brànquies de les nimfes són grans i externes, al final de l'abdomen. Després d'un temps important en la metamorfosi, l'adult emergeix i menja mosques, mosquits, i altres insectes petits. Algunes espècies tropicals grans s'alimenten d'aranyes.

Zigòpters presents a Catalunya[1]

Calopterígids (Calopterygidae)

Lèstids (Lestidae)

Cenagriònids (Coenagrionidae)

Platicnèmids (Platycnemididae)


 src= A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Zigòpters Modifica l'enllaç a Wikidata

Referències

  1. «Oxygastra, grup d'estudi dels odonats de Catalunya.». [Consulta: 29 desembre 2015].
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Zigòpters: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Els zigòpters (Zygoptera) són un subordre dins l'ordre Odonata, coneguts popularment com a cavallets del diable. Es diferencien d'altres odonats perquè les seves ales en descans s'alineen al costat de l'abdomen i perquè els ulls estan netament separats.

Els cavallets del diable, com la resta d'odonats, són hemimetàbols (metamorfosi incompleta) i el seu estadi nimfal és aquàtic. La femella pon ous a l'aigua, de vegades en la vegetació submergida, o al capdamunt en arbres, en cavitats que reben aigua de pluja. Les nimfes són carnívores, menjant larves de mosquits, Daphnia, i altres organismes aquàtics.

Les brànquies de les nimfes són grans i externes, al final de l'abdomen. Després d'un temps important en la metamorfosi, l'adult emergeix i menja mosques, mosquits, i altres insectes petits. Algunes espècies tropicals grans s'alimenten d'aranyes.

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Mursen ( Welsh )

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Is-Urdd o bryfaid yw'r Fursen sy'n enw benywaidd (sef Is-Urdd y Zygoptera; lluosog: Mursennod), a chyda Gweision y neidr maent yn gwneud yr Urdd Odonata. Caiff ambell fursen ei gamgymeryd yn aml am was y neidr gan eu bod mor debyg, ond mae rhai nodweddion tra gwahanol gan gynnwys y ffaith eu bod yn fyrrach, yn deneuach ac mae'r rhan fwyaf o'u rhywogaethau'n swatio'u hadenydd yn agos i'w corff tra maen nhw'n gorffwyso.

Mae pob mursen yn gigysol (neu'n 'rheibus') - yr oedolyn a'r pryf ifanc Mae'r rhai ifanc yn byw mewn dŵr, gyda'r rhan fwyaf o'u rhywogaethau'n byw mewn cynefin dŵr croyw, gan gynnwys mawnog asidig hyd yn oed, llynnoedd, pyllau ac afonydd. Mae'r mursennod ifanc hefyd yn bwrw'u crwyn yn rheolaidd, gyda'r bwriad-croen olaf maen nhw'n dringo allan o'r dŵr ac yn morffio. Mae'r croen ar eu cefnau'n rhwygo ac agorant eu hadenydd, datblygu eu habdomen a thrawsnewid i ffurf oedolyn. Mae eu presenoldeb ar bwll o ddŵr yn arwydd bod y pwll yn eitha glân, heb ei halogi.

Grŵp hynafol

Mae'r fursen yn grŵp hynafol iawn, ac wedi bodoli ers y cyfnod Permaidd, pan oedd tir y Ddaear yn un cyfandir (Pangaea); bellach fe'u ceir ar bob cyfandir, namyn Antartig. Mae'r ffosiliau cynharaf ohonynt yn dyddio'n ôl o leiaf 250 miliwn CP, ond gan mai oedolion yw pob un o'r ffosiliau hyn ni wyddys a oedd y mursennod ifainc, yr adeg honno, yn byw mewn dŵr, ai peidio.[1]

Dosbarthiad

Ceir cryn newid gan y gwyddonwyr ar rywogaethau o'r fursen, ac ar hyn o bryd (2015) ystyrir fod deunaw teulu ohonynt:[2]

Zygoptera Lestoidea

Hemiphlebiidae




Perilestidae



Synlestidae



Lestidae





Platystictoidea

Platystictidae




"Calopterygoidea", revised

Calopterygidae



Chlorocyphidae



Dicteriadidae



Polythoridae



13 rhagor o deuluoedd




Euphaeidae



Lestoideidae




8 teulu posibl - incertae sedis




Coenagrionoidea

Platycnemididae



Coenagrionidae (gan gynnwys y Pseudostigmatidae)



Isostictidae







Mae llinellau toredig yn nodi perthynas sydd heb hyd yma ei phrofi'n llawn.

Disgrifiad

Yn wahanol i was y neidr, mae llygaid cyfansawdd y fursen yn bellach oddi wrth ei gilydd ac yn llai hefyd. Uwch ben y llygaid ceir talcen ac ychydig oddi tano ceir y 'tarian' (neu'r clypeus). Ar frig y pen ceir tri llygad syml (neu ocelli), sydd o bosib yn mesur cryfder golau a cheir pâr o deimlyddion i'w chynorthwyo i fesur cryfder yr aer a'r gwynt.[3]

Mursennod Cymru

Maint mursennod sydd ar gael yng Nghymru Enw'r rhywogaeth milimetrau (mm) mursen lygatgoch fach
29(Erythromma viridulum)
mursen las Penfro
30(Coenagrion mercuriale )
mursen dinlas fach
31(Ischnura pumilio)
mursen dinlas gyffredin
31(Ischnura elegans)
mursen fach goch
31(Ceriagrion tenellum)
mursen las gyffredin
32(Enallagma cyathigerum)
mursen las asur
33(Coenagrion puella)
mursen las amrywiol
33(Coenagrion pulchellum)
gwäell ddu
34(Sympetrum danae)
mursen lygatgoch fawr
35(Erythromma najas)
mursen fawr goch
36(Pyrrhosoma nymphula)
gwäell rudd
36(Sympetrum sanguineum)
mursen werdd brin
37(Lestes dryas)
gwäell asgell aur
37(Sympetrum flaveolum)
mursen werdd
38(Lestes sponsa)
mursen y gaeaf
38(Sympecma fusca)
gwäell wythien goch
40(Sympetrum fonscolombii)
gwäell grwydrol
40(Sympetrum vulgatum)
gwäell gyffredin
43(Sympetrum striolatum)
morwyn dywyll
45(Calopteryx virgo)
morwyn wych
45(Calopteryx splendens)

Gweler hefyd

Cyfeiriadau

  1. Grimaldi, David; Engel, Michael S. (2005). Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge University Press. pp. 174, 178. ISBN 978-0-521-82149-0.
  2. Dijkstra, Klaas-Douwe B.; Kalkman, Vincent J.; Dow, Rory A.; Stokvis, Frank R.; van Tol, Jan (2013). "Redefining the damselfly families: a comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Zygoptera (Odonata)". Systematic Entomology 39 (1): 68–96. doi:10.1111/syen.12035. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/syen.12035/full.
  3. Paulson, Dennis (2011). Dragonflies and Damselflies of the East. Princeton University Press. pp. 10–32. ISBN 1-4008-3966-1.
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Mursen: Brief Summary ( Welsh )

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Is-Urdd o bryfaid yw'r Fursen sy'n enw benywaidd (sef Is-Urdd y Zygoptera; lluosog: Mursennod), a chyda Gweision y neidr maent yn gwneud yr Urdd Odonata. Caiff ambell fursen ei gamgymeryd yn aml am was y neidr gan eu bod mor debyg, ond mae rhai nodweddion tra gwahanol gan gynnwys y ffaith eu bod yn fyrrach, yn deneuach ac mae'r rhan fwyaf o'u rhywogaethau'n swatio'u hadenydd yn agos i'w corff tra maen nhw'n gorffwyso.

Mae pob mursen yn gigysol (neu'n 'rheibus') - yr oedolyn a'r pryf ifanc Mae'r rhai ifanc yn byw mewn dŵr, gyda'r rhan fwyaf o'u rhywogaethau'n byw mewn cynefin dŵr croyw, gan gynnwys mawnog asidig hyd yn oed, llynnoedd, pyllau ac afonydd. Mae'r mursennod ifanc hefyd yn bwrw'u crwyn yn rheolaidd, gyda'r bwriad-croen olaf maen nhw'n dringo allan o'r dŵr ac yn morffio. Mae'r croen ar eu cefnau'n rhwygo ac agorant eu hadenydd, datblygu eu habdomen a thrawsnewid i ffurf oedolyn. Mae eu presenoldeb ar bwll o ddŵr yn arwydd bod y pwll yn eitha glân, heb ei halogi.

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Motýlice ( Czech )

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Možná hledáte: rod Calopteryx, česky též motýlice.

Motýlice, nověji nazývané stejnokřídlice,[1] (Zygoptera) jsou podřád hmyzího řádu vážek (Odonata). Na celém světě jich existuje asi 2753 druhů.[2] V Česku se vyskytuje 25 druhů motýlic, z nichž je šest kriticky ohrožených a jedna vymizelá (šidélko přilbovité).

Popis

Mají dva skoro stejné páry předních a zadních křídel, na rozdíl od podřádu šídla (Anisoptera), které mají oba páry křídel více odlišné. Oči mají daleko od sebe. Jsou štíhlé, s protáhlým zadečkem.

Nymfy (larvy) motýlic mají na konci zadečku tři protáhlé výrůstky sloužící k plavání. Nymfám mohou dorůstat ztracené končetiny (regenerace), i když už nebývají tak dokonalé jako původní.[3]

Biologie

Létají poměrně pomalu, často usedají na vegetaci. Motýlice se vyvíjejí proměnou nedokonalou. Pohlavní orgány mají umístěny na konci zadečku. Sameček má ještě mezi druhým a třetím článkem umístěn kopulační orgán, na který před kopulací přenáší spermie z pohlavního orgánu.

 src=
Motýlice při páření; modře zbarvený je sameček, samička je žluto-zelená

Vajíčka kladou obvykle zadečkem ponořeným několik centimetrů do vody. Některé druhy kladou vajíčka do větví u břehu nebo do rostlin. Při kladení vajíček samec často přidržuje samičku za hlavou, a to klíšťkami, které má na konci zadečku, a létají v tandemu.

Z vajíčka se nejprve vylíhne prelarva (pronymfa) bez funkčních nohou. Po několika sekundách, někdy až hodinách se promění v larvu prvního instaru. Larva žije ve vodě. Živí se dravě, většinou larvami drobného hmyzu. K lovení kořisti má tzv. masku kterou dokáže vymrštit, uchopit do ní kořist a přitáhnout k ústům. Larvy se svlékají 7–15×.

Když larva doroste, vylézá na souš, převážně se přichytává na vegetaci a líhne se z ní dospělá motýlice. Živí se létajícím hmyzem. Po několika dnech, někdy i měsíci je připravena k páření.

Čeledi

Podle[2]

Odkazy

Související články

Reference

  1. ZELENÝ, Jiří; HANEL, Lubomír. Vážky. Výzkum a ochrana. 1. vyd. Vlašim: Český svaz ochránců přírody, 2000. ISBN 80-86327-09-4. S. 7.
  2. a b SCHORR, Martin; LINDEBOOM, Martin; PAULSON, Dennis. Slater Museum of Natural History [online]. Tacoma: University of Puget Sound, 08-2007 [cit. 2009-08-25]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
  3. OBENBERGER, Jan. Entomologie IV. 1. vyd. Praha: Československá akademie věd, 1958. S. 261-263.

Literatura

  • Hanel, Lubomír. Vážky Podblanicka 1. vyd. Vlašim : Český svaz ochránců přírody, 1999 : Muzeum okresu Benešov. 96 s. ISBN 80-86327-07-8.
  • Zahradník, Jiří, Severa, František. Hmyz. Ilustroval František Severa. 2. vyd. Praha : AVENTINUM, 2004. 326 s. ISBN 80-86858-36-7.
  • FARKAČ J., KRÁL D. & ŠKORPÍK M. [eds.] (2005): Červený seznam ohrožených druhů České republiky. Bezobratlí. List of threatened species in the Czech Republic. Invertebrates. – Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha, 760 pp. PDF

Externí odkazy

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Motýlice: Brief Summary ( Czech )

provided by wikipedia CZ
Možná hledáte: rod Calopteryx, česky též motýlice.

Motýlice, nověji nazývané stejnokřídlice, (Zygoptera) jsou podřád hmyzího řádu vážek (Odonata). Na celém světě jich existuje asi 2753 druhů. V Česku se vyskytuje 25 druhů motýlic, z nichž je šest kriticky ohrožených a jedna vymizelá (šidélko přilbovité).

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Vandnymfer ( Danish )

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Vandnymfer (Zygoptera) er en af to underordener af guldsmede i klassen insekter. De kan kendes fra de ægte guldsmede, som er den anden underorden af guldsmede, på, at det bageste par vinger er smallere, og på at vingerne i hvile lægges bagud over bagkroppen. Vandnymfernes nymfe er slankere end hos de ægte guldsmede. På dens bagkrop findes tre haleblade, der bruges som svømmevifte. De er blevet kaldt gælleblade, men åndedrættet foregår gennem huden.

Danske arter

Nogle af de omkring 20 danske arter. De fleste er 30-48 millimeter lange.

  • Almindelig vandnymfe (Enallagma cyathigerum)
  • Rødøjet vandnymfe (Erythromma najas) er 38 millimeter lang. Hunnen har gule øjne. Den findes som regel kun ved søer og store damme, hvor den flyver lavt over vandet i juni/august.
  • Hestesko-vandnymfe (Coenagrion puella)
  • Flagermus-vandnymfe (Coenagrion pulchellum)
  • Rød vandnymfe (Pyrrhosoma nymphula)
  • Stor farvevandnymfe (Ischnura elegans)
  • Almindelig kobbervandnymfe (Lestes sponsa)
  • Sortmærket kobbervandnymfe (Lestes dryas)
  • Blåbåndet pragtvandnymfe (Calopteryx splendens)
  • Blåvinget pragtvandnymfe (Calopteryx virgo)

Se også

Kilder og eksterne henvisninger

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Vandnymfer: Brief Summary ( Danish )

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Vandnymfer (Zygoptera) er en af to underordener af guldsmede i klassen insekter. De kan kendes fra de ægte guldsmede, som er den anden underorden af guldsmede, på, at det bageste par vinger er smallere, og på at vingerne i hvile lægges bagud over bagkroppen. Vandnymfernes nymfe er slankere end hos de ægte guldsmede. På dens bagkrop findes tre haleblade, der bruges som svømmevifte. De er blevet kaldt gælleblade, men åndedrættet foregår gennem huden.

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Kleinlibellen ( German )

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Exuvie einer Kleinlibelle

Kleinlibellen oder Wasserjungfern (Zygoptera) sind eine Unterordnung der Libellen (Odonata), die in 19 Familien mit rund 2600 Arten untergliedert werden.

Merkmale

In Europa erreichen die Zygoptera höchstens eine Flügelspannweite von 70 mm, die kleinste Art misst nur 19 mm. Ihr Körper ist schlank. Ihre Augen liegen an der Seite des Kopfes, sind knopfförmig und berühren einander oben nie. Kleinlibellen legen ihre Flügel in Ruhestellung zur Oberseite des Thorax hin zusammen, nach hinten direkt über den Hinterleib. Durch den schrägen Bau des Thorax ist diese Ruhestellung ohne ein Flügelgelenk, wie es die Neuflügler besitzen, möglich. Vorder- und Hinterflügel haben fast die gleiche Form. Ihr Flug ist im Gegensatz zu den Großlibellen relativ langsam und scheint flatternd und unregelmäßig.

Die Larven der Kleinlibellen besitzen am Hinterleibsende mehrere blattförmige Anhänge, die der Unterstützung der Atmung, aber auch als Ruderorgane zur Fortbewegung im Wasser dienen.

Lebensweise

Die Larven leben im Wasser. Die hemimetabolen Tiere führen nach dem Schlüpfen einen „Jungfernflug“ aus, wobei sie sich oft weit von den Brutgewässern entfernen. Die adulten Tiere findet man allerdings auch meist in der Nähe von Gewässern.

Die Imagines und die Larven ernähren sich räuberisch.

Schutz

Alle Libellenarten sind in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland durch die Bundesartenschutzverordnung besonders geschützt. Ob die Larvalhäute der Imaginalhäutung, die Exuvien, gesammelt werden dürfen, oder ob dafür eine Ausnahmegenehmigung erforderlich ist, ist derzeit noch nicht abschließend entschieden.

Systematik

Überfamilien und Familien

Eine etablierte und in weiten Bereichen akzeptierte Klassifikation:

Familien und Arten in Europa

Literatur

  • H. Wildermuth, Y. Gonseth, A. Maibach: Odonata – Die Libellen der Schweiz. In: Fauna Helvetica. Band 12, 2005, ISBN 2-88414-024-7

Weblinks

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Kleinlibellen: Brief Summary ( German )

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 src= Exuvie einer Kleinlibelle

Kleinlibellen oder Wasserjungfern (Zygoptera) sind eine Unterordnung der Libellen (Odonata), die in 19 Familien mit rund 2600 Arten untergliedert werden.

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Chhìn-á (tōng-bu̍t) ( Nan )

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Ceriagrion glabrum immature female.jpg

Chhìn-á (hàn-jī: 秤仔) sī chi̍t-khoán thâng-á, i kah chhân-eⁿ chin sio-siâng, tān-sī chhìn-á ê ba̍k-chiu seⁿ khah hun-khui, jî-chhiáⁿ i hioh-kha-sî ē siu-khí si̍t-á.

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Dmòzhéle ( Picard )

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Enallagma cyathigerum

Dmòzhéle / Édmòzhéle / Énmòzhéle / Nmòzhéle[1], Mamzéle[2], Gobeudeul[3], Gobeudeu[4], Goddue[5], Crinoline[6] (Zygoptera ) (in frinsé: demoiselle ou agrion)

Clachification

Notes pi référinches

  1. http://www.languepicarde.fr/dico.html Variantes: dêmoizèl, demouhazèle, d'moéselle, n'moéselle, édmoéselle, énmoéselle, dmouéselle, édmouéselle, él'mouéselle, nmouéselle, dëmoizèl
  2. Variantes: mamezèle
  3. Variantes: gobeu d'eule
  4. Variantes: gobeu d'eu
  5. Variantes: gode d'u
  6. Variantes: krinoline
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Dmòzhéle: Brief Summary ( Picard )

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 src= Enallagma cyathigerum

Dmòzhéle / Édmòzhéle / Énmòzhéle / Nmòzhéle, Mamzéle, Gobeudeul, Gobeudeu, Goddue, Crinoline (Zygoptera ) (in frinsé: demoiselle ou agrion)

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Jumfern (Insekten) ( Low Saxon )

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De Jumfern oder Liekflunken (Zygoptera) sünd en Unnerorden vun de Insekten. Se maakt mit twee annere Unnerorden de Orden vun de Goldpeer ut. Över de ganze Welt hen gifft dat bi 2.700 Aarden vun Jumfern, dormank 49 Sorten in Europa.

Jumfern könnt vun de Echten Goldpeer (Anisoptera) goot ut'neen holen weern vunwegen en paar sünnerliche Kennteken: Se sünd allgemeen lichter boot; de Ogen sünd tämlich lüttjet un staht wiet ut'neen; wenn de Deerter sitten gaht, weert de Flunken vun de Jumfern na achtern över dat Lief tohopenfoolt' (bloß nich bi de Diekjumfern). Bi en Echt Goldpeerd staht se na de Siet hen af. De Vör- un de Achterflunken sünd bi de Jumfern liek groot. Dor kummt ok de wetenschoppliche Naam Zygoptera vun her, dat heet up Platt: Liekflunken.

De Jumfern un ok de Echten Goldpeer kennt en Unvullstännigen Gestaltwessel. De Larve strepelt ehre Huut af un warrt denn na dat leste Mol en Insekt mit Flögels un mit faken dannige Farven. De Larve is tämlich lüttjet, bit hen to um un bi twee cm, mit en small Achterlief, wo dree Steertkemen an sitten doot. Se röögt sik dör Hen- un Herswutschen vun dat Achterlief (Bi Echte Goldpeer gifft dat en Strahlandriev).

Taxonomie

In Düütschland

All Familien in de Welt

Biller

Borns

  • Frank Bos, Marcel Wasscher en Weia Reinboud (2007): Veldgids Libellen, KNNV Uitgeverij, 5. Uplaag, ISBN 978-90-5011-264-2
  • Jill Silsby (2001): Dragonflies of the World, Smithsonian, ISBN 1-56098-959-9
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Jumfern (Insekten): Brief Summary ( Low Saxon )

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De Jumfern oder Liekflunken (Zygoptera) sünd en Unnerorden vun de Insekten. Se maakt mit twee annere Unnerorden de Orden vun de Goldpeer ut. Över de ganze Welt hen gifft dat bi 2.700 Aarden vun Jumfern, dormank 49 Sorten in Europa.

Jumfern könnt vun de Echten Goldpeer (Anisoptera) goot ut'neen holen weern vunwegen en paar sünnerliche Kennteken: Se sünd allgemeen lichter boot; de Ogen sünd tämlich lüttjet un staht wiet ut'neen; wenn de Deerter sitten gaht, weert de Flunken vun de Jumfern na achtern över dat Lief tohopenfoolt' (bloß nich bi de Diekjumfern). Bi en Echt Goldpeerd staht se na de Siet hen af. De Vör- un de Achterflunken sünd bi de Jumfern liek groot. Dor kummt ok de wetenschoppliche Naam Zygoptera vun her, dat heet up Platt: Liekflunken.

De Jumfern un ok de Echten Goldpeer kennt en Unvullstännigen Gestaltwessel. De Larve strepelt ehre Huut af un warrt denn na dat leste Mol en Insekt mit Flögels un mit faken dannige Farven. De Larve is tämlich lüttjet, bit hen to um un bi twee cm, mit en small Achterlief, wo dree Steertkemen an sitten doot. Se röögt sik dör Hen- un Herswutschen vun dat Achterlief (Bi Echte Goldpeer gifft dat en Strahlandriev).

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Kinjeng dom ( Javanese )

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Kinjeng dom ya iku kéwan gegremetan kang kalebu ordho Odonata, subordho Zygoptera[2].

Ciri

Kinjeng dom gampang dititèni saka awak kang kuru dawa kaya déné dom, lan suwiwi kang nglempit miturut dawané awak nalika nembé méncok ing tetuwuhan. Kinjeng dom asring tinemu ing sakiwa tengen blumbang, rawa, alas utawa sawah.[3] Kinjeng dom ngendhog ing banyu, kang banjur netes sawusé 2 dina. Kinjeng dom lumrahé duwé warna ijo semu kuning utawa ireng. Lumrahé kinjeng dom mapan ing papan kang cedhak banyu tawa, sanajan pira-pira spésiès saka Caenagrionidae ngendhog ing banyu payau lan malah uga ana sijining spésiès kang ngendhog ing banyu asin.

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Pseudagrion indicum, lagi ngendhog; kinjeng dom lanang ana ing sisih ndhuwur

Sebaran

Kinjeng dom tinemu ing kabèh nagara, kajaba ing antartika. Kabèh ana spésiès cacah 2942 kang diklumpukaké ing 309 marga.[4]

Rujukan

  1. Selys-Longchamps, E. (1854). Monographie des caloptérygines (ing basa French). Brussels and Leipzig: C. Muquardt. kk. 1–291 [2]. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.60461.
  2. Lilies S., Christina. 1991. Kunci Determinasi Serangga. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius. ISBN 979-413-703-0
  3. Amri, Khairul; Sihombing, Toguan. 2008. Mengenal & Mengendalikan Predator Benih Ikan. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka. ISBN 978-979-22-3650-7
  4. Suhling, F.; Sahlén, G.; Gorb, S.; Kalkman, V.J.; Dijkstra, K-D.B.; van Tol, J. (2015). "Order Odonata". In Thorp, James & D. Christopher Rogers. Ecology and general biology. Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates (ed. 4). Academic Press. kk. 893–932. ISBN 978-0-12-385026-3.
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Kinjeng dom: Brief Summary ( Javanese )

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Kinjeng dom ya iku kéwan gegremetan kang kalebu ordho Odonata, subordho Zygoptera.

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ஊசித்தட்டான் ( Tamil )

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ஊசித்தட்டான் அல்லது ஊசித்தட்டாரப் பூச்சி அல்லது ஊசித் தும்பி (Damselfly) என்பது நீர்நிலைகளுக்கு அருகே காணப்படும் பூச்சிக் குடும்பமாகும். தட்டாரப்பூச்சியைவிட ஒல்லியான, ஊசி போன்ற பறக்கும் பூச்சித் தனியன்களாகும்.

இப்பூச்சிகள் உயிரினப் வகைப்பாட்டில் “பல் இருக்கின்ற” எனப் பொருள்படும் ஓடோனட்டா என்னும் வரிசையில், சைகோப்டெரா என்னும் துணைவரிசையைச் சேர்ந்த உயிரினமாகும். இவை தட்டாரப்பூச்சி போலல்லாது ஓய்வெடுக்கும்போது இறக்கைகளை நீளவாட்டில் சமாந்தரமாக வைத்துக் கொள்ளும்.

ஊசித்தட்டானின் பின் இறக்கைகள் முன் இறக்கைகளை ஒத்து காணப்படும். ஒப்பீட்டளவில் தட்டாரப்பூச்சிளைவிட சிறிதும் பலவீனமான இவற்றின் கண்கள் வேறுபட்டுக் காணப்படும்.

சொல்லிலக்கணம்

சைகோப்டெரா (Zygoptera) எனும் பெயர் கிரேக்க மொழியில் ஒன்றிணைந்த அல்லது சேர்ந்திருக்கும் எனும் பொருளுள்ள சைகோ மற்றும் இறக்கைகள் எனும் பொருளுள்ள பிடெராசு ஆகிய சொற்களிலிருந்து உருவாகியது. "சைகோ" + "பிடெராசு" என்ற இருசொற்களின் கூட்டு. சைகோப்டெரா என்பது "சேர்ந்திருக்கும் இறகுகள்" எனப் பொருள் கொள்கிறது.[2] ஊசித்தட்டான் இரு சோடி இறக்கைகள் கொண்டு காணப்படும். அவை தட்டாரப்பூச்சியின் இறக்கைள் போன்று பின் இறக்கைகள் முன் இறக்கைகளைவிட அகலமானவையல்ல. ஊசித்தட்டான் தன் இறக்கைகளை பின் நோக்கி மடிக்க வல்லன, ஆனால் தட்டாரப்பூச்சியால் அவ்வாறு செய்ய முடியாது.

உசாத்துணை

  1. Selys-Longchamps, E. (1854) (in French). Monographie des caloptérygines. Brussels and Leipzig: C. Muquardt. பக். 1-291 [2]. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.60461. http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39812054.
  2. "Damselflies". பார்த்த நாள் 7 ஏப்ரல் 2017.

வெளி இணைப்புக்கள்

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ஊசித்தட்டான்: Brief Summary ( Tamil )

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ஊசித்தட்டான் அல்லது ஊசித்தட்டாரப் பூச்சி அல்லது ஊசித் தும்பி (Damselfly) என்பது நீர்நிலைகளுக்கு அருகே காணப்படும் பூச்சிக் குடும்பமாகும். தட்டாரப்பூச்சியைவிட ஒல்லியான, ஊசி போன்ற பறக்கும் பூச்சித் தனியன்களாகும்.

இப்பூச்சிகள் உயிரினப் வகைப்பாட்டில் “பல் இருக்கின்ற” எனப் பொருள்படும் ஓடோனட்டா என்னும் வரிசையில், சைகோப்டெரா என்னும் துணைவரிசையைச் சேர்ந்த உயிரினமாகும். இவை தட்டாரப்பூச்சி போலல்லாது ஓய்வெடுக்கும்போது இறக்கைகளை நீளவாட்டில் சமாந்தரமாக வைத்துக் கொள்ளும்.

ஊசித்தட்டானின் பின் இறக்கைகள் முன் இறக்கைகளை ஒத்து காணப்படும். ஒப்பீட்டளவில் தட்டாரப்பூச்சிளைவிட சிறிதும் பலவீனமான இவற்றின் கண்கள் வேறுபட்டுக் காணப்படும்.

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Damselfly

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Damselflies are flying insects of the suborder Zygoptera in the order Odonata. They are similar to dragonflies, which constitute the other odonatan suborder, Anisoptera, but are smaller and have slimmer bodies. Most species fold the wings along the body when at rest, unlike dragonflies which hold the wings flat and away from the body. An ancient group, damselflies have existed since at least the Lower Permian beginning about 299 million years ago, and are found on every continent except Antarctica.

All damselflies are predatory insects; both nymphs and adults actively hunt and eat other insects. The nymphs are aquatic, with different species living in a variety of freshwater habitats including acidic bogs, ponds, lakes and rivers. The nymphs moult repeatedly, at the last moult climbing out of the water to undergo metamorphosis. The skin splits down the back, they emerge and inflate their wings and abdomen to gain their adult form. Their presence on a body of water indicates that it is relatively unpolluted, but their dependence on freshwater makes them vulnerable to damage to their wetland habitats.

Some species of damselfly have elaborate courtship behaviours. Many species are sexually dimorphic, the males often being more brightly coloured than the females. Like dragonflies, they reproduce using indirect insemination and delayed fertilisation. A mating pair form a shape known as a "heart" or "wheel", the male clasping the female at the back of the head, the female curling her abdomen down to pick up sperm from secondary genitalia at the base of the male's abdomen. The pair often remain together with the male still clasping the female while she lays eggs within the tissue of plants in or near water using a robust ovipositor.

Artificial fishing flies that mimic damselfly nymphs are used in wet-fly fishing. Damselflies are sometimes represented in personal jewellery such as brooches.

Classification

The Zygoptera are an ancient group, with fossils known from the lower Permian, at least 250 million years ago. All the fossils of that age are of adults, similar in structure to modern damselflies, so it is not known whether their larvae were aquatic at that time. The earliest larval odonate fossils are from the Mesozoic.[2] Fossils of damselfly-like Protozygoptera date back further to 311–30 Mya.[3] Well-preserved Eocene damselfly larvae and exuviae are known from fossils preserved in amber in the Baltic region.[4]

Molecular analysis in 2013 confirms that most of the traditional families are monophyletic, but shows that the Amphipterygidae, Megapodagrionidae and Protoneuridae are paraphyletic and will need to be reorganised. The Protoneuridae in particular is shown to be composed of six clades from five families. The result so far is 27 damselfly families, with 7 more likely to be created. The discovered clades did not agree well with traditional characteristics used to classify living and fossil Zygoptera such as wing venation, so fossil taxa will need to be revisited. The 18 extant traditional families are provisionally rearranged as follows (the 3 paraphyletic families disappearing, and many details not resolved):[5]

Zygoptera Lestoidea

Hemiphlebiidae (ancient greenling)

Perilestidae (shortwings)

Synlestidae (sylphs)

Lestidae (spreadwings)

Platystictoidea

Platystictidae (shadowdamsels)

"Calopterygoidea", revised

Calopterygidae (demoiselles)

Chlorocyphidae (jewels)

Dicteriadidae (barelegs)

Polythoridae (bannerwings)

13 more families

Euphaeidae (odalisques)

Lestoideidae (bluestreaks)

8 possible families incertae sedis

Coenagrionoidea

Platycnemididae (white-legged damselflies)

Coenagrionidae (inc. Pseudostigmatidae) (pond damselflies)

Isostictidae (narrow-wings)

Dashed lines indicate unresolved relationships.

General description

Illustration of damselfly wing. Both fore and hind wings are similar.

The general body plan of a damselfly is similar to that of a dragonfly. The compound eyes are large but are more widely separated and relatively smaller than those of a dragonfly. Above the eyes is the frons or forehead, below this the clypeus, and on the upper lip the labrum, an extensible organ used in the capture of prey. The top of the head bears three simple eyes (ocelli), which may measure light intensity, and a tiny pair of antennae that serve no olfactory function but may measure air speed.[6] Many species are sexually dimorphic; the males are often brightly coloured and distinctive, while the females are plainer, cryptically coloured, and harder to identify to species. For example, in Coenagrion, the Eurasian bluets, the males are bright blue with black markings, while the females are usually predominantly green or brown with black.[7] A few dimorphic species show female-limited polymorphism, the females being in two forms, one form distinct and the other with the patterning as in males. The ones that look like males, andromorphs, are usually under a third of the female population but the proportion can rise significantly and a theory that explains this response suggests that it helps overcome harassment by males.[8] Some Coenagrionid damselflies show male-limited polymorphism, an even less understood phenomenon.[9]

In general, damselflies are smaller than dragonflies, the smallest being members of the genus Agriocnemis (wisps).[10] However, members of the Pseudostigmatidae (helicopter damselflies or forest giants) are exceptionally large for the group, with wingspans as much as 19 cm (7.5 in) in Megaloprepus[11] and body length up to 13 cm (5.1 in) in Pseudostigma aberrans.[12]

Terminal segments of the abdomen of a male damselfly (Pseudagrion caffrum) showing segments 8–10 (S8, S9, S10), the upper or superior appendages or cerci (c) and the inferior appendages or paraprocts (p)
Damselfly head
Damselfly head displaying compound eyes, ocelli, antennae, and mouth structures

The first thoracic segment is the prothorax, bearing the front pair of legs. The joint between head and prothorax is slender and flexible, which enables the damselfly to swivel its head and to manoeuvre more freely when flying. The remaining thoracic segments are the fused mesothorax and metathorax (together termed the synthorax), each with a pair of wings and a pair of legs. A dark stripe known as the humeral stripe runs from the base of the front wings to the second pair of legs, and just in front of this is the pale-coloured, antehumeral stripe.[6]

Male (left) and female of the banded demoiselle, Calopteryx splendens, showing their differently coloured wings

The forewings and hindwings are similar in appearance and are membranous, being strengthened and supported by longitudinal veins that are linked by many cross-veins and that are filled with haemolymph.[13] Species markers include quadrangular markings on the wings known as the pterostigma or stigma, and in almost all species, there is a nodus near the leading edge. The thorax houses the flight muscles.[6] Many damselflies (e.g. Lestidae, Platycnemidae, Coenagrionidae) have clear wings, but some (Calopterygidae, Euphaeidae) have coloured wings, whether uniformly suffused with colour or boldly marked with a coloured patch. In species such as the banded demoiselle, Calopteryx splendens the males have both a darker green body and large dark violet-blue patches on all four wings, which flicker conspicuously in their aerial courtship dances; the females have pale translucent greenish wings.[14]

The abdomen is long and slender and consists of ten segments. The secondary genitalia in males are on the undersides of segments two and three and are conspicuous, making it easy to tell the sex of the damselfly when viewed from the side. The female genital opening is on the underside between segments eight and nine. It may be covered by a subgenital plate, or extended into a complex ovipositor that helps them lay eggs within plant tissue. The tenth segment in both sexes bears cerci and in males, its underside bears a pair of paraprocts.[6]

Damselflies (except spreadwings, Lestidae) rest their wings together, above their bodies, whereas dragonflies rest with their wings spread diametrically apart; the spreadwings rest with their wings slightly apart. Damselflies have slenderer bodies than dragonflies, and their eyes do not overlap. Damselfly nymphs differ from dragonflies nymphs in that the epiproct and pair of paraprocts at the tip of their abdomen has been modified into caudal gills, in addition to being able to absorb oxygen through the wall of their rectum, whereas dragonflies breathe through internal rectal gills only.[15][16] Damselfly nymphs swim by fish-like undulations, the gills functioning like a tail. Dragonfly nymphs can forcibly expel water in their rectum for rapid escape.[17]

Distribution and diversity

Odonates are found on all the continents except Antarctica.[18] Although some species of dragonfly have wide distributions, damselflies tend to have smaller ranges. Most odonates breed in fresh-water; a few damselflies in the family Caenagrionidae breed in brackish water (and a single dragonfly species breeds in seawater).[19][20] Dragonflies are more affected by pollution than are damselflies. The presence of odonates indicates that an ecosystem is of good quality. The most species-rich environments have a range of suitable microhabitats, providing suitable water bodies for breeding.[21][22]

Although most damselflies live out their lives within a short distance of where they were hatched, some species, and some individuals within species, disperse more widely. Forktails in the family Coenagrionidae seem particularly prone to do this, large male boreal bluets (Enallagma boreale) in British Columbia often migrating, while smaller ones do not.[23] These are known to leave their waterside habitats, flying upwards till lost from view, and presumably being dispersed to far off places by the stronger winds found at high altitudes.[23] In this way they may appear in a locality where no damselflies were to be seen the day before. Rambur's forktail (Ischnura ramburii) has been found, for example, on oil rigs far out in the Gulf of Mexico.[6]

The distribution and diversity of damselfly species in the biogeographical regions is summarized here. (There are no damselflies in the Antarctic.) Note that some species are widespread and occur in multiple regions.[22]

Overall, there are about 2942 extant species of damselflies placed in 309 genera.[22]

Biology

Blue damselflies swarming over pond in Kew Gardens. Some pairs (blue male in front) are seen.
Damselfly eating a Crane fly

Adult damselflies catch and eat flies, mosquitoes, and other small insects. Often they hover among grasses and low vegetation, picking prey off stems and leaves with their spiny legs (unlike dragonflies which prefer catching flying prey).[23][24] Although predominantly using vision to locate their prey, adults may also make use of olfactory cues.[25] No species are known to hunt at night, but some are crepuscular, perhaps taking advantage of newly hatched flies and other aquatic insects at a time when larger dragonflies are roosting.[26] In tropical South America, helicopter damselflies (Pseudostigmatidae) feed on spiders, hovering near an orb web and plucking the spider, or its entangled prey, from the web.[27] There are few pools and lakes in these habitats, and these damselflies breed in temporary water bodies in holes in trees, the rosettes of bromeliads and even the hollow stems of bamboos.[28]

The nymphs of damselflies have been less researched than their dragonfly counterparts, and many have not even been identified. They choose their prey according to size and seem less able to overpower larger prey than can dragonfly nymphs. The major part of the diet of most species appears to be crustaceans such as water fleas.[26]

Ecology

Fine damselfly habitat: panorama of Thursley Common, looking over the acid bog pools

Damselflies exist in a range of habitats in and around the wetlands needed for their larval development; these include open spaces for finding mates, suitable perches, open aspect, roosting sites, suitable plant species for ovipositing and suitable water quality. Odonates have been used for bio-indication purposes regarding the quality of the ecosystem. Different species have different requirements for their larvae with regard to water depth, water movement and pH.[29] The European common blue damselfly (Enallagma cyathigerum) for example can occur at high densities in acid waters where fish are absent, such as in bog pools.[30] The scarce blue-tailed damselfly (Ischnura pumilio) in contrast requires base-rich habitats and water with a slow flow-rate. It is found in ditches, quarries, seeps, flushes, marshes and pools. It tolerates high levels of zinc and copper in the sediment but requires suitable emergent plants for egg-laying without the water being choked by plants.[29] Damselflies' dependence on freshwater habitats makes them very vulnerable to damage to wetlands through drainage for agriculture or urban growth.[31]

In the tropics, the helicopter damselfly Mecistogaster modesta (Pseudostigmatidae) breeds in phytotelmata, the small bodies of water trapped by bromeliads, epiphytic plants of the rainforest of northwest Costa Rica, at the high density of some 6000 larvae per hectare in patches of secondary forest.[32] Another tropical species, the cascade damselfly Thaumatoneura inopinata (Megapodagrionidae), inhabits waterfalls in Costa Rica and Panama.[33][34]

Damselflies, both nymphs and adults, are eaten by a range of predators including birds, fish, frogs, dragonflies, other damselflies, water spiders, water beetles, backswimmers and giant water bugs.[23]

Damselfly grooming

Damselflies have a variety of internal and external parasites. Particularly prevalent are the gregarine protozoans found in the gut. In a study of the European common blue damselfly, every adult insect was infected at the height of the flying season. When present in large numbers, these parasites can cause death by blocking the gut.[23] Bright red water mites Hydracarina are often seen on the outside of both nymphs and adults, and can move from one to the other at metamorphosis.[23] They suck the body fluids and may actually kill young nymphs, but adults are relatively unaffected, it being necessary for the completion of the mite's life cycle that it returns to water, a feat accomplished when the adult damselfly breeds.[35]

Behaviour

Female blue-fronted dancer

Many damselflies have elaborate courtship behaviours. These are designed to show off the male's distinctive characteristics, bright colouring or flying abilities, thus demonstrating his fitness. Calopteryx males will hover in front of a female with alternating fast and slow wingbeats; if she is receptive she will remain perched, otherwise she will fly off. The male river jewelwing (Calopteryx aequabilis) performs display flights in front of the female, fluttering his forewings while keeping his hindwings still, and raising his abdomen to reveal the white spots on his wings.[36] Platycypha males will hover in front of a female, thrusting their bright white legs forward in front of their heads. Flattened tibia and bright leg colouring are seen in Platycnemis phasmovolans and a few other Platycnemididae including the extinct Yijenplatycnemis huangi.[37] Rhinocypha will bob up and down, often low over fast-flowing forested and shaded streams, displaying their bright-coloured bodies and wings. Male members of the family Protoneuridae with vividly coloured wings display these to visiting females.[38] Swift forktail (Ischnura erratica) males display to each other with their blue-tipped abdomens raised.[39]

Euphaea fraseri males defend their territory, with open wings and prominently display the iridescent copper markings of the upper hind wing.

Other behaviours observed in damselflies include wing-warning, wing-clapping, flights of attrition and abdominal bobbing. Wing-warning is a rapid opening and closing of the wings and is aggressive, while wing-clapping involves a slower opening of the wings followed by a rapid closure, up to eight times in quick succession, and often follows flight; it may serve a thermo-regulatory function.[40] Flights of attrition are engaged in by the ebony jewelwing (Calopteryx maculata) and involve males bouncing around each other while flying laterally and continuing to do so, sometimes over a considerable distance, until one insect is presumably exhausted and gives up.[41]

At night, damselflies usually roost in dense vegetation, perching with the abdomen alongside a stem. If disturbed they will move around to the other side of the stem but will not fly off. Spreadwings fully fold their wings when roosting.[6] The desert shadowdamsel (Palaemnema domina) aggregates to roost in thick places near streams in the heat of the day. While there it engages in wing-clapping, the exact function of which is unknown.[42] Some species such as the rubyspot damselfly, Hetaerina americana, form night roosting aggregations, with a preponderance of males; this may have an anti-predator function or may be simply the outcome of choosing safe roosting sites.[43]

Reproduction

Damselflies holding each other
First stage: Ceriagrion cerinorubellum pair with male transferring sperm from the primary to the secondary sex organs
Mating damselflies in heart position
Second stage: "heart" or "wheel" position, the female receiving sperm from the male secondary sex organ

Mating in damselflies, as in dragonflies, is a complex, precisely choreographed process involving both indirect insemination and delayed fertilisation.[44][45] The male first has to attract a female to his territory, continually driving off rival males. When he is ready to mate, he transfers a packet of sperm from his primary genital opening on segment 9, near the end of his abdomen, to his secondary genitalia on segments 2–3, near the base of his abdomen. The male then grasps the female by the head with the claspers at the end of his abdomen; the structure of the claspers varies between species, and may help to prevent interspecific mating.[45][46] The pair fly in tandem with the male in front, typically perching on a twig or plant stem. The female then curls her abdomen downwards and forwards under her body to pick up the sperm from the male's secondary genitalia, while the male uses his "tail" claspers to grip the female behind the head: this distinctive posture is called the "heart" or "wheel";[44][47] the pair may also be described as being "in cop".[48] Males may transfer the sperm to their secondary genitalia either before a female is held, in the early stage when the female is held by the legs or after the female is held between the terminal claspers. This can lead to variations in the tandem postures.[49] The spermatophore may also have nutrition in addition to sperms as a "nuptial gift".[50] Some cases of sexual cannibalism exist where females (of Ischnura graellsii) eat males while in copula.[51]

Parthenogenesis (reproduction from unfertilised eggs) is exceptional, and has only been recorded in nature in female Ischnura hastata on the Azores Islands.[22][52]

Yellow-striped blue dart, Pseudagrion indicum, laying eggs; the male (above) continues to hold the female with his claspers.

Egg-laying (ovipositing) involves not only the female darting over floating or waterside vegetation to deposit eggs on a suitable substrate, but the male hovering above her, mate-guarding, or in some species continuing to clasp her and flying in tandem. The male attempts to prevent rivals from removing his sperm and inserting their own,[53] a form of sperm competition (the sperms of the last mated male have the greatest chance of fertilizing the eggs, also known as sperm precedence[54]) made possible by delayed fertilisation[44][47] and driven by sexual selection.[45][46] If successful, a rival male uses his penis to compress or scrape out the sperm inserted previously; this activity takes up much of the time that a copulating pair remain in the heart posture.[48] Flying in tandem has the advantage that less effort is needed by the female for flight and more can be expended on egg-laying, and when the female submerges to deposit eggs, the male may help to pull her out of the water.[53]

Willow emerald, Chalcolestes viridis, still in tandem, laying eggs into a series of slits in a twig

All damselflies lay their eggs inside plant tissues; those that lay eggs underwater may submerge themselves for 30 minutes at a time, climbing along the stems of aquatic plants and laying eggs at intervals.[55] For example, the red-eyed damselfly Erythromma najas lays eggs, in tandem, into leaves or stems of floating or sometimes emergent plants; in contrast, the scarce bluetail Ischnura pumilio oviposits alone, the female choosing mostly emergent grasses and rushes, and laying her eggs in their stems either above or just below the waterline.[56] The willow emerald Chalcolestes viridis (a spreadwing) is unusual in laying eggs only in woody plant tissue, choosing thin twigs of trees that hang over water, and scarring the bark in the process.[57] A possible exception is an apparent instance of ovo-viviparity, in which Heliocypha perforata was filmed in western China depositing young larvae (presumably hatched from eggs inside the female's body) onto a partly submerged branch of a tree.[58]

Many damselflies are able to produce more than one brood per year (voltinism); this is negatively correlated with latitude, becoming more common towards the equator, except in the Lestidae.[59]

Life cycle

Damselflies are hemimetabolous insects that have no pupal stage in their development.[60] The female inserts the eggs by means of her ovipositor into slits made in water plants or other underwater substrates and the larvae, known as naiads or nymphs, are almost all completely aquatic.[6] Exceptions include the Hawaiian Megalagrion oahuense and an unidentified Megapodagrionid from New Caledonia,[61] which are terrestrial in their early stages.[53] The spreadwings lay eggs above the waterline late in the year and the eggs overwinter, often covered by snow. In spring they hatch out in the meltwater pools and the nymphs complete their development before these temporary pools dry up.[23]

Blue-tailed damselfly (Ischnura elegans) nymph, showing the three tail appendages

The nymphs are voracious predators and feed by means of a flat labium (a toothed mouthpart on the lower jaw) that forms the so-called mask; it is rapidly extended to seize and pierce the Daphnia (water fleas), mosquito larvae, and other small aquatic organisms on which damselfly nymphs feed. They breathe by means of three large external, fin-like gills on the tip of the abdomen, and these may also serve for locomotion in the same manner as a fish's tail.[6] Compared to dragonfly larvae, the nymphs show little variation in form. They tend to be slender and elongate, many having morphological adaptations for holding their position in fast flowing water. They are more sensitive than dragonfly nymphs to oxygen levels and suspended fine particulate matter, and do not bury themselves in the mud.[26]

The nymphs proceed through about a dozen moults as they grow. In the later stages, the wing pads become visible. When fully developed, the nymphs climb out of the water and take up a firm stance, the skin on the thorax splits and the adult form wriggles out. This has a soft body at first and hangs or stands on its empty larval case. It pumps haemolymph into its small limp wings, which expand to their full extent. The haemolymph is then pumped back into the abdomen, which also expands fully. The exoskeleton hardens and the colours become more vivid over the course of the next few days. Most damselflies emerge in daytime, and in cool conditions the process takes several hours. On a hot day, the cuticle hardens rapidly and the adult can be flying away within half an hour.[6]

Conservation

Conservation of Odonata has usually concentrated on the more iconic suborder Anisoptera, the dragonflies. However, the two suborders largely have the same needs, and what is good for dragonflies is also good for damselflies. The main threats experienced by odonates are the clearance of forests, the pollution of waterways, the lowering of groundwater levels, the damming of rivers for hydroelectric schemes and the general degradation of wetlands and marshes.[62] The clearance of tropical rainforests is of importance because the rate of erosion increases, streams and pools dry up and waterways become clogged with silt. The presence of alien species can also have unintended consequences.[62] In Hawaii, the introduction of the mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) was effective in controlling mosquitoes but nearly exterminated the island's endemic damselflies.[63] The ancient greenling Hemiphlebia mirabilis has been an important flagship species for conservation action in preserving its habitat in Australia.[64]

In culture

Damselfly is a 2005 short film directed by Ben O'Connor.[65] Damselfly is also the title of a 2012 novel in the Faeble series by S. L. Naeole,[66] and of a 1994 poem by August Kleinzahler, which contains the lines "And that blue there, cobalt / a moment, then iridescent, / fragile as a lady's pin / hovering above the nasturtium?"[67] The poet John Engels published Damselfly, Trout, Heron in his 1983 collection Weather-Fear: New and Selected Poems.[68]

Fishing flies that mimic damselfly nymphs are sometimes used in wet-fly fishing, where the hook and line are allowed to sink below the surface.[69]

Damselflies have formed subjects for personal jewellery such as brooches since at least 1880.[70]

Damselfly is the title of a book by Chandra Prasad that was published in 2018.[71]

See also

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  55. ^ Lawlor, Elizabeth P. (1999). Discover Nature in Water & Wetlands: Things to Know and Things to Do. Stackpole Books. pp. 88, 94–96. ISBN 978-0-8117-2731-0.
  56. ^ Smallshire, Dave; Swash, Andy (2014). Britain's Dragonflies: A Field Guide to the Damselflies and Dragonflies of Britain and Ireland: A Field Guide to the Damselflies and Dragonflies of Britain and Ireland. Princeton University Press. pp. 94–96. ISBN 978-1-4008-5186-7.
  57. ^ Dijkstra 2006, p. 84.
  58. ^ Salindra, H. G.; Dayananda, K.; Kitching, Roger L. (2014). "Ovo-viviparity in the Odonata? The case of Heliocypha perforata (Zygoptera: Chlorocyphidae)". International Journal of Odonatology. 17 (4): 181–185. doi:10.1080/13887890.2014.959076. S2CID 83520585.
  59. ^ Corbet, Philip S.; Suhling, Frank; Soendgerath, Dagmar (2006). "Voltinism of Odonata: a review". International Journal of Odonatology. 9 (1): 1–44. doi:10.1080/13887890.2006.9748261. S2CID 55299239.
  60. ^ A Dictionary of Entomology. CABI. 2011. p. 679. ISBN 978-1-84593-542-9.
  61. ^ Willey, Ruth Lippitt (1955). "A terrestrial damselfly nymph (Medapodarionidae) from New Caledonia" (PDF). Psyche. 62 (4): 137–144. doi:10.1155/1955/39831.
  62. ^ a b Moore, N.W. (1997). "Dragonflies: status survey and conservation action plan" (PDF). International Union for Conservation of Nature. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  63. ^ Gagné, W.C. (1981). "Status of Hawaii endangered species: insects and land snails". ʻElepaio. 42: 31–36.
  64. ^ New, Timothy Richard. "The Hemiphlebia damselfly Hemiphlebia mirabilis Selys (Odonata, Zygoptera) as a flagship species for aquatic insect conservation in south-eastern Australia". The Victorian Naturalist. 124 (4): 269–272.
  65. ^ "Ben O'Connor". British Council. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  66. ^ Naeole, S. L. (2012). Damselfly. Crystal Quill.
  67. ^ Kleinzahler, August (August 1994). "The Damselfly". Poetry Magazine. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  68. ^ Engels, John (1983). Damselfly, Trout, Heron. Weather-Fear: New and Selected Poems. University of Georgia Press. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  69. ^ Wada, Wes (2012). "Fishing Tips for the Juicebug Damsel Nymph". Fly foundry. Archived from the original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  70. ^ "Antique "Damselfly" Brooch in Silver-topped Gold with Ruby Eyes". Macklowe Gallery. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  71. ^ "Damselfly". Marly Rusoff Literary Agency. Retrieved 21 December 2020.
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Damselfly: Brief Summary

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Damselflies are flying insects of the suborder Zygoptera in the order Odonata. They are similar to dragonflies, which constitute the other odonatan suborder, Anisoptera, but are smaller and have slimmer bodies. Most species fold the wings along the body when at rest, unlike dragonflies which hold the wings flat and away from the body. An ancient group, damselflies have existed since at least the Lower Permian beginning about 299 million years ago, and are found on every continent except Antarctica.

All damselflies are predatory insects; both nymphs and adults actively hunt and eat other insects. The nymphs are aquatic, with different species living in a variety of freshwater habitats including acidic bogs, ponds, lakes and rivers. The nymphs moult repeatedly, at the last moult climbing out of the water to undergo metamorphosis. The skin splits down the back, they emerge and inflate their wings and abdomen to gain their adult form. Their presence on a body of water indicates that it is relatively unpolluted, but their dependence on freshwater makes them vulnerable to damage to their wetland habitats.

Some species of damselfly have elaborate courtship behaviours. Many species are sexually dimorphic, the males often being more brightly coloured than the females. Like dragonflies, they reproduce using indirect insemination and delayed fertilisation. A mating pair form a shape known as a "heart" or "wheel", the male clasping the female at the back of the head, the female curling her abdomen down to pick up sperm from secondary genitalia at the base of the male's abdomen. The pair often remain together with the male still clasping the female while she lays eggs within the tissue of plants in or near water using a robust ovipositor.

Artificial fishing flies that mimic damselfly nymphs are used in wet-fly fishing. Damselflies are sometimes represented in personal jewellery such as brooches.

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Zigopteroj ( Esperanto )

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 src=
Masklo de komuna bluvosta libelo (Ischnura heterosticta)

Subordo de la Odonatoj konsistanta el sveltaj libeloj, tio estas insektoj artropodoj.

Familioj :

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Zygoptera ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Los zigópteros (Zygoptera) son un suborden del orden Odonata conocidos vulgarmente como caballitos del diablo o también, menos frecuentemente, como damiselas (del francés demoiselles, "señoritas"). Se diferencian de otros odonatos porque sus alas en descanso se alinean junto al abdomen y porque los ojos están considerablemente separados.

Descripción general

 src=
Ilustración del ala de un caballito del diablo. Tanto las alas delanteras como las traseras son similares

El plan corporal general de un caballito del diablo es similar al de una libélula. Los ojos compuestos son grandes pero están más separados y son relativamente más pequeños que los de una libélula. Por encima de los ojos está el frons o frente, por debajo de éste el clypeus, y en el labio superior el labrum, un órgano extensible utilizado en la captura de presas. La parte superior de la cabeza lleva tres ojos simples (ocelos), que pueden medir la intensidad de la luz, y un par diminuto de antenas que no cumplen ninguna función olfativa, pero que pueden medir la velocidad del aire.[1]​Muchas especies presentan dimorfismo sexual; los machos suelen ser de colores brillantes y distintivos, mientras que las hembras son más sencillas, de críptico, y más difíciles de identificar para las especies. Por ejemplo, en Coenagrion, los azules euroasiáticos, los machos son de color azul brillante con marcas negras, mientras que las hembras suelen ser predominantemente verdes o marrones con negro.[2]​ Unas pocas especies dimórficas muestran un polimorfismo limitado a las hembras, que presentan dos formas, una distinta y otra con el patrón de los machos. Las que se parecen a los machos, las andromorfas, suelen ser menos de un tercio de la población de hembras, pero la proporción puede aumentar considerablemente y una teoría que explica esta respuesta sugiere que ayuda a superar el acoso de los machos. [3]​ Algunos caballitos del diablo coenagriónidos muestran un polimorfismo limitado a los machos, un fenómeno aún menos comprendido. [4]

En general, los caballitos del diablo son más pequeños que las libélulas, siendo los más pequeños los miembros del género Agriocnemis .[5]​ Sin embargo, los miembros de la Pseudostigmatidae (caballitos del diablo helicóptero o gigantes del bosque) son excepcionalmente grandes para el grupo, con una envergadura de hasta 19 cm en Megaloprepus'[6]​ y una longitud corporal de hasta 13 cm en Pseudostigma aberrans. [7]

 src=
Segmentos terminales del abdomen de un caballito del diablo (Pseudagrion caffrum) mostrando los segmentos 8-10 (S8, S9, S10), los apéndices superiores o cerci (c) y los apéndices inferiores o paraproctos (p)
Cabeza de damisela
Cabeza de damisela mostrando ojos compuestos, ocelli, antennae, y estructuras bucales

El primer segmento del torácico es el protórax, que contiene el par de patas delanteras. La articulación entre la cabeza y el protórax es delgada y flexible, lo que permite al caballito del diablo girar la cabeza y maniobrar más libremente al volar. Los demás segmentos torácicos son el mesotórax y el metatórax fusionados (denominados conjuntamente sintórax), cada uno con un par de alas y un par de patas. Una franja oscura conocida como franja humeral va desde la base de las alas delanteras hasta el segundo par de patas, y justo delante de ésta se encuentra la franja antehumeral, de color pálido.[1]

 src=
Macho (izquierda) y hembra de la demoiselle anillada, Calopteryx splendens, mostrando su alas de distinto color

Las alas delanteras y las traseras tienen un aspecto similar y son membranosas, estando reforzadas y sostenidas por venas longitudinales que están unidas por muchas venas transversales y que están llenas de hemolinfa.[8]​ Los marcadores de las especies incluyen marcas cuadrangulares en las alas conocidas como pterostigma o estigma, y en casi todas las especies, hay un nodus cerca del borde anterior. El tórax alberga los músculos de vuelo.[1]​ Muchos caballitos del diablo (por ejemplo, Lestidae, Platycnemidae, Coenagrionidae) tienen alas claras, pero algunos (Calopterygidae, Euphaeidae) tienen alas coloreadas, ya sea uniformemente impregnadas de color o marcadas audazmente con una mancha de color. En especies como la demoiselle anillada, Calopteryx splendens los machos tienen tanto un cuerpo verde más oscuro como grandes manchas azul violáceo oscuro en las cuatro alas, que parpadean llamativamente en sus bailes de cortejo aéreos; las hembras tienen alas verdosas pálidas y translúcidas.[2]

El abdomen es largo y delgado y consta de diez segmentos. Los genitales secundarios de los machos se encuentran en la parte inferior de los segmentos dos y tres y son visibles, por lo que es fácil distinguir el sexo de la caballito del diablo cuando se mira de lado. La abertura genital de la hembra se encuentra en la parte inferior, entre los segmentos ocho y nueve. Puede estar cubierta por una placa subgenital, o extendida en un complejo ovipositor que les ayuda a poner los huevos dentro del tejido vegetal. El décimo segmento en ambos sexos lleva cerci y en los machos, su parte inferior lleva un par de paraproctos.[1]

Los caballitos del diablo (excepto las alas extendidas, Lestidae) descansan sus alas juntas, por encima de su cuerpo, mientras que las libélulas descansan con las alas extendidas diametralmente separadas; las alas extendidas descansan con las alas ligeramente separadas. Los caballitos del diablo tienen el cuerpo más delgado que las libélulas y sus ojos no se superponen. Las ninfas de los caballitos del diablo se diferencian de las ninfas de las libélulas en que poseen branquias caudales (en el abdomen), mientras que las libélulas respiran por el recto. Las ninfas de damiselas nadan mediante ondulaciones similares a las de los peces, y las branquias funcionan como una cola. Las ninfas de libélula pueden expulsar agua por el recto para escapar rápidamente.[9]

Biología

Los caballitos del diablo, como el resto de odonatos, son hemimetábolos (metamorfosis incompleta) y su estadio ninfal es acuático. La hembra pone huevos en el agua, a veces en la vegetación sumergida, o en lo alto en árboles, en cavidades que reciben agua de lluvia. Las ninfas son carnívoras, comiendo larvas de mosquitos, Daphnia, y otros organismos acuáticos.

Las branquias de las ninfas son grandes y externas, al final del abdomen. Después de un tiempo importante en la metamorfosis,el principal objetivo del adulto emerge y come moscas, mosquitos, y otros insectos pequeños[cita requerida]. Algunas especies tropicales grandes se alimentan de arañas.

Ecología

 src=
Hábitat del caballito del diablo: panorama de Thursley Common, vista hacia las pozas de barro ácido.

Los caballitos del diablo existen en una serie de hábitats dentro y alrededor de los humedales necesarios para su desarrollo larvario; estos incluyen espacios abiertos para encontrar pareja, perchas adecuadas, aspecto abierto, lugares de descanso, especies de plantas adecuadas para la oviposición y una calidad de agua adecuada, y los odontatos se han utilizado con fines de bioindicación respecto a la calidad del ecosistema. Las distintas especies tienen diferentes requisitos para sus larvas en lo que respecta a la profundidad del agua, el movimiento del agua y el pH.[10]​ La mosca azul común europea (Enallagma cyathigerum), por ejemplo, puede aparecer en altas densidades en aguas ácidas donde no hay peces, como en las charcas de las ciénagas.[2]​ La pequeña damisela de cola azul (Ischnura pumilio), por el contrario, requiere hábitats ricos en bases y agua con un flujo lento. Se encuentra en zanjas, canteras, rezumaderos, ciénagas, pantanos y charcas. Tolera altos niveles de zinc y cobre en el sedimento, pero requiere plantas emergentes adecuadas para la puesta de huevos sin que el agua esté ahogada por las plantas.[10]​La dependencia de los caballitos del diablo de los hábitats de agua dulce los hace muy vulnerables a los daños en los humedales por el drenaje para la agricultura o el crecimiento urbano.[11]

En los trópicos, el caballito del diablo helicóptero Mecistogaster modesta (Pseudostigmatidae) se reproduce en fitotelmata, las pequeñas masas de agua atrapadas por las bromelias, plantas epífitas del bosque húmedo del noroeste de Costa Rica, con una alta densidad de unas 6000 larvas por hectárea en parches de bosque secundario. [12]​ Otra especie tropical, el caballito del diablo Thaumatoneura inopinata (Megapodagrionidae), habita en cascadas de Costa Rica y Panamá.[13][14]

Los caballitos del diablo, tanto las ninfas como los adultos, son devorados por una serie de depredadores, entre los que se encuentran aves, peces, ranas, libélulas, otros caballitos del diablo, arañas de agua, escarabajos acuáticos, nadadores de espalda y chinches de agua gigantes. [15]

Damselfly grooming

Los caballitos del diablo tienen una variedad de parásitos internos y externos. Son especialmente frecuentes los protozoos gregarina que se encuentran en el intestino. En un estudio sobre el caballito del diablo común europeo, todos los insectos adultos estaban infectados en plena temporada de vuelo. Cuando están presentes en gran número, estos parásitos pueden causar la muerte al bloquear el intestino.[15]​Los ácaros acuáticos de color rojo brillante Hydracarina se ven a menudo en el exterior tanto de las ninfas como de los adultos, y pueden pasar de uno a otro en la metamorfosis. [15]​Succionan los fluidos corporales y pueden llegar a matar a las ninfas jóvenes, pero los adultos no se ven relativamente afectados, ya que es necesario para completar el ciclo vital del ácaro que éste vuelva al agua, una hazaña que se consigue cuando el caballito del diablo adulto se reproduce.[16]

Véase también

Referencias

  1. a b c d Paulson, Dennis (2011). com/books?id=dTpjGOiHwNkC Dragonflies and Damselflies of the East. Princeton University Press. pp. 10-32. ISBN 978-1-4008-3966-7.
  2. a b c Dijkstra, 2006.
  3. Gossum, Hans Van; Sherratt, Thomas N. (2008). «Un modelo dinámico de acoso sexual en los caballitos del diablo y sus implicaciones para el polimorfismo limitado a las hembras». Ecological Modelling 210 (1-2): 212-220.
  4. Gossum, Hans Van; Sherratt, Tom N.; Cordero-Rivera, Adolfo (2008). «The evolution of sex-limited colour polymorphism». En Córdoba-Aguilar, Alex, ed. Dragonflies and Damselflies. Model organisms for ecological and evolutionary research. Oxford University Press. pp. 219-229. ISBN 9780199230693.
  5. Kipping, Jens; Martens, Andreas; Suhling, Frank (2012). «El caballito del diablo más pequeño de África - un nuevo Agriocnemis de Namibia». Organisms Diversity & Evolution 12 (3): 301-306.
  6. Groenevelda, Linn F.; Viola Clausnitzerb; Heike Hadrysa (2007). «¿Evolución convergente del gigantismo en los caballitos del diablo de África y Sudamérica? Evidence from Nuclear and Mitochondrial Sequence Data». Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 42 (2): 339-46. PMID 16945555.
  7. Hedström, Ingemar; Göran Sahlén (2001). «A key to the adult Costa Rican "helicopter" damselflies (Odonata: Pseudostigmatidae) with notes on their phenology and life zone preferences». Rev. Biol. Trop 49 (3-4): 1037-1056. PMID 12189786.
  8. Silsby, Jill (2001). google.com/books?id=ddzwJiuRP48C&pg=PA9 Dragonflies of the World. Csiro Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-643-10249-1.
  9. Borror, Donald J.; Triplehorn, Charles A.; Triplehorn, Norman F. Estudio de los insectos (6 edición). Filadelfia: Saunders College Publishing. pp. 187-201.
  10. a b Allen, Katherine (2009). La ecología y la conservación de los caballitos del diablo amenazados. The Environment Agency. pp. 1-6. ISBN 978-1-84911-093-8.
  11. Corbet, P. S. (1980). «Biología de los Odonatos». Annual Review of Entomology 25: 189-217. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.25.010180.001201.
  12. Srivastava, Diane S.; Melnychuk, Michael C.; Ngai, Jacqueline T. (2005). «Variación del paisaje en la densidad larvaria de un zigóptero que habita en las bromelias, Mecistogaster modesta (Odonata: Pseudostigmatidae)». International Journal of Odonatology 8 (1): 67-79. S2CID 53603745. doi:10.1080/13887890.2005.9748244.
  13. Calvert, Philip P. (1914). org/stream/entomologicalnew25acad#page/n421/mode/2up «Estudios sobre Odonata de Costa Rica. V. Los habitantes de las cascadas: Thaumatoneura imagos y posible dimorfismo masculino». Entomological News and Proceedings of the Entomological Section 25 (8): 337-348.
  14. Plantilla:Cite iucn
  15. a b c Acorn, John (2004). Damselflies of Alberta: Volando palillos de neón en la hierba. Universidad de Alberta. pp. 9-15. ISBN 978-0-88864-419-0. (requiere registro).
  16. Proctor, Heather (2004). Aquatic Mites from Genes to Communities: From Genes to Communities. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79-84. ISBN 978-1-4020-2703-1.

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Zygoptera: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Los zigópteros (Zygoptera) son un suborden del orden Odonata conocidos vulgarmente como caballitos del diablo o también, menos frecuentemente, como damiselas (del francés demoiselles, "señoritas"). Se diferencian de otros odonatos porque sus alas en descanso se alinean junto al abdomen y porque los ojos están considerablemente separados.

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Taolistiivalised ( Estonian )

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Taolistiivalised (Zygoptera) on kiililiste seltsi alamselts.

Teine kiililiste alamselts on eristiivalised. Taolistiivalised on tavaliselt veidi väiksemad kui eristiivalised ning nende tiivad asetsevad puhkeolekus koos keha tagaosa lähedal, kui eristiivalised hoiavad tiibu külgedel kehaga risti.

Välislingid

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Taolistiivalised: Brief Summary ( Estonian )

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 src= Harilik vesineitsik

Taolistiivalised (Zygoptera) on kiililiste seltsi alamselts.

Teine kiililiste alamselts on eristiivalised. Taolistiivalised on tavaliselt veidi väiksemad kui eristiivalised ning nende tiivad asetsevad puhkeolekus koos keha tagaosa lähedal, kui eristiivalised hoiavad tiibu külgedel kehaga risti.

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Sorgin-orratz ( Basque )

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Sorgin-orratzak Odonata ordenako eta Zygoptera azpiordenako intsektuak dira. Burruntzien antzekoak dira, baina, pausaturik daudenean, sorgin-orratz helduek atzerantz oblikuoki bertikalean biltzen dituzte hegoak. Burruntziek, berriz, ez dituzte biltzen eta parakera horizontalean jartzen dituzte. Horrez gainera, zigopteroek gorputz argalago eta delikatuagoa daukate, eta geldiroago egiten dute hegan.[1]

Biologia

Sorgin-orratzak mota askotako ur gezako habitatetan bizi eta ugaltzen diren intsektu haragijaleak dira. Arrautzak uretan erruten dituzte eta heldugabeak (naiade deitutakoak) urtar harrapariak dira. Naiadeek abdomenaren atzealdean kokatutako trakeobrankien bitartez hartzen dute arnasa. Zenbait hilabete edo urteren buruan, metamorfosia gertatzen da. Ondoren, hainbat egun edo astez uretatik urrun hegan ibili ostean, ur-masa batera hurbilduko dira ugaltzera. Bai ninfak, bai helduak, harrapariak dira. Helduek intsektu hegalariak jaten dituzte, batez ere, eta baita kakalardoak eta beldarrak ere. Larbek uretako ornogabeez eta ornodun txikiez (arrainkume eta zapaburuez) elikatzen dira.[1][2]

Sailkapena

 src=
Erythromma najas naiade honek argi erakusten ditu sorgin-orratzen berezitasun larbarioak: gorputz luzeska eta delikatua, buruko antenak eta abdomenaren atzealdeko trakeobrankiak.[2]

ITISen (Integrated Taxonomic Information System) arabera zigopteroak 12 familiatan banaturik daude:[3]:

Erreferentziak

  1. a b Altonaga, Kepa Lehen animalia hegalariak: Txitxiburduntzi eta sorginorratzak (I) Elhuyar aldizkaria, 75. zenbakia, 1993ko irailak 1, CC-BY-SA-3.0, aldizkaria.elhuyar.eus . Noiz kontsultatua: 2019-09-23.
  2. a b Altonaga, Kepa Lehen animalia hegalariak (II): Ur gezetako gargantua txiki horiek Elhuyar aldizkaria, 76. zenbakia, 1993ko urriak 1, CC-BY-SA-3.0, aldizkaria.elhuyar.eus . Noiz kontsultatua: 2019-09-27.
  3. Zygoptera, itis.gov

Ikus, gainera

(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
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Sorgin-orratz: Brief Summary ( Basque )

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Sorgin-orratzak Odonata ordenako eta Zygoptera azpiordenako intsektuak dira. Burruntzien antzekoak dira, baina, pausaturik daudenean, sorgin-orratz helduek atzerantz oblikuoki bertikalean biltzen dituzte hegoak. Burruntziek, berriz, ez dituzte biltzen eta parakera horizontalean jartzen dituzte. Horrez gainera, zigopteroek gorputz argalago eta delikatuagoa daukate, eta geldiroago egiten dute hegan.

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Hentosudenkorennot ( Finnish )

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Hentosudenkorennot (Zygoptera), aikaisemmalta nimeltään yhtäläissiipiset, on toinen Euroopassa esiintyvä sudenkorentojen alalahko.

Hentosudenkorennot ovat keskikokoisia hyönteisiä, jotka kuuluvat sudenkorentoihin. Ne erotetaan aitosudenkorennoista seuraavasti:

  • siivet ovat useimmiten levossa taitettuina toisiaan vasten tai nostettuna pystyasentoon takaruumiin päälle
  • ruumis on hento
  • silmät ovat pienet
  • taka- ja etusiipien tyvet ovat samanlaiset

Tyypillinen hentosudenkorento on "pieni ja sininen" tytönkorento tai "iso ja sininen" neidonkorento.

Hentosudenkorentoihin kuluu maailmassa noin 2 700 lajia.

Suomessa esiintyvät hentosudenkorennot

Neidonkorennot (Calopterygidae)

Keijukorennot (Lestidae)

Tytönkorennot (Coenagrionidae)

Sulkakoipikorennot (Platycnemididae)

Aiheesta muualla

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Hentosudenkorennot: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Hentosudenkorennot (Zygoptera), aikaisemmalta nimeltään yhtäläissiipiset, on toinen Euroopassa esiintyvä sudenkorentojen alalahko.

Hentosudenkorennot ovat keskikokoisia hyönteisiä, jotka kuuluvat sudenkorentoihin. Ne erotetaan aitosudenkorennoista seuraavasti:

siivet ovat useimmiten levossa taitettuina toisiaan vasten tai nostettuna pystyasentoon takaruumiin päälle ruumis on hento silmät ovat pienet taka- ja etusiipien tyvet ovat samanlaiset

Tyypillinen hentosudenkorento on "pieni ja sininen" tytönkorento tai "iso ja sininen" neidonkorento.

Hentosudenkorentoihin kuluu maailmassa noin 2 700 lajia.

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Zygoptera ( French )

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Les zygoptères (Zygoptera) forment un sous-ordre d'insectes appelés en français demoiselles (dont les agrions, les caloptéryx, les ischnures, etc.). On les distingue des libellules au sens strict, surtout par leur corps plus grêle et leurs ailes généralement repliées au repos. Ils appartiennent à la sous-classe des ptérygotes (Pterygota), infra-classe des paléoptères (Palaeoptera), ordre des odonates (Odonata)[1].

Les demoiselles sont des insectes prédateurs qui se nourrissent de petits insectes (mouches, éphémères, trichoptères, cicadelles, etc.). On les retrouve à proximité de plusieurs types de milieux aquatiques. Les larves (naïades) de ces insectes sont aquatiques et également prédatrices.

Dans le monde, on retrouve près de 5 900 espèces différentes d'odonates dont près de 2 900 appartiennent au sous-ordre des zygoptères.

Caractéristiques

 src=
Accouplement d’agrions (Ischnura elegans) La femelle, maintenue près de sa tête par l’extrémité de l'abdomen du mâle situé au-dessus d’elle, recourbe son abdomen en direction des organes sexuels du mâle.

Les diverses espèces de ce sous-ordre sont caractérisées par :

  • un corps plus grêle que celui des Anisoptera ;
  • des ailes pétiolées (excluant les Calopterygidae) à peu près égales et repliées au repos (sauf chez les Lestidae qui les gardent semi-étalées) ;
  • des yeux non contigus ;
  • un vol plus lent que celui des libellules (au sens strict) ;
  • des larves élancées, grêles, surtout nageuses, à branchies terminales lamelleuses.

Cycle de vie

Les demoiselles sont des insectes qui se reproduisent dans des habitats généralement aquatiques ou semi-aquatiques.

Œuf

La femelle pond ses œufs dans l'eau, parfois dans la végétation aquatique submergée ou à l'intérieur des tiges de certaines plantes (comme chez les Lestidae). Certaines espèces tropicales pondent dans le haut des arbres, à l'intérieur des broméliacées et d'autres cavités naturelles remplies d'eau.

Larve

Chez les zygoptères et les anisoptères, la larve se nomme naïade. On retrouve également cette appellation chez les éphémères et les plécoptères. Ce stade est adapté à la vie aquatique et ne ressemble aucunement à l'adulte. Les naïades de zygoptère sont caractérisées par la présence de trois lamelles caudales (branchies) à l'extrémité de l'abdomen. De plus, la forme de leur corps est beaucoup plus élancée et grêle que chez les naïades de libellule.

Les naïades sont carnivores et elles attaquent une grande variété d'organismes. La composition de leur régime reflète l'importance des divers groupes de proies dans leur écosystème. Certaines études démontrent que les diptères de la famille des Chironomidae constituent leurs principales proies[2],[3].

La durée du développement larvaire varie beaucoup. Chez les petites espèces, cette période peut s'étendre de deux mois à près de trois ans. Chez les plus grandes, le développement peut aller jusqu'à cinq ans[4].

zygoptère émergent
Zygoptère fraîchement émergé de son exuvie.

À la fin de son développement larvaire, la naïade quitte son milieu aquatique à la recherche d'un support ou d'une surface pour entreprendre sa mue imaginale. Certaines espèces s'éloignent peu du rivage alors que d'autres parcourent plusieurs mètres et vont grimper assez haut sur les tiges ou troncs des végétaux[5]. La mue de la naïade est appelée exuvie.

Adulte

Après son émergence, le zygoptère ténéral a une coloration plus terne et il a besoin de quelques semaines de maturation pour entreprendre sa période de reproduction. On retrouve les individus sexuellement matures à proximité des milieux aquatiques potentiels à la ponte. C'est d'ailleurs à cet endroit, qu'il est plus facile de les observer.

Ennemis naturels

Les demoiselles font partie de l'alimentation de plusieurs espèces animales qui partagent leurs habitats. Les larves, étant aquatiques, entrent dans la chaîne alimentaire de plusieurs espèces comme des poissons, d'autres insectes et arthropodes aquatiques, des amphibiens, des reptiles et de certains oiseaux. Adrien Robert, un entomologiste canadien, a observé la prédation des jeunes larves d'odonates par les mulettes d'eau douce. Celles-ci les attirent dans leurs cavités palléales par succion[6]. Les larves peuvent aussi être parasitées par des protozoaires et certains trématodes.

prédateur zygoptère
La prédation sur les zygoptères.

Les adultes sont également des proies pour plusieurs espèces d'animaux : les oiseaux, les insectes prédateurs, les araignées, les amphibiens et les reptiles. Certaines espèces de demoiselles chassent leurs semblables de plus petit gabarit. Les libellules sont également des consommatrices de zygoptères. Elles sont aussi sujettes au parasitisme, par des mouches, ou encore par des hydroacariens[5].

Comportements reliés à la reproduction

 src=
Les demoiselles plongent habituellement uniquement la pointe de leur abdomen (ovipositeur) sous l'eau pour pondre. Mais Enallagma cyathigerum s'immerge parfois totalement sous l'eau, ici à Pont-Aven en août 2016 ; deux femelles au moins sont en train de pondre (à plus de 20 cm de profondeur pour l'une, en restant plusieurs minutes sous l'eau).

Lors de la période de reproduction, les mâles se retrouvent en grande quantité dans les lieux propices à la ponte. Ils sont nombreux et peu auront la chance de s'accoupler avec une femelle. La compétition spermatique pousse les mâles à élaborer des stratégies pour avoir la chance de transmettre leurs gènes. Dans cette optique, chez les zygoptères, on observe une gamme de comportements : la poursuite, le gardiennage, la reconnaissance des cerques, etc.

Poursuite

La poursuite est un comportement territorial qu'ont certains mâles de demoiselles (exemple : le genre Argia et la famille des Calopterygidae). Les mâles chassent férocement les autres mâles qui passent à proximité du territoire de ceux-ci. Ils s'attaquent même à d'autres espèces de zygoptères, de libellules et d'autres insectes. En gardant farouchement l'accès d'une zone de ponte, ils augmentent les chances de rencontrer une femelle prête à s'accoupler[7].

Gardiennage

Deux types de gardiennage sont observables chez les zygoptères[7] :

Gardiennage avec contact

Chez certaines espèces de zygoptères, après l'accouplement, le mâle reste accroché à la femelle par l'emboîtement de ses cerques avec les plaques mesostigmatiques de celle-ci. Il l'accompagnera jusqu'à la fin de la ponte. Lors de la position de garde, le corps est pratiquement à la verticale, les pattes repliées sur le thorax. Cette stratégie de gardiennage permet de s'assurer que la femelle ne s'accouplera pas avec un autre mâle.

Gardiennage sans contact

Chez d'autres, le mâle relâche son étreinte et volera à proximité de celle-ci jusqu'à ce qu'elle finisse de pondre. Il restera à ses côtés, en vol ou perché, gardant un œil sur elle.

Reconnaissance des cerques

Chez le genre Enallagma, la femelle est capable de faire la distinction de la forme des cerques du mâle. Des études ont démontré que la femelle discriminait les mâles de son espèce avec des cerques altérés. La morphologie de ces appendices semble cruciale dans la reconnaissance spécifique. Lors de l'accouplement, les cerques du mâle s'emboîtent parfaitement dans les plaques mesostigmatiques de la femelle de sa propre espèce[8],[9],[10].

Immersion de l'adulte pour la ponte (chez quelques espèces)

Chez quelques espèces, la femelle peut totalement s'immerger et descendre à plusieurs centimètres ou dizaines de centimètres sous l'eau, le long de plantes pour pondre sur ces dernières, c'est le cas chez certaines espèces du genre Calopteryx (ex : Calopteryx virgo) ou certaines demoiselles (ex : Enallagma cyathigerum).

Classification

Il existe quatre super-familles chez les zygoptères :

Galerie photographique

Références

  1. K.-D. B. Dijkstra, illustrations : R. Lewington, Guide des libellules de France et d'Europe, Delachaux et Niestlé, Paris 2007 (ISBN 978-2-603-01639-8). Réimpression 2011, 320 p.
  2. F. M. Chutter, « Certain aspects of the morphology and ecology of the nymphs of several species of Pseudagrion Sélys (Odonata) », Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie, no 57, 1961, pp. 430-463.
  3. F. H. Collins & R. F. Washino, « Insect predation », Bulletin of American Mosquito Control Association, no 198, 1985, pp. 25-41.
  4. Gilbert Waldbauer, A Walk Around the Pond: Insects in and Over the Water, Harvard University Press, 2006, p. 105 (ISBN 9780674022119).
  5. a et b J.-P. Pilon et D. Lagacé, Les Odonates du Québec, Entomofaune du Québec, Québec, 1998, 367 pages.
  6. A. Robert, Les libellules du Québec, Service de la Faune, Bulletin 1. Ministère du Tourisme, de la Chasse et de la Pêche, Province du Québec, 1963, 223 p.
  7. a et b (en) Bob Dubois, damselfies of the North Woods, Duluth, MN, Kollath-Stensaas Publishing, 2005, 132 p. p. (ISBN 0-9673793-7-7).
  8. O. M. Fincke, A. Fargevieille & T. D. Schultz, « Lack of innate preference for morph and species identity in mate-searching Enallagma damselflies », Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, no 61, 2007, pp. 1121-1131.
  9. D. R. Paulson, « Reproductive isolation in damselflies », Systematic Zoology, no 23, 1974, pp. 40-49.
  10. H. M. Robertson & H. E. H. Paterson, « Mate recognition and mechanical isolation in Enallagma damselflies (Odonata: Coenagrionidae) », Evolution, no 36, 1982, pp. 243-250.

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Zygoptera: Brief Summary ( French )

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Les zygoptères (Zygoptera) forment un sous-ordre d'insectes appelés en français demoiselles (dont les agrions, les caloptéryx, les ischnures, etc.). On les distingue des libellules au sens strict, surtout par leur corps plus grêle et leurs ailes généralement repliées au repos. Ils appartiennent à la sous-classe des ptérygotes (Pterygota), infra-classe des paléoptères (Palaeoptera), ordre des odonates (Odonata).

Les demoiselles sont des insectes prédateurs qui se nourrissent de petits insectes (mouches, éphémères, trichoptères, cicadelles, etc.). On les retrouve à proximité de plusieurs types de milieux aquatiques. Les larves (naïades) de ces insectes sont aquatiques et également prédatrices.

Dans le monde, on retrouve près de 5 900 espèces différentes d'odonates dont près de 2 900 appartiennent au sous-ordre des zygoptères.

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Béchuil ( Irish )

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Cuil mhór fadcholainne le dhá phéire sciathán caol, coinnithe le chéile de ghnáth is í ar fos. Creachadóir cumasach, mar larbha uisciúil is cuil fhásta eitilte.

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Tá an t-alt seo bunaithe ar ábhar as Fréamh an Eolais, ciclipéid eolaíochta agus teicneolaíochta leis an Ollamh Matthew Hussey, foilsithe ag Coiscéim sa bhliain 2011. Tá comhluadar na Vicipéide go mór faoi chomaoin acu beirt as ucht cead a thabhairt an t-ábhar ón leabhar a roinnt linn go léir.


Ainmhí
Is síol ainmhí é an t-alt seo. Cuir leis, chun cuidiú leis an Vicipéid.
Má tá alt níos forbartha le fáil i dteanga eile, is féidir leat aistriúchán Gaeilge a dhéanamh.


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Béchuil: Brief Summary ( Irish )

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Ainmhí Is síol ainmhí é an t-alt seo. Cuir leis, chun cuidiú leis an Vicipéid.
Má tá alt níos forbartha le fáil i dteanga eile, is féidir leat aistriúchán Gaeilge a dhéanamh.


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Zigópteros ( Galician )

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Os zigópteros ou cigópteros (Zygoptera) son unha suborde da orde Odonata, que comprende os cabalos do demo[1]. Diferéncianse doutros odonatos porque as súas ás en descanso alíñanse xunto ao abdome e porque os ollos están considerablemente separados.

Características

Os zigópteros, como o resto de odonatos, son hemimetábolos (metamorfose incompleta) e o seu estadio ninfal é acuático. A femia pon ovos na auga, ás veces na vexetación mergullada, ou no alto en árbores, en cavidades que reciben auga de choiva. As ninfas son carnívoras, comendo larvas de mosquitos, Daphnia, e outros organismos acuáticos.

As branquias das ninfas son grandes e externas, ao final do abdome. Despois dun tempo importante na metamorfose, o adulto emerxe e come moscas, mosquitos, e outros insectos pequenos. Algunhas especies tropicais grandes aliméntanse de arañas.

Véxase tamén


  1. Definicións no Dicionario da Real Academia Galega e no Portal das Palabras para cabalo. (ver frases e expresións con cabalo)

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Zigópteros: Brief Summary ( Galician )

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Os zigópteros ou cigópteros (Zygoptera) son unha suborde da orde Odonata, que comprende os cabalos do demo. Diferéncianse doutros odonatos porque as súas ás en descanso alíñanse xunto ao abdome e porque os ollos están considerablemente separados.

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Capung jarum ( Indonesian )

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Capung jarum adalah serangga yang termasuk ke dalam ordo Odonata, subordo Zygoptera.[1] Jenis-jenis capung biasanya dibagi ke dalam dua kelompok besar, yaitu capung atau sibar-sibar dan capung jarum.[2] Capung jarum memiliki ciri-ciri unik yang membuatnya mudah dibedakan dari jenis capung lainnya, yaitu bentuk tubuh yang ramping seperti jarum dan posisi sayap tegak ke atas saat istirahat.[1][2] Capung jarum sering ditemukan di sekitar kolam, rawa, hutan, dan sawah.[2]

Ciri-ciri umum

Capung jarum memiliki bentuk tubuh yang panjang dan kurus ramping seperti jarum.[1] Sayap capung jarum selalu dalam posisi tegak menyatu di atas punggungnya saat beristirahat atau hinggap pada ranting tanaman.[1][2]

Siklus hidup capung jarum bermula dari telur.[2] Umumnya setelah 2 hari, telur akan menetas dan larva keluar meninggalakn cangkangnya.[2] Kemudian larva akan bertumbuh menjadi nimfa dan pada akhirnya menjadi capung jarum dewasa.[2] Capung jarum dewasa memiliki warna tubuh hijau kekuningan dan hitam.[1]

Habitat

Habitat capung jarum tersebar luas mulai dari sepanjang aliran air, kolam, rawa, hutan, sawah, hingga pekarangan rumah.[1][2] Capung jarum dapat ditemukan di pantai ataupun daerah dengan ketinggian 3.000 meter di atas permukaan laut.[2]

Referensi

  1. ^ a b c d e f Lilies S., Christina . 1991 . Kunci Determinasi Serangga . Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius . ISBN 979-413-703-0
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Amri, Khairul; Sihombing, Toguan . 2008 . Mengenal & Mengendalikan Predator Benih Ikan . Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka . ISBN 978-979-22-3650-7
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Capung jarum: Brief Summary ( Indonesian )

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Capung jarum adalah serangga yang termasuk ke dalam ordo Odonata, subordo Zygoptera. Jenis-jenis capung biasanya dibagi ke dalam dua kelompok besar, yaitu capung atau sibar-sibar dan capung jarum. Capung jarum memiliki ciri-ciri unik yang membuatnya mudah dibedakan dari jenis capung lainnya, yaitu bentuk tubuh yang ramping seperti jarum dan posisi sayap tegak ke atas saat istirahat. Capung jarum sering ditemukan di sekitar kolam, rawa, hutan, dan sawah.

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Meyjarflugur ( Icelandic )

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Meyjarflugur (einnig nefndar glermeyjar eða dömlur) (fræðiheiti: Zygoptera) eru annar af undirættbálkum vogvængja, hinn eru drekaflugur (Anisoptera). Meyjarflugur gangast undir ófullkomna myndbreytingu.

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Zygoptera ( Italian )

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Gli Zigopteri (Zygoptera de Sélys Longchamps, 1854), conosciuti anche come damigelle, sono un sottordine di insetti dell'ordine Odonata.[1]

Descrizione

Hanno corpo allungato e sottile, occhi grandi e antenne molto corte, simili a setole, con ali anteriori e posteriori simili, che durante la fase di riposo sono adagiate sul dorso.

Si distinguono dagli Anisoptera perché questi ultimi hanno ali anteriori più larghe e sviluppate rispetto a quelle posteriori. Ciò rende gli Anisotteri molto più abili nel volo.

L'elemento distintivo tra i due raggruppamenti è costituito proprio dalle ali: a differenza degli Zigotteri, gli Anisotteri a riposo tengono sempre le ali distese orizzontalmente rispetto al corpo, eccetto per il genere Cordulephya.

Biologia

Vivono vicino a fiumi, laghi o stagni, e sono predatori di altri insetti più piccoli. Le uova sono generalmente deposte su piante che si trovano in ambiente acquatico.

Tassonomia

 src=
Due damigelle Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis durante l'accoppiamento

Il sottordine Zygoptera comprende 4 superfamiglie:

Alcune specie

Note

  1. ^ (EN) Schorr M., Lindeboom M., Paulson D., World Odonata List, su pugetsound.edu, University of Puget Sound. URL consultato il 15 giugno 2018 (archiviato dall'url originale il 29 giugno 2015).

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Zygoptera: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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Gli Zigopteri (Zygoptera de Sélys Longchamps, 1854), conosciuti anche come damigelle, sono un sottordine di insetti dell'ordine Odonata.

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Vienodasparniai žirgeliai ( Lithuanian )

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Vienodasparniai žirgeliai sin. mažieji žirgeliai (lot. Zygoptera, angl. Damselfly) - žirgelių būrio pobūris. Nuo skirtingasparnių žirgelių skiriasi tuo, kad ramybės būsenoje sparnus suglaudžia, jų priekiniai ir galiniai sparnai panašios formos, o tarp akių didelis tarpas.

Ekologija

Kaip ir visi žirgeliai, vystosi nepilnos metamorfozės būdu. Patelės deda kiaušinėlius į vandenį, dažnai ant vandens augalijos. Išsiritusios vandeninės nimfos minta dafnijomis, uodų lervomis ir kitais smulkiais vandens organizmais. Po kelių nėrimųsi išsivysto suaugęs žirgelis. Suaugėliai irgi plėšrūs - minta musėmis, uodais ir kitais nedideliais vabzdžiais.

Lietuvos vienodasparniai žirgeliai


Vikiteka

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Vienodasparniai žirgeliai: Brief Summary ( Lithuanian )

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Vienodasparniai žirgeliai sin. mažieji žirgeliai (lot. Zygoptera, angl. Damselfly) - žirgelių būrio pobūris. Nuo skirtingasparnių žirgelių skiriasi tuo, kad ramybės būsenoje sparnus suglaudžia, jų priekiniai ir galiniai sparnai panašios formos, o tarp akių didelis tarpas.

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Vienādspārnu spāres ( Latvian )

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Vienādspārnu spāres jeb vienādspārņi (Zygoptera) ir spāru kārtas (Odonata) apakškārta, kurā ir apmēram 2600 sugas.[1] Tās parasti mājo seklu, saldūdens tilpju tuvumā, kas var būt gan tekoši, gan stāvoši. Latvijā mājo 4 dzimtu vienādspārnu spāru sugas: krāšņspāru dzimta (Coenagrionidae), platkājspāru dzimta (Platycnemididae), zaigspāru dzimta (Lestidae) un zilspāru dzimta (Calopterygidae).[2]

Zinātniskais nosaukums Zygoptera ir cēlies no grieķu valodas. Pirmā vārda daļa zygo latviski nozīmē pāris, bet otrā daļa - ptera nozīmē spārni. Nosaukums atspoguļo faktu, ka tām ir divi pāri līdzīgu spārnu. Atpūšoties tās spārnus parasti tur sakļautus gar ķermeņa sāniem, bet reizēm paceltus un sakļautus vertikāli gaisā.

Izskats un īpašības

 src=
Vienādspārnu spāre Megaloprepus caerulatus ir lielākā spāre pasaulē

Vienādspārnu spēres ir līdzīgas dažādspārnu spārēm (Anisoptera), bet parasti ir par tām mazākas un smalkākas. To ķermeņi ir trauslāki, adatai līdzīgi. Atpūšoties tās spārnus parasti tur sakļautus paralēli gar slaido ķermeni. Toties dažādspārnu spāres spārnus tur perpendikulāri pret ķermeni. Kā jau nosaukums norāda abi spārnu pāri vienādspārnu spārēm ir gandrīz vienādā platumā, kā arī to dzīslojums ir vienāds.[1] Arī acis vienādspārnu spārēm novietotas atšķirīgi kā dažādspārnu spārēm. Tās atrodas attālināti viena no otras, bet dažādspārnu spārēm tās saskaras.[2]

Vienādspārnu spāres parasti ir nelielas un vidēji lielas spāres.[2] Lai gan pasaules lielākā spāre, mērot spārnu plētumu, ir Dienvidamerikā un Centrālamerikā dzīvojošā vienādspārnu spāre Megaloprepus caerulatus, kuras spārnu plētums ir 19 cm.[1]

Dzīves veids

Gan spāres, gan to kāpuri ir plēsīgi un barojas ar citiem kukaiņiem. Pieaugušas spāres parasti medī dažādus nelielus kukaiņus. Izņēmums ir Pseudostigmatidae dzimtas sugas, kas specializējušās zirnekļu medībās, tos uzlasot no pašu tīkliem.[1] Kāpuri mājo dīķos, strautos, dažādos seklos ūdeņos, reizēm tos var atrast pat koku dobumos.[1] Kāpurs upuri nomedī, "izšaujot" garo apakšlūpu un uzķerot ar to kukaini.

Dažām sugām pārošanās laikā ir raksturīga tēviņu izrādīšanās. Tie, nosēžoties mātītei priekšā, izrāda savus zaigojošos spārnus vai ķermeni. Pārošanās laikā spāres saķeras riteņa pozā, tādā veidā pat lidojot kopā. Tēviņš bieži paliek pieķēries pie mātītes pat olu dēšanas laikā. Olas parasti tiek iedētas augu šūnās, izmantojot asmenim līdzīgo olu dējekli. Dažas sugas olas dēj ūdenī, mātītei atrodoties kontaktā ar ūdeni stundu vai ilgāk. Tēviņš tikmēr ārpusē gaida mātīti un, ja nepieciešams, tai palīdz pacelties gaisā no ūdens virsmas.[1]

Klasifikācija

Atsauces

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Vienādspārnu spāres: Brief Summary ( Latvian )

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Vienādspārnu spāres jeb vienādspārņi (Zygoptera) ir spāru kārtas (Odonata) apakškārta, kurā ir apmēram 2600 sugas. Tās parasti mājo seklu, saldūdens tilpju tuvumā, kas var būt gan tekoši, gan stāvoši. Latvijā mājo 4 dzimtu vienādspārnu spāru sugas: krāšņspāru dzimta (Coenagrionidae), platkājspāru dzimta (Platycnemididae), zaigspāru dzimta (Lestidae) un zilspāru dzimta (Calopterygidae).

Zinātniskais nosaukums Zygoptera ir cēlies no grieķu valodas. Pirmā vārda daļa zygo latviski nozīmē pāris, bet otrā daļa - ptera nozīmē spārni. Nosaukums atspoguļo faktu, ka tām ir divi pāri līdzīgu spārnu. Atpūšoties tās spārnus parasti tur sakļautus gar ķermeņa sāniem, bet reizēm paceltus un sakļautus vertikāli gaisā.

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Pepatung jarum ( Malay )

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Pepatung jarum atau belalang jarum (bahasa Inggeris:damselfly) (suborder Zygoptera) ialah serangga dalam order Odonata. Pepatung jarum menyerupai pepatung, tapi dewasanya dapat dibezakan dengan sayap bagi kebanyakan pepatung jarum dilipat dan selari dengan badan apabila berehat. Selain itu, sayap belakang pepatung jarum adalah sama dengan sayap depannya, manakala sayap belakang pepatung melebar ke bawah. Pepatung jarum juga biasanya lebih kecil dan penerbang yang lemah berbanding dengan pepatung, serta mata pepatung jarum adalah terpisah.

Pautan luar

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Pepatung jarum: Brief Summary ( Malay )

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Pepatung jarum atau belalang jarum (bahasa Inggeris:damselfly) (suborder Zygoptera) ialah serangga dalam order Odonata. Pepatung jarum menyerupai pepatung, tapi dewasanya dapat dibezakan dengan sayap bagi kebanyakan pepatung jarum dilipat dan selari dengan badan apabila berehat. Selain itu, sayap belakang pepatung jarum adalah sama dengan sayap depannya, manakala sayap belakang pepatung melebar ke bawah. Pepatung jarum juga biasanya lebih kecil dan penerbang yang lemah berbanding dengan pepatung, serta mata pepatung jarum adalah terpisah.

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Juffers ( Dutch; Flemish )

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Insecten

De waterjuffers of gelijkvleugeligen (Zygoptera) zijn een onderorde van insecten, een van de twee recente onderorden binnen de orde van de libellen (Odonata). Wereldwijd zijn ruim 2700 soorten juffers beschreven, in Europa komen slechts 49 soorten voor (het aantal hangt af van de definitie van Europa). In Nederland zijn 26 soorten aangetroffen waarvan 24 ook in België.

Juffers/gelijkvleugeligen zijn van de Anisoptera (echte libellen of ongelijkvleugeligen) te onderscheiden door een aantal kenmerken (zie ook bij de echte libellen): ze zijn over het algemeen lichter gebouwd; de ogen zijn relatief klein en staan ver uit elkaar; in rust vouwt een juffer de vleugels achter de rug (met uitzondering van de pantserjuffers), terwijl een echte libel ze spreidt.

Zowel ongelijkvleugeligen als gelijkvleugeligen/juffers kennen een onvolledige gedaanteverwisseling: de larve vervelt en wordt pas na de laatste vervelling een gevleugeld insect met vaak felle kleuren. De larve is tamelijk klein, tot ongeveer twee centimeter, met een smal achterlijf waaraan drie veerachtige staartkieuwen zitten (larven van gelijkvleugeligen hebben geen kieuwen en zijn plomper gebouwd). Ze bewegen zich voort door het achterlijf heen en weer te kronkelen (larven van echte libellen hebben 'straalaandrijving').

Taxonomie

De onderorde kent de volgende families:[1]

In Nederland en België

Determinatie van families

De vier families van Nederland en België zijn vrij eenvoudig te herkennen.

  • 1 Beekjuffers: brede vleugels met een zeer groot aantal cellen; vleugels getint of deels gekleurd (niet als vensterglas); vleugels vanaf de basis breder wordend (bij andere families verbreedt het eerste deel van de vleugels nauwelijks).
  • 2 Pantserjuffers: vrij lang achterlijf (meestal iets korter dan bij bovenstaande, maar altijd langer dan bij onderstaande families); vleugels met grote, langwerpige pterostigma's, meer dan tweemaal zo lang als breed; vleugels in rust meestal half gespreid; mannetjes met vrij lange gekromde achterlijfsaanhangsels.
  • 3 Breedscheenjuffers: brede schenen, vooral bij de achterste poten; twee donkere schoudernaadstrepen (niet één, zoals het geval is bij de waterjuffers); nog bredere kop dan andere juffers.
  • 4 Waterjuffers: overige soorten – het is in Nederland en België de soortenrijkste familie.

Toelichting. Deze determinatietabel geldt voor Nederland en België. Als de kenmerken bij stap 1 niet opgaan ga je naar stap 2. Bij elke stap staat tussen puntkomma's een uniek kenmerk (voor die stap en volgende stappen) of een unieke combinatie van kenmerken (met plusteken). Elk van die unieke dingen is op zich voldoende voor de determinatie, maar het is verstandig ook de overige unieke dingen te bekijken. Tussen haakjes staan kenmerken die juist niet mogen kloppen. Foto's maken vaak meer duidelijk dan woorden, bekijk daarom onderstaande foto's of klik door naar families en soorten.

Afbeeldingen

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
  • Frank Bos, Marcel Wasscher en Weia Reinboud (2007): Veldgids Libellen, KNNV Uitgeverij, vijfde volledig herziene druk, ISBN 978-90-5011-264-2
  • Jill Silsby (2001): Dragonflies of the World, Smithsonian, ISBN 1-56098-959-9

Wikimedia Commons Zie de categorie Zygoptera van Wikimedia Commons voor mediabestanden over dit onderwerp.
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Juffers: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De waterjuffers of gelijkvleugeligen (Zygoptera) zijn een onderorde van insecten, een van de twee recente onderorden binnen de orde van de libellen (Odonata). Wereldwijd zijn ruim 2700 soorten juffers beschreven, in Europa komen slechts 49 soorten voor (het aantal hangt af van de definitie van Europa). In Nederland zijn 26 soorten aangetroffen waarvan 24 ook in België.

Juffers/gelijkvleugeligen zijn van de Anisoptera (echte libellen of ongelijkvleugeligen) te onderscheiden door een aantal kenmerken (zie ook bij de echte libellen): ze zijn over het algemeen lichter gebouwd; de ogen zijn relatief klein en staan ver uit elkaar; in rust vouwt een juffer de vleugels achter de rug (met uitzondering van de pantserjuffers), terwijl een echte libel ze spreidt.

Zowel ongelijkvleugeligen als gelijkvleugeligen/juffers kennen een onvolledige gedaanteverwisseling: de larve vervelt en wordt pas na de laatste vervelling een gevleugeld insect met vaak felle kleuren. De larve is tamelijk klein, tot ongeveer twee centimeter, met een smal achterlijf waaraan drie veerachtige staartkieuwen zitten (larven van gelijkvleugeligen hebben geen kieuwen en zijn plomper gebouwd). Ze bewegen zich voort door het achterlijf heen en weer te kronkelen (larven van echte libellen hebben 'straalaandrijving').

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Vannymfer ( Norwegian )

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For vannymfer i mytologien, se nymfe (mytologi).

Vannymfer (Zygoptera) er en delgruppe av øyenstikkere, (Odonata).

Vannymfer er utbredt i hele verden unntatt i Antarktis. De fleste arter finnes i varmere strøk.

Utseende

Vannymfer er de små øyenstikkerne, vanligvis mye mindre enn øyenstikkere og libeller. Men størrelsen varierer mellom de ulike artene.

Alle de fire vingene er omtrent like av utseende og størrelse, de foldes bakover kroppen under hvile. Vingene er klare uten fargeflekker eller mønster, unntatt for noen delgrupper som hos praktvannymfer. Vingespennet er mellom 40 og 70 millimeter. I Mellom- og Sør-Amerika finnes noen store vannymfer i familiegruppen Pseudostigmatidae, som kan ha vingespenn på opptil 140 millimeter.

Vannymfer er en gruppe der det kan være vanskelig å skille artene fra hverandre. Ofte er det bare små forskjeller i det ytre utseendet. Kjønnene er også ofte noe ulike. Fargene er ofte sterke hos hannene: blått, grønt, rødt og noen er metalliske. Hunnene er generelt svakere farget.

Nymfene ånder med trakégjeller (bladgjeller), plassert bakerst på bakkroppen.

Levevis

Vannymfer er litt dårlige flygere og holder til i vegetasjonen ikke langt fra vannet der de hadde sine nymfestadier. De opptrer ofte i svært store mengder. Hannene kan fly ganske langt bort fra vannet, mens hunnene ofte sitter litt gjemt i vegetasjonen.

Nymfene kryper rundt i vegetasjonen og er rovdyr som lever av andre mindre dyr.

Vannymfer har ufullstendig forvandling, overgang fra nymfe til det voksne kjønnsmodne insektet går gradvis gjennom flere hudskift (nymfestadier). Nymfene lever i vann og ligner derfor lite på de voksne (imago), bortsett fra størrelsen. Når nymfen kommer til det siste hudskiftet finner den et strå eller noe, der den kan klatre opp over vannflaten. Her blir den hengende, mens huden revner på ryggsiden. Den nyklekte øyenstikkeren blir hengende på den gamle huden, eller like ved siden av, helt til den nye huden er noe herdet, og vingene har fått sin endelige form.

Systematisk inndeling med norske arter

 src=
Øynene hos vannymfer er langt fra hverandre i motsetninge til øyenstikkere og libeller der øynene helt eller nesten støter sammen.
Foto: Piet Spaans
 src=
Vinge hos vannymfe
Illustrasjon (Maxwell Lefroy, 1923)
 src=
en praktvannymfe.
Foto: Vincenzo Pernice

Nyere forskning[1] viser at de «moderne» artene (Anisoptera) er en søstergruppe til de «antikke» (Anisozygoptera) og at begge disse er nå plassert i en ny felles delgruppe eller underorden, Epiprocta, som igjen er søstergruppe til vannymfene (Zygenoptera). Skrevet på hierarkisk skrivemåte blir slektskapet mellom delgruppene slik: (Du kan lese mer om dette her : System (biologi) og Gruppe (biologi).)

Tradisjonell inndeling

I den tradisjonelle måten å systematisere delgruppene, var de «moderne øyenstikkerne» (Anisoptera), plassert som en søstergruppe til både de «antikke øyenstikkerne» (Anisozygoptera) og vannymfene (Zygenoptera). Nomenklaturen følger Askew (1988)[2], gjengir bare aktuelle delgrupper for Norge.

Treliste

Referanser

  1. ^ Lohmann, H. 1996
  2. ^ Askew R. 1988.

Kilder

  • Askew, R. 1988. The Dragonflies of Europa. Harley Books, Colchester, 291 sider
  • Lohmann, H. 1996. Das phylogenetische System der Anisoptera (Odonata). Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift 106(9): side 209-266.
  • Olsvik, Hans. 1993. Forslag til norske navn på øyenstikkere (Odonata). Norsk entomologisk forening. Insekt-Nytt 18 (3-4), s. 23-25
  • Sahlén, Göran. 1996. Sveriges Trollsländor. Feltbiogerna. 165 sider. ISBN 91-85094-43-9
  • Sømme, Laurits 2001. Insekter. (Original: McGavin, George C. 2000. Insects, spiders and other terrestical arthropods.) N. W. Damm & Søn AS. ISBN 82-512-0601-4

Eksterne lenker

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Vannymfer: Brief Summary ( Norwegian )

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For vannymfer i mytologien, se nymfe (mytologi).

Vannymfer (Zygoptera) er en delgruppe av øyenstikkere, (Odonata).

Vannymfer er utbredt i hele verden unntatt i Antarktis. De fleste arter finnes i varmere strøk.

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Ważki równoskrzydłe ( Polish )

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Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons
 src=
Świtezianka błyszcząca (Calopteryx splendens)

Ważki równoskrzydłe (Zygoptera) – podrząd owadów z rzędu ważek (Odonata). Charakteryzują się długim i szczupłym ciałem[2], a także tym, że obie pary ich skrzydeł mają podobny kształt i rozmiar[2][3] oraz są mocno zwężone u nasady[3]. Kiedy ważki te odpoczywają, składają skrzydła nad odwłokiem[2][3] (u pałątkowatych pozostają lekko rozchylone)[3]. Mają zdolność poruszania nimi w różnych płaszczyznach, co daje im duże zdolności manerwrowania, ale sprawia, że ich lot jest relatywnie słaby[2].

Na przedzie ciała mają dwoje półkolistych oczu, rozsuniętych dość szeroko od siebie (na odległość większą, niż szerokość oka), na końcu zaś – dwie pary przydatków analnych (paraprokty i cerci) oraz kompletne pokładełko u samic[2].

Ich larwy są długie i wąskie. Oddychają trzema wąskimi skrzelotchawkami o lekko spiczastym kształcie, umieszczonymi na końcu odwłoka oraz jelitem tylnym[2].

Polują nie tylko w locie na owady latające, ale mogą też chodzić po roślinach i zjadać mszyce czy pająki[potrzebny przypis].

Do ważek równoskrzydłych zaliczane są następujące rodziny[4]:

Odonatofauna Polski reprezentowana jest przez przedstawicieli 4 rodzin[2][3][5]:

Przypisy

  1. Zygoptera, w: Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ang.).
  2. a b c d e f g Rafał Bernard, Paweł Buczyński: Zoologia – Stawonogi. Czesław Błaszak (red.). T. 2. cz. 2. PWN, 2012, s. 142-143.
  3. a b c d e Jacek Wendzonka. Klucz do oznaczania dorosłych ważek (Odonata) Polski (pdf). „Odonatrix – Biuletyn Sekcji Odonatologicznej Polskiego Towarzystwa Entomologicznego”. 1 (Suplement), czerwiec 2005. ISSN 1733-8239.
  4. Martin Schorr, Dennis Paulson i in.: World Odonata List (ang.). 2010. [dostęp 2010-07-25].
  5. Ważki (Odonata) Polski: Systematyka. Strona internetowa Sekcji Odonatologicznej PTE. [dostęp 2010-07-31].
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Ważki równoskrzydłe: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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 src= Świtezianka błyszcząca (Calopteryx splendens)

Ważki równoskrzydłe (Zygoptera) – podrząd owadów z rzędu ważek (Odonata). Charakteryzują się długim i szczupłym ciałem, a także tym, że obie pary ich skrzydeł mają podobny kształt i rozmiar oraz są mocno zwężone u nasady. Kiedy ważki te odpoczywają, składają skrzydła nad odwłokiem (u pałątkowatych pozostają lekko rozchylone). Mają zdolność poruszania nimi w różnych płaszczyznach, co daje im duże zdolności manerwrowania, ale sprawia, że ich lot jest relatywnie słaby.

Na przedzie ciała mają dwoje półkolistych oczu, rozsuniętych dość szeroko od siebie (na odległość większą, niż szerokość oka), na końcu zaś – dwie pary przydatków analnych (paraprokty i cerci) oraz kompletne pokładełko u samic.

Ich larwy są długie i wąskie. Oddychają trzema wąskimi skrzelotchawkami o lekko spiczastym kształcie, umieszczonymi na końcu odwłoka oraz jelitem tylnym.

Polują nie tylko w locie na owady latające, ale mogą też chodzić po roślinach i zjadać mszyce czy pająki[potrzebny przypis].

Do ważek równoskrzydłych zaliczane są następujące rodziny:

Amphipterygidae Calopterygidae Chlorocyphidae Coenagrionidae Dicteriadidae Euphaeidae Hemiphlebiidae Isostictidae Lestidae Lestoideidae Megapodagrionidae Perilestidae Philogangidae Platycnemididae Platystictidae Polythoridae Protoneuridae Pseudolestidae Pseudostigmatidae Synlestidae

Odonatofauna Polski reprezentowana jest przez przedstawicieli 4 rodzin:

świteziankowate (Calopterygidae) łątkowate (Coenagrionidae) pałątkowate (Lestidae) pióronogowate (Platycnemididae)
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Zygoptera ( Portuguese )

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Os Zygoptera são insetos da ordem Odonata conhecidos como donzelinhas e alfinete. Quando pousados mantêm as asas juntas e paralelas ao comprimento do corpo, diferente das libélulas, que as mantêm perpendiculares ao corpo. As donzelinhas têm os dois pares de asas bastante semelhantes, ambos com a base estreitada, seus olhos são separados e seu corpo é mais delicado que o das libélulas.

Classificação

Os Zygoptera são um grupo antigo, com fósseis conhecidos do Permiano mais baixo, há pelo menos 250 milhões de anos. Todos os fósseis dessa idade são de adultos, semelhantes em estrutura às libelinhas modernas, de modo que não se sabe se suas larvas eram aquáticas na época. Os fósseis de odonatos larvares mais antigos são do Mesozóico.[1]

Referências

  1. Grimaldi, David; Engel, Michael S. (2005). Evolution of the Insects. [S.l.]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 174, 178. ISBN 978-0-521-82149-0
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Zygoptera: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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Os Zygoptera são insetos da ordem Odonata conhecidos como donzelinhas e alfinete. Quando pousados mantêm as asas juntas e paralelas ao comprimento do corpo, diferente das libélulas, que as mantêm perpendiculares ao corpo. As donzelinhas têm os dois pares de asas bastante semelhantes, ambos com a base estreitada, seus olhos são separados e seu corpo é mais delicado que o das libélulas.

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Zigoptere ( Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan )

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Zigopterele (Zygoptera) numite și libelule zigoptere, este un subordin de insecte care cuprinde libelule (odonatele) de talie mijlocie la care aripile posterioare sunt identice ca formă și mărime cu cele anterioare. Aripile sunt mult subțiate spre bază, unde au forma de peduncul. În stare de repaus, țin totdeauna aripile îndreptate în lungul abdomenului. Corpul lor este colorat în nuanțe vii, adesea metalizate. Capul este transversal, cu ochii depărtați. Femelele au ovipozitor cu ajutorul căruia depun ouăle în tulpinile plantelor acvatice, uneori la suprafața apei. Zborul este, în general, slab. Se întâlnesc, de regulă, pe marginea apelor, larvele lor trăind în apă. Sunt insecte carnivore răpitoare, unele prinzând prada în zbor, altele hrănindu-se cu afide și alte insecte mici pe care le prind de pe frunzele plantelor. [1][2][3]

Note

  1. ^ Mihail A. Ionescu, Matilda Lăcătușu. Entomologie. Editura Didactică și Pedagogică, București, 1971
  2. ^ Radu V. Gh. Zoologia nevertebratelor. Vol. II. Editura didactică și pedagogică. București 1972
  3. ^ Marius Skolka. Taxonomie animală. Nevertebrate. Constanța 2011
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Zigoptere: Brief Summary ( Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan )

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Zigopterele (Zygoptera) numite și libelule zigoptere, este un subordin de insecte care cuprinde libelule (odonatele) de talie mijlocie la care aripile posterioare sunt identice ca formă și mărime cu cele anterioare. Aripile sunt mult subțiate spre bază, unde au forma de peduncul. În stare de repaus, țin totdeauna aripile îndreptate în lungul abdomenului. Corpul lor este colorat în nuanțe vii, adesea metalizate. Capul este transversal, cu ochii depărtați. Femelele au ovipozitor cu ajutorul căruia depun ouăle în tulpinile plantelor acvatice, uneori la suprafața apei. Zborul este, în general, slab. Se întâlnesc, de regulă, pe marginea apelor, larvele lor trăind în apă. Sunt insecte carnivore răpitoare, unele prinzând prada în zbor, altele hrănindu-se cu afide și alte insecte mici pe care le prind de pe frunzele plantelor.

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Šidielka ( Slovak )

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Šidielka (lat. Zygoptera) sú podrad hmyzieho radu vážky (Odonata). Na celom svete ich existuje 2 753 známych druhov.[1] Na území Slovenska sa preukázateľne vyskytuje 20 druhov.[2] Na území Česka sa vyskytuje 25 druhov šidielok, z ktorých je šesť kriticky ohrozených a jeden druh vymizol (Coenagrion mercuriale). Prvé fosílne záznamy podradu Zygoptera pochádzajú z obdobia kriedy, pred 120 miliónmi rokov.[3]

Opis

Majú dva skoro rovnaké páry predných a zadných krídel, na rozdiel od podradu šidlá (Anisoptera), ktoré majú oba páry krídel viac odlišné. Oči majú ďaleko od seba. Sú štíhle, s pretiahnutým zadočkom. Hlava je väčšia ako trup (na rozdiel od šidiel).[3]

Nymfa (larvy) šidielok majú na konci zadočku tri pretiahnuté výrastky slúžiace na plávanie. Nymfám môžu dorastať stratené končatiny (regenerácia), aj keď už nebývajú tak dokonalé ako pôvodné.[4]

Biológia

 src=
Šidielka pri párení, modro sfarbený je samček, samička je žlto-zelená

Lietajú pomerne pomaly, často sadajú na vegetáciu. Počas letu sa dobre orientujú. Šidielka sa vyvíjajú nedokonalou premenou. Pohlavné orgány majú umiestnené na konci zadočku. Samček má ešte medzi druhým a tretím článkom umiestnený kopulačný orgán, na ktorý pred kopuláciou prenáša spermie z pohlavného orgánu.

Vajíčka kladú zvyčajne zadočkom ponoreným niekoľko centimetrov vo vode. Niektoré druhy kladú vajíčka do vetiev pri brehu alebo do rastlín. Pri kladení vajíčok samec často pridržuje za hlavou samičku kliešťami, ktoré má na konci zadočku a lietajú spolu v tandeme.

Z vajíčka sa najprv vyliahne prelarva, ktorá je bez funkčných nôh. Po niekoľkých sekundách, niekedy až hodinách sa premení na prvé larválne štádium. Larva žije vo vode. Živí sa dravo, väčšinou larvami drobného hmyzu. K lovenie koristi má labium (masku), ktoré dokáže vymrštiť, uchopiť do nej korisť a pritiahnuť k ústam. Môže byť dlhé až jednu tretinu celkovej dĺžky. Tento nástoj je u hmyzu jedinečný.[3] Larvy sa vyzliekajú 7 – 15-krát.

Keď larva dorastie, tak vylieza na súš, zväčša sa prichytí na vegetáciu a liahne sa z nej dospelé šidielko. Živí sa lietajúcim hmyzom. Po niekoľkých dňoch, niekedy aj mesiacoch je pripravená na párenie.

Čeľade

Podľa[1][2]:

Referencie

  1. a b SCHORR, Martin; LINDEBOOM, Martin; PAULSON, Dennis. Slater Museum of Natural History [online]. Tacoma : University of Puget Sound, 08-2007, [cit. 2009-08-25]. Dostupné online. (po anglicky)
  2. a b ŠÁCHA, D., DAVID, S., BULÁNKOVÁ, E., JAKAB, I., KONVIT, I., 2011: Vážky Slovenskej republiky. (dostupné online, 13. september 2012).
  3. a b c RESH, Vincent H.; CARDE, Ring T.. Encyclopedia of insects. 1. vyd. Amsterdam ; Boston : Academic Press, 2003. ISBN 0125869908. S. 815. (anglicky)
  4. OBENBERGER, Jan. entomológia IV. 1. vyd. Praha : Československá akadémia vied, 1958. S. 261 – 263.

Iné projekty

  • Spolupracuj na Commons Commons ponúka multimediálne súbory na tému Šidielka
  • Spolupracuj na Wikidruhoch Wikidruhy ponúkajú informácie na tému Šidielka

Literatúra

  • Hanel, Lubomír. Vážky Podblanicka 1. vyd. Vlašim : Český svaz ochránců přírody, 1999 : Muzeum okresu Benešov. 96 s. ISBN 80-86327-07-8.
  • Zahradník, Jiří, Severa, František. Hmyz. Ilustroval František Severa. 2. vyd. Praha : AVENTINUM, 2004. 326 s. ISBN 80-86858-36-7.
  • FARKAč J., KRÁL D. & ŠKORPÍK M. [eds.] (2005): červený seznam ohrožených druhù české republiky. Bezobratlí. List of threatened species in the Czech Republic. Invertebrates. – Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha, 760 pp. PDF

Zdroj

Tento článok je čiastočný alebo úplný preklad článku Motýlice na českej Wikipédii.

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Šidielka: Brief Summary ( Slovak )

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Šidielka (lat. Zygoptera) sú podrad hmyzieho radu vážky (Odonata). Na celom svete ich existuje 2 753 známych druhov. Na území Slovenska sa preukázateľne vyskytuje 20 druhov. Na území Česka sa vyskytuje 25 druhov šidielok, z ktorých je šesť kriticky ohrozených a jeden druh vymizol (Coenagrion mercuriale). Prvé fosílne záznamy podradu Zygoptera pochádzajú z obdobia kriedy, pred 120 miliónmi rokov.

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Enakokrili kačji pastirji ( Spanish; Castilian )

provided by wikipedia SL

Amphipterygidae
Calopterygidae - bleščavci
Chlorocyphidae
Coenagrionidae - škratci
Dicteriadidae
Euphaeidae
Hemiphlebidae
Isostictidae
Lestidae - zverce
Lestoididae
Megapodagrionidae
Perilestidae
Platycnemididae - presličarji
Platystictidae
Polythoridae
Protoneuridae
Pseudostigmatidae
Synlestidae
Zacallitidae

Enakokrili kačji pastirji (znanstveno ime Zygoptera) so podred kačjih pastirjev, v katerega uvrščamo približno polovico od 5.500 znanih vrst kačjih pastirjev.

Prepoznamo jih predvsem po lastnosti, da sta oba para njihovih kril med seboj podobna (odtod tudi njihovo ime), med mirovanjem pa jih držijo skupaj ali rahlo razmaknjena nad telesom. Pterostigme nimajo. Za razliko od raznokrilih kačjih pastirjev se krila proti bazi počasi ožajo. V splošnem so to vitke žuželke in šibkejši letalci od raznokrilih, predvsem samci so pogosto kovinsko obarvani. Na zadku imajo samci štiri okončine - par cerkov in par krpatih paraproktov. Samice imajo namesto tega leglico, ki daje zadku otekel videz. Na glavi je par razmeroma velikih sestavljenih očes, ki sta za razliko od raznokrilih kačjih pastirjev na kratkih pecljih in se nikoli ne stikata na vrhu glave. Ličinke prepoznamo po tem, da imajo tri škržne izrastke na konici zadka, ki so lahko listasti, vrečasti ali trirobi. Drugih okončin na zadku nimajo. Poleg tega so vitke, z glavo, ki je širša od preostanka telesa. Vrste je včasih težavno ločevati med seboj, predvsem samice so si lahko zelo podobne, medtem ko je samce različnih vrst mogoče ločiti po obliki in obarvanosti kril ter barvi spodnje strani konice zadka.

Enakokrili kačji pastirji živijo po vsem svetu. Največjo raznolikost dosegajo v tropih, kjer živijo tudi največji predstavniki, ki merijo do 15 cm v dolžino in imajo razpon kril 20 cm. Živijo skoraj izključno v neposredni bližini hitro tekočih voda, kjer so lahko zelo številčni. Samci si vzpostavijo teritorije s primernimi mesti za odlaganje jajčec, ki jih branijo pred vsiljivci. Samicam dvorijo z zapletenim plesom v zraku pri katerem razkazujejo barvo kril in konice zadka.

Različni avtorji razlagajo fosilne ostanke različno; po mnenju nekaterih avtorjev so enakokrili kačji pastirji bazalna skupina kačjih pastirjev, iz katere sta se razvili preostali dve. Če to drži, so Zygoptera v filogenetski klasifikaciji neveljavna skupina. Po mnenju drugih sta tako Anisoptera kot Zygoptera jasno monofiletski skupini, ki sta se razvili ločeno. Najzgodnejše fosile, ki jih lahko nedvomno označimo za enakokrile kačje pastirje, datiramo v trias.

Viri

  • Dijkstra K.-D. B. (2006). Field Guide to the Dragonflies of Britain and Europe. Gillingham: British Wildlife Publishing. COBISS 1715279. ISBN 0-9531399-4-8.
  • Grimaldi D.; Engel M.S. (2005). Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. COBISS 55898625. ISBN 0521821495.
  • Gullan P.J.; Cranston P.S. (2005). The Insects - an outline of entomology (3 izd.). Blackwell publishing. COBISS 427253. ISBN 1-4051-1113-5.
  • Triplehorn, Charles A.; Johnson, Norman F. (2005). Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects (7 izd.). Belmont : Thomson Brooks/Cole. COBISS 1573286. ISBN 0-03-096835-6.

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Enakokrili kačji pastirji: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Enakokrili kačji pastirji (znanstveno ime Zygoptera) so podred kačjih pastirjev, v katerega uvrščamo približno polovico od 5.500 znanih vrst kačjih pastirjev.

Prepoznamo jih predvsem po lastnosti, da sta oba para njihovih kril med seboj podobna (odtod tudi njihovo ime), med mirovanjem pa jih držijo skupaj ali rahlo razmaknjena nad telesom. Pterostigme nimajo. Za razliko od raznokrilih kačjih pastirjev se krila proti bazi počasi ožajo. V splošnem so to vitke žuželke in šibkejši letalci od raznokrilih, predvsem samci so pogosto kovinsko obarvani. Na zadku imajo samci štiri okončine - par cerkov in par krpatih paraproktov. Samice imajo namesto tega leglico, ki daje zadku otekel videz. Na glavi je par razmeroma velikih sestavljenih očes, ki sta za razliko od raznokrilih kačjih pastirjev na kratkih pecljih in se nikoli ne stikata na vrhu glave. Ličinke prepoznamo po tem, da imajo tri škržne izrastke na konici zadka, ki so lahko listasti, vrečasti ali trirobi. Drugih okončin na zadku nimajo. Poleg tega so vitke, z glavo, ki je širša od preostanka telesa. Vrste je včasih težavno ločevati med seboj, predvsem samice so si lahko zelo podobne, medtem ko je samce različnih vrst mogoče ločiti po obliki in obarvanosti kril ter barvi spodnje strani konice zadka.

Enakokrili kačji pastirji živijo po vsem svetu. Največjo raznolikost dosegajo v tropih, kjer živijo tudi največji predstavniki, ki merijo do 15 cm v dolžino in imajo razpon kril 20 cm. Živijo skoraj izključno v neposredni bližini hitro tekočih voda, kjer so lahko zelo številčni. Samci si vzpostavijo teritorije s primernimi mesti za odlaganje jajčec, ki jih branijo pred vsiljivci. Samicam dvorijo z zapletenim plesom v zraku pri katerem razkazujejo barvo kril in konice zadka.

Različni avtorji razlagajo fosilne ostanke različno; po mnenju nekaterih avtorjev so enakokrili kačji pastirji bazalna skupina kačjih pastirjev, iz katere sta se razvili preostali dve. Če to drži, so Zygoptera v filogenetski klasifikaciji neveljavna skupina. Po mnenju drugih sta tako Anisoptera kot Zygoptera jasno monofiletski skupini, ki sta se razvili ločeno. Najzgodnejše fosile, ki jih lahko nedvomno označimo za enakokrile kačje pastirje, datiramo v trias.

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Flicksländor och jungfrusländor ( Swedish )

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Flicksländor och jungfrusländor (Zygoptera) är en underordning i insektsordningen trollsländor.

Kännetecken

Flicksländorna och jungfrusländorna är spensligt byggda, med en lång, smal bakkropp och ett tvärställt, cylindriskt huvud. De har tydligt åtskilda fasettögon och deras framvingar och bakvingar är mycket lika formade, med basen avsmalnande till ett "skaft". Vingarna hålls under vila av de flesta arter hopslagna över ryggen, hos några få delvis utbredda snett bakåt. Färgen är oftast metallisk grön, blå eller brun. Vingarna har ofta ett litet vingmärke i framkanten nära spetsen.

Utbredning

Flicksländor och jungfrusländor finns över hela världen, utom i de allra kallaste områdena, det vill säga på alla kontinenter utom Antarktis.

Levnadssätt

Flykten är inte så snabb som hos de egentliga trollsländorna, och de flesta arter jagar därför mer långsamt flygande insekter, eller väljer sina byten bland stillasittande insekter. De föredrar att vistas i närheten av kärr och mindre vattensamlingar samt bland vass och säv utmed sjöar och vattendrag.

Vid parningen griper hannen med sin tång i bakkroppens spets tag om honans hals och honan kröker upp spetsen av sin bakkropp mot basen på hanens abdomen, där sädesblåsan med sperman finns. Omedelbart efter befruktningen börjar äggläggningen, ofta med honan sittande på stjälken av en vattenväxt och fortfarande fasthållen i nacken av hannens tång. Med sitt äggläggningsrör borrar hon ett hål i stjälken och lägger ett ägg. Detta upprepas flera gånger och paret flyttar sig allt längre ner utefter stjälken, ibland även under vattenytan.

Larverna, som tillbringar hela sin utvecklingstid i vattnet, är smärtare än de egentliga trollsländornas larver. Deras underläpp är ombildade till ett tångformad, framsträckbart fångstorgan, en så kallad fångstmask. Flicksländornas larver har också tre stora bladlika trakégälar i spetsen av bakkroppen. Dessa stora yttre gälar fungera även nästan som simfenor, då larverna med slingrande rörelser förflytta sig i vattnet.

Systematik

Denna systematik omfattar endast de av underordningens familjer som förekommer i Sverige.

Referenser

  1. ^ ITIS Läst 20061204.


Small Sketch of Owl.pngDen här artikeln är helt eller delvis baserad på material från Nordisk familjebok, Flicksländor, 1904–1926.
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Flicksländor och jungfrusländor (Zygoptera) är en underordning i insektsordningen trollsländor.

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Küçük kızböcekleri ( Turkish )

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Küçük kızböcekleri (Zygoptera), yusufçuklardan, birbirinden ayrı olan 4 kanadı ve bunların dinlenme sırasında dik olarak tutulmasıyla ayrılan bir alt takımdır.

Kanatlar arkaya doğru birbirinden ayrı olarak yatırılabilir, ancak uçuşları yavaş, pırpır ve güçsüzdür. Yere yakın uçarlar, genellikle bitkiler içine yumurtlarlar. Gözleri birbirinden ayrık ve yuvarlaktır. Tüm dünyaya yayılmış bir gruptur.

Stub icon Böcek ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini geliştirerek Vikipedi'ye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz.
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Рівнокрилі бабки ( Ukrainian )

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Загальні відомості

У рівнокрилих передні і задні крила вузькі, майже однакової форми, у спокої підняті вгору і притиснуті один до одного; в різнокрилих крила різні формою, у спокої розпластані в сторони, задня пара з розширеними підставами. Довжина крила 10—94 мм, черевця 14—120 мм.

Харчуються рівнокрилі комахами, хапаючи здобич на льоту. Винищують комарів, мошок та ін. шкідливих комах, чим приносять користь. Можуть шкодити і, поширюючи протогонімоз — небезпечне захворювання свійських птиць.

Вони спарюються на льоту. Вторинний копулятивний апарат самців високо спеціалізований і не має аналогів серед комах. Яйця відкладають у воду або тканини водних рослин, рідше в мокрий ґрунт. Личинки розвиваються у воді, дихають зябрами. В личинок рівнокрилих трахейні зябра на хвостових придатках, в личинок різнокрилих — ректальні зябра — на стінках прямої кишки, періодично заповнюваною водою. Перетворення неповне. В личинок сильно подовжена нижня губа, твірна хапального органу — маски. При захваті видобутку вона викидається вперед, у спокої прикриває голову знизу. Личинки бабки теж хижаки, харчуються личинками водних комах, інколи нападають на пуголовків і мальків риб; у свою чергу, служать їжею для риб. Після закінчення розвитку личинки виходять з води і прикріпляються до рослин або нерівностей ґрунту. Останнє линяння відбувається на суші поблизу водоймища. Деякі види бабки можуть відлітати на великі відстані від водоймищ. При масових перельотах плямиста бабка Libellula quadrimaculata утворює суцільну смугу протяжністю в десятки км.

Серед рівнокрилих вирізняють понад 4500 видів, більшість з яких мешкає в тропіках і вологих субтропіках. На території колишнього СРСР 165 видів, широко поширених по всій території, за винятком посушливих областей.

Класифікація

Примітки

  1. Coenagrionoidea, Encyclopedia of Life

Джерела

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Chuồn chuồn kim ( Vietnamese )

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Chuồn chuồn kim là tên gọi chung để chỉ các loài côn trùng thuộc phân bộ Cánh đều (Zygoptera), bộ chuồn chuồn (Odonata). Các loài chuồn chuồn kim tương tự như các loài chuồn chuồn ngô (Anisoptera), điểm khác nhau là khi ở tư thế đậu thì cánh của chuồn chuồn kim nằm dọc theo thân mình, khác với tư thế cánh vuông góc với thân của các loài kia. Một điểm khác nữa là đôi cánh sau cơ bản giống đôi cánh trước, trong khi ở chuồn chuồn ngô, đôi cánh sau mở rộng ở phần gốc so với cánh trước. Chuồn chuồn kim có cơ thể nhỏ hơn, yếu hơn chuồn chuồn ngô. Cặp mắt chuồn chuồn kim cách xa nhau.

Chuồn chuồn kim, cũng như các loài chuồn chuồn khác, là các loài biến thái không hoàn toàn. Thiếu trùng chuồn chuồn kim sống trong môi trường nước, mang của thiếu trùng chuồn chuồn kim nằm lộ bên ngoài, hình dáng như 3 chiếc vây ở cuối bụng.

Phân loại

 src=
Một con chuồn chuồn kim Agriocnemis pygmaea cái

Phân loại dưới đây lấy theo tolweb.orgGünter Bechly, 2007

Phát sinh loài

  • Caloptera Belyshev & Haritonov, 1983
    • † Sieblosiidae Handlirsch, 1907
    • Eucaloptera Bechly, 1996
      • Amphipterygida Bechly, 1996
      • Calopterygomorpha Bechly, 1996
        • Chlorocyphoidea Cowley, 1937
        • Calopterygiformia Bechly, 1996
          • Euphaeida Bechly, 1996
          • Calopterygida Bechly, 1996
            • Heliocharitidae Tillyard & Fraser, 1939 = Dicteriadidae sensu Dunkle, 1991
            • Calopterygoidea Selys, 1850
  • Euzygoptera Bechly, 1996
    • Lestomorpha Bechly, 1996
      • Hemiphlebiidae Tillyard, 1926
      • Lestiformia Bechly, 1996
        • † Cretacoenagrionidae Bechly, 1996
        • Eulestiformia Bechly, 1996
          • Chorismagrionidae Tillyard & Fraser, 1938 (thường coi là một phần của họ Synlestidae)
          • Lestida Bechly, 1996
            • Perilestidae Tillyard & Fraser, 1938
            • Lestodea Bechly, 1996
              • Synlestidae Tillyard, 1917
              • Lestinoidea Calvert, 1901
                • Megalestidae Tillyard & Fraser, 1938
                • Lestidae Calvert, 1901
    • Coenagrionomorpha Bechly, 1996
      • Hypolestidae Tillyard & Fraser, 1938
        • Heteragrioninae Racenis, 1959
        • Philogeniinae Racenis, 1959
        • Hypolestinae Tillyard & Fraser, 1938
          • Philosinini Kennedy, 1925
          • Hypolestini Tillyard & Fraser, 1938
          • Lestoideini Munz, 1919 = Lestoideidae
      • Megapodagrionidae Calvert, 1913
      • Coenagrioniformia Bechly, 1996
  • Steleopteridae Handlirsch, 1906
  • Eosagrionidae Handlirsch, 1920

Chú thích

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Chuồn chuồn kim: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

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Chuồn chuồn kim là tên gọi chung để chỉ các loài côn trùng thuộc phân bộ Cánh đều (Zygoptera), bộ chuồn chuồn (Odonata). Các loài chuồn chuồn kim tương tự như các loài chuồn chuồn ngô (Anisoptera), điểm khác nhau là khi ở tư thế đậu thì cánh của chuồn chuồn kim nằm dọc theo thân mình, khác với tư thế cánh vuông góc với thân của các loài kia. Một điểm khác nữa là đôi cánh sau cơ bản giống đôi cánh trước, trong khi ở chuồn chuồn ngô, đôi cánh sau mở rộng ở phần gốc so với cánh trước. Chuồn chuồn kim có cơ thể nhỏ hơn, yếu hơn chuồn chuồn ngô. Cặp mắt chuồn chuồn kim cách xa nhau.

Chuồn chuồn kim, cũng như các loài chuồn chuồn khác, là các loài biến thái không hoàn toàn. Thiếu trùng chuồn chuồn kim sống trong môi trường nước, mang của thiếu trùng chuồn chuồn kim nằm lộ bên ngoài, hình dáng như 3 chiếc vây ở cuối bụng.

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Равнокрылые стрекозы ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
Царство: Животные
Подцарство: Эуметазои
Без ранга: Первичноротые
Без ранга: Линяющие
Без ранга: Panarthropoda
Надкласс: Шестиногие
Класс: Насекомые
Надотряд: Odonatoptera
Отряд: Стрекозы
Подотряд: Равнокрылые стрекозы
Международное научное название

Zygoptera Selys, 1854

Надсемейства
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Систематика
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ITIS 102042NCBI 50488EOL 2764228FW 94227

Равнокрылые стрекозы[1][2] (лат. Zygoptera) — подотряд стрекоз (Odonata). Сестринская группа по отношению к кладе Epiprocta, объединяющей разнокрылых стрекоз (Anisoptera) и Anisozygoptera[3].

Имаго

Первая и вторая пары крыльев взрослых стрекоз практически одинаковы по размерам и строению, что отражено в названии[3]. В состоянии покоя крылья у большинства представителей кровлеобразно сложены над брюшком. Исключение составляют некоторые представители семейства люток (Lestidae), чьи крылья в состоянии покоя остаются распростёртыми[источник не указан 3191 день]. Равнокрылые стрекозы характеризуются медленным, порхающим полётом, в ходе которого они обычно не отдаляются от земли или растительности[3]. На заднем конце тела у самцов расположены парные анальные придатки: производные церок и тергита десятого сегмента брюшка[3].

Нимфы

Нимфы ведут водный образ жизни, встречаясь как в стоячих, так и в проточных водоёмах (пресных и солоноватоводных). На конце брюшка у них находятся три лопастевидные трахейные жабры[3], которые служат во время плавания веслами[источник не указан 3191 день]. Нимфы обычно прячутся в иле или придонных водорослях.

Галерея

Палеонтология

[4]

Примечания

  1. Определитель насекомых Дальнего Востока СССР. Т. I. Первичнобескрылые, древнекрылые, с неполным превращением / под общ. ред. П. А. Лера. — Л.: Наука, 1988. — С. 147. — 452 с.
  2. Стриганова Б. Р., Захаров А. А. Пятиязычный словарь названий животных: Насекомые (латинский-русский-английский-немецкий-французский) / Под ред. д-ра биол. наук, проф. Б. Р. Стригановой. — М.: РУССО, 2000. — С. 5. — 1060 экз.ISBN 5-88721-162-8.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Зоология беспозвоночных. Т. 2: от артропод до иглокожих и хордовых / под ред. В. Вестхайде и Р. Ригера. — М.: Товарищество научных изданий КМК, 2008. — 422 с.
  4. Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Kalkman, V.J., Dow, R.A., Stokvis, F.R. & Tol, J. van 2014. Redefining the damselfly families: a comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Zygoptera (Odonata). Systematic entomology 39(1): 68–96. doi: 10.1111/syen.12035
  5. Diying Huang, Dany Azar and André Nel, The oldest ‘Megapodagrionidae’ (Odonata, Zygoptera) discovered in the Lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation, China, Cretaceous Research, 84, (426)
  6. Diying Huang, Dany Azar, Chenyang Cai, Sibelle Maksoud, André Nel and Günter Bechly, Mesomegaloprepidae, a remarkable new damselfly family (Odonata: Zygoptera) from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber, Cretaceous Research, 73, (1)
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Равнокрылые стрекозы: Brief Summary ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию

Равнокрылые стрекозы (лат. Zygoptera) — подотряд стрекоз (Odonata). Сестринская группа по отношению к кладе Epiprocta, объединяющей разнокрылых стрекоз (Anisoptera) и Anisozygoptera.

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豆娘 ( Chinese )

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豆娘damselfly)是一种颜色鲜艳的食肉昆虫,屬於蜻蛉目均翅亞目 學名Zygoptera)。牠們的身体细长,複眼發達生於兩側,咀嚼式口器觸角剛毛狀,前後形狀相似,翅脈中室四方形,翅翼生有翅柄,与蜻蜓同属蜻蛉目,與蜻蜓不同點在於豆娘的前後翅大小、形狀相似;蜻蜓的前後翅大小、形狀相異。

生物特性

豆娘的幼蟲水蠆生長於水中,身體側扁長形,尾端有葉片狀的尾腮,具有呼吸與運動的功能。隱匿於水草或石塊縫隙。

由于豆娘的体态优美、颜色鲜艳,且其翅膀颜色多变,故很多爱好者喜爱观赏。

蜻蜓與豆娘的主要差別

  • 眼睛的距離:蜻蜓的複眼大部份是彼此相連或只有小距離的分開;豆娘的兩眼有相當大距離的分開,形狀如同啞鈴一般。
  • 翅膀的形狀:屬差翅亞目的蜻蜓,其前後翅形狀大小不同,差異甚大;屬均翅亞目的豆娘,其前後翅形狀大小近似,差異較小。
  • 腹部的形狀:蜻蜓的腹部形狀較為扁平,也較粗;豆娘的腹部形狀較為細瘦,呈圓棍棒狀。
  • 停棲方式:蜻蜓在停棲時,會將翅膀平展在身體的兩側;一般豆娘在停棲時,會將翅膀合起來直立於背上。

圖片

  •  src=

    兩隻紅眼細蟌Erythromma najas)雄蟲各「挾持」一隻雌蟲尋找產卵水域

  •  src=

    细蟌科的蓝胸细蟌Ischnura senegalensis

  •  src=

    细蟌科的蓝胸细蟌Ischnura senegalensis

  •  src=

    一对正在交配的豆娘(Pyrrhososma nymphula

參見

外部链接

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豆娘: Brief Summary ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科

豆娘(damselfly)是一种颜色鲜艳的食肉昆虫,屬於蜻蛉目均翅亞目 (學名:Zygoptera)。牠們的身体细长,複眼發達生於兩側,咀嚼式口器觸角剛毛狀,前後形狀相似,翅脈中室四方形,翅翼生有翅柄,与蜻蜓同属蜻蛉目,與蜻蜓不同點在於豆娘的前後翅大小、形狀相似;蜻蜓的前後翅大小、形狀相異。

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イトトンボ ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語
イトトンボ亜目(均翅亜目) Zygoptera Damselfly October 2007 Osaka Japan.jpg 分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 節足動物門 Arthropoda : 昆虫綱 Insecta : トンボ目(蜻蛉目)Odonata 亜目 : イトトンボ亜目均翅亜目
Zygoptera Selys, 1854 英名 Damselfly

イトトンボ(糸蜻蛉、Damselfly)は、トンボ目(蜻蛉目)・イトトンボ亜目均翅亜目、Zygoptera)に分類される昆虫の総称。

イトトンボ科モノサシトンボ科アオイトトンボ科など多くの科を含むが、日本で「イトトンボ」と呼んだ場合は比較的大型のカワトンボ類を除くことが多い。

概要[編集]

 src=
イトトンボの交尾、左側がオス
Pyrrhososma nymphula

トンボ科ヤンマ科など、不均翅亜目(トンボ亜目)のトンボは後翅が前翅に比べて幅広いのに対し、均翅亜目は名前どおり前後のがほぼ同じ形である。頭部は左右に幅広く、複眼が小さい。腹部も細長い円筒形をしているので、小型の種類では呼び名の通り短いくずのように見える。

不均翅亜目が直線的に広い空間を飛び回るのに対して、あまり水辺を離れず、水辺の草の間でぱたぱたと緩やかに羽ばたきながら低く飛ぶものが多い。トンボ類の交尾はオスとメスが輪を作るが、均翅亜目では腹部が細くてよく曲がるため、連結部分がハート型をなす。

幼虫ヤゴ)も成虫と同様に体が前後に細長い。さらに腹部先端に細いえらが3枚ついていることで不均翅亜目のヤゴと区別できる。

熱帯から亜寒帯まで多くの種類が知られるが、特に熱帯に種類が多い。このうち、南アメリカ熱帯雨林に分布するハビロイトトンボ Megaloprepus coerulatus は体長10cm、開張15cmにも達し、現生トンボの最大種とされている。

日本のイトトンボ[編集]

日本にも多くのイトトンボが分布する。南にいくほど種類が多いが、本州の山地や北海道に分布するエゾイトトンボ Agrion lanceolatum など北方系の種類もいる。成虫として越冬するトンボとして、オツネントンボSympecma paedisca)、ホソミオツネントンボIndolestes peregrinus)、ホソミイトトンボAciagrion migratum)の3種が知られている[1]キイトトンボ Ceriagrion melanurum は全身が黄色で判り易い。他にもアオモンイトトンボIschnura senegalensis)やアジアイトトンボIschnura asiatica)などは都市部でもよく見かけられる普通種である。その一方、グンバイトンボPlatycnemis foliacea sasakii)やコフキヒメイトトンボAgriocnemis femina oryzae)など環境汚染に敏感な種も多く、これらは開発などで生息地を減らしている。

脚注[編集]

[ヘルプ]

参考文献[編集]

外部リンク[編集]

 src= ウィキスピーシーズにイトトンボ亜目に関する情報があります。  src= ウィキメディア・コモンズには、イトトンボ亜目に関連するカテゴリがあります。
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wikipedia 日本語

イトトンボ: Brief Summary ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語

イトトンボ(糸蜻蛉、Damselfly)は、トンボ目(蜻蛉目)・イトトンボ亜目(均翅亜目、Zygoptera)に分類される昆虫の総称。

イトトンボ科モノサシトンボ科アオイトトンボ科など多くの科を含むが、日本で「イトトンボ」と呼んだ場合は比較的大型のカワトンボ類を除くことが多い。

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실잠자리아목 ( Korean )

provided by wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

실잠자리아목(Zygoptera) 또는 균시아목잠자리목을 이루는 두 아목 가운데 하나이다. 물잠자리과(Calopterygidae)에 속하는 종류는 물잠자리, 그 외의 것들은 통틀어 실잠자리라고 부른다. 실잠자리는 잠자리와 비슷하게 생겼지만 보다 작고 날렵하게 생겼으며 앉아서 쉴 때 날개를 접는다는 점이 다르다. 화석페름기 후기 이후의 지층에서 발견되며 남극을 제외한 세계 모든 곳에서 관찰된다.

실잠자리는 유충과 성충 모두 포식성으로 다른 곤충을 잡아 먹는다. 강, 연못, 호수와 같은 습지에서 생활하며 유충일 때에는 물 속에서 살고 번데기 시기를 거치지 않고 바로 탈피하여 성충이 된다. 아직까지 개체수는 안정적이지만 최근 개발로 습지가 감소하면서 서식지가 줄어들고 있다.

실잠자리아목에 속하는 많은 들은 두드러지는 성적 이형성을 보여 수컷쪽이 더 밝은 색을 띈다. 어떤 종들은 정교한 구애 행위를 통해 짝짓기를 한다. 실잠자리도 잠자리처럼 매정 방식을 통해 간접적으로 수정한다. 짝짓기를 위해 암수가 서로의 꼬리를 상대의 몸통에 접합시켜 "하트" 모양을 만든다. 수컷은 암컷의 머리 뒤에 자신의 배를 걸어 붙이고 암컷은 자신의 배를 수컷의 배 윗부분에 걸쳐 수컷의 정액을 받는다. 이러한 결합은 종종 암컷이 산란을 할 때까지도 이어진다.

제물 낚시를 하는 사람들은 가짜 미끼를 물 속에 가라앉히는 웻플라이(wet-fly) 방식의 미끼로 실잠자리 유충을 흉내낸 미끼를 쓰기도 한다.

분류

실잠자리아목의 화석은 페름기 후기 지층부터 관찰되며 최소 2억 5천만년 전에 출현하였다. 남아 있는 화석은 모두 성충으로 현재의 실잠자리와 크게 다르지 않다. 수중에서 살던 유충의 화석은 아직 발견되지 않아 현재의 것과 비교할 수 없고, 알 화석은 중생대 시기의 것이 발견되었다.[1] 실잠자리의 선조인 선균시아목의 화석은 대략 3억년 전의 것이 있다.[2] 발트해 유역에서 발견된 호박 속에 유충과 탈피한 허물이 함께 갖힌 화석이 널리 알려져 있다.[3]

2013년 분자유전학 분석은 실잠자리아목에 속하는 대다수의 가 단일한 공통 조상에서 분기한 단계통군이지만, 암피프테리기아과(Amphipterygidae), 메가포다그리오니아과(Megapodagrionidae), 프로토네우리아과(Protoneuridae)의 세 과는 측계통군으로 밝혀져 보다 확인이 필요하다. 특히 Protoneuridae의 경우 5개 과에서 비롯한 6개의 계통군 분기를 보였다. 이 결과는 의 실잠자리를 비교한 것으로 현생하는 실잠자리와 화석 모두를 놓고 분류한 전통적인 계통 분류와는 차이가 있다. 실잠자리는 전통적으로 18개 과로 분류되었으나 2013년의 분석 결과를 반영하여 그 동안 유사 과로 분류되던 7개 과를 포함하여 27개 과로 새로 정리하였다. 한편 측계통군으로 분류된 3개 과는 분류에서 제외되었다.[4]

실잠자리아목 청실잠자리상과(Lestoidea)  

헤미플레비아상과 (Hemiphlebioidea)

     

페릴레스티아과 (Perilestidae)

   

신레스티아과 (Synlestidae)

   

청실잠자리과(Lestidae)

        플라티스티크타상과([Platystictoidea)  

플라티스티크타과(Platystictidae)

      물잠자리상과(Calopterygoidea, 수정된 분류)  

물잠자리과(Calopterygidae)

   

클로로시피아과(Chlorocyphidae)

   

디크테리아다과(Dicteriadidae)

   

폴리토리아과(Polythoridae)

   

13 개의 미분류 과

     

에우패이아과(Euphaeidae)

   

레스토이데아과(Lestoideidae)

     

8 개의 미분류 과 위치 불확실

         

방울실잠자리과(Platycnemididae)

   

실잠자리과(Coenagrionidae)

   

이소스티크티아과(Isostictidae)

           

생김새

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실잠자리의 날개. 양쪽 모두 같은 모양이다.
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실잠자리의 한 종인 Pseudagrion caffrum의 배 끝 부분. 배 8번째 - 10번째 마디 뒤에 교미를 위한 꼬리뿔(c)과 덧돌기(p)가 보인다.
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교미하는 암컷(오른쪽)과 수컷 실잠자리 Calopteryx splendens. 수컷이 더 화려한 성적 이형성을 보인다.

실잠자리의 생김새는 대체적으로 잠자리와 비슷하다. 그러나 실잠자리는 잠자리보다 비교적 작고 날렵한 몸통에 보다 넓은 타원형의 겹눈이 튀어나와 있고, 무엇보다 앉았을 때 날개를 접어 쉽게 구분할 수 있다. 윗턱에 달린 순상부의 모습 역시 잠자리와 다르다. 머리에는 한 쌍의 겹눈 외에도 세 개의 홑눈이 있다. 홑눈은 명암을 구분하는 역할을 한다. 더듬이는 겹눈 사이에 작게 나와 있어 촉각의 구실은 거의 하지 못하지만 공기의 흐름을 느낄 수 있다.[5] 실잠자리 성충은 대개 성적 이형성을 보이는데 수컷쪽이 더 화려하고 밝은 색을 띈다. 한편 암컷은 위장색을 하고 있어 눈에 덜 띄고 이때문에 종 구분도 쉽지 않다. 예를 들어 유라시아 대륙 전역에 퍼져 살고 있는 실잠자리속(Coenagrion)에 속하는 종들의 수컷은 특유의 밝은 푸른색 점을 보이지만, 암컷의 경우엔 초록색 또는 갈색의 단순한 무늬만 있다.[6] 몇 몇 종에서 드물게 암컷 역시 수컷과 같은 모양을 띄는 경우가 있는데, 이 경우도 배란기가 되면 수컷과 다른 색상을 띈다. 아마도 배란기 이전에 수컷이 쫓아오는 것을 회피하는 쪽으로 진화한 탓으로 추정된다.[7] 반면에 실잠자리속의 몇 종은 수컷들 사이에서도 생김새가 다른 이형성을 보인다.[8]

일반적으로 실잠자리는 잠자리보다 작으며 아그리오크네마속(Agriocnemis)이 가장 작은 종류이다.[9] 가장 큰 것은 헬리콥터 실잠자리라고도 불리는 카에룰라투스실잠자리(Megaloprepus caerulatus)로 양쪽 날개 사이가 19cm에 달하고[10] 몸 길이도 13cm 정도가 된다.[11]

여섯 개의 다리가 전흉부에 연결되어 있다. 머리와 가슴을 연결하는 부분은 호리호리하며 부드러워 실잠자리가 머리를 돌려 사방을 볼 수 있도록 해준다. 가슴 뒷 부분에는 한 쌍의 날개가 달려 있다. 가슴에는 특유의 줄무늬가 있는데 종마다 생김새와 색상이 다르다.[5]

날개는 몇 줄기의 검은 혈림프관이 세로를 따라 길게 끝까지 지나가는 사이로 여러 개의 짧은 혈림프관이 가로로 얽혀 있다.[12] 가슴에서 시작된 근육은 날개 중간의 혈림프관이 가까이 모여 지나가는 결절(nodus)까지 이어져 날개를 움직이고, 날개 끝에는 검은 네모 모양의 연문(pterostigma)이 있다.[5] 실잠자리 날개는 투명한 것이 많지만 색이나 무늬가 있는 날개를 가진 것들도 있다. 암수의 날개 색상이 다른 경우도 있다.[13] 실잠자리는 앉아서 쉴 때 날개를 접는데 청실잠자리과만은 잠자리처럼 앉을 때에도 날개를 펴둔다.

복부는 길고 열 개의 마디가 있다. 짝짓기 철이 되면 수컷의 복부 두번째 마디와 세번째 마디 아랫쪽에 눈에 띄는 혼인색이 나타난다. 암컷의 생식기는 여덟번째와 아홉번째 마디 사이에서 열린다. 열번째 마디 끝에는 암수 모두 꼬리뿔이 있어 짝짓기에 이용된다. 짝짓기를 마치면 암컷은 수풀 위에 알을 낳는다.[5]

한 쌍의 겹눈은 넓은 타원형으로 둘 사이가 떨어져 있다.

다양성

실잠자리는 남극을 제외한 세계 전역에 서식하고 있는데[14] 연못과 호수 같은 물가에서 서식하기 때문에 잠자리보다는 서식지가 좁다.[15][16] 잘 보전된 환경에서만 사는 편이어서 개체수 역시 잠자리 보다는 적다. 실잠자리의 서식지는 먹을 것이 풍부하고 알을 낳기 적당한 깨끗한 물이 흐르는 습지의 작은 구역에 집중되어 있다.[17][18]

실잠자리는 한 지역에서만 머무르며 이동을 하지 않는 편이지만 브리티시 콜럼비아에 서식하는 보리얼 블루잇과 같은 대형 종은 멀리까지 서식지를 옮기기도 한다.[19]

실잠자리의 생물지리학적 분포는 다음과 같다.[18]

현존하는 실잠자리아목은 모두 합쳐 309 의 2,942 으로 알려져 있다.[18]

한국에는 4과의 37종이 서식하는 것으로 알려져 있다.[20] 최근의 지구 온난화로 냉대성인 북방아시아실잠자리는 한반도에서 자취를 감출 가능성이 큰 종으로 보고되었다.[21] 연분홍실잠자리 역시 한국의 기후변화 지표종으로 지정되었다.[22]


생태

큐 왕립식물원에서 관찰된 실잠자리.
머리를 닦는 실잠자리

실잠자리 성충은 파리, 모기 등의 작은 곤충을 잡아 먹고 산다. 공중에 머무르며 주위를 살피다가 재빨리 다가가 날렵한 다리로 먹이를 붙잡는다.[19] 먹이 사냥에는 눈뿐만 아니라 후각 기관도 사용된다.[23] 야간에 사냥하는 종은 없는 것으로 알려져 있지만 어둑어둑한 저녁 무렵에 사냥 활동을 하는 것은 쉽게 관찰된다. 아마도 보다 덩치가 큰 잠자리의 먹이 사냥과 경쟁을 피하기 위한 행동일 것이다.[24] 덩치가 가장 큰 남아메리카 열대의 대왕실잠자리(Pseudostigmatidae)는 거미를 잡아 먹거나 거미줄에 걸린 곤충을 약탈하기도 한다.[25]

한살이

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짝짓기를 하는 Ceriagrion cerinorubellum

실잠자리는 늦은 봄에서 여름 사이에 짝짓기를 한다. 짝짓기 철이 되면 수컷은 복부 두번째와 세번째 마디에 혼인색이 뚜렷해지고 암컷은 복부 여덟째 마디와 아홉째 마디에 생식관이 열린다. 실잠자리 수컷은 복부 끝에 있는 꼬리뿔을 이용하여 암컷의 머리와 가슴 사이에 복부를 고정시킨다. 암컷은 자신의 복부를 수컷의 성기에 부착시켜 정자를 받는다. 수컷의 성기엔 무수한 털이 있는데 이 과정에서 이전에 교미하였던 다른 수컷의 정자가 모두 씻겨나간다.[26] 수컷의 생식기는 국자처럼 확장되어 암컷의 생식기에 남아있는 다른 수컷의 정자를 밀어 내기 쉽게 된다.[27] 물론 암컷은 다시 다른 수컷과 교미할 수 있기 때문에 최종적으로 어느 수컷의 정자가 자식을 남길 지는 알 수 없다. 몇몇 수컷은 암컷이 산란할 때까지 붙잡고 놓지 않는 방식으로 자신의 정자를 지키기도 한다.[28] 실잠자리는 습지의 풀 위에 산란하는데, 논에 심어진 벼 위에 알을 낳기도 한다.[29]

알을 낳는 곳은 대개 연못이나 호수와 같은 습지이자만 드물게는 나무 구멍이나 잘린 대나무와 같은 곳에 고인 물에 낳는 경우도 있다.[30]

부화한 유충은 수중에서 생활한다. 실잠자리 유충의 생태는 잠자리 유충에 비해 비교적 연구된 바가 적다. 실잠자리 유충 역시 육식으로 물 속의 작은 곤충을 잡아 먹는다.[24] 잠자리목의 유충은 수채(水蠆)라고도 부른다. 수채는 꼬리쪽에 아가미를 가지고 있어 항문에서 직장으로 물을 빨아들인 뒤 이를 내뿜으며 호흡한다. 실잠자리아목의 유충은 3개의 긴 꼬리 아가미를 가지고 있어 꼬리아가미가 짧은 잠자리아목의 유충과 구별된다.[31] 종에 따라 1년에서 수년 사이의 유충기를 거치며 이 사이에 몇 번의 탈피를 한다. 다 성장한 유충은 물밖으로 나와 번데기 시기를 거치지 않고 바로 탈피를 통해 성충이 된다.[32]

보전

잠자리와 실잠자리는 둘 다 숲이나 습지가 얼마나 좋은 환경을 유지하고 있는지를 보여주는 지표 생물이다. 잠자리와 실잠자리는 먹이 활동과 서식지가 서로 겹치는 면이 있다.[33] 실잠자리의 개체수는 아직 안정적이지만 최근 서식지가 줄어들고 있다.

문화

플라이 낚시에서 다른 가짜 미끼는 대부분 깃털을 이용해 수면에 놓는 미끼인 반면 실잠자리 유충을 흉내낸 미끼는 물 속에 넣어 낚시를 한다.[34]

실잠자리를 모사한 브로치 같은 주얼리는 최소 1880년대부터 제작되었다.[35]

참고 문헌

외부 링크

각주

  1. Grimaldi, David; Engel, Michael S. (2005). 《Evolution of the Insects》. Cambridge University Press. 174, 178쪽. ISBN 978-0-521-82149-0.
  2. Jarzembowski, E. A.; A. Nel (2002). “The earliest damselfly like insect and the origin of modern dragonflies (Insecta: Odonatoptera: Protozygoptera)”. 《Proceedings of the Geologists' Association》 113 (2): 165–169. doi:10.1016/s0016-7878(02)80018-9.
  3. Bechly, Günter; Wichard, Wilfried (2008년 12월 30일). “Damselfly and dragonfly nymphs in Eocene Baltic amber (Insecta: Odonata), with aspects of their palaeobiology” (PDF). 《Palaeodiversity》 1: 37–73.
  4. Dijkstra, Klaas-Douwe B.; Kalkman, Vincent J.; Dow, Rory A.; Stokvis, Frank R.; van Tol, Jan (2013). “Redefining the damselfly families: a comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Zygoptera (Odonata)”. 《Systematic Entomology》 39 (1): 68–96. doi:10.1111/syen.12035.
  5. Paulson, Dennis (2011). 《Dragonflies and Damselflies of the East》. Princeton University Press. 10–32쪽. ISBN 978-1-4008-3966-7.
  6. Dijkstra 2006, 20, 104쪽.
  7. Gossum, Hans Van; Sherratt, Thomas N. (2008). “A dynamical model of sexual harassment in damselflies and its implications for female-limited polymorphism”. 《Ecological Modelling》 210: 212–220. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.07.023.
  8. Gossum, Hans Van; Sherratt, Tom N.; Cordero-Rivera, Adolfo (2008). 〈The evolution of sex-limited colour polymorphism〉. Cordoba-Aguilar, Alex. 《Dragonflies and Damselflies. Model organisms for ecological and evolutionary research》. Oxford University Press. 219–229쪽.
  9. Kipping, Jens; Martens, Andreas; Suhling, Frank (2012). “Africa's smallest damselfly – a new Agriocnemis from Namibia”. 《Organisms Diversity & Evolution》 12 (3): 301–306. doi:10.1007/s13127-012-0084-4.
  10. Groenevelda, Linn F.; Viola Clausnitzerb; Heike Hadrysa (2007). “Convergent Evolution of Gigantism in Damselflies of Africa and South America? Evidence from Nuclear and Mitochondrial Sequence Data”. 《Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution》 42 (2): 339–46. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.05.040. PMID 16945555.
  11. Hedström, Ingemar; Göran Sahlén (2001). “A key to the adult Costa Rican "helicopter" damselflies (Odonata: Pseudostigmatidae) with notes on their phenology and life zone preferences”. 《Rev. Biol. Trop》 49 (3–4): 1037–1056.
  12. Silsby, Jill (2001). 《Dragonflies of the World》. Csiro Publishing. 9쪽. ISBN 978-0-643-10249-1.
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  14. Nilsson, Anders (1997). 《Aquatic insects of North Europe: A taxonomic handbook》. Apollo Books. 14쪽. ISBN 978-87-88757-07-1.
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  16. Dunson, William A. (1980). “Adaptations of Nymphs of a Marine Dragonfly, Erythrodiplax berenice, to Wide Variations in Salinity”. 《Physiological Zoology》 53 (4): 445–452.
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  18. Suhling, F.; Sahlén, G.; Gorb, S.; Kalkman, V.J.; Dijkstra, K-D.B.; van Tol, J. (2015). 〈Order Odonata〉. Thorp, James & D. Christopher Rogers. 《Ecology and general biology. Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates》 4판. Academic Press. 893–932쪽. ISBN 978-0-12-385026-3.
  19. Acorn, John (2004). 《Damselflies of Alberta: Flying Neon Toothpicks in the Grass》. University of Alberta. 9–15쪽. ISBN 978-0-88864-419-0.
  20. ODONATA LIST OF KOREA, 한국의 잠자리
  21. 기후 변화에 민감한 생물 100종, 국립생물자원관
  22. 기후변화 지표 생물 - 잠자리류, 한국의 잠자리
  23. Piersanti, Silvana; Frati, Francesca; Conti, Eric; Gaino, Elda; Rebora, Manuela; Salerno, Gianandrea (2014). “First evidence of the use of olfaction in Odonata behaviour”. 《Journal of Insect Physiology》 62: 26–31. doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2014.01.006. PMID 24486162.
  24. Heckman, Charles W. (2008). 《Encyclopedia of South American Aquatic Insects: Odonata - Zygoptera: Illustrated Keys to Known Families, Genera, and Species in South America》. Springer. 17, 31–33쪽. ISBN 978-1-4020-8176-7.
  25. Ingley, Spencer J.; Bybee, Seth M.; Tennessen, Kenneth J.; Whiting, Michael F.; Branham, Marc A. (2012). “Life on the fly: phylogenetics and evolution of the helicopter damselflies (Odonata, Pseudostigmatidae)”. 《Zoologica Scripta》 41 (6): 637–650. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2012.00555.x.
  26. 김시준, 김현우, 박재용, 《EBS 다큐프라임 짝짓기 생명진화의 은밀한 기원》, EBS MEDIA, ISBN 979-11-8510-446-1
  27. 조영복, 〈곤충의 사회적 행동〉, 《과학과 사상》 21권, 1995년 5월
  28. Stanley I.Dodson, 노태호 역, 《생태학 - 인간과 자연》, 아카데미서적, 2000년, ISBN 978-89-7616-212-0, 244쪽
  29. 글 우네 유타카, 그림 가이하라 히로시, 이은선 역, 《생명이 모이는 생명이 자라는 즐거운 논학교》, 열음사, 2009년, ISBN 978-89-7427-248-7, 152쪽
  30. Fincke, Ola M. (2006). 〈Use of Forest and Tree Species, and Dispersal by Giant Damselflies (Pseudostigmatidae): Their Prospects in Fragmented Forests〉 (PDF). Adolfo Cordero Rivera. 《Fourth WDA International Symposium of Odonatology, Pontevedra (Spain), July 2005》. Sofia—Moscow: Pensoft Publishers. 103–125쪽. 2007년 6월 28일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서.
  31. 잠자리의 부화와 전유충, 한국의 잠자리
  32. 잠자리목(Odonata), 한국의 곤충
  33. Moore, N.W. (1997). “Dragonflies: status survey and conservation action plan” (PDF). International Union for Conservation of Nature. 2016년 4월 12일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 3월 17일에 확인함.
  34. Wada, Wes (2012). “Fishing Tips for the Juicebug Damsel Nymph”. Fly foundry. 2016년 11월 19일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 3월 13일에 확인함.
  35. “Antique "Damselfly" Brooch in Silver-topped Gold with Ruby Eyes”. Macklowe Gallery. 2015년 3월 13일에 확인함.[깨진 링크]
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