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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 12 years (wild) Observations: In captivity, three month-old females may mate, but in the wild males are not known to mate until about 15 months-old and females probably only mate when they are one year of age.
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Morphology

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Colors range from golden to dark brown above and usually pale brown below. Head and body length is 50-100 mm, tail length is 35-65 mm, and forearm length is 40-70 mm.

Range mass: 16 to 49 g.

Average mass: 27 g.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Life Expectancy

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Average lifespan
Status: wild:
8.0 years.

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Liz Ballenger, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Habitat

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Noctule bats are generally reside in forests but may forage in open areas and dwell in or near human habitation. Roosting sites include hollow trees, buildings, and caves.

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Liz Ballenger, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Distribution

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Most widely distributed vespertilionid bat, common throughout Europe, most of temperate Asia to Japan and Burma, Oman, Viet Nam, Taiwan, Algeria, and possibly Mozambique and Singapore.

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native )

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Liz Ballenger, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Trophic Strategy

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Noctule bats generally have two main feeding flights of one or two hours duration, one in the early evening and the other ending just before sunrise. These bats eat winged ants, moths, and other insects, but are particulary fond of beetles. One instance of Nyctalus noctula capturing and eating house mice (Mus musculus) was observed.

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Untitled

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Nyctalus noctula is migratory, traveling south-southwest to hibernate in caves and traveling a range of 80-750 km north-northeast to summer roosting sites. Not all individuals of a population migrate; some may overwinter in a hollow log or woodpecker hole. The longest journey recorded for Nyctalus noctula is 2,347 km.

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Behavior

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Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Conservation Status

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Nyctalus noctula numbers are declining in Europe due to the elimination of their natural habitat, roosting trees, and insect prey.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Liz Ballenger, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits

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Noctule bats have been infected in the laboratory with the plague-causing bacteria Yersinia (=Pasteurella), which points to some pathological implications for humans. They may also be a source of transmission for Borrelia recurrentis (a bacteria causing relapsing fever in humans), when humans are parasitized by ticks and body lice that have previously parasitized the bats.

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Liz Ballenger, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Reproduction

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One litter 1, 2, or (rarely) 3 young are born per female between May and June, although breeding occurs in both September and the spring. Two young are often born in areas where winters are more severe. Females have been found to mate in captivity when 3 months old; gestation is 50-70 days. Males mate during their second autumn, when 15 months old.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 3.

Range gestation period: 70 to 73 days.

Average weaning age: 60 days.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous

Average birth mass: 5.37 g.

Average number of offspring: 1.5.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
455 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
90 days.

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Ballenger, L. 1999. "Nyctalus noctula" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Nyctalus_noctula.html
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Liz Ballenger, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Biology

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Bats are the only true flying mammals. In Britain, they are insectivorous (eat insects), and contrary to popular misconception they are not blind; many can actually see very well (6). All British bats use echolocation to orient themselves at night; they emit bursts of sound that are of such high frequencies they are beyond the human range of hearing and are therefore called 'ultrasound' (7). They then listen to and interpret the echoes bounced back from objects, including prey, around them, allowing them to build up a 'sound-picture' of their surroundings (7). Noctule bats produce echolocation calls of frequencies between 25 and 45 kHz (5). They emerge relatively early, often when it is still light (2). They hunt for moths, beetles and other large flying insects with fast, high flight, making rapid turns and diving frequently (2). The noctule migrates to the south or southwest during autumn, in order to escape the worst of the harsh winter weather, although not all individuals migrate (6). Mating takes place between August and October (2); during this time a single male defends a mating roost of 4 to 5 females against other males (2). Fertilisation is delayed until the following spring (6), as females store sperm inside their uterus (womb) during the winter hibernation (8), which occurs between October and early April (2). During early summer males and females live together in summer roosts, but females begin to gather into maternity roosts of 20-50 (rarely up to a few hundred) females after late May (2). During this time males live in small groups (2). In England, a single young is usually produced in June or early July; the young can fly at 4 weeks of age and reaches independence at around 7 weeks (2). Noctule bats are known to live to a maximum of 12 years of age (2).
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Conservation

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In Britain, bats benefit from a very comprehensive level of legal protection (4). Under the Wildlife and Countryside Act it is illegal to intentionally kill, injure, take or sell a bat, posses a live bat or part of a bat, to intentionally (or in England and Wales, recklessly) damage, obstruct or destroy access to bat roosts. Under the Conservation Regulations it is an offence to damage or destroy breeding sites or resting places. Fines of up to £5,000 for every bat affected, and up to six months imprisonment are in place for these offences (3). Several species of bat can also benefit by bat boxes put up by the public, which can provide roosting sites.
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Description

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The noctule is one of the largest bats in Europe (7). It has long, narrow wings (2), and the short fur lies close to the body. The back is reddish-brown and develops a glossy sheen during summer. The belly is a duller, lighter brown (2). Juveniles are darker than adults, and have pale brown backs (2). The wing membranes, nose and broad triangular-shaped ears are blackish-brown (2).
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Habitat

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This species favours open habitats (7) and is found in woodland, large parks (2), wetlands, pasture land and large gardens (7). Maternity colonies occur mainly in tree-holes, summer roosts have also been found in bat boxes, hollow streetlights, and bridges. Hibernation takes place in hollow trees, crevices in rocks, and buildings (2).
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Range

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Occurs throughout much of Europe including England and Wales, but is absent from northern Scotland, Ireland, and north Scandinavia (5). Although it has a fairly wide distribution in England and Wales, it is not a common species (7).
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Status

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In Great Britain, all bats are fully protected under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981) as amended, and by the Conservation (Natural Habitats etc) Regulations (1994). An agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe (EUROBATS) under the auspices of the Bonn Convention, also known as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) is in force, and all European bats are listed under Appendix II of the CMS (4).
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Threats

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Like all bats, the noctule is vulnerable to a number of threats, including the loss of roost sites; hollow trees are often felled if thought unsafe or 'untidy'. Habitat change and loss, affecting the availability of insect prey and causing the fragmentation of feeding habitat is a serious problem for many bats, furthermore pesticide use has devastating effects, by causing severe declines in insect prey abundance, and contaminating food with potentially fatal toxins (4).
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Associations

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In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / blood sucker
adult of Cimex pipistrelli sucks the blood of Nyctalus noctula

Animal / dung associate
larva of Fannia vespertilionis inhabits dung of Nyctalus noctula

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Common noctule

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The common noctule (Nyctalus noctula) is a species of insectivorous bat common throughout Europe, Asia, and North Africa.

Description

A common noctule

The common noctule's short fur is dark brown after moulting in June (males) or July/August (females); later it changes to red-brown before the onset of winter.[2] When awake, the body temperature is 36.5 °C (97.7 °F) but it decreases significantly during inactivity.[3] The body mass of adult common noctule is 25–30 g (0.88–1.1 oz) and they have a wingspan of 37–40 cm (15–16 in). The species forages with a rapid flying speed of 20–40 km/h (12–25 mph), sometimes up to 60 km/h (37 mph).[2] Because of temporally limited availability of insect prey, they have short daily activity periods before sunrise and after sunset of in total one hour or less and so must cope with up to twenty-three hours of fasting a day.[4]

Distribution

Most parts of Europe, central Russia, across the Ural mountain, Caucasus, Turkey, the Near East, to southwestern parts of Siberia, the Himalayas, China, Malaysia, Taiwan and Japan. In Bulgaria, it is widespread and prefers deciduous forests.[5]

Biology

Reproduction and migration

Common noctules roosting in the crevice of a building.

The common noctule is a migrating species with female bias, meaning that the females migrate but the males do not.[2][6][7] Mating season is in late summer in the wintering areas, and the females store the sperm in the uterus during hibernation until fertilization in spring.[2]

During early pregnancy in late April the females migrate north, as far as the Baltic region, to return to their natal maternity colonies and give birth after being pregnant for six to eight weeks. Each female rears one or two young per year.[2][8]

At birth the offspring is about a third of the maternal body weight, and after three to four weeks of suckling the young leave the roost almost fully developed – so the female rears the offspring to full size entirely on milk.[9]

Male common noctules do not migrate, but scatter along the females' migration routes to have higher chances of attracting the first females migrating back to the wintering regions. The reproductive cycle of male bats seems to correspond directly to season and food availability and spermatogenesis can be affected by body condition.[10] In early autumn, males develop large testes and aim to attract females with singing calls.[2] While in the harem roosts, males often do not enter torpor, but stay awake and mobile to defend the females from other males trying to copulate. Another reason for the avoidance of torpor during late summer and early autumn can be that spermatogenesis in bats can be delayed when resting metabolic rate is depressed, i.e. during torpor and hibernation.[11]

During the summer, male noctules are solitary or form small bachelor groups.

In Europe, the young are reared mainly in the northern parts of the distribution area, north of roughly 48°–49°N latitude.[12] With the exception of the main breeding area, several smaller and isolated breeding areas are known – recorded in Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Iberian Peninsula and Italy.[13]

Hibernation

Common noctule bats hibernate in winter, and sometimes congregate in hibernation colonies of up to 1000 individuals. In late summer the adult females migrate back southwards to the wintering areas, the young following later. Hibernation at these latitudes is thought to avoid too many days in winter below 0 °C (32 °F).[14] At the beginning of winter, usually in November (but this is strongly dependent on the ambient temperatures), N noctula start to hibernate in large groups with both sexes in the same roost. Tree holes are not warm enough so they use caves, objects like church steeples or blocks of flats in Eastern Europe,[15] where they are most common hibernating bat species in the cities. Sometimes summer territories and hibernating places are hundreds of kilometres apart.

Diet

When hunting, it often starts flying in early dusk, earlier than most European bats. It flies high above the forested areas that are its preferred habitat, reaching speeds of up to 50 km/h (31 mph).[16] Common noctule bats mainly eat beetles, moths and winged ants.

Echolocation

The common noctule uses two main calls for echolocation. The frequencies of the first are 26–47 kHz, have most energy at 27 kHz and an average duration of 11.5ms.[17] The frequency of the second call is 22–33 kHz, having most energy at 22 kHz and an average duration of 13.8ms.[17][18]

Distribution and habitat

Common noctule in the Seeburgpark near Konstanz (Germany)

The common noctule prefers small to medium-sized woodlands, but also forages up to 20 km (12 mi) away from the woodland at night. When roosting by day, it usually seeks out tree holes or even bat boxes attached to tree trunks.

Generally, the common noctule lives in wooded habitats, but some populations thrive in towns such as Hamburg, Vienna, Brno and some other central European cities.

Conservation

This species is protected in the European Union under the Habitats Directive. It is also listed in the Berne Convention and is specifically targeted by the UNEP-EUROBATS convention. Several national legislatures also protect this species and its habitats.

In order to highlight the importance of protecting this species at the European scale, it was selected as "Bat species of the Year" 2016 and 2017 by the pan-European NGO BatLife Europe.[19]

References

  1. ^ Csorba, G.; Hutson, A.M. (2016). "Nyctalus noctula". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T14920A22015682. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T14920A22015682.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Braun M. & Dieterlen F. 2003
  3. ^ Kulzer E. 1967
  4. ^ Dechmann, D. K., Wikelski, M., Varga, K., Yohannes, E., Fiedler, W., Safi, K., Burkhard, W.-D. and O'Mara, M. T. 2014.
  5. ^ "Nyctalus noctula", Science for Nature Foundation
  6. ^ Petit E. & Mayer F. 1999.
  7. ^ Popa-Lisseanu A. G. & Voigt C. C. 2009.
  8. ^ Racey P. 1982.
  9. ^ Kurta A., Johnson K. A. and Kunz T. H. 1987.
  10. ^ Speakman J. & Racey P. 1986.
  11. ^ Kurta A. & Kunz T. H. 1988.
  12. ^ Strelkov, P.P. 1997.
  13. ^ Görföl, T., Dombi, I., Boldogh, S., & Estók, P. 2009.
  14. ^ McNab, B. K. 1982.
  15. ^ Ceľuch M. & Kaňuch P. 2005.
  16. ^ "Noctule Bat Factsheet". bats.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2011-04-18.
  17. ^ a b Parsons, S. & Jones, G. 2000.
  18. ^ Obrist, M.K., Boesch, R. and Flückiger, P.F. 2004.
  19. ^ "BatLife Europe Bat of Year". batlife-europe.info. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
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Common noctule: Brief Summary

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The common noctule (Nyctalus noctula) is a species of insectivorous bat common throughout Europe, Asia, and North Africa.

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