Microtus pennsylvanicus first appeared in the Late Pleistocene and is very abundant in the fossil record.
Meadow voles have keen hearing and a good sense of smell. Vocalizations are primarily used in defensive situations.
Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical
The meadow vole is very abundant and has no special status.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
When abundant, the meadow can be a pest. It can do considerable damage to growing grain and is also a problem in orchards and forestry plantings (Jackson 1961).
Negative Impacts: crop pest
Microtus pennsylvanicus destroys many weeds especially weed grasses, and serves as food for some fur animals and other predators (Jackson 1961).
Especially because they are so abundant in the habitats where they are found, meadow voles have crucial ecosystem roles. Many predator species rely on voles to make up a significant portion of their diet, especially owls, small hawks and falcons. In addition, meadow voles consume large quantities of grass and recycle the nutrients held in the grass through their droppings. They also help to aerate and turn the soil through their digging activities.
Meadow voles feed mainly on the fresh grass, sedges, and herbs that are found locally within their range. They will also eat a variety of seeds and grains. From May until August they subsists on green and succulent vegetation. During the fall they switch to grains and seeds, and during the winter they have been known to feed on the bark and roots of shrubs and small trees. These voles will also eat tubers and bulbs when available. When this species overlaps the range of cranberries, meadow voles feed extensively on these fruits. They also eat other types of fruit. Meadow voles will eat flesh and are cannibalistic, especially on new born young. They do not show much storage behavior, but occasionally make small caches of tubers during the fall. Meadow voles are voracious eaters, consuming close to 60% of the body weight. When eating, these animals sit up and will stand to gnaw bark or a grain stalk (Jackson 1961).
Animal Foods: mammals; insects
Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Frugivore , Granivore )
Microtus pennsylvanicus is the most widespread vole in North America. Its east to west range is continuous from central Alaska to the Atlantic coast. South of the Canadian border, its western limit is the Rocky mountains. The meadow vole is found as far south as New Mexico and Georgia (Maser and Storm 1970).
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
Microtus pennsylvanicus can be found in mainly in meadows, lowland fields, grassy marshes, and along rivers and lakes. They are also occasionally found in flooded marshes, high grasslands near water, and orchards or open woodland if grassy (Jackson 1961).
Habitat Regions: temperate
Meadow voles are short-lived, rarely living for longer than one year in the wild.
The total length of M. pennsylvanicus ranges from 128 to 195 mm with a tail about 40% of the body length. The dorsal surface is dark blackish brown to dark reddish brown with coarse black hairs. The ventral surface is grey or white and may be tinged with light brown. The winter pelage is duller and more grey. There is no sexual variation in size or color. The skull is moderately heavy, rather long, and slightly angular. The upper cheek tooth row is relatively long, about 7.2 mm, and the third premolar, usually a distinguishing characteristic among the voles, has an anterior complex, a posterior loop, and seven triangles in between, four lingual and three labial (Maser and Storm 1970, Jackson 1961).
Range mass: 33.0 to 65.0 g.
Average mass: 43.67 g.
Range length: 128.0 to 195.0 mm.
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Average basal metabolic rate: 0.428 W.
Meadow voles are aggressive and will attack when cornered or captured. They take refuge from predators in their system of burrows and grass tunnels. Below is a list of some predators.
Known Predators:
Mating in M. pennsylvanicus is promiscuous. They breed all year round with March through November being the main breeding season. The number of young in a litter varies from two to nine with six or seven as the most common litter size. Number is correlated with the size of the female, with younger females giving birth to smaller litters. Breeding is virtually continuous and the female will mate immediately after giving birth. First mating in females occurs when they are about half grown at an age of 25 days. Males mate when they reach the age of about 45 days (Jackson 1961).
Breeding interval: Females will mate again as soon as they give birth, so they can have a large number of litters in one year. One female in captivity had 17 litters in one year.
Breeding season: Year-round
Range number of offspring: 3.0 to 10.0.
Average gestation period: 21.0 days.
Average weaning age: 14.0 days.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); viviparous
Average birth mass: 2.46 g.
Average gestation period: 21 days.
Average number of offspring: 5.5.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 37 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 29 days.
Baby voles are born helpless, but grow quickly. Females care for and nurse their young in the nest until they are weaned at two weeks old. Soon after weaning the young move away, or disperse, from their mother's home range.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care
