Predators of all life stages of butterflies include a variety of insect parasatoids. These wasps or flies will consume the body fluids first, and then eat the internal organs, ultimately killing the butterfly. Those wasps that lay eggs inside the host body include species in many different groups: Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, Pteromalidae, Chalcidoidea, Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Scelionidae, Trichogrammatidae, and others. Trichogrammatids live inside the eggs, and are smaller than a pinhead. Certain flies (Tachinidae, some Sarcophagidae, etc.) produce large eggs and glue them onto the outside of the host larva, where the hatching fly larvae then burrow into the butterfly larvae. Other flies will lays many small eggs directly on the larval hostplants, and these are ingested by the caterpillars as they feed.
Most predators of butterflies are other insects. Praying mantis, lacewings, ladybird beetles, assasin bugs, carabid beetles, spiders, ants, and wasps (Vespidae, Pompilidae, and others) prey upon the larvae. Adult butterflies are eaten by robber flies, ambush bugs, spiders, dragonflies, ants, wasps (Vespidae and Sphecidae), and tiger beetles. The sundew plant is known to catch some butterflies.
There are also many vertebrate predators including lizards, frogs, toads, birds, mice, and other rodents.
Dukes skippers were named in honor of W. C. Duke, who lived in Mobile, Alabama. Previous common names include scarce swamp skipper and brown sedge skipper. Dukes skippers were assigned to the genus Atrytone in 1923.
The species was discovered in Ohio in 1980 in Findley State Park, and led to the creation of the Dukes Skipper Butterfly Sanctuary by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, the first of its kind in Ohio.
No social communication has been described in the literature. Undoubtedly there are courtship rituals that occur prior to mating, however, there is no published description. In addition, there may be some communication via pheremones as is found in other lepidopteran species.
Communication Channels: visual ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical
Dukes skippers are of conservation concern in all parts of their range, because they are only know from a few widely scattered sites. They are listed as threatened in the state of Michigan.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: threatened
There is no published literature at this time concerning the development of Dukes' skippers, however, it can be assumed that they follow the general lepidopteran life cycle of egg, five instars, pupae and adult. Caterpillars are known to overwinter in the fourth stage, and emerge from diapause in the springtime to feed on their larval foodplants. They will then molt one last time before pupation. The duration of the pupal period is not reported, but probably falls between one to two weeks.
Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis ; diapause
There are no known adverse affects of Dukes' skipper on humans.
Dukes skippers are considered uncommon to endangered in much of their range, and thus a subject of interest for nature enthusiasts, who travel and provide economic benefits to the communities they visit. The designation of the Dukes Skipper Sanctuary in Findley State Park in Ohio created a potential revenue source from park visitors.
Positive Impacts: ecotourism ; research and education
Dukes' skippers most likely serve as minor pollinators. They are prey for a variety of predators.
Ecosystem Impact: pollinates
Dukes' skipper larvae feed on Carex laucustris in the north and Carex hyalinolepis in the south. They are also reported to utilize Carex walteriana, and Rhynchospora. In Florida, the primary hostplant of E. dukesi calhouni has been identified as Rhynchospora inundata, but they are also known to utilize Rhynchospora miliacea and a species of Carex.
Adults nectar on buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis, common milkweed Asclepias syriaca, swamp milkweed Asclepias incarnata, joe-pye weed Eupatorium maculatum, blue mistflower E. coelestinum, pickerelweed Pontederia cordata, hibiscus species Hibiscus, sneezeweed Helenium autumnale, alfalfa Medicago sativa, and red clover Trifolium pratense.
Plant Foods: leaves; nectar
Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Nectarivore )
There are three populations of Dukes' skippers Euphyes dukesi, all are in the eastern North America: 1) along the Atlantic Coast from southeast Virginia to northern peninsular Florida, 2) the lower Mississippi Valley from central Missouri and southern Illinois south to the Gulf Coast, and 3) southern Ontario, southeastern Michigan, northeastern Indiana, and northern Ohio.
In Ohio, they are primarily found in the Black Swamp area, and in Michigan occur in the southeastern portion of the state. The subspecies E. dukesi calhouni inhabits the southern United States coastal plain and is endemic to Florida. E. dukesi dukesi and E. dukesi calhouni are allopatric and closely approach one another in northeastern Florida and southeastern Georgia, however, there is no known intergradation. Individual populations appear to be widely separated, a contributing factor in their rarity.
The endemic nature of E. dukesi calhouni was recognized in the mid -1990's. Shuey (1995) speculates that their isolation from populations on the North American mainland may be attributed to Pleistocene glacial events.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
This species prefers shaded wetlands dominated by the larval foodplant Carex lacustris, including coastal swamps and ditches. In Merriam's Life Zone classification, they are found in the Lower to Upper Austral Life Zones. In the southern portions of their range, E. dukesi dukesi inhabit shaded tupelo swamps and utilize Carex hyalinopepis as their larval foodplant. In Ohio, populations exist in low densities in scattered patches along railroad right-of-ways through swampy woodland and in small, natural clearings within woodlands. They are often associated with buttonbush (Ceanothus occidentalis).
In Florida, E. dukesi calhouni has been found in at least five types of forested wetlands. They are limited to swamp habitats that contain large stands of their sedge hostplants.
Habitat Regions: temperate
Wetlands: marsh ; swamp ; bog
From hatching through the death of the adult stage, a Dukes' skipper probably lives about a year or less. Several months of that time may be spent dormant in the winter. The estimated lifespan of an adult Dukes' skipper in the wild is approximately three weeks.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 1 (high) years.
Dukes' skippers range in size from 32-38 mm (1¼-1½ in) and have short, rounded wings. Females are slightly larger than males. The upper surfaces of the wings in both sexes are deep brown. The females have a hindwing band that has two to three pale yellow spots. Males have a black stigma on the forewing. The underside of the hindwings are light brown with pale yellow rays.
The caterpillars of this species have a black head and light green body. The pupae nest in sedge leaves; they tie themselves into the upper portion of plants with silk.
Range wingspan: 32 to 38 mm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger; sexes colored or patterned differently
Males are often seen patrolling over the tops of sedges and will perch in search of females.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
In the southern part of their range, Dukes' skippers have three flights from mid-May through October. Farther north there are two flight periods; mid-June to mid-July and late July to early September. In the lower Mississippi valley the two flight periods run from mid-May through June and mid-August to early October. In Ohio, southern Ontario, southeast Michigan, and northern Indiana, Dukes' skippers have one brood that flies during late June through early August. After mating, females lay their eggs under the leaves of their host plants, sedges in the genus Carex. After hatching, the larvae undergo several molts and diapause in the fourth instar stage.
The time of mating differs depending upon where the population is in the species' range. After mating, females lay their eggs under the leaves of their host plants. After hatching, the larvae undergo several molts and hibernate in the fourth larval stage.
Breeding interval: Dukes' skippers are univoltine in the north to trivoltine in the south.
Breeding season: Each flight period lasts approximately one month.
Key Reproductive Features: semelparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); oviparous
No parental care is given for Dukes' skippers.
Parental Investment: no parental involvement
Euphyes dukesi, or Dukes' skipper, is a butterfly of the family Hesperiidae. It lives in the eastern United States and in a small portion of southern Ontario, Canada, in three distinct populations.[3] Preferred habitats are shaded wetlands (woodland or coastal swamps, marshes, and ditches), with various species of sedge plants it uses as host plants for its larvae.[3]
They have short, rounded wings with a wingspan of 32 to 38 mm (1.3 to 1.5 in).[3] The wings of both sexes are deep brown on top, and the underside of the hindwings are light brown with pale yellow rays. They are similar in appearance to other Euphyes, but "the single yellowish streak on the hindwing beneath is unmistakable."[5] Females are slightly larger than males and have a hindwing band with two to three pale yellow spots, while males have a black stigma on the forewing.[3] Caterpillars have a light green body with a black head.[3]
For male genitalia have "five toothed processes at the terminus of the aedoeagus."[6]
The species was named for W. C. Dukes of Mobile, Alabama, in Arthur Ward Lindsey's original 1923 description of the species, "in acknowledgment of his unselfish efforts to advance our knowledge of the Lepidoptera of Alabama."[7] The first specimen was collected by Dukes on August 6, 1922, in Mobile County, Alabama.[6][7]
Dukes' skipper is found in scattered locations around the eastern United States and a small portion of southeastern Canada.[8] There are three distinct regionally clustered populations:
Its full distribution consists of the Canadian province of Ontario and the following US states: Alaska, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Missouri, Mississippi, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia.[9]
The split distribution between coastal plains and the Great Lakes area is unusual for North American butterflies, and it is hypothesized that it may be due to population displacements during the Pleistocene glacial intervals, followed by dispersal through the vegetational corridors of the Mississippi and Mohawk valleys when the ice sheets retreated.[4]
Eggs are laid singly under the leaves of the host plants on which the larvae feed.[2][3] Larvae molt several times, diapause to overwinter in their fourth instar, feed again and molt once more in the spring, then pupate for about two weeks before emerging as adults.[2][3] Its adult lifespan is estimated at three weeks, and its total lifespan from hatching is about a year or less.[3]
The species ranges from univoltine in the north to trivoltine in the south, with flight periods lasting approximately one month. In northern populations, the species typically has a single brood around July. From western Kentucky and Virginia southward, it has one brood around June and a second brood around August to September. In Florida, the subspecies E. dukesi calhouni may have more than two broods, from mid-May through October.
Host plants used by larvae are restricted to various sedges of the genera Carex and Rhynchospora.[2][3] These include hairy sedge Carex lacustris in the north (particularly in shaded wetlands, including coastal swamps and ditches), shoreline sedge Carex hyalinolepis in the south (Mississippi River basin), false hop sedge Carex lupuliformis, Carex walteriana, Walter's sedge (Carex striata) in the southeast, narrowfruit horned beaksedge (Ryncospora inundata), and millet beaksedge (Rynchospora miliacea) in Florida.[3]
Adults feed on flower nectar of various plants including buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata), Joe-Pye weed (Eupatorium maculatum), blue mistflower (Eupatorium coelestinum), pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), hibiscus species (Hibiscus), sneezeweed (Helenium autumnale), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and red clover (Trifolium pratense).[3]
There are two subspecies of Euphyes dukesi: the nominate subspecies discovered in 1922, and a swamp-dwelling Florida subspecies discovered in 1995.[6][7][10]
The divergence of two subspecies may have occurred due to isolation of Florida and other populations during the Wisconsinian glaciation or an earlier glacier event, with boreal forests acting as barriers.[4]
E. d. calhouni is named after its discoverer John Calhoun, and Shuey proposed the common name Florida swamp skipper to emphasize its endemic range and habitat, but which has also been proposed for the species Euphyes berryi.[10]
Distinguishing characteristics between the subspecies:[10]
Dukes' skipper's threat status has not been assessed by the IUCN Red List, nor is it covered by the US Endangered Species Act or Canadian Species at Risk Act.[11] The state of Michigan lists it as a threatened species protected by state law,[12][13] the Xerces Society Red List of Butterflies and Moths lists it as vulnerable,[9][11] and NatureServe lists the species' national conservation status as N3 (vulnerable) in the United States and N2 (imperiled) in Canada, with a global status of G3 (vulnerable), last reviewed in 2008 as of 2013.[1]
Euphyes dukesi, or Dukes' skipper, is a butterfly of the family Hesperiidae. It lives in the eastern United States and in a small portion of southern Ontario, Canada, in three distinct populations. Preferred habitats are shaded wetlands (woodland or coastal swamps, marshes, and ditches), with various species of sedge plants it uses as host plants for its larvae.
Euphyes dukesi is een vlinder uit de familie van de dikkopjes (Hesperiidae).[1] De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1923 door Lindsey.
Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
