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Biology

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The minnow lives in groups and feeds on plant debris, algae, molluscs, insects and crustaceans (4). The spawning season lasts from April to June (2); during this time they undertake short upstream migrations to spawn in shallow, gravelly areas (4). The minnow is an important component of the diet of larger fishes, including the brown trout (Salmo trutta fario), as well as many water birds (3). This species is a good 'indicator' of the quality and oxygen content of streams and rivers (2).
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Conservation

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Conservation action has not been targeted at this species.
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Description

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The minnow is a small, lively freshwater fish, with a greenish-brown back (2), which features darker spots that form an attractive 'banded' effect (3). It has fairly large eyes, a small mouth and a blunt nose (2). During the spawning season, males develop spectacular colours; the back becomes dark, the sides golden and the belly and lower fins turn bright red (2).
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Habitat

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Inhabits clean streams and rivers that have either a sandy or stony bed (2), in cold, running or still water that is well oxygenated (4). It reaches altitudes of 2000 m, and has been found in some lakes (2).
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Range

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The minnow is found throughout much of Europe, from Britain to eastern Spain and eastern Siberia (4). It is widespread in Britain, but is absent from north Scotland (2).
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Status

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Common and widespread.
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Threats

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Not currently threatened.
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Diagnostic Description

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Diagnosed from its congeners in Europe by having lateral line usually reaching beyond anal fin base, a midlateral row of vertically elongated blotches whose depth is about 1/3-1/2 of body depth at same position, often fused in a midlateral stripe (in preserved individuals), caudal peduncle depth 2.6-3.1 times in its length, patches of breast scales separated by unscaled area or (rarely) connected anteriorly by 1-2 rows of scales, snout length 29-34% HL ( 1.1-1.4 times eye diameter), and anal fin origin in front of base of last dorsal ray (Ref. 59043). Caudal fin with 19 rays (Ref. 2196).
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Recorder
Pascualita Sa-a
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Life Cycle

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Males and females form school separately and arrive on the spawning site at differen times. Spawn over clean gravel areas in flowing water or on wave-washed shores of lakes. Deposit eggs in shallow water on sand or gravel bottom which hatch in 4-5 days at 18°C. Females lay sticky eggs deep into clean gravel (Ref. 59043).
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Recorder
Armi G. Torres
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Migration

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Potamodromous. Migrating within streams, migratory in rivers, e.g. Saliminus, Moxostoma, Labeo. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.
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Crispina B. Binohlan
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Morphology

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Dorsal spines (total): 3; Dorsal soft rays (total): 6 - 8; Analspines: 3; Analsoft rays: 6 - 8; Vertebrae: 38 - 40
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Trophic Strategy

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Species has herbivorous-detritivorous tendencies (Ref. 12053).
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Biology

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Gregarious (Ref. 2196). Found in a wide range of cold and well oxygenated habitats from small, fast-flowing streams to large Nordic lowland rivers and from small upland lakes to large oligotrophic lakes. Usually occurs in association with salmonid fishes (Ref. 59043). Feeds on algae, plant debris (in rivers), mollusks, crustaceans and insects (Ref. 30578). Spawns over clean gravel areas in flowing water or on wave-washed shores of lakes. Overwinters in coarse substrate or in deep pools with low current (Ref. 59043). Migrates upstream for spawning in shallow gravel areas. Important laboratory fish, for research on sensory organs of fishes. Mean maximum age is 6 years (Ref. 41616). Locally threatened due to pollution and excessive stocking of species of Salmo (Ref. 59043).
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Importance

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fisheries: minor commercial; aquarium: commercial; bait: usually
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Common minnow

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The Eurasian minnow,[2] minnow,[1] or common minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) is a small species of freshwater fish in the carp family Cyprinidae. It is the type species of genus Phoxinus. It is ubiquitous throughout much of Eurasia, from Britain and Spain to eastern Siberia, predominantly in cool (12–20 °C (54–68 °F)) streams and well-oxygenated lakes and ponds. It is noted for being a gregarious species, shoaling in large numbers.

Description

The common minnow is a small fish which reaches a maximum total length of 14 centimetres (5+12 in), but is normally around 7 centimetres (3 in) in length. It has 3 spines and 6–8 soft rays in its dorsal fin with 3 spines and 6–8 soft rays in its anal fin. Its spine is made up of 38–40 vertebrae. It is distinguished from similar species which occur in Europe by having the lateral line normally extending beyond the nase of the anal fin, by a line of vertically elongated blotches along the lateral line each with a depth equivalent to 1/3–1/2 of the body's depth at same position, these blotches often fuse to form a midlateral stripe, caudal peduncle has a depth of 2.6–3.1 times its length. The scales on the breast are patchy and the patches of scales are separated by unscaled areas although they are rarely connected by 1–2 rows of scales. Its snout length is 29–34% of the head length and is 1.1–1.4 times the diameter of the eye. The anal fin has its origin in front of the base of the last dorsal ray. The caudal fin consists of 19 soft rays.[2] The back is normally brownish-green, and is separated from the whitish-gray underside by the lateral stripe or blotches described above,[3]

Distribution

The common minnow is found in northern Eurasia from Ireland in the west and in the east to the Amur drainage and Korea. In Great Britain occurs to 58 °N and in Scandinavia and Russia occur up to the northernmost extremities. In western Europe the southern limit appears to be the Garonne and the upper Rhone. It has been recorded in the drainages of the Volga and the Ural, as well as in Lake Balkhash and the upper Syr-Darya drainage. Records elsewhere require confirmation as this species is similar to a number of others.[1] In Scotland it is regarded as an introduced non native species,[4] and this is probably the case in Ireland.[1] Introductions are likely to have occurred elsewhere, including Norway.[2][3]

Habitat

The common minnow is found in a wide variety of environments that have cold, well oxygenated water, often in syntopy with salmonids. These include small streams with fast currents, and, in the more northerly parts of its range, large lowland rivers. It also lives in still waters as varied as small mountain lakes to large, oligotrophic lakes. For spawning, it requires clean gravel areas in well oxygenated flowing water or where waves wash on lake shores. It also needs deep pools with low current to overwinter in, and these must have a coarse substrate among which the fish can hide.[1]

Behavior

Minnows shoaling in the shallows at Eglinton Country Park in Scotland

Shoaling

Shoaling and schooling behavior of common minnows occur early in their development, as soon as they become capable of swimming. Shoaling behavior then increases and becomes dominant by three to four weeks after its emergence.[5] This behavior generally benefits individual minnows by improving predator avoidance and foraging. However, there are also costs of living in groups such as increased competition for food and risk of infection. Shoaling behavior is modified depending on the situation such as presence of predators or resource availability.[6]

Predator avoidance

The group formation of common minnows can be explained by the selfish herd effect proposed by W.D. Hamilton. According to the selfish herd theory, a group forms as individuals try to reduce their domain of danger by approaching others and continuously moving toward the center of the group where the risk of predation is the lowest.[7] As the theory predicts, common minnows increase their shoaling behavior in response to increased predation pressure.

Alarm substance

Common minnows can detect the predators’ presence and communicate with their shoalmates by a chemical signal that is detected by olfactory nerves. The chemical, named Schreckstoff after a German word meaning "fear substance" by Karl von Frisch who first described it, is contained in specialized skin cells called alarm substance cells and is released from an injured or killed minnow.[8] The shoalmates can detect the chemical and respond to the increased risk of predation.

The production and release of this alarm substance are altruistic because the sender of the signal, who does not directly benefit from the signal released upon its injury, has to pay the cost for the production and release of the chemical. In fact, the alarm substance cells decrease in number when the common minnows are in poor physical condition due to scarce food, indicating that there is metabolic cost for producing and maintaining the specialized cells.[9] The apparent altruistic behavior is not clearly understood, because the likely explanation of kin selection is not supported by the shoal structure of common minnows in which shoalmates are not necessarily closely related.[10]

Shoaling adjustment in response to predation risk

When common minnows sense the alarm substance, they form tighter shoals as individuals move to be in the central position in their shoaling group. However, in an experiment where common minnows were habituated to the chemical by continuous exposure, common minnows did not react to the signal. Only the naïve common minnows reacted to the signal by relocating themselves to the central position in the group.[11] In another experiment, researchers observed common minnows in semi-natural setting and found that common minnows’ shoaling behavior varies depending on the habitat's complexity. Minnows tend to respond to increased predation risk by forming larger shoals in structurally simple habitats and by reducing their rate of movement in complex habitats.[12]

Predator inspection

When potential predators come near the shoal, some common minnows take the risk of approaching the predators in order to inspect the predator and assess the danger. Predator inspection behavior increases the risk of being attacked and eaten by the predator, but the behavior is beneficial to the inspectors as more alert minnows react more quickly to the attack of the predator. Common minnows are expected to recognize predators by their appearance. In an experiment, common minnows inspected a realistic-looking model of a pike, one of the major predators of minnows, and a simple cylinder model. Common minnows showed high level of alertness, such as low feeding rate and frequent skittering after their visit to the realistic model, but they became easily habituated to the simple model and resumed foraging even in proximity to the model.[13]

In addition to identifying predators by their appearance, common minnows can respond to the predators’ motivation to attack. In an experiment, common minnows inspected a northern pike behind a clear partition at regular intervals until the pike tried to attack the minnows. Their responses differed depending on when their visit was made. Minnows that inspected the pike just before the pike attacked were more alarmed than those who inspected the pike long before the attack. The observation shows that common minnows can detect the predator's impending aggressiveness and motivation to attack.[14]

Variations in anti-predator activities

Different populations of common minnows show varying degrees of anti-predatory activities. Common minnows from populations in high-predation areas usually show more intense predator inspection than those from low-predation areas. They tend to commence inspection sooner, form larger group of inspectors, inspect more frequently, and approach less to the predator.[15]

Some components of anti-predator activities are inherited, as indicated in the early emergence of shoaling behavior in laboratory-raised immature minnows. The varying levels of predator inspection and shoaling behavior in response to predator's presence can arise in laboratory-raised minnows even though they do not have any experience of predators. Their anti-predatory behaviors are qualitatively and quantitatively similar to their wild-caught counterparts. Anti-predatory behaviors are modified by early experience of predators. Early exposure to predators increases the inspection rate and shoaling tendency.[16]

Foraging

Shoaling behavior improves foraging success, because the demand for anti-predatory activities per individual is reduced and because more individuals scanning for food leads to quicker detection. In general, a larger shoal of fish locates food faster, which was confirmed to be true in common minnows.[17]

Individual recognition and shoal choice

Common minnows do not randomly choose shoalmates to forage with. They tend to associate with familiar shoalmates [18] and prefer to form shoals with poor competitors for food,[19] which indicates that they can recognize individual conspecifics. It is more beneficial to shoal with poor competitors because while group foraging helps the search for food, it also leads to competition for food among the shoalmates. Common minnows tend to associate with familiar shoalmates, but new alliances can form when different groups encounter. In an experiment in which common minnows from different groups were introduced to a common environment and monitored, they associated significantly more frequently with familiar individuals than unfamiliar individuals. The preference lasted up to two weeks, but by the third week, new association patterns were observed.[20]

Breeding in captivity

The Eurasian minnow breeds well in cold fresh water aquariums, but it is rarely sold as an aquarium fish. They need a good supply of oxygen (some air bubblers do fine), a reasonable current (which is often provided by the bubblers if they are good strong ones), and a gravel bottom. It is not clear what size works best although smallish (0.5 centimetres (316 in) each) works well. Clean water helps and so do plant life and general good quality aquarium conditions. Breeding begins around late May when the fish become noticeably more active, and the fish begin to change colour. The females don't change their colour so much, more the shape of their body; in fact the colours seem to fade if anything except for the fins which become slightly more red. Their body becomes more deep set toward the abdomen, which area also starts bulking out. Although the changes in the female are small, the changes in the male are huge. First of all, the difference in the shades of colour on the fish become stronger (dark gets darker, light gets lighter), and the fins, throat and some other areas redden. These colour changes strengthen as the fish gets closer to breeding. The body becomes much bulkier, and the gills become very pale with iridescent light blue patches towards the bottom and below. This contrasts with the now very dark body. Later the scales on the lower half of the body begin to stand out more and become slightly gold-lined. All these strengthen as time passes on. All the fins, especially the dorsal, start to stick out more; this happens in both sexes. The males begin to chase females around, rubbing their sides against them, and this becomes very frenzied and aggressive towards the mating. Mating happens when this behaviour reaches its climax where the female releases the eggs and the male fertilizes them.

Fertilised eggs promptly sink to the bottom and into the gravel. The other fish will start eating the eggs and picking at the gravel to find them. The male will then ferociously guard them for a period of time. A few days later the eggs will hatch and the fry will emerge. It is very important to have much plant cover for the fry to hide in as the adult fish will try to eat them especially if underfed and if not much other live food is given. The baby fry feed on small organisms called infusoria and algae. To grow infusoria for feeding just get a jam jar of pond water and run it through some cotton wool or muslin to get out any larger predatory organisms like daphnia which will eat the infusoria and add hay to the water. Leave it for a few days in a dimly lit room at about room temp. There will be many tiny white dots in the water which, if looked at under a microscope reveal to be many types of infusoria in their millions. These can be fed to the fry by adding them to the tank. To get more just add some of the old water containing the infusoria to cooled, boiled tap water with hay and repeat the other procedures. As the fry grow their diet changes. When they reach about 12 inch (13 mm) they can be fed small organisms like daphnia or cyclops. These can be obtained by dragging a net through water where they can be seen or they can be purchased from aquarium dealers. Soon the fish will eat the same food as the adults and will quickly grow.

Endocrinology

Skin color changes are controlled by photoreceptors deep in the brain. This has contributed greatly to understanding of photoactivation of various processes across vertebrates - including for example, seasonality.[21]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Freyhof, J.; Kottelat, M. (2008). "Phoxinus phoxinus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T17067A6795882. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T17067A6795882.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2012). "Phoxinus phoxinus" in FishBase. May 2012 version.
  3. ^ a b "Phoxinus phoxinus (Linnaeus, 1758)". US Geological Survey. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  4. ^ "Minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus)". RAFTS Invasive Species and Biodiversity Programme. Invasive Species Scotland. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  5. ^ Magurran, A.E. (1986). "The development of shoaling behaviour in the European minnow". Journal of Fish Biology. 29: 159–169. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1986.tb05007.x.
  6. ^ Davies, N.B.; Krebs, J.R.; West, S.A. (2012). An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 147–151. ISBN 9781405114165.
  7. ^ Hamilton, W.D. (1971). "Geometry for the selfish herd". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 31 (2): 295–311. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(71)90189-5. PMID 5104951.
  8. ^ Frisch, K. (1942). "Uber einen Schreckstoff der Fischhaut und seine biologische Bedeutung". Journal of Comparative Physiology. 29: 46–145. doi:10.1007/bf00304445. S2CID 33148058.
  9. ^ Wisenden, B.D.; Smith, R.J.F. (1997). "The effect of physical condition and shoalmate familiarity on proliferation of alarm substance cells in the epidermis of fathead minnows". Journal of Fish Biology. 50 (4): 799–808. doi:10.1006/jfbi.1996.0345.
  10. ^ Bernhardt, B.; Lampert, K.P.; Leese, F.; Mayer, C.; Tollrian, R. (2012). "Are shoals of minnow Phoxinus phoxinus formed by close kin?". Journal of Fish Biology. 80 (3): 713–721. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03198.x. PMID 22380565.
  11. ^ Krause, J. (1993). "The effect of Schreckstoff on the shoaling behavior of the minnow – a test of Hamilton's selfish herd theory". Animal Behaviour. 45 (5): 1019–1024. doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1119. S2CID 54287659.
  12. ^ Orpwood, J.E.; Magurran, A.E.; Armstrong, J.D.; Griffiths, S.W. (2008). "Minnows and the selfish herd: effects of predation risk on shoaling behaviour are dependent on habitat complexity". Animal Behaviour. 76 (1): 143–152. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.01.016. S2CID 53177480.
  13. ^ Magurran, Anne E.; Girling, Sarah L. (1986). "Predator model recognition and response habituation in shoaling minnows". Animal Behaviour. 34 (2): 510–518. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80119-1. ISSN 0003-3472. S2CID 53148241.
  14. ^ Murphy, K.E.; Pitcher, T.J. (1997). "Predator attack motivation influences the inspection behaviour of European minnows". Journal of Fish Biology. 50 (2): 407–417. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1997.tb01368.x.
  15. ^ Magurran, A.E. (1986). "Predator Inspection Behaviour in Minnow Shoals: Differences between Populations and Individuals". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 19 (4): 267–273. doi:10.1007/bf00300641. S2CID 2951223.
  16. ^ Magurran, A.E. (1990). "The inheritance and development of minnow anti-predator behavior". Animal Behaviour. 39 (5): 834–842. doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80947-9. S2CID 53168147.
  17. ^ Pitcher, T.J.; Magurran, A.E.; Winfield, I.J. (1982). "Fish in Larger Shoals Find Food Faster". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 10 (2): 149–151. doi:10.1007/bf00300175. S2CID 6340986.
  18. ^ Griffiths, S.W. (1997). "Preferences for familiar fish do not vary with predation risk in the European minnow". Journal of Fish Biology. 51 (3): 489–495. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1997.tb01506.x.
  19. ^ Metcalfe, N.B.; Thomson, B.C. (1995). "Fish recognize and prefer to shoal with poor competitors". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences. 259 (1355): 207–210. Bibcode:1995RSPSB.259..207M. doi:10.1098/rspb.1995.0030. S2CID 85131321.
  20. ^ Griffiths, S.W.; Ojanguren, A.F.; Orpwood; Magurran, A.E.; Armstrong, J.D. (2007). "Familiarity-biased patterns of association shift with time among European minnows". Journal of Fish Biology. 71 (6): 1602–1612. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01626.x.
  21. ^ Nakane, Yusuke; Yoshimura, Takashi (2019-02-15). "Photoperiodic Regulation of Reproduction in Vertebrates". Annual Review of Animal Biosciences. Annual Reviews. 7 (1): 173–194. doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-020518-115216. ISSN 2165-8102.

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Common minnow: Brief Summary

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The Eurasian minnow, minnow, or common minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) is a small species of freshwater fish in the carp family Cyprinidae. It is the type species of genus Phoxinus. It is ubiquitous throughout much of Eurasia, from Britain and Spain to eastern Siberia, predominantly in cool (12–20 °C (54–68 °F)) streams and well-oxygenated lakes and ponds. It is noted for being a gregarious species, shoaling in large numbers.

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