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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 22 years (wild)
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Biology

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The diet of the oceanic whitetip shark primarily consists of bony fishes such as tuna and mackerel, but also includes stingrays, sea turtles, sea birds, squid, crustaceans, mammalian carrion (dead whales and dolphins), and occasionally even rubbish that is disposed in the sea (3). The species is usually solitary, but will occasionally congregate in groups during 'feeding frenzies' where food is plentiful (4), such as around whale carcasses (7). However, if other shark species are encountered competing for the same food source, the oceanic whitetip shark usually dominates over them, and may become aggressive (3) (4). This shark is often accompanied by remoras, dolphin fishes and pilot fishes, and reportedly demonstrates an unusual association with the shortfin pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) in Hawaiian waters (2) (3). Although the exact reason for this shark swimming along with pods of pilot whales is unknown, it is suspected that oceanic whitetip sharks are following them to sources of squid, which the pilot whales are extremely efficient at locating (3). This species mates during the early summer in the north-western Atlantic and the south-western Indian Ocean, and females give birth to 1 to 15 live young approximately a year later (3) (6). Reproduction is viviparous, with live young being born after being nourished by a placental yolk-sac that is attached to the uterine wall by umbilical cords (3). Sexual maturity is attained at an age of six to seven years for both sexes (3).
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Conservation

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Efforts are currently being made to collect essential data on population declines from regions where demographic trends are poorly understood. While the information gained will certainly help guide future conservation measures, truly effective conservation and management will depend upon international cooperation, and acceptance of a collective responsibility to help protect this magnificent oceanic shark (1).
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Description

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Considered one of the five most dangerous sharks in the world, the oceanic whitetip shark has a stocky build, a short, bluntly-rounded snout, and incredibly powerful jaws (3) (4). This voracious predator grips its prey with the pointed teeth of the lower jaw, serrated only at the tip, while the broader, triangular, serrated teeth in the upper jaw are used to saw, cut and tear the flesh (3) (4). The first dorsal fin is distinctively large and rounded, and the paddle-like pectoral fins are very long and wide (3). The oceanic whitetip shark is so named because the tips of its pectoral, first dorsal, pelvic, and caudal fins are often white or show white mottling (2) (3) (4). These markings are usually black on young individuals below 1.3 meters, and a dark, saddle-shaped marking may also be present between the first and second dorsal fin (3) (5). Depending upon geographic location, the body colour may be brown, grey, beige or bronze, sometimes bluish, while the stomach is usually white, occasionally with a yellow tinge (2) (4).
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Habitat

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This shark is an oceanic, epipelagic species found mainly in offshore, tropical and warm-temperate waters (6), although on occasion in shallower waters near land, usually near oceanic islands (3). Found from the surface to depths of at least 150 m (2).
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Range

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This widely distributed species can be found from Maine, U.S., south to Argentina in the Western Atlantic Ocean, including the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, and from Portugal to the Gulf of Guinea, in the Eastern Atlantic, possible including the Mediterranean. In the Indo-Pacific, this shark inhabits waters from the Red Sea and East Africa to Hawaii, Samoa, Tahiti and the Tuamoto Islands. In the Eastern pacific the distribution includes waters from southern California, U.S., south to Peru, including the Galapagos (2) (3).
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Status

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Classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List (1).
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Threats

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The oceanic whitetip shark suffers from fishing pressure throughout most of its range, with large numbers being caught as bycatch by tuna and other pelagic fisheries (1) (3). The shark's large fins are highly prized in international trade, being sold to the Far East to make shark-fin soup, but the remainder of the carcass is often discarded (1). Although classified as Vulnerable overall, this species has been assessed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, due to massive declines in reported catch quantities indicating significant population declines (1). However, catches in international waters elsewhere are often inadequately monitored, and there is simply insufficient data to asses the real impact fisheries are having (1).
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IUCN Status to Endangered

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Red List Category & Criteria: Endangered A2b (Regional assessment)ver 3.1 Year Published: 2015 Date Assessed: 2014-11-18 Assessor(s): Walls, R., Soldo, A. & Buscher, E. Reviewer(s): Dulvy, N. Contributor(s): Fordham, S., Baum, J.K., Medina, E., Musick, J. & Smale, M. Facilitator/Compiler(s): Walls, R. & Dulvy, N. Justification:
European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

This formerly widespread and abundant, large oceanic shark is subject to fishing pressure throughout its range. It is caught in large numbers as a bycatch in pelagic fisheries, with pelagic longlines, probably pelagic gillnets, handlines and occasionally pelagic and even bottom trawls. Catches, particularly in international waters, are inadequately monitored. Its large fins are highly prized in international trade although the carcass is often discarded. Declines of 90% according to observer data from the Pacific are probably the most reliable available data on this species today, and with the same types of fishery in operation throughout its habitat worldwide, it is realistic to assume that it might be faring similarly in the Atlantic Ocean.

Estimates from the Northwest Atlantic are available and indicate a decline of 80-85% from 1950s-2000, but these are contended and may not reflect the status of the European subpopulations. Therefore, it is estimated that the species has declined by at least 50% for the three generation period (46 years) in European waters, therefore qualifying as Endangered under criterion A2b. It should be noted that this region only represents a portion of the Atlantic-wide subpopulation, which likely spans the entire Atlantic Ocean. For this reason, this information should be updated following further analyses of relevant Atlantic fisheries data.
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Diagnostic Description

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A stocky shark with a huge, rounded 1st dorsal fin, and long, wide-tipped pectoral fins; snout bluntly rounded; upper teeth triangular; interdorsal ridge present (Ref. 5578). Back usually dark grey with a bronze tinge, sometimes brown or bluish; belly whitish, sometimes with a yellow tinge; tips off first dorsal, pectorals, and lower lobe of caudal often white or with white spots (sometimes absent); ventral surface of pelvic fins, apices of anal and second dorsal, and ventral lobe of caudal often with black spots; black or dusky saddle-marks in front of second dorsal, upper margin of caudal and between dorsal fins (especially in young) (Ref. 9997).
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Cristina V. Garilao
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Life Cycle

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Viviparous, placental (Ref. 50449). Litter size 1-15 pups; 60-65 cm at birth (Ref. 244). Distinct pairing with embrace (Ref. 205).
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Migration

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Oceanodromous. Migrating within oceans typically between spawning and different feeding areas, as tunas do. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.
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Morphology

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Dorsal spines (total): 0; Dorsal soft rays (total): 0; Analspines: 0; Analsoft rays: 0
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Trophic Strategy

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Occurs on the continental shelf (Ref. 75154).
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Pascualita Sa-a
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Biology

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An oceanic deep-water species which sometimes comes close to shore (Ref. 244). Found surface to depths of at least 150 m (Ref. 26938). Epipelagic usually over water depths of >184 meters (Ref. 58302). Frequently accompanied by Remora, Coryphaena, pilot fishes (Ref. 30573), and tortoises. Feeds oceanic bony fishes, also threadfins, stingrays, sea turtles, sea birds, gastropods, squid, crustaceans, mammalian carrion and garbage (Ref. 5578), including tuna and mahimahi (Ref. 1602, 37816). Viviparous (Ref. 50449). There is pronounced partial segregation by size and sex in some areas. This is an active, almost fearless shark also charged in human attacks (Ref. 244). Probably responsible for many open-ocean attacks after air or sea disasters (Ref. 6871). Utilized fresh, frozen (Ref. 9987), smoked, and dried-salted for human consumption; hides for leather, fins for fin soup, liver oil for vitamins, also processed into fishmeal (Ref. 244). 1 to 15 young, 60 to 65 cm, are born per litter (Ref. 1602).
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Importance

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fisheries: commercial; gamefish: yes
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分布

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分布於全球各溫、熱帶水域。臺灣東北及西南海域可見其蹤跡。
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利用

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主要以底拖網、流刺網及延繩釣捕獲,經濟價值高。肉質佳,可加工成各種肉製品;鰭可做魚翅;皮厚可加工成皮革;肝可加工製成維他命及油;剩餘物製成魚粉。
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描述

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體呈紡錘型,軀幹粗壯。頭寬扁。尾基上下方各具一凹窪。吻端寬圓。眼圓,瞬膜發達。前鼻瓣呈短三角形,不延長;無口鼻溝或觸鬚。口裂寬大,深弧形,口閉時上下頜緊合,不露齒;上頜齒寬扁三角形,邊緣具明顯鋸齒,齒尖直立或略外斜,無小齒尖;下頜齒較窄而直立,側邊內凹,僅齒尖邊緣略具鋸齒。噴水孔缺如。背鰭2個,背鰭間明顯存在隆脊,第一背鰭寬大,起點與胸鰭基底後方相對,後緣凹入,上角廣圓,下角尖突;第二背鰭小,起點與臀鰭起點相對或稍前,後緣入凹,後角尖突;胸鰭大型,鐮刀形,後緣凹入,外角廣圓,內角鈍圓,鰭端伸達第一背鰭基底後端;尾鰭寬長,尾椎軸上揚,下葉前部顯著三角形突出,中部低平延長,與後部間有一深缺刻,後部小三角形突出,尾端鈍尖。體背側帶青銅色澤的暗灰色或灰褐色,腹側灰白;鰭上常具暗色暗色斑點或斑紋;胸鰭末端、第一背鰭上端、腹鰭後緣及尾鰭尖端具白斑;第二背鰭上端、腹鰭外角、臀鰭後端及尾鰭上下葉連合處具黑斑。
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棲地

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棲息於大洋上層大型鯊魚,偶可見於沿海水域。性兇猛,活動力強,不懼人類,在空難及海難現場常可見其出現襲擊落水之人們。主要以硬骨魚類、甲殼類、頭足類、海龜、海鳥為食,甚至垃圾等。胎生,一胎可產下6-9尾幼鯊,剛出生之幼鯊體長可達75公分。
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Oceanic whitetip shark

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The oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) is a large pelagic requiem shark inhabiting tropical and warm temperate seas. It has a stocky body with long, white-tipped, rounded fins. The species is typically solitary, though they may gather in large numbers at food concentrations. Bony fish and cephalopods are the main components of its diet and females give live birth.

Though slow-moving, it is opportunistic and aggressive, and is reputed to be dangerous to shipwreck survivors. The IUCN Red List considers the species to be critically endangered. Recent studies show steeply declining populations as they are harvested for their fins and meat. As with other shark species, the whitetip faces mounting fishing pressure throughout its range.

Taxonomy

The oceanic whitetip shark, or lesser white shark, was described in 1831 by naturalist René-Primevère Lesson, who named the shark Carcharhinus maou. It was next described by Cuban Felipe Poey in 1861 as Squalus longimanus.[4] The name Pterolamiops longimanus has also been used. The species epithet longimanus refers to the size of its pectoral fins (longimanus means "long fingers" in Latin). The oceanic whitetip shark is called many things in English: Brown Milbert's sand bar shark, brown shark, nigano shark, oceanic white-tipped whaler, and whitetip shark.[5]

The rules of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature are that in general the first-published description has priority; therefore, the valid scientific name for the oceanic whitetip shark should be Carcharhinus maou. However, Lesson's name remained forgotten for so long that Carcharhinus longimanus remains widely accepted.[6]

Distribution and habitat

It is found worldwide between 45°N and 43°S latitude.[3] It lives in deep, open oceans, with a temperature greater than 18 °C (64 °F),[3] It prefers water temperatures above 20 °C (68 °F), and up to 28 °C (82 °F) but can also be found in waters as cool as 15 °C (59 °F) but avoids temperatures lower than this.[6][7] It was once extremely common and widely distributed, and still inhabits a wide band around the globe; however, recent studies suggest that its numbers have drastically declined.[8]

The shark spends most of its time in the upper layer of the ocean—to a depth of 150 m (490 ft)[3]—and prefers off-shore, deep-ocean areas. According to longline capture data, increasing distance from land correlates to a greater population of sharks.[5] It is sometimes found close to land, in waters as shallow as only 37 m (120 ft) deep, mainly around oceanic islands and narrow continental shelves.[6]

Description

C. longimanus' most distinguishing characteristics are its long, wing-like pectoral and dorsal fins. The fins are significantly larger than most other shark species, and are conspicuously rounded. The shark's snout is rounded and its eyes are circular, with nictitating membranes.[5]

Oceanic whitetip jaws

The oceanic whitetip shark is a robust, large-bodied shark. The largest specimen ever caught measured 4 m (13 ft), though they usually grow to no more than 3 m (9.8 ft). It can weigh as much as 170 kg (370 lb). The female is typically larger than the male by 10 cm (3.9 in).[5][6] In the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s, the mean weight of oceanic whitetip sharks was 86.4 kg (190 lb). In the 1990s, the sharks of the species from the same area averaged only 56.1 kg (124 lb).[9]

The species is grey-bronze dorsally and white ventrally.[6] As its name suggests, most of its fins (dorsal, pectoral, pelvic and caudal) have white tips. Along with white tips, the fins may be mottled, and young specimens can have black marks. A saddle-like patch may be apparent between first and second dorsal fins. The shark has two kinds of teeth. Those in the mandible (lower jaw) have are thinner with a serrated tip. Between 13 and 15 teeth are on either side of the jaw. The teeth in the upper jaw are triangular, but much larger and wider with entirely serrated edges—14 or 15 occur along each side. The denticles are nearly flat and wide, typically have between five and seven ridges. There is little overlap between them, revealing some skin.[5]

Behaviour

The oceanic whitetip is typically solitary, though gatherings have been observed where food is plentiful.[6] It swims during the day and night. The oceanic whitetip is usually solitary and slow-moving and tends to cruise near the top of the water column in open water.[5] During summer, when the water surface is warmer, oceanic whitetips tend to swim more quickly and at deeper depths.[10] They have been observed to breach out of the water.[11]

The species feeds mainly on pelagic cephalopods, like squid, and bony fish,[3] such as lancetfish, oarfish, barracuda, jacks, mahi-mahi, marlin, tuna, and mackerel. However, its diet can be far more varied and less selective—it is known to eat threadfins, stingrays, sea turtles, birds, gastropods, crustaceans, and dead mammals. Its feeding methods include swimming through schools of frenzied tuna with an open mouth and waiting for the fish to swim in before biting down. When whaling took place in warm waters, oceanic whitetips were the most common scavengers of floating carcasses. Whitetips commonly compete for food with silky sharks, making up for its comparatively leisurely swimming style with aggressive displays.[6] They are known to trail pilot whales since they both feed on squid.[5][12]

Pilot fish, dolphinfish, and remora may follow these sharks.[5] Evidence in the form of sucker scars on the skin of an individual filmed off Hawaii indicate that the species may also dive deep enough to battle with giant squid.[13] Until the 16th century, sharks were known to mariners as "sea dogs"[14] and the oceanic whitetip, the most common ship-following shark. Groups often form when individuals converge on a food source. They are recorded to segregate by both sex and size. They commonly get into feeding frenzies.[6] Oceanic whitetips gather in large numbers off Cat Island, Bahamas from winter to spring, due to the abundance of large bony fish.[12]

Life cycle

Shark accompanied by group of fish with black and white vertical stripes and split tail fin
Oceanic whitetip photographed at the Elphinstone reef, Red Sea, Egypt, accompanied by pilot fish

Mating and birthing seems to occur in early summer in the northwest Atlantic Ocean and southwest Indian Ocean, although females captured in the Pacific have been found with embryos year round, suggesting a longer mating season there.[6] The shark is viviparous—embryos develop in utero and are fed by a placental sac. Its gestation period lasts nine months to one year.[7][15] In the northwest Atlantic, shark pups are born 65–75 cm (26–30 in) long while off South Africa, birth length is 60–65 cm (24–26 in) long.[7] In the Pacific Ocean, newborns average 45–55 cm (18–22 in) long, and number two to fourteen per litter.[15]

In one population off Brazil, sharks were recorded to grow an average of 25.2 cm (9.9 in) in one year, reducing to 13.6 cm (5.4 in) per year up to four years and then 9.7 cm (3.8 in) in their fifth year. Both sexes reached maturity at 180–190 cm (71–75 in) between the ages of six and seven and continued to grow at 9.10 cm (3.58 in) per year.[16] The average length of maturity for sharks averages in the greater equatorial and southwestern Atalntic is 170 cm (67 in) for females and 170–190 cm (67–75 in) for males.[17] In the Pacific, sharks appear to mature at four to five years.[15] One oceanic whitetip shark was estimated to have lived 22 years.[5]

Interactions with humans

Oceanic whitetip shark swimming near a diver in the Red Sea

Oceanographic researcher Jacques Cousteau described the oceanic whitetip as "the most dangerous of all sharks".[18] Author and big-game fisherman Ernest Hemingway depicted them as aggressive opportunists that attacked the catch of fishermen.[19] After the USS Indianapolis was torpedoed on 30 July 1945, some sailors who survived the sinking reportedly died from exposure to the elements and some may have died from shark bites.[20] According to survivor accounts published in several books about sharks and shark attacks, potentially hundreds of the Indianapolis crew were eventually killed by sharks before a plane spotted them on the 5th day after the sinking. Oceanic whitetips are believed to have been responsible for most if not all of those attacks.[21][22] Also during World War II, the RMS Nova Scotia, a steamship carrying about 1,000 people near South Africa, was sunk by a German submarine. One hundred and ninety-two people survived; many deaths were attributed to the whitetip.[23] Subsequently, the species is recorded to have attacked 21 people between 1955 and 2020, including nine divers, eight swimmers, two fisherman, one shipwrecked person and one fallen pilot. Five of these attacks were fatal.[24]

In Egypt in 2010, one oceanic whitetip was implicated in several bites on tourists in the Red Sea near Sharm El Sheikh, resulting in one death and four injuries to humans. Accumulating evidence revealed this shark to have been conditioned to being hand fed.[25][26] In October 2019, an oceanic whitetip shark brutally attacked a female snorkeler off Mo'orea, French Polynesia, but the person survived. Based on eyewitness reports and examinations of the bites, the shark appears to have been acting like a predator attacking prey.[24]

The oceanic whitetip has been kept in captivity. Among five recorded captive oceanic whitetips, the three with time records all lived for more than a year in captivity. One of these, a female in Monterey Bay Aquarium's Outer-Bay exhibit, lived for more than three years before dying in 2003, during which it grew 0.3 m (1 ft).[27][28] The two remaining lack a time record, but grew about 0.5 m (1.6 ft) during their time in captivity.[27]

Conservation status

Oceanic whitetip with a rusty fish hook in its mouth

As of 2019, the IUCN Red List list the oceanic whitetip shark as critically endangered, as their numbers appear to have decreased in every ocean region they inhabit. While their total global population is unknown, they are estimated to have declined by around 98 percent "with the highest probability of>80% reduction over three generation lengths (61.2 years).".[1]

In 1969, Lineaweaver and Backus wrote of the oceanic whitetip: "[it is] extraordinarily abundant, perhaps the most abundant large animal, large being over 100 pounds [45 kg], on the face of the earth".[29] A study focusing on the northwest Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, using a mix of data from US pelagic longline surveys from the mid-1950s and observations from the late 1990s, estimated a decline in numbers in this location of 99.3% over this period.[8] However, changes in fishing practices and data collection methods complicate estimates.[30] According to a January 2021 study in Nature which studied 31 species of sharks and rays, the number of these species found in open oceans had dropped by 71 per cent in around 50 years. The oceanic whitetip was included in the study.[31][32]

Oceanic whitetip sharks are mainly threatened by fisheries, sometimes intentional but usually bycatch. They are victims of longlines, hook-lines, gillnets and trawls. The sharks are used for their fins and meat.[1][6] It is eaten fresh, smoked, dried, and salted and its skin made into leather.[6] Bycatching of oceanic whitetip sharks may be reduced by removing hooks from longliners when they are in shallow water.[33] Sharks may also be threatened by pollution. Those in the northwest Atlantic have been found to accumulate high amounts of mercury.[34]

In March 2013, the oceanic whitetip was added to Appendix II of CITES meaning the species (including parts and derivatives) require CITES permits for international trade.[35] On 30 January 2018, NOAA Fisheries published a final rule to list the oceanic whitetip shark as a threatened species under the United States Endangered Species Act (ESA) (83 FR 4153).[36] From 3 January 2013, the shark was fully protected in New Zealand territorial waters under the Wildlife Act 1953.[37][38] The New Zealand Department of Conservation has classified the oceanic whitetip shark as "Migrant" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.[39]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Rigby, C.L.; Barreto, R.; Carlson, J.; Fernando, D.; Fordham, S.; Francis, M.P.; Herman, K.; Jabado, R.W.; Liu, K.M.; Marshall, A.; Pacoureau, N.; Romanov, E.; Sherley, R.B.; Winker, H. (2019). "Carcharhinus longimanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T39374A2911619. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T39374A2911619.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  3. ^ a b c d e Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Carcharhinus longimanus" in FishBase. February 2013 version.
  4. ^ "Carcharhinus longimanus (Poey, 1861)". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Bester, Cathleen. "Oceanic Whitetip Shark". Florida Museum of Natural history. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2006.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Compagno, Leonard J. V. (1984). Sharks of the World: An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Vol. 4, Part 2. Carcharhiniformes. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. pp. 484–86, 555–61, 588. ISBN 978-92-5-101383-0. Archived from the original on 22 August 2013. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  7. ^ a b c Bonfil, Ramón; Nakano, Hideki (2008). "The Biology and Ecology of the Oceanic Whitetip Shark, Carcharhinus Longimanus". In Camhi, Merry D.; Pikitch, Ellen K.; Babcock, Elizabeth A. (eds.). The Biology and Ecology of the Oceanic Whitetip Shark, Carcharhinus Longimanus. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 128–139. ISBN 9780632059959.
  8. ^ a b Baum, J.K. & Myers, R.A. (2004). "Shifting baselines and the decline of pelagic sharks in the Gulf of Mexico" (PDF). Ecology Letters. 7 (3): 135–45. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2003.00564.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2012.
  9. ^ "Consideration of Proposals for Amendment of Appendices I and II (CoP15 Prop. 16)" (PDF). Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). March 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 May 2013.
  10. ^ Andrzejaczek, S; Gleiss, A. C.; Jordan, L. K. B.; Pattiaratchi, C. B.; Howey, L. A.; Brooks, E. J.; Meekan, M. G. (2018). "Temperature and the vertical movements of oceanic whitetip sharks, Carcharhinus longimanus". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 8351. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.8351A. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-26485-3. PMC 5974137. PMID 29844605. S2CID 256958905.
  11. ^ Papastamatiou, Y. P.; Iosilevskii, G; Leos-Barajas, V; Brooks, E. J.; Howey, L. A.; Chapman, D. D.; Watanabe, Y. Y. (2018). "Optimal swimming strategies and behavioral plasticity of oceanic whitetip sharks". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 551. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8..551P. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18608-z. PMC 5765167. PMID 29323131.
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Oceanic whitetip shark: Brief Summary

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The oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) is a large pelagic requiem shark inhabiting tropical and warm temperate seas. It has a stocky body with long, white-tipped, rounded fins. The species is typically solitary, though they may gather in large numbers at food concentrations. Bony fish and cephalopods are the main components of its diet and females give live birth.

Though slow-moving, it is opportunistic and aggressive, and is reputed to be dangerous to shipwreck survivors. The IUCN Red List considers the species to be critically endangered. Recent studies show steeply declining populations as they are harvested for their fins and meat. As with other shark species, the whitetip faces mounting fishing pressure throughout its range.

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Description

provided by World Register of Marine Species
Oceanic (Ref. 9987). A deep water species which seldom comes close to shore. Preferred water temperatures range from 18 to 28°C. Frequently accompanied by @Remora@ and @Coryphaena@, and tortoises. Feeds mainly on pelagic fish and cephalopods. There is pronounced partial segregation by size and sex in some areas.This is an active, almost fearless shark also charged in human attacks. Utilized for human consumption, for leather, for finsoup, and for oil. Marketed fresh, dried-salted and frozen (Ref. 9987).

Reference

Froese, R. & D. Pauly (Editors). (2023). FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. version (02/2023).

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Diet

provided by World Register of Marine Species
Feeds mainly on bony fishes, other sharks, rays, turtles, seabirds, maine mammals, molluscs, crustaceans, and carrion

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

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Kennedy, Mary [email]

Distribution

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Gulf of Maine (near NE edge Georges Bank - Scott & Scott, 1988) to Argentina

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

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Habitat

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Mainly oceanic, found along the coast in tropical and warm temperate waters.

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

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Habitat

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nektonic

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

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Kennedy, Mary [email]