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Associations

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Humboldt penguins are are very agile when swimming. This is their only defense against predators (The Smithsonian Zoo 2001). When in the water they can be eaten by leopard seals, fur seals, sea lions, sharks, and killer whales. On land, foxes, snakes, and introduced predators like cats and dogs can prey on the eggs and chicks (Busch Entertainment Corp. 2000). Spheniscus humboldti get entangled in fishing nets as well (Chicago Zoological Society 1999).

Known Predators:

  • humans (Homo sapiens)
  • leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx)
  • sharks (Chondrichthyes)
  • killer whales (Orcinus orca)
  • foxes (Canidae)
  • snakes (Serpentes)
  • domestic cats (Felis silvestris)
  • domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
  • fur seals (Otariidae)
  • sea lions (Otariidae)
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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Morphology

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Spheniscus humboldti are black and white in color with pink around the eyes and on the beak. The feet are webbed and serve as a rudder. There are also claws at the end of the toes for climbing. The feathers are in two layers. The top layer is flat and overlaps the second layer to stop the wind and water from penetrating to the body. The second down layer is for insulation. The wings evolved into flippers for flying through the water. The bones are solid and act as a ballast while diving (The Smithsonian Zoo 2001). The body is in the shape of a streamlined torpedo covered by the short waterproof feathers (Chicago Zoological Society 1999). They are able to swim swiftly through the water by the aid of hard flippers or wings (The Aquatic Creatures 2002). Spheniscus humboldti is also called the Peruvian penguin. It is 38 to 45 centimeters (18 to 15 inches) in height and weighs about 4 kg (9 pounds) (The Smithsonian Zoo 2001).

Average mass: 4000 g.

Range length: 38 (low) cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Life Expectancy

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The average life span is 15 to 20 years for Spheniscus humboldti and there is a high mortality rate among the young (Busch Entertainment Corp. 2000).

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Habitat

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On land Spheniscus humboldti lives in burrows composed of soil and rock or in crevices in rocks (Welch 1994). Spheniscus humboldti breed in large colonies. They spend most of their time at sea and rarely come back to land (Chicago Zoological Society 1999).

Range depth: 1000 (high) m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; polar ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: coastal

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Distribution

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Spheniscus humboldti inhabit the coastal regions of Peru and Chile. These regions are temperate in climate (Welch 1994). These birds are well known in the Humboldt current from Peru to south of Chile on the coast and offshore islands (Villouta, et al., 1997).

Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Behavior

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Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Conservation Status

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In 1981 the U.S. department of Interior declared Spheniscus humboldti endangered. Today Spheniscus humboldti are only used illegally (Welch 1994).

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: appendix i

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Benefits

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Humans collect the eggs of Spheniscus humboldti (Chicago Zoological Society 1999). In the nineteenth century penguin skins were used to make caps, slippers, and purses. The feathers were used for clothing decorations. Extraction of oil from the penguins fat layers was economically important; the oil was used for lighting, tanning leather, and fuel. Spheniscus humboldti guano had a value as nitrogen rich fertilizer (Busch Entertainment Corp. 2000).

Positive Impacts: produces fertilizer

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Associations

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Spheniscus humboldti live on the coast and gather soil, rocks, and sometimes grasses, to build their nests. These nests are created using their wings and feet to push and mold a nest (Welch 1994).

Ecosystem Impact: creates habitat

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Trophic Strategy

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Spheniscus humbldti are inshore feeders; they forage for small fish and crustaceans. They circle around the prey and attack from the side swallowing it head first (Welch 1994). The mouth and tongue have backward pointed spines to hold fish (The Smithsonian Zoo 2001). El Nino storms destroy large regions of nesting areas by causing rough surf that washes away nests. The affects on the temperature of the sea is an increase which can reduce the food supply (Chicago Zoological Society 1999).

Animal Foods: fish; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Eats non-insect arthropods)

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Reproduction

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One male breeds with one female during the mating season (Busch Entertainment Corp. 2000).

Mating System: monogamous

The most abundant breeding happens around the availability of food and of breeding sites. Egg laying occurs throughout the year (Welch 1994). Once a mate is acquired the pair initiates copulation after displays of behavior (The Smithsonian Zoo 2001). Spheniscus humboldti begin breeding at about three years of age. The male arrives at the nesting area a few days before the female to prepare the breeding site. The female arrives and lays two white eggs that she incubates for 39 days (Chicago Zoological Society 1999). The major causes of egg loss are from flooding of nests during ocean storms, accidental breakage, and clutch desertion and predation by gulls (International Conservation Work Group 2001). Chicks poke a small hole through the egg then chip the shell off. This can take up to three days. (Busch Entertainment Corp. 2000).

Breeding season: Breeding occurs throughout the year.

Average eggs per season: 2.

Average time to hatching: 39 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Chicks require attentive parents. They depend on the parents for survival between hatching and growing waterproof feathers. Once a chick has done this it can enter the water and become independent (Busch Entertainment Corp. 2000).

Parental Investment: altricial ; male parental care ; female parental care

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Smith, J. 2003. "Spheniscus humboldti" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Spheniscus_humboldti.html
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Jillian Smith, Western Maryland College
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Randall L. Morrison, Western Maryland College
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Biology

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These penguins are monogamous and can be found in their breeding colonies throughout the year although the main breeding seasons are from March to April and September to October, depending on the location (3) (7). The birds dig burrows into the sand or guano cliffs, or find small crevices in which to lay the eggs. Two eggs are laid over a period of two to four days, incubation taking between 40 and 42 days, with both adult birds sharing nest duties. The chicks usually hatch two days apart and are fed by both adults once they have acquired their first thick downy coats (3). Chicks rarely leave their nest scrape until they are fledged at about 12 weeks. They then fend for themselves along the coast for several months before returning to establish their own nests, often within the same colony where they were reared. They reach maturity at the age of two years (3). Humboldt penguins exploit the cold waters off the South American west coast for food. The Humboldt Current flows northwards from Antarctica, and provides a rich harvest of fish, particularly anchovies, but the birds also feed on other fish species, krill and squid. Although they can reach depths of 150 metres, the birds rarely dive deeper than 60 metres (3). These penguins have been popular exhibits in zoos for many years and have been known to live for up to 30 years in captivity. They rarely reach this age in the wild (3).
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Conservation

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Following a series of disastrous breeding years, which included two El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, a population and habitat viability survey was carried out in 1998 on the Humboldt penguin. This concluded that, using figures for current breeding trends and estimating a world population of between 3,300 and 12,000 breeding pairs, the species was likely to become extinct within the next century (2). Legislation to assist the recovery of the Humboldt penguin has been passed in Chile, including a 30 year moratorium on killing or capturing the birds, and protection of the four principal breeding colonies, although enforcement is low (7). In Peru, the major colonies are also protected and the extraction of guano is managed by government (2). Further proposed conservation targets to save this species include the creation of marine nature reserves around the main breeding grounds, greater care over the extraction of guano, reducing the fish harvests during ENSO events and setting up 'awareness' programmes to limit the hunting of penguins and accidental entanglement (by-catch) in fishing nets (2).
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Description

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Humboldt penguins are named after the cold current of water running from the Antarctic to the equator along the west coast of South America (itself named after the German naturalist Friedrich Humboldt). Humboldt penguins are medium-sized penguins with proportionately large heads, black backs and tails, and a black band across the chest that runs down the body beneath the flippers to the black feet. The face is also black, but separated from the head and neck by a white border. The strong bill is black with a white band near the tip and the lower mandible has a pink fleshy-coloured base extending to the front of the eyes (6) (7). Females are slightly smaller than the males but are otherwise similar. Juvenile birds are predominantly slate grey across the head and back, white at the front, and lack the bold double stripe of the adults (6).
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Habitat

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Humboldt penguins nest on rocky coasts and islands with suitable terrain for constructing nest burrows (2) (7).
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Range

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This species is found along the coasts of Peru and Chile within the reaches of the Humboldt Current. Some birds have been recorded as vagrants northwards off Columbia (2). There are also isolated colonies further to the south on the Punihuil Islands (3).
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Status

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Classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List (1). Listed on Appendix I of CITES (4) and on Appendix I of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS or Bonn Convention) (5).
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Threats

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Penguins have historically been heavily hunted for meat, oil and skins and suffered from unsustainable egg collecting (7). Currently, the principal risks to Humboldt penguins come from human over-harvesting of the fish stocks, especially anchovies, and exploiting the birds' guano beds, using the mineral-rich guano for fertiliser. Removal of the guano deprives the birds from constructing nest burrows and leaves the eggs and chicks vulnerable to weather and predators (3). On the mainland nesting sites, wild dogs take eggs, chicks and even adult birds. Natural predators on land include foxes and caracaras (a large native hawk), whilst in the water the penguins fall prey to fur seals, sharks and whales. A more alarming trend over recent decades has been the effects of El Niño-related events. This is known to affect penguin numbers in two ways; by displacing the Humboldt Current with warmer, less food-rich water, and raising severe storms that can wash out the nesting colonies (3). There are also a large number of birds caught as by-catch (7), and they are constantly at risk from marine pollution (3).
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Kin-recognition using olfactory cues

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Most birds are thought to have severely reduced sense of smell comparated to other vertebrates. Recent experiments, however, suggest that both Humboldt Penguins and Zebra Finches can distinguish the odors of their relatives from those of non-relatives. In the penguin experiment (Coffin et al. 2011), birds preferred the scent of familiar non-relatives such as nest mates. Young finches, on the other hand, prefer the scent of their genetic parents even when raised in foster nests (Krause et al. 2012).

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Humboldt penguin

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The Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) is a medium-sized penguin. It resides in South America, its range mainly contains most of coastal Peru.[3] Its nearest relatives are the African penguin, the Magellanic penguin and the Galápagos penguin. The Humboldt penguin and the cold water current it swims in both are named after the explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The species is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN with no population recovery plan in place.[4] The current population is composed of 32,000 mature individuals and is going down.[5] It is a migrant species.[5]

Humboldt penguins nest on islands and rocky coasts, burrowing holes in guano and sometimes using scrapes or caves. In South America the Humboldt penguin is found only along the Pacific coast,[6] and the range of the Humboldt penguin overlaps that of the Magellanic penguin on the central Chilean coast. It is vagrant in Ecuador and Colombia.[7] The Humboldt penguin has been known to live in mixed species colonies with the Magellanic penguin in at least two different locations at the south of Chile.[8][9]

The Humboldt penguin has become a focus of ecotourism over the last decades.[10]

Description

Humboldt penguins are medium-sized penguins, growing to 56–70 cm (22–28 in) long and a weight of 2.9 to 6 kg (6.4 to 13.2 lb).[11][12][13] The sex of the Humboldt penguin cannot be recognised via differences in plumage, as they are monomorphic. The male is heavier and larger than the females.[14] Their sex can be determined via head width and bill length; the male has a longer bill than the female.[14] While all the Spheniscus penguins are close to each other in size, the Humboldt penguin is the heaviest species in the genus, with 123 females weighing 4.05 kg (8.9 lb) on average and 165 males averaging 4.7 kg (10 lb).[13] Humboldt penguins have a black head with a white border that runs from behind the eye, around the black ear-coverts and chin, and joins at the throat. They have blackish-grey upperparts and whitish underparts, with a black breast-band that extends down the flanks to the thigh. They have a fleshy-pink base to the bill. Juveniles have dark heads and no breast-band. They have spines on their tongue which they use to hold their prey.[15]

Vocalisation

The Humboldt penguin has different calls that it uses to communicate in different ways. The function of its calls are consistent among Spheniscus species. If an individual comes too close to an adult Humboldt penguin, the Yell is a warning call which is followed by pecking or chasing if ignored.[16] A higher density of penguins leads to more territorial and aggressive behaviours, which leads to more Yells.[16] The Throb is a soft call between pairs at the nest, used by incubating birds when their mates return to the nest.[16] The Haw is a short call given by juveniles alone in the water and by paired birds when one is on the water and the other is on land.[16] It has significant individual variation in duration and frequency.[16] The Bray is a long call used to attract a mate and advertise a territory during the pre-laying and pre-hatching periods.[16] It is an individually distinct call in all variables: syllables per call, duration, inter-syllable intervals, duration of syllables and frequency.[16] When calling, the bird points its head upwards and flaps its flippers slowly.[16] The Courtship Bray is similar to the Bray, however a different posture is assumed and is given synchronously by pairs during the pre-laying period: the birds stand together pointing their necks and head up, with flippers out to the side.[16] The Peep is given by chicks begging for food.[16]

Moulting

Most penguins moult between mid-January and mid-February, however the initiation varies with latitude and favourable conditions such as food abundance.[17][18] Humboldt penguins are confined to land until they finish moulting.[19] They become hyperphagic during the pre-moulting period.[18] The feathers are lost and replaced within 2 weeks.[20]

Etymology

Both the Humboldt penguin and the Humboldt current were named after Alexander von Humboldt. It is known in Peru as the pajaro-niño, which translates to "baby-bird", due to their waddling gait and flightless wings held out suggesting the image of an infant toddling on the beach.[21]

Distribution and habitat

The Humboldt penguin is a top predator endemic to the west coast of South America.[19][22]

The Humboldt penguin's breeding distribution ranges from southern Chile along the dry and arid coastal regions of the Atacama Desert to subtropical Isla Foca in north Peru. Its range is restricted to the coast and offshore islands affected by the Humboldt current, which provides a continuous supply of nutrients and food, thus supporting huge populations of seabird.[23] In Chile, the most important breeding colony is at Isla Chañaral.[19]

Ecology

Humboldt penguin in Eskişehir Zoo

Diet

The Humboldt penguin feeds predominantly on pelagic schooling fish.[24] The consumption of cephalopods and crustaceans vary between populations.[25] Northern colonies consume primarily Atlantic saury and garfish, whilst southern populations primarily consume anchovy, Araucanian herring, silver-side, pilchard and squid.[25][26] There are seasonal differences in the Humboldt penguin's diet that reflect the changes in availability of fish species across seasons.[25]

Foraging behaviour

The Humboldt penguin is a visual hunter.[27] Humboldt penguins leave their islands for foraging after sunrise and different populations have different preferred foraging distances from the colony.[24] Their foraging rhythm depends on the light intensity.[28] They spend more time foraging during overnight trips.[29] Fish are mostly seized from below through short, shallow dives.[24]

The foraging range of Humboldt penguins is between 2 and 92 km (1.2 and 57.2 mi) from Pan de Azúcar, with 90% of the foraging being from a range of 35 km (22 mi) around the island and 50% from a range of 5 km (3.1 mi).[25] The maximum depth reached is 54 m (177 ft).[22]

Failed breeders take longer foraging trips with longer and deeper dives.[30] They also dive less often than breeding penguins.

Courtship

During courtship, the Humboldt penguins bow their heads to each other and exchange mutual glances with each eye, alternatively.[31] In the ecstatic display to attract a partner, the bird extends its head vertically, collapses its chest, flaps its wings and emits a loud call resembling the braying of a donkey.[20] The mutual displaying consist of the pair standing side by side and repeating the actions of the ecstatic display.[20]

Reproduction

The Humboldt penguin nests in loose colonies, with most pairs laying two eggs of the same size 4 days apart that require 41 days of incubation.[32][22] Their breeding schedule is adjusted depending on the abundance of food.[18] They breed immediately after moulting, when food is abundant and solar radiation is reduced.[18]

The Humboldt penguin lay eggs from March to December, but also with peaks in April and August–September, due to individuals having a second clutch.[32][18] Half of the females successfully have two clutches per year and most were double broods.[31][32][18] If pairs lose their eggs during the first breeding season, they lay a new clutch within 1–4 months.[32] The incubation shifts last, on average, 2.5 days, before one parent takes over and allows the other to forage.[29] There are no differences in the contribution to provisioning from the male and female parents.[29]

Chicks hatch generally 2 days apart.[32] Chicks are semi-altricial and nidicolous and guarded by one parent while the other forages.[22] Chicks are fed only once every day.[32] Chicks are left unattended at the nest site after a certain age and both parents forage simultaneously.[22]

Breeding sites

The historical breeding sites of this species are burrows on guano layers.[31] Nests of the Humboldt penguin can also be found at caverns, hollows, cliff tops, beaches and scrapes covered by vegetation.[21][32] They also nest at few Peruvian islands where true soil can be found for digging.[31] The majority of penguins breed on cliff tops.[32]

Migration

Humboldt penguins are sedentary during the breeding season, staying in proximity to their nests and show fidelity to breeding site.[22][32] They can cover large distances, particularly in response to food shortages or changes in environmental conditions.[33][22] They are a true migrant between Peru and Chile.[33]

Threats

El Niño-La Niña dynamics

The ecosystem of the Humboldt current is affected by the El Niño phenomenon. During the El Niño, upwelling of nutrient-rich bottom water in the south-eastern Pacific Ocean is depressed, as well as sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) value increases.[34][22] Massive mortality, especially of juveniles, nest desertion and lack of reproduction occurs.[34] Humboldt penguins migrate south as marine productivity decreases, following the anchovy stocks.[22] Humboldt penguins expend more time and energy foraging as SSTA increases.[22]

Fisheries

The estimated energetic demands of the total Humboldt penguin population during breeding season sums up to 1,400 tons of fish.[25] The Humboldt penguin depends on commercially exploited, schooling prey species[25] including anchovies.[35] This makes them susceptible to changes in prey availability due to overfishing.[25] They are also susceptible to entanglement in fishing nets.[36]

Human presence

Humboldt penguins are extremely sensitive to human presence, with little habituation potential.[10] Passing at a 150 m (490 ft) distance from an incubating Humboldt penguin provokes a response, which is the greatest response distance reported for penguins to date, making it the most timid penguin species so far studied.[10] Humboldt penguins need up to half an hour to recover to normal heart rates after human approach, however, this time decreases with repeated visitation.[10] Cumulative stress by frequent visits and delayed return of foraging partners leads to nest desertion, consequently causing decreased breeding success at frequently visited sites.[10][28]

Habitat disturbance and feral species

The introduction of feral goats on the Puñihuil islands had a detrimental impact on the Humboldt penguin population.[8] The feral goats browse the vegetation the penguins use to build their nests and they can lead to collapse to dirt burrows.[8] The connection of the island to the mainland also led to the movements of mammals onto the island.[8]

In central Chile, European rabbits and Norway rats graze on the vegetation.[37] Norway rats and black rats also predate on eggs.[38] Feral cats and dogs consume chicks, fledgelings and adult Humboldt penguins.[37]

Industrial development

Some Humboldt penguin colonies face emerging pressures from industrial development; the construction of coal-fired power plants and mining proposals in Chile. Peru's largest colony faces the prospect of a major new industrial port in close proximity to the country's largest colony, at Punta San Juan. Oil spills have previously impacted some colonies. The colony of 800 birds at Cachagua was exposed to two oil spill events in 2015–16.[39] Oil spills related to port and shipping activities have impacted many species of penguins across the southern hemisphere.

In 2017, Andes Iron proposed to construct a mineral export port near the Humboldt Penguin National Reserve in Chile's Coquimbo region. The proposal was rejected on the grounds that the environmental impact would be unacceptable. The decision was welcomed by tour operators and environmentalists. Oceana was one of the non-governmental organisations lobbying for the rejection of the port proposal.[40] Andes Iron challenged the decision,[41] and environmental approval for the Dominga mine and Cruz Grande port project was eventually granted. Oceana has since challenged the proponents compliance at the work site and as of 2020 continues to lobby for the abandonment of the project and protection of region's rich marine biodiversity.[42] If constructed, the Dominga complex will include an open pit copper mine, processing facility, desalination plant and port.[43]

History of Population Decline

Over-exploitation of guano

The historical breeding grounds for the Humboldt penguin were guano layers which covered islands of the Peruvian and northerly Chilean coasts in which the birds could burrow.[31] The guano, a rich fertiliser and source of income for the Peruvian Government, and eggs of the Humboldt penguin were regularly sought after.[44][21][31] The birds were also frequently killed by fishermen and guano workers for their oil and skin.[21] The decline of the Humboldt penguin population is attributed to the harvest of guano in the 1800s, which led to the destruction of breeding grounds and to human disturbance.[34][21]

1982–83 El Niño phenomenon

Before the 1982–83 El Niño event, the total number of individuals of Humboldt penguin individuals was estimated to be 20,000.[34] The 1982–83 El Niño phenomenon led to a major decline in the Humboldt penguin population.[34] The combination of an environment changed by human developments as well as the long duration and strong intensity of the event that year led to major effects on the fecundity and survival of the Humboldt penguins.[34] The consequences were a 65% decline in the Humboldt penguin population, migration towards the south and the failure of the 1982 class of hatchlings.[34] The surviving population in 1984 was estimated to be between 2,100 and 3,000 penguins and all were adults.[34]

Conservation

Humboldt penguins were given legal protection in 1977 by the Peruvian Government and listed in Appendix I of the Convention of International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES).[45] Both Peru and Chile have implemented the CITES under national law.[45] It is categorised as vulnerable due to extreme population size fluctuations, clustered distribution and the major threats to the species not being ameliorated over time.[45][5][46] In August 2010 the Humboldt penguin of Chile and Peru, was granted protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.[47] Most penguins breed within protected areas.[46]

Peruvian legislation categorises the species as endangered and prohibits the hunting, possession, capture, transportation and export of the bird for commercial purposes.[46] Chile implemented a 30-year hunting ban in 1995 forbidding hunting, transport, possession and commercialisation of penguins.[46]

In 2017 a large mining project proposed by the company Andes Iron in Chile was vetoed due to the possible environmental impact on the penguins,[48] though that decision was subsequently overturned.

As of August 2018, the species is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, noting a declining population of 32,000 mature adults.[49] Climate change, commercial overfishing of main prey species (sardines and anchovy) and bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries are all contributing factors in the species' decline. Rats, feral cats and dog attacks threaten some colonies. Historically, the Humboldt penguin population was impacted by the extraction of guano from their breeding colonies, which reduced the available habitat for burrowing and nesting.

In captivity

In addition to their home waters near South America, Humboldt penguins can be found in zoos all around the world, including Spain, Germany,[50] India, South Korea, Ireland,[51][52] Japan,[53] the United Kingdom,[54] the United States[55] and other locations.

Mr. Sea

The oldest penguin at Woodland Park Zoo and one of the oldest penguins in North America, Mr. Sea was euthanized after a decline in activity and appetite. He was 2 months short of his 32nd birthday. The average age for a Humbolt penguin that survives its first year is 17.6 years. He has 12 viable grandchicks, great-grandchicks, and great-great grandchicks.[56]

Escape from Tokyo Zoo

One of the 135 Humboldt penguins from Tokyo Sea Life Park (Kasai Rinkai Suizokuen) thrived in Tokyo Bay for 82 days after apparently scaling the 4-metre-high wall and managing to get through a barbed-wire fence into the bay.[57] The penguin, known only by its number (337), was recaptured by the zoo keepers in late May 2012.[58]

US discovery

In 1953, a Humboldt penguin was found in The Bronx, New York, US. It is not known whether the animal had escaped from a private collection or whether it was a vagrant but the local zoo's population was fully accounted for.[59]

Same-sex raising of young

In 2009 at the Bremerhaven Zoo in Germany, two adult male Humboldt penguins adopted an egg that had been abandoned by its biological parents. After the egg hatched, the two penguins raised, protected, cared for, and fed the chick in the same manner that heterosexual penguin couples raise their own offspring. A further example of this kind of behavior came in 2014, when Jumbs and Kermit, two Humboldt Penguins at Wingham Wildlife Park, became the center of international media attention as two males who had pair bonded a number of years earlier and then successfully hatched and reared an egg given to them as surrogate parents after the mother abandoned it halfway through incubation.[60]

Gallery

References

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Humboldt penguin: Brief Summary

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The Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) is a medium-sized penguin. It resides in South America, its range mainly contains most of coastal Peru. Its nearest relatives are the African penguin, the Magellanic penguin and the Galápagos penguin. The Humboldt penguin and the cold water current it swims in both are named after the explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The species is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN with no population recovery plan in place. The current population is composed of 32,000 mature individuals and is going down. It is a migrant species.

Humboldt penguins nest on islands and rocky coasts, burrowing holes in guano and sometimes using scrapes or caves. In South America the Humboldt penguin is found only along the Pacific coast, and the range of the Humboldt penguin overlaps that of the Magellanic penguin on the central Chilean coast. It is vagrant in Ecuador and Colombia. The Humboldt penguin has been known to live in mixed species colonies with the Magellanic penguin in at least two different locations at the south of Chile.

The Humboldt penguin has become a focus of ecotourism over the last decades.

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