Double-crested cormorants feed primarily on fish, but also eat insects, crustaceans and amphibians. They generally feed in shallow water (less than 8 m deep) within 5 km of shore, diving underwater to catch their prey. They may swallow small fish while underwater, but bring larger prey up to the surface to shake, clean or hammer on the water before consuming them.
When feeding on schooling fish, cormorants may feed together in flocks. They have a hook-like tip on the upper maxilla of their bill and specialized muscles that aid them in grasping their slippery prey.
Animal Foods: amphibians; fish; insects; aquatic crustaceans
Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore )
Gulls, crows and jays and grackles are probably significant predators of cormorant eggs and chicks. Coyotes, foxes and raccoons may also prey on cormorant chicks. Adult cormorants and chicks are susceptible to predation by bald eagles, and occasionally by great horned owls, caiman and brown pelicans.
When threatened by a predator, gulls may threaten the predator or vomit fish at them. If the predator is large, the adults usually leave the nest, and circle overhead.
Known Predators:
Cormorants are large birds (70 to 90 cm in length, 1.2 to 2.5 kg) with dark brown or black plumage that has a dull greenish or bronze sheen. They have lean bodies, long necks and relatively short wings. They have long beaks with a hooked upper mandible and bright orange-yellow skin that covers the face, throat and base of the bill. Their black feet are webbed feet and found on short legs, and their tails are wedge-shaped. During the breeding season, double-crested cormorants have two curly black crests on their heads, blue eyelids, a dusky bill and orange on the throat sac and lores. In the winter, adults lack the crests, show no blue on eyelids, have a yellow bill with red on gular sac, and yellow behind the ocher.
Males are slightly bigger than females. Juveniles are much duller in color than adults. They are usually dark brown with grayish or whitish coloring underneath. (Pearson 1936)
There are five subspecies of double-crested cormorants. These subspecies are differentiated by size and the color and shape of their crests.
Range mass: 1200 to 2500 g.
Range length: 70 to 90 cm.
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; ornamentation
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Average basal metabolic rate: 5.6096 W.
The oldest known wild double-crested cormorant lived to be 17 years and 9 months old. The average life expectancy for wild birds is 6.1 years.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 17.75 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 6.1 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 270 months.
Double-crested cormorants are found in a variety of marine and inland aquatic habitats. They require water for feeding and nearby perches, such as rocks, sandbars, pilings, shipwrecks, wires, trees or docks for resting on and drying out during the day.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; saltwater or marine ; freshwater
Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; coastal
Double-crested cormorants breed across North America, as far north as southern Alaska. They winter in North America as far south as Sinaloa, Mexico, and are common on marine and inland waters throughout their range.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )
Double-crested cormorants may nest with up to thirteen other species of colony-nesting birds. Within these mixed colonies, they may affect nest-site availability to other species, and provide food for the other species by means of chicks, eggs, pellets, regurgitated fish and stolen food. Cormorants also hunt in mixed flocks, benefiting others and benefiting others through their combined effort to find prey.
Double-crested cormorants impact the populations of the fish they consume.
Double-crested cormorants have no known positive impact on humans.
Double-crested cormorants and other fish-eating birds are considered by some to be detrimental to commercial fisheries and fish farms. However, the extent of their impact on fish populations is difficult to quantify, and has been demonstrated by some studies to be very small. Some landowners also complain of lowering of property values as a result of the impact of double-crested cormorants on vegetation. Finally, double-crested cormorants have been implicated as vectors for fish diseases and parasites.
Populations of double-crested cormorants have increased dramatically over the last thirty years. This species has no special protection under CITES or the Endangered Species Act. It is, however, protected under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act.
Cormorants are susceptible to poisoning from pesticides and other contaminants, and to oil spills. They are sometimes killed or injured when they are caught on fishhooks and in gill-nets, lobster traps, and trawls. They are also very susceptible to disturbance at their nest sites. Adult cormorants leave the nest unguarded when they are disturbed, leaving the chicks and eggs vulnerable to predation by gulls and other predators, and to overheating in the hot sun.
US Migratory Bird Act: protected
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Double-crested cormorants use calls and physical displays to communicate with one another. While cormorants use their small range of calls in certain social situations, they are largely silent. One example of the physical displays used to communicate between cormorants is the "wing wave display" used by males to attract a mate.
Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Phalacrocorax auritus are also referred to as crow ducks, shag, water-turkeys and lawyers. There are several subspecies of Phalacrocorax auritus, including the Florida cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus), found around Florida, North Carolina, and the Gulf Coast; the white-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus cincinatus), found in Alaska; and the Farallon cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus albociliatus), found on the coasts and inland lakes of the Pacific slope. (Pearson 1936)
Double-crested cormorants account for a large portion of the bird population that winters in the Florida Bay, along with the roseate spoonbills, great white herons, and reddish egrets. (Rodgers 1996)
Cormorants are monogamous and breed in colonies of up to three thousand pairs. The male chooses a nest site and then advertises for a female by standing in a “wing-waving display” that shows off the brightly-colored skin on his head and neck. Males also perform elaborate courtship dances, including dances in the water where they present the female with nest material. After forming a pair, double-crested cormorants lose their crests.
Double-crested cormorants do not defend a large territory around the nest. They defend a small area immediately around the nest that is less than one meter in diameter.
Mating System: monogamous
Double-crested cormorants breed between April and August, with peak activity occurring in May through July. The males arrive at the breeding colony first and chose a nest site. They then advertise for a mate. The male and female work together to repair an old nest or to build a new one of sticks, twigs, vegetation and flotsam and jetsam found nearby, including rope, fishnet, buoys and deflated balloons. The male brings most of the material to the female who builds the nest and guards it from other colony members who would otherwise steal the nest materials. The nests typically built on the ground, but are occasionally built in trees. After nest construction is complete, the female lays 1 to 7 (usually 4) pale bluish-white eggs with a chalky coating. The eggs are laid 1 to 3 days apart. Both parents incubate the eggs, which hatch asynchronously after 25 to 28 days. The newly hatched young are altricial, and are cared for by both parents. Both parents feed the chicks regurgitated food. The young begin to leave the nest when they are 3 to 4 weeks old. They can fly at about 6 weeks and dive at 6 to 7 weeks. The chicks become completely independent of their parents by 10 weeks of age. Double-crested cormorants do not breed until they are at least 2 years old.
Breeding interval: Double-crested cormorants breed once yearly.
Breeding season: Double-crested cormorants breed between April and August, with peak activity occurring in May through July.
Range eggs per season: 1 to 7.
Range time to hatching: 25 to 28 days.
Range fledging age: 3 to 4 weeks.
Average time to independence: 10 weeks.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 (low) years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 (low) years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous
Average eggs per season: 3.
Both parents incubate the eggs and care for the altricial chicks. The parents feed the chicks regurgitated food 2 to 6 times per day. On hot days, parents fetch water and pour it directly from their beak into the open mouths of the chicks.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)
A large (33 inches) waterbird, the Double-crested Cormorant is most easily identified by its black body and wings, long hooked bill, and orange chin patch. This species may be separated from the related Great Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo) by that species’ larger size and large white chin patch, from the related Neotropic Cormorant (Phalacrocorax brasilianus) by that species smaller size and small white chin patch, and from the similar-looking Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga) by that species’ longer neck and tail. Male and female Double-crested Cormorants are similar to one another in all seasons. The Double-crested Cormorant breeds in scattered locations along the Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to Baja California, along the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to Florida, in the northern Great Plains, and in the West Indies. Southern breeding populations tend to be non-migratory, while northern breeding populations migrate south to the coasts, the interior southeastern U.S., and Mexico. Small numbers may breed or winter outside this species’ main range where habitat is appropriate. Double-crested Cormorants inhabit a variety of freshwater and saltwater wetland habitats, including rivers, lakes, marshes, and flooded grasslands. This species nests in trees surrounding bodies of water, on small islands, or on abandoned man-made structures near water. Double-crested Cormorants primarily eat small fish. On large bodies of water across the continent, Double-crested Cormorants may be seen floating low in the water, occasionally diving underwater for long periods while pursuing prey. Like many cormorants, this species may also be seen perched on rocks or snags with its wings outstretched and feathers ruffled. This species lacks the oily feather coating used by other water birds to keep dry and maintain buoyancy, and it has been suggested that this behavior allows the birds to dry their wings. Double-crested Cormorants are primarily active during the day.
A large (33 inches) waterbird, the Double-crested Cormorant is most easily identified by its black body and wings, long hooked bill, and orange chin patch. This species may be separated from the related Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) by that species’ larger size and large white chin patch, from the related Neotropic Cormorant (Phalacrocorax brasilianus) by that species smaller size and small white chin patch, and from the similar-looking Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga) by that species’ longer neck and tail. Male and female Double-crested Cormorants are similar to one another in all seasons. The Double-crested Cormorant breeds in scattered locations along the Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to Baja California, along the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to Florida, in the northern Great Plains, and in the West Indies. Southern breeding populations tend to be non-migratory, while northern breeding populations migrate south to the coasts, the interior southeastern U.S., and Mexico. Small numbers may breed or winter outside this species’ main range where habitat is appropriate. Double-crested Cormorants inhabit a variety of freshwater and saltwater wetland habitats, including rivers, lakes, marshes, and flooded grasslands. This species nests in trees surrounding bodies of water, on small islands, or on abandoned man-made structures near water. Double-crested Cormorants primarily eat small fish. On large bodies of water across the continent, Double-crested Cormorants may be seen floating low in the water, occasionally diving underwater for long periods while pursuing prey. Like many cormorants, this species may also be seen perched on rocks or snags with its wings outstretched and feathers ruffled. This species lacks the oily feather coating used by other water birds to keep dry and maintain buoyancy, and it has been suggested that this behavior allows the birds to dry their wings. Double-crested Cormorants are primarily active during the day.
The double-crested cormorant (Nannopterum auritum) is a member of the cormorant family of water birds. It is found near rivers and lakes, and in coastal areas, and is widely distributed across North America, from the Aleutian Islands in Alaska down to Florida and Mexico. Measuring 70–90 cm (28–35 in) in length, it is entirely black except for a bare patch of orange-yellow facial skin and some extra plumage that it exhibits in the breeding season, when it grows a double crest in which black feathers are mingled with white. Five subspecies are recognized. It mainly eats fish and hunts by swimming and diving. Its feathers, like those of all cormorants, are not waterproof and it must spend time drying them out after spending time in the water. Once threatened by the use of DDT, the numbers of this bird have increased markedly in recent years.
The double-crested cormorant was described by René Primevère Lesson in 1831. It was formerly classified in the genus Phalacrocorax, but a 2014 study supported reclassifying it and several other American cormorant species into the genus Nannopterum.[2] The IOC followed this classification in 2021.[3]
Its scientific genus name is derived from the Greek words νᾶνος : nános, "small" and πτερόν : pterón, "wing". This genus name was originally coined for the flightless cormorant (N. harrisi), which does have very small wings; although the double-crested cormorant has normal-sized wings, it (along with the neotropic cormorant, N. brasilianum) was still reclassified into the genus Nannopterum when the relationship between it and the flightless cormorant became apparent. The species name is from the Latin auritus, "eared", referring to its nuptial crests.[4] Its common name refers to the same nuptial crests.
Five subspecies are recognized:[5]
The double-crested cormorant is a large waterbird with a stocky body, long neck, medium-sized tail, webbed feet, and a medium-sized hooked bill. It has a body length of between 70–90 cm (28–35 in) long, with a wingspan of between 114–123 cm (45–48 in).[7][9] Double-crested cormorants weigh between 1.2–2.5 kg (2.6–5.5 lb). Males and females do not display sexual dimorphism.[9]
This species has dark-colored plumage with bare supra-loreal skin and gular skin that is yellow or orange. An adult in breeding plumage will be mostly black with the back and coverts being a dark grayish towards the center. Nuptial crests, for which the species is named, are either white, black or a mix of the two. These are located just above the eyes with the bare skin on the face of a breeding adult being orange. A non-breeding adult will lack the crests and have more yellowish skin around the face. The bill of the adult is dark-colored.[7] The double-crested cormorant is very similar in appearance to the larger great cormorant, which has a more restricted distribution in North America, mainly on the Canadian maritime provinces; it can, however, be separated by having more yellow on the throat and the bill.[9] The neotropic cormorant also looks very similar, and the two species can sometimes be found together where their ranges meet.
The plumage of juvenile double-crested cormorants is more dark gray or brownish. The underparts of a juvenile are lighter than the back with a pale throat and breast that darkens towards the belly. As a bird ages, its plumage will grow darker. The bill of a juvenile will be mostly orange or yellowish.[7]
A very common and widespread species, it winters anywhere that is ice-free along both coasts, as far north as southern Alaska (on the west coast) and southern New England (on the east coast). It can be found as far south as Mexico and the Bahamas. It migrates from the coldest parts of its breeding range, such as eastern Canada, and has occurred in Europe as a very rare vagrant, for example in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Azores.
It is resident on Pacific Coast from Aleutian Islands south to Nayarit, Mexico (but excluding parts of British Columbia and the Southern California Bight) and inland to the Colorado River, resident on Atlantic Coast in Long Island and surrounding areas, southern New England, Florida, Cuba, and Yucatán Peninsula. Its breeding range extends north throughout most of north-central North America, from Utah north to Alberta east through the Great Lakes states to Nova Scotia, and south to northern Massachusetts, along with parts of Alaska adjoining Bristol and Kuskowim Bays. Its nonbreeding range extends throughout all coastal plains in the US, including the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains south to Campeche, as well as the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, and Cayman Islands, along with all areas previously stated to be resident. On the Pacific Coast, range includes all areas previously mentioned to be resident, along with British Columbia and the Southern California Bight.[10]
The double-crested cormorant swims low in the water, often with just its neck and head visible, and dives from the surface. It uses its feet for propulsion and is able to dive to a depth of 1.5–7.5 m (4 ft 11 in – 24 ft 7 in) for 30–70 seconds. After diving, it spends long periods standing with its wings outstretched to allow them to dry, since they are not fully waterproofed. This species flies low over the water, with its bill tilted slightly upward, sometimes leaving the colony in long, single-file lines.
Food can be found in the sea, freshwater lakes, and rivers. Like all cormorants, the double-crested dives to find its prey. It mainly eats fish, but will sometimes also eat amphibians, crustaceans and insects.[6] Fish are caught by diving under water. Smaller fish may be eaten while the bird is still beneath the surface but bigger prey is often brought to the surface before it is eaten. Double-crested cormorants are also considered pests to aquaculturists because of their intense predation on fish ponds which can cause thousands of dollars in losses to farmers. Cormorants regurgitate pellets containing undigested parts of their meals such as bones. These pellets can be dissected by biologists in order to discover what the birds ate.
Breeding occurs in coastal areas as well as near inland rivers and lakes. They build stick nests in trees, on cliff edges, or on the ground on suitable islands. They are gregarious birds usually found in colonies, often with other aquatic birds, and have a deep, guttural grunt call.
The double-crested cormorant's numbers decreased in the 1960s due to the effects of DDT. Colonies have also been persecuted from time to time in areas where they are thought to compete with human fishing.
Recently the population of double-crested cormorants has increased. Some studies have concluded that the recovery was allowed by the decrease of contaminants, particularly the discontinued use of DDT.[11] The population may have also increased because of aquaculture ponds in its southern wintering grounds. The ponds favor good over-winter survival and growth.
In 1894, Thomas McIlwraith in his book, Birds of Ontario, concludes his section on double-crested cormorants by saying: "When the young are sufficiently grown, they gather into immense flocks in unfrequented sections, and remain until the ice-lid has closed over their food supply, when they go away, not to return till the cover is lifted up in the spring."
For populations nesting in the Great Lakes region, it is believed that the colonization of the lakes by the non-native alewife (a small prey fish) has provided optimal feeding conditions and hence good breeding success. Double-crested cormorants eat other species of fish besides alewives and have been suspected (by anglers) of contributing to the decline of some sport-fish populations in the Great Lakes and other areas.[12]
In light of this belief, and because of calls for action by the public, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (the U.S. federal government agency charged with their protection) has recently extended control options to some other government entities. This includes culling of populations and measures to thwart reproduction, in an effort to control their growing numbers. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service retains oversight and the control measures are not extended to the general public (no hunting season). [13]
In May 2008, the Canadian government reduced significantly the number of nests of the birds on Middle Island, a small island in Lake Erie and part of Point Pelee National Park.[14] This is an attempt to keep the small island in balance and preserve its vegetation[15] but opponents to the plan have argued that it is based on faulty information, provided in part by anglers who view cormorants as competitors.[16] As of 2021, the cormorant culling program continues. [17]
Mounted skeleton of Nannopterum auritum at Smithsonian Museum of Natural History
In flight
Juvenile
The double-crested cormorant (Nannopterum auritum) is a member of the cormorant family of water birds. It is found near rivers and lakes, and in coastal areas, and is widely distributed across North America, from the Aleutian Islands in Alaska down to Florida and Mexico. Measuring 70–90 cm (28–35 in) in length, it is entirely black except for a bare patch of orange-yellow facial skin and some extra plumage that it exhibits in the breeding season, when it grows a double crest in which black feathers are mingled with white. Five subspecies are recognized. It mainly eats fish and hunts by swimming and diving. Its feathers, like those of all cormorants, are not waterproof and it must spend time drying them out after spending time in the water. Once threatened by the use of DDT, the numbers of this bird have increased markedly in recent years.
